Confederate Symbols and Media Coverage: a Look at Mississippi Newspapers Over Time Madison Elizabeth Heil University of Mississippi

University of Mississippi eGrove Honors College (Sally McDonnell Barksdale Honors Theses Honors College)

2017 Confederate Symbols and Media Coverage: A Look at Mississippi Newspapers Over Time Madison Elizabeth Heil University of Mississippi. Sally McDonnell Barksdale Honors College

Follow this and additional works at: https://egrove.olemiss.edu/hon_thesis Part of the Journalism Studies Commons

Recommended Citation Heil, Madison Elizabeth, "Confederate Symbols and Media Coverage: A Look at Mississippi Newspapers Over Time" (2017). Honors Theses. 614. https://egrove.olemiss.edu/hon_thesis/614

This Undergraduate Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Honors College (Sally McDonnell Barksdale Honors College) at eGrove. It has been accepted for inclusion in Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of eGrove. For more information, please contact [email protected]. CONFEDERATE SYMBOLS AND MEDIA COVERAGE: A LOOK AT MISSISSIPPI

NEWSPAPERS OVER TIME

Madison Elizabeth Heil

A thesis submitted to the faculty of The University of Mississippi in partial fulfillment of

the requirements of the Sally McDonnell Barksdale Honors College.

Oxford, Mississippi

May 2017

Approved by:

______Advisor: Dr. Kathleen Wickham

______Reader: Dean Charles Mitchell

______Reader: Professor Alysia Steele

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this thesis was to examine how the media coverage of Confederate symbols in Mississippi has changed over time by focusing on the following events: the banning of flag sticks at the University of Mississippi athletic events in 1997, the removal of the Mississippi state flag from campus in 2015, the modification of the song “Dixie” at football games in 2009, and the banning of the song from athletic events in 2016. A sample of news articles featured on the front page of three different Mississippi-based newspapers were reviewed through content analysis by two trained coders for changes in story format, journalistic elements, framing, voice, and tone. The study found that the media coverage of Confederate symbols has changed over time as the media landscape continues to change.

iii DEDICATION

This is dedicated to everyone who helped me and guided me through this entire process. In particular, I thank my family for supporting me through my own times of stress and anxiety.

iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I express my deepest appreciation to my advisor, Dr. Kathleen Wickham, and my committee members Dean Charles Mitchell and Professor Alysia Steele. I could not have produced this study without your continuous support and guidance.

In addition, I’d like to thank my sister, McKenna Heil, for volunteering to be the second coder in my study, my family for your constant encouragement, and my roommates for always being there for me through stressful times.

Lastly, I acknowledge the collegial support of my fellow honors college students.

v CONTENTS

ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………iii

DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………………...v

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………..1

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………...3

Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………...16

Chapter 4: RESULTS……………………………………………………………………18

Chapter 5: DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………..30

Chapter 6: CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………32

LIST OF REFERENCES………………………………………………………………...33

SELECTED PUBLICATION DATES…………………………………………..36

APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………...38

I: CODE BOOK………………………………………………………………….38

II: ARTICLES……………………………………………………………………42

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

This manuscript studies the media coverage of events on two controversial topics associated with the University of Mississippi at this time: the Mississippi State Flag and the song “Dixie.” The goal was to compare the media coverage when flag sticks were banned from football games at Ole Miss in 1997, the 2015 decision to stop flying the state flag, and media coverage when the song “Dixie” was first modified in 2009 and then banned completely from athletic events in 2016.

Much of the University of Mississippi’s history is rooted in the state’s slave driven and Confederate past. The University’s past and traditions are widely known throughout the South and across the nation and can be recognized by the many symbols on campus related to that past. These symbols have brought about social protest over the years in turn leading to significant change.

It is important to note that as Confederate symbols change so does the media coverage surrounding them. With an ever-changing media landscape, the way social protest and controversial issues are portrayed in the media changes over time.

The purpose of this paper is to show any documentable changes in the media coverage from the first event to the most recent event. Content analysis was used to analyze the media coverage across various news outlets and sources to assess any

1 changes. The selected news articles appeared on the front page of The Daily

Mississippian, Oxford Eagle, and The Clarion Ledger.

The results were guided by the following research questions:

RQ1: What story formats were favored by which publication (inverted pyramid, Wall

Street Journal), and were they hard news or feature stories?

RQ2: To what extent were traditional journalism elements of (a) direct quotes, (b) paraphrase (c) description favored by which publication based on the percentage of paragraphs used in each story?

RQ3: Which news frames dominated (patriotism, moderation, law and order, violence, racism/ethnocentrism or constitutionality)?

RQ4: Researchers reviewed the material for evidence of bias as well as point-of-view and perspective including objective, first person, third person and omniscient or limited omniscient (Written such that there is a one speaker who appears all-knowing, or appears to have one character that dominates but he/she has a limited view.) What was the voice?

RQ5: Researchers sought to determine the tone of the article toward the protagonists and their goals and the supporting sources and their goals (Supportive, neutral, oppositional)

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Change is never easy, especially on a large scale. It is often met with hesitation and backlash. But today, change is prevalent in the media and on college campuses.

Journalism has evolved tremendously over time and more so, just in the 21st Century.

The mainstream media is engaged in a constant battle of finding new ways to disseminate information to the public in the most immediate, attention-grabbing way. And colleges and universities are increasingly finding themselves facing challenges and social pressure from clashing cultures. These changes and their impacts can be seen in the difference between the print coverage of two controversial events that occurred at the University of

Mississippi: the banning of the Confederate flag from football games to not flying the state flag on campus, and the shortening of the song ‘Dixie’ to completely banning it at games.

The literature will first examine the background of each event and discuss the basic similarities and differences, diving specifically into the coverage of these events in order to asses the methods used for the earlier and later events. Secondly, the review will explore the trend of clashing cultures as a culprit behind student activism and change on college campuses, with an emphasis on the campus cultural climate at the University of

Mississippi. Next, the literature will review solutions colleges and universities have

3 implemented to change their campus cultural climate, specifically looking at the

University of Mississippi’s past and possible future solutions. The review will analyze the changing media landscape from each former event to the latter event, focusing on the amount and narrative focus of the coverage.

Background

The University of Mississippi was founded in 1848, and much of the school’s history is rooted in the state’s slave driven and Confederate past. The school’s first matriculates were the sons of plantation owners and the University played a key role in the Confederate Army during the Civil War. The University’s past and traditions are widely known throughout the South and across the nation and can be recognized by the many symbols on campus related to that past, including the Confederate statue, the existence of the Confederate cemetery, and the names of streets and buildings. In an article from The Daily Mississippian, assistant provost and assistant to the chancellor concerning minority affairs, Donald Cole, deemed the University “the keeper of Southern symbols,” as he discussed how other universities in the South have abandoned some of these symbols.1

Change to these symbols made its way onto the University’s campus under

Chancellor Robert Khayat’s term. In 1997, Chancellor Khayat eliminated the Confederate flag at sporting events by banning the wooden flag stick used to wave the flag.2 This purposeful rule was described to ensure the safety of fans and allow fans to have an unobstructed view of the playing field. It was a decision that took a lot of consideration

1Turnage, "The Symbols' Keeper: Ole Miss' Identity Struggle," The Daily Mississippian, Nov. 17, 2016. 2 Nave, R. L. "Rebel Land: A Racial History of Oxford and Ole Miss." Jackson Free Press. GoDaddy.com LLC, 12 Dec. 2012. Web. 14 Nov. 2016.

4 over nine months, as the Confederate symbol was continuously causing problems. The football coach at the time had recruiting troubles due to the flag, and one of the most prestigious honor societies, Phi Beta Kappa, did not want to colonize on campus with the symbol still so prominent.3 The decision was met with much backlash as students and fans were outraged with Khayat, seeing through the rule as an attempt to ban the

Confederate flag attached to those sticks; a lawsuit was filed over the issue, which was dismissed. According to Chancellor Khayat, it took around three years for fans to stop bringing Confederate flags into games. The story gained local and even national attention, appearing on CNN and USA Today.

Then came an even bigger change nearly two decades later. On October 26, 2015, the University removed the state flag on its Oxford campus because the banner contains the Confederate battle emblem, which some saw as a painful reminder of slavery and segregation. Interim Chancellor Morris Stocks had the flag placed in the University’s archives. This came days after the student senate, the faculty senate, and other groups adopted a student-led resolution calling for removal of the banner from campus.4 This clashing of cultures fueled students to speak out resulting in the 2015 Take Down the

Flag Rally. Held by the University’s chapter of the NAACP, students gathered to condemn the Confederate symbol and demand the state flag be removed. And just days later the University announced its decision to remove the flag, a decision based on the collective judgment of a team made up of senior leadership made after weeks of consideration; Interim Chancellor Stocks was committed “that any action initiated related

3 Robert Khayat, interview. By author, February 13, 2017. 4 JFP Staff, "University of Mississippi Takes Down State Flag," Oct. 26 2015. 5 to the flag was done with dignity and respect.”5 Again, the decision faced a lot of negative feedback and still does today. The controversy also gained national attention and exploded online through social media outlets such as Twitter and Facebook. Interim

Chancellor Stocks believed that the local and national media was fair and comprehensive in reporting the University’s decision to remove the flag.6

Likewise, in 2009, under Chancellor Dan Jones, the University instructed its band to shorten the song “From Dixie With Love,” to discourage students from chanting the last line of the song “the South will rise again.”7 This change was a result of supporting efforts first initiated by students.8 This too had the University and Chancellor Jones under fire with much resistance from the student body and other local groups, such as alumni.

“The effort to have alumni accept these changes was a large challenge,” said Chancellor

Jones.9 This became another story that painted front pages around the state and made national headlines. Though the decision didn’t stop students from chanting at the end of the song, another change did. In August 2016 came the decision for the marching band to no longer play the song “Dixie” at any sporting event because of its historical context.

Athletic Director Ross Bjork said in a statement regarding the situation, “We want everyone who steps foot on campus to feel welcome, and that they’re part of the Ole Miss family.”10 Chancellor Vitter and other administrators made this decision closing a two- year phase-out plan for “Dixie,” which began in the Summer of 2015. Although this plan

5 Morris Stocks, email interview. By author, February 22, 2017. 6 Ibd. 7 Nave, R. L, "Rebel Land: A Racial History of Oxford and Ole Miss." 8 Dan Jones, email Interview. By author, February 13, 2017. 9 Ibd. 10 Fowler, Sarah, and Daniel Paulling, "Ole Miss Marching Band Drops 'Dixie' from Game Day," The Clarion-Ledger, Aug. 19 2016. 6 did not begin under Chancellor Vitter’s term, the final decision perfectly aligned with previous sentiments he expressed about “respecting the University’s positive brand and always using images and symbols that are consistent with our core values.”11 This decision upset many students and fans and was immediately picked up on the national level, spreading like wildfire online.

Trend: Clashing Cultures

The literature surrounding other colleges and universities facing similar issues to the University of Mississippi reveals a common trend: clashing cultures and values create problems and a desire for change on college campuses. The book Educating Citizens:

Preparing America’s Undergraduates for Lives of Moral and Civic Responsibility, outlines the importance for institutions to create a campus climate or culture that reinforces what students learn in their courses and extra-curricular activities. The authors explain campus culture as a powerful source of socialization and can have significant impacts on an institution.

Understanding campus culture is not simple because culture is heterogeneous and dynamic.12 This is because everyone experiences things differently and many aspects of campus culture will have different meanings and salience for different people. Therefore, students tend to experience several cultural currents, some of which may conflict with each other, leading to problems of racial or ideological intolerance.13

In a study done at the University of Maryland looking at how different students perceive campus cultural climate, researchers found that significant racial and ethnic

11 Jeffrey Vitter, email interview. By author, March 2, 2017. 12 Colby, Anne, Erhlich, Beaumont, Stephens, "Campus Culture or Climate," Educating Citizens: Preparing America's Undergraduates for Lives of Moral and Civic Responsibility, 49-95. 13 Ibd. 7 group differences exist with regard to perceptions and experiences of the campus cultural climate. African American students perceived and experienced significantly more racial conflict and separation on campus, while white students consistently reported less racial tension and seem relatively immune from a hostile climate.14 This signifies why it is also important for higher education institutions to foster an environment of respect for people whose backgrounds, cultures, or beliefs differ from one’s own.15

The country’s college campuses have seen a surge in student activism amid escalating tensions over their hostile racial climates; many groups nationwide have issued sets of demands aimed at improving the campus climate. Among these is Princeton

University. In November 2014, student activists staged a protest and sit-in at President

Christopher Eisgruber’s office urging him to do away with Woodrow Wilson’s name on the Public Policy school because of Wilson’s racist legacy.16 Some students felt unwelcomed or threatened that their University aligned with a leader who was a segregationist and supported racist groups and ideals, leading them to speak out.

One year later, similar actions took place at Harvard when students confronted their school’s racial tensions. Hundreds of law school students and faculty protested the law school’s “racist and unwelcoming environment” and demanded the school abandon its seal, which many felt did not represent the values of the law school; the seal included the family crest of Isaac Royall Jr., one of the college’s founders who was a slaveholder.17

14 Ancis, Sedlacek, and Mohr, "Student Perceptions of the Campus Cultural Climate," 180-85. 15 Colby, Anne, Erhlich, Beaumont, and Stephens, "Campus Culture or Climate," 49-95. 16 Wong, Alia. "How Should Universities Atone for Their Past Mistakes?" The Atlantic. Network Solutions, LLC, 29 Sept. 2016. Web. 14 Nov. 2016. 17 Ibd. 8

Likewise, events of similar fashion have taken place at Yale University, the

University of Missouri, and Ithaca College.

But student activism in response to racism and discrimination on college campuses is not a new phenomenon. One of the earliest documented incidents occurred some 50 years ago, when Benjamin Reese, Jr. started classes at Bronx Community

College students were not charged tuition, but then New York Governor Nelson

Rockefeller, planned to impose tuition costs, which Reese and other students protested, ultimately loosing in the end.18 Reese is now the Vice President of the Office for

Institutional Equity at Duke University.

Activism among students boomed during the Vietnam War era. Students held protests, sit-ins and rallies on campuses across the country in opposition of the war, some becoming increasingly violent. Many will never forget the shooting at Kent State

University when the Ohio National Guard opened fire during an anti-war protest killing four students and wounding nine. The incident shocked the nation and for several, it became the event that brought the war home.19

Student activism has been leading change on college campuses for years, and it is no different at the University of Mississippi. In recent years, the campus cultural climate at the University has presented itself as the conservationists versus the change-agents.20

The University’s Creed emphasizes civility in which student activism is encouraged through the spirit of Ole Miss.21 Many institutions have started on a path to developing aspects of its culture that support moral and civic development as well as an environment

18 Mashaun, "Student Activism Leading Change on College Campuses." 19 "Witnessed: The Killings At Kent State," CNN Live Event/Special, Web. 19 Feb. 2017. 20 Turnage, "The Symbols' Keeper: Ole Miss' Identity Struggle.” 21 Dan Jones, email interview. 9 for better understanding of and respect for others. These efforts may clash with existing practices or “underground cultures” that are inconsistent with the fundamental values of higher education.22

Many students, alumnae, and fans who want to conserve the traditions and heritage of the University, and the South in general, are in a battle with those who wish to abandon the racist past associated with the University. It comes down to the fact that

“many want progress but few want change.”23

Solutions

The word atone means to make amends or reparation, as for an offense or a crime, or for an offender. This idea of atonement has made its way onto college campuses as a steppingstone in the path to moving forward. Many of the higher-education institutions across the country share a shameful past with their histories marked by elitism and racism—traces of which manifest today. But some institutions, because of student and community pressure, are making amends. For example, Georgetown University announced it would give admissions preference to the decedents of the 272 slaves whose sale the university profited from in the early 1800s stating, “We had a tragic moment in the early years of our history that we’ve been trying to come to terms with”.24

At other institutions, where slavery or past issues are less explicit but no less entrenched, different strategies are being used to atone for errors in judgment. Harvard

22 Colby, Anne, Erhlich, Beaumont, and Stephens, "Campus Culture or Climate." 23 Dan Jones, email interview. 24 Wong, "How Should Universities Atone for Their Past Mistakes?" 10

University is engaged in several initiatives to start the process of reconciliation, including a committee that is researching the impact of slavery on its campus.25

No matter the issues of the past or the solutions implemented to fix them there is a central theme to these conversations. Ta-Nehisi Coates, a correspondent for The Atlantic, sat down with the presidents from Georgetown and Harvard Universities to talk about the racial issues their campuses are facing. Coates identified the common theme as ultimately responsibility: universities’ responsibility to the populations they abused, to the communities in which they operate, and to the peer institutions they influence.26

Culture change is never easy for large organizations. However, change can be catalyzed by listening to the voices of those closest to the points of change and taking action accordingly.27 In a study conducted at the University of Alabama, researchers found that a key component in catalyzing culture change on campus was the culture of engagement on campus. In order to make change, there needs to be engagement with students, faculty members, administration, and members of the community. But for a university to fully institute engagement activities, there needs to be support and effort from everyone.

The University of Mississippi has made the effort to engage the campus in its strategies. In 2015, the University created the Chancellor’s Advisory Committee on

History and Context to address the controversial symbols and names on the campus. First on their list was to contextualize the plaque on the Confederate Monument, which is of a

Confederate soldier. The United Daughters of the Confederacy first installed the

25 Ibd. 26 Wong, "How Should Universities Atone for Their Past Mistakes?" 27 Franz, Nancy, Childers, Sanderling, "Assessing the Culture of Engagement on a University Campus." 11 monument in 1906 to serve as a “monument, not only to the heroes not forgotten, but to the zeal and untiring patriotism of a band of loyal women, and as history to the youth of the Southland.”28 The new text the committee decided upon was met with backlash, so the administration decided to listen to those unsatisfied and engage them in finding a solution. Chancellor Jeffery Vitter opened an online submission form to allow community input into the language of the plaque where students, faculty, Ole Miss fans and alumni sent in more than 250 recommendations and letters to the administration. The recommendations were heard and taken into consideration by the committee who decided upon new text for the plaque, which was officially placed on the statue in October 2016.

The campus and community responded well to the engagement efforts involving the plaque.29

The university’s past is a complex one riddled with the Confederacy, slavery and segregation. But slowly change has been made. After a long legal battle, the first African-

American to enroll at Ole Miss was James Meredith in September of 1962. His arrival

28 “Keeping the Faith with the University Greys’: Ole Miss as lieu de mémoire,” University of Mississippi, 48. 29 The original plaque on the monument in the circle read, "To Our Confederate Dead, 1861-1865, Albert Sidney Johnston Chapter 379 U.D.C." The plaque on the monument in the square reads, “In memory of the patriotism of the Confederate soldiers of Lafayette County, Mississippi. They gave their lives in a just and holy cause.” The text that got rejected read, “As Confederate veterans were passing from the scene in increasing numbers, memorial associations built monuments in their memory all across the South. This statue was dedicated by citizens of Oxford and Lafayette County in 1906. On the evening of September 30, 1962, the statue was a rallying point where a rebellious mob gathered to prevent the admission of the University’s first African American student. It was also at this statue that a local minister implored the mob to disperse and allow James Meredith to exercise his rights as an American citizen. On the morning after that long night, Meredith was admitted to the University and graduated in August 1963.” The new text reads, “As Confederate veterans were dying in increasing numbers, memorial associations across the South built monuments in their memory. These monuments were often used to promote an ideology known as the “Lost Cause,” which claimed that the Confederacy had been established to defend states’ rights and that slavery was not the principal cause of the Civil War. Residents of Oxford and Lafayette County dedicated this statue, approved by the university in 1906. Although the monument was created to honor the sacrifice of the local Confederate soldiers, it must also remind us that the defeat of the confederacy actually meant freedom for millions of people. On the evening of September 30, 1962, this statue was a rallying point for opponents of integration.” 12 was met with a mob of angry students and residents protesting the integration of the university, which resulted in a violent riot still remembered today. But nonetheless, integration sufficed. And today the University of Mississippi is more diverse than ever. In fall 2016 the total unduplicated headcount enrollment for black students was 13.1% compared to 76.6% white students and 10.4% other; the total enrollment in all public colleges in Mississippi for black students is 33.5% compared to 57.6% white students and

8.9% other.30 Black Student enrollment has increased by over 30% in the last ten years.

Chancellor Vitter, the current Chancellor, believes that no matter the challenges the

University faces, “we must do so the Ole Miss way, which is to focus upon what is truly best for the well-being and success for our students and our university.”31

Social Protest Coverage and the Changing Media Landscape

Between the ban on the waving of the Confederate flag and the removal of the state flag the media landscape changed. Then a 24-hour news cycle to one of instant message, the roar of the crowd was heard quicker and louder. The time log between the first modification of “Dixie” and the final banning was shorter—seven years—news of the dismantling of the traditional song represented itself over social media platforms.

With the introduction of the Internet, social media outlets and blogging, reporting has changed tremendously. The question presented is whether journalists tend follow a pattern in protest coverage and whether the coverage of social protest has changed with the times as journalists gain more access to information over the Internet.

Covering social movements and social protest, “framing” becomes increasingly important to consider. It has been noted that through social protest coverage the media

30 Atchison, Fall 2016 Enrollment Fact Book and Ten-Year Enrollment Comparison and Selected Information on Diversity. 31 Jeffrey Vitter, email interview. 13 have the ability and power to define issues, supply context, and label groups. Scholars have found that journalists routinely fail to provide the larger contexts (thematic frames) behind protests and cover them merely as disorder and violence news (episodic frames).32

Such framing issues and lack of context or information can lead to misguided public perception.

In a study comparing social protest coverage in 1967 to 1999, researchers found that journalists from the latter time period cited official and authoritative sources more than journalists did in the 1960s.33 It was concluded that journalists do in fact tend to follow a pattern seldom changing frames, again failing to provide larger context. In addition, journalists did not fully integrate the use of the Internet as much as one might assume.

A 1994 study on journalists’ use of the internet found that “the forms of information retrieval may be different, but the same organizational power structures, sources, and news frames are still evident.”34 More than ten years later, in a time where social protests often now unfold over the internet, it is necessary to see if this holds true.

In a study comparing legacy media coverage to online media coverage, researchers found that consumers who rely on news websites are likely to get a mix of the news covered by legacy media. On average about six in ten of the top news stories on news websites correspond with the storylines found on the front pages of newspapers, on

32 Maier, "Exploring Internet Influence on the Coverage of Social Protest: Content Analysis Comparing Social Protest Coverage in 1967 and 1999," 40-57. 33 Ibd. 34 Hansen et al., ”Local Breaking News.” 14 national television or on radio.35 These results reassure that the agenda-setting role is retained in a world invaded by more news and information introduced by online media.

Equally important in evaluating coverage of social protest is the tone used in order to determine the salience of an issue and potential biases, and whether this is part of the pattern journalists follow. Tone refers to the balance of coverage on a given issue, and even though media coverage of an issue generally tends to—or tries to—present all sides fairly, not all coverage is successful. Researchers argue bias can be uncovered in the media by examining the positive or negative tone of the coverage.36

As evident from the literature, the media coverage of social protest is changing, largely due in part to the digital age. It is necessary to explore the relationship closer the changing times has had on media coverage. In doing so, the taking down the state flag and the banning of “Dixie” on the Ole Miss campus will be examined.

35 Maier, "All the News Fit to Post? Comparing News Content on the Web to Newspapers, Television, and Radio," 548-62. 36 Haider-Markel, Allen, Johansen. "Understanding Variations in Media Coverage in U.S. Supreme Court Decisions," 64-85. 15

Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY

The research is based on a quantitative content analysis in order to compare the amount and scope of the media coverage. Content analysis is a research technique used to summarize and describe written, spoken, and visual communication by counting various aspects of the content.

In this study, content was analyzed from three different Mississippi-based newspapers, as well as online sources and social media. Articles were acquired from The

Daily Mississippian, Oxford Eagle, and The Clarion Ledger from the J.D. Williams library located at the University of Mississippi, the Oxford Eagle office, and The Daily

Mississippian online archives. Articles from the library were collected through the microfilm collection and the Special Collections and Archives. Selected for review were

38 total stories featured on the front page involving the events between the dates they occurred to one month after. The time frame was chosen because it contained the most heated coverage. Articles chosen were directly related to the events studied. The total number of articles selected from The Clarion Ledger was eight, nine from the Oxford

Eagle, and 21 from The Daily Mississippian.

Each article was assigned a specific number to make identification consistent throughout the analysis. The researcher then developed a codebook. Using priori coding,

16 two trained coders analyzed each article using the codebook. After the coding was completed, the results were tabulated using simple percentages, and results were interpreted. The focus of coding for this study was on each article’s format and use of journalistic elements, frame, tone, point of view, and biases toward the event covered.

Chapter 4: RESULTS

After reading the selected articles, which were obtained through archives and microfilms at the University of Mississippi’s J.D. Williams Library, the Oxford Eagle office, and The Daily Mississippian online archives, each coder analyzed them using a series of research questions. Articles were gathered from The Clarion Ledger, Oxford

Eagle, and The Daily Mississippian, and spanned from the date the event occurred to one month after. Articles on the banning of flag sticks were gathered from October 23, 1997 to November 23, 1997, articles on the state flag being removed from campus were gathered from October 26, 2015 to November 26, 2015, articles on the shortening of the song “Dixie” were gathered from October 23, 2009 to November 23, 2009, and articles on the banning of the song “Dixie” at athletic events were gathered from August 19, 2016 to September 19, 2016. Articles obtained were only from the front page of each newspaper, and the total number of articles varied by newspaper and year. The number of articles reviewed for the banning of flag sticks in 1997 was 14, six for the removal of the flag in 2015, 13 for the modification of “Dixie” in 2009, and five for the banning of the song in 2016.

A complete summary of the results can be found in the tables following. For convenience, the tables are first separated by research question, then by topic and then by

18 event. There is also a table combining both topics’ events. Each table represents analysis of all front-page articles from the dates previously mentioned. See Appendix A for the codebook, which includes definitions for clarity.

The responses to each research question help examine how the media coverage from the first event to the second event in each topic changed, or didn’t change, over time.

RESEARCH QUESTION 1

What story formats were favored (inverted pyramid, Wall Street Journal, feature

(anecdotal lead, narrative lead, descriptive leads) and were they hard news or feature

stories?

Hard news stories tell about a current event where feature stories are generally softer and appeal to the emotions. This question examines how many articles were hard news versus feature stories and which story formats were used. There were 29 hard news stories and nine feature stories. Out of those, 26 stories used the inverted pyramid while

12 used the Wall Street Journal format.

State Flag

Event Hard News Feature Inverted Wall Street

Pyramid Journal

Banning Flag 71% (10) 29% (4) 79% (11) 32% (3)

Sticks (1997)

Flag Removal 83% (5) 17% (1) 67% (4) 33% (2)

(2015)

“Dixie”

Event Hard News Feature Inverted Wall Street

Pyramid Journal

Shortening 69% (9) 31% (4) 54% (7) 46% (6)

Song (2009)

Banning Song 100% (5) 0% (0) 80% (4) 20% (1)

(2016)

State Flag and “Dixie”

Event Hard News Feature Inverted Wall Street

Pyramid Journal

First 70% (19) 30% (8) 67% (18) 33% (9)

(1997/2009)

Second 91% (10) 9% (1) 73% (8) 27% (3)

(2015/2016)

RESEARCH QUESTION 2

To what extent were traditional journalism elements of (a) direct quotes, (b) paraphrase

The use of traditional journalism elements varies from story to story. This questions examines which elements were most favored. There were 19 stories that used direct most frequently, 12 that used paraphrasing, and seven that used description most often.

State Flag

Event Direct Quotes Paraphrase Description

Banning Flag Sticks 36% (5) 14% (2) 50% (7)

(1997)

Flag Removal 17% (1) 83% (5) 0% (0)

(2015)

“Dixie”

Event Direct Quotes Paraphrase Description

Shortening Song 77% (10) 23% (3) 0% (0)

(2009)

Banning Song 60% (3) 40% (2) 0% (0)

(2016)

State Flag and “Dixie”

Event Direct Quotes Paraphrase Description

First (1997/2009) 56% (15) 19% (5) 26% (7)

Second (2015/2016) 36% (4) 64% (7) 0% (0)

RESEARCH QUESTION 3

Which news frames dominated (patriotism, moderation, law and order, violence,

racism/ethnocentrism or constitutionality)?

The media focuses attention on certain events and then places them within a field of meaning. This question examines which news frames dominated. Some stories were found to be written in the context of more than one news frame. There were three stories framed under patriotism, seven under moderation, 20 under law & order, 22 under race/ethnocentrism, and six under constitutionality. (Percentages don’t add up to 100 because stories were placed in multiple frames.)

State Flag

Event Patriot Moderation Law Violence Racism/ Constitution

-ism & Ethno- -ality

Order centrism

Banning Flag 7% (1) 21% (3) 71% 0% (0) 36% (5) 21% (3)

Sticks (1997) (10)

Flag Removal 17% 0% (0) 33% 0% (0) 67% (4) 0% (0)

(2015) (1) (2)

“Dixie”

Event Patriot Moderation Law Violence Racism/ Constitution

-ism & Ethno- -ality

Order centrism

Shortening 8% (1) 31% (4) 46% 0% (0) 69% (9) 23% (3)

Song (2009) (6)

Banning 0% (0) 0% (0) 40% 0% (0) 80% (4) 0% (0)

Song (2016) (2)

State Flag and “Dixie”

Event Patriot Moderation Law Violence Racism/ Constitution

-ism & Ethno- -ality

Order centrism

First 7% (2) 26% (7) 60% 0% (0) 52% (14) 22% (6)

(1997/2009) (16)

Second 9% (1) 0% (0) 36% 0% (0) 73% (8) 0% (0)

(2015/2016) (4)

RESEARCH QUESTION 4

Researchers reviewed the material for evidence of bias as well as point-of-view and

perspective including objective, first person, third person and omniscient or limited

omniscient. What was the voice?

Content of a story can promote a certain viewpoint and generally, news stories are written in third person. This question examines the voice of each article. All 38 articles were written from the third person omniscient point of view. There were 29 stories written with an objective voice and nine with a subjective voice.

State Flag

Event 1st 3rd Omniscient Limited Subjective Objective

Person Person

Banning 0% (0) 100% 100% (14) 0% (0) 29% (4) 71% (10)

Flag (14)

Sticks

(1997)

Flag 0% (0) 100% (6) 100% (6) 0% (0) 33% (2) 67% (4)

Removal

(2015)

“Dixie”

Event 1st 3rd Omniscient Limited Subjective Objective

Person Person

Shortening 0% (0) 100% 100% (13) 0% (0) 23% (3) 77% (10)

Song (13)

(2009)

Banning 0% (0) 100% (5) 100% (5) 0% (0) 0% (0) 100% (5)

Song

(2016)

State Flag and “Dixie”

Event 1st 3rd Omniscient Limited Subjective Objective

Person Person

First 0% (0) 100% 100% (27) 0% (0) 26% (7) 74% (20)

(1997/2009) (27)

Second 0% (0) 100% 100% (11) 0% (0) 19% (2) 82% (9)

(2015/2016) (11)

RESEARCH QUESTION 5

Researchers sought to determine the tone (Supportive, neutral, oppositional) of the

article toward the protagonists and their goals and the supporting sources and their

goals. What was the tone?

Articles have a certain character or attitude towards the writing. This question examines the tone of each article. There were 18 stories found written with a supportive tone, 11 with a neutral tone, and nine with an oppositional tone.

State Flag

Event Supportive Neutral Oppositional

Banning Flag Sticks 36% (5) 21% (3) 43% (6)

(1997)

Flag Removal 67% (4) 17% (1) 17% (1)

(2015)

“Dixie”

Event Supportive Neutral Oppositional

Shortening Song 54% (7) 31% (4) 15% (2)

(2009)

Banning Song 40% (2) 60% (3) 0% (0)

(2016)

State Flag and “Dixie”

Event Supportive Neutral Oppositional

First (1997/2009) 44% (12) 26% (7) 30% (8)

Second (2015/2016) 55% (6) 36% (4) 9% (1)

Chapter 5: DISCUSSION

After reviewing the content analysis of articles from The Clarion Ledger, Oxford

Eagle, and The Daily Mississippian, there are strong indications that the media coverage of Confederate symbols has changed overtime.

The analysis suggests that hard news stories were favored over feature stories across the board. More feature stories were seen during the earlier events than the later events. As time went on, fewer feature stories were used. Also, inverted pyramid was the dominant story format during all time periods.

Results indicate that traditional journalism elements of direct quotes, paraphrase, and description were all used throughout each story, but direct quotes and paraphrase were shown to appear more often than description. The analysis shows that this pattern only increased over time. In 1997, about half of the stories reviewed used description, but by 2016, stories used either direct quotes or paraphrasing most often.

Looking at framing, most stories were found to be placed in multiple news frames. The analysis suggests the Law & Order and Racism/Ethnocentrism frames dominated. This was true for both the earlier and later events, but the results indicate that over time stories were framed around Racism/Ethnocentrism more often than Law &

Order, demonstrating the power media has in defining issues. This change suggests that

30 the media focused more on the larger context and thematic themes rather than episodic themes, which contrasts with what some scholars have said.37

All articles appeared to be written in the point of view of third person omniscient, but the voice varied after review of the content analysis. Objective stories were more frequent than subjective stories in all events. The results indicate that over time the number of subjective stories decreased from the earlier events to the later events.

Reporting on Confederate symbols has become more objective in recent years.

Results indicate the tone of stories moved to more supportive pieces over time. In all events, analysis suggests supportive toned stories took the lead over oppositional toned stories, but not by a large margin. The later events saw less oppositional stories and more supportive and neutral stories than the earlier events. Biases can be uncovered through examining positive and negative tones; more positive tones indicate less bias.38

The analysis suggests biases have been eliminated over time.

The number of articles featured on the front pages of the Mississippi-based newspapers decreased from 1997 to 2016. This in part can be contributed to the changing media landscape. News cycles changed, the Internet opened new ways of communication, and the events occurring in 2015 and 2016 were largely represented over social media platforms.

37 Maier, "Exploring Internet Influence on the Coverage of Social Protest: Content Analysis Comparing Social Protest Coverage in 1967 and 1999,” 40-57. 38 Haider-Markel, Allen, and Johansen. "Understanding Variations in Media Coverage in U.S. Supreme Court Decisions," 64-85. 31

Chapter 6: CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the analysis indicates that media coverage of Confederate symbols and social protest has changed over time.

Framing, objectivity, and tone showed the biggest changes. From 1997 to 2016, articles were placed less in news frames of Law & Order and focused more on the subject of Racism/Ethnocentrism. Stories also became less subjective and more supportive of the topics over time.

As the mindset of Confederate symbols changed over the years, so did the overall approach to the media coverage in order to reflect that change. The changing media landscape played a role as well seeing that the amount of articles featured on the front page of Mississippi newspapers dwindled in the last two decades.

In conclusion, as the attitudes of Confederate symbols and the media landscape continue to change, so will the media coverage of confederate symbols and social protest.

As time goes on, more research will need to be conducted to assess how these changes continue.

LIST OF REFERENCES

Ancis, Julie R., William E. Sedlacek, and Jonathan J. Mohr. "Student Perceptions of the

Campus Cultural Climate." Journal of Counseling and Development 78.2 (2000):

180-85. Print.

Atchison, E. S. (2017). Fall 2016 Enrollment Fact Book and Ten-Year Enrollment

Comparison and Selected Information on Diversity. Jackson, Mississippi:

Mississippi Institutions of Higher Learning Office of Strategic Research.

Colby, Anne, Thomas Erhlich, Elizabeth Beaumont, and Jason Stephens. "Campus

Culture or Climate." Educating Citizens: Preparing America's Undergraduates for

Lives of Moral and Civic Responsibility. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003. 49-

95. The New York Times. MarcMonitor Inc. Web. 14 Nov. 2016.

Dan Jones, email Interview. By author, February 13, 2017.

Fowler, Sarah, and Daniel Paulling. "Ole Miss Marching Band Drops 'Dixie' from Game

Day." The Clarion-Ledger. MarkMonitor Inc., 19 Aug. 2016. Web. 14 Nov. 2016.

Franz, Nancy, Jeri Childers, and Nicole Sanderling. "Assessing the Culture of

Engagement on a University Campus." Journal of Community Engagement and

Scholarship 5.2 (2012): n. pag. Print.

Haider-Markel, Donald P., Mahalley D. Allen, and Morgen Johansen. "Understanding

Variations in Media Coverage in U.S. Supreme Court Decisions." Press/Politics

11.2 (2006): 64-85. Communication and Mass Media Complete [EBSCO]. Web.

15 Feb. 2017.

Jeffrey Vitter, email interview. By author, March 2, 2017.

JFP Staff. "University of Mississippi Takes Down State Flag." Jackson Free Press.

GoDaddy.com LLC, 26 Oct. 2015. Web. 14 Nov. 2016

Maier, Scott. "All the News Fit to Post? Comparing News Content on the Web to

Newspapers, Television, and Radio." J&MC Quarterly 87.3/4 (2010): 548-62.

Communication and Mass Media Complete [EBSCO]. Web. 15 Feb. 2017.

Maier, Sonora Jha. "Exploring Internet Influence on the Coverage of Social Protest:

Content Analysis Comparing Social Protest Coverage in 1967 and 1999." J&MC

Quarterly 87.1 (2010): 40-57. Communication and Mass Media Complete

[EBSCO]. Web. 15 Feb. 2017.

Minutes of the Eleventh Annual Convention of the Mississippi Division of the United

Daughters of the Confederacy, 1937, 47; UDC as quoted in Michael Alan Upton,

“Keeping the Faith with the University Greys’: Ole Miss as lieu de mémoire”

(master’s thesis, University of Mississippi, 2002), 48.

Morris Stocks, email interview. By author, February 22, 2017.

Nave, R. L. "Rebel Land: A Racial History of Oxford and Ole Miss." Jackson Free Press.

GoDaddy.com LLC, 12 Dec. 2012. Web. 14 Nov. 2016.

Robert Khayat, email interview. By author, February 13, 2017.

Simon, Mashaun D. "Student Activism Leading Change on College Campuses." NBC

News. MarkMonitor Inc.

Turnage, Clara. "The Symbols' Keeper: Ole Miss' Identity Struggle." The Daily

Mississippian, 17 Nov. 2016.

"Witnessed: The Killings At Kent State." CNN Live Event/Special (n.d.): Newspaper

Source. Web. 19 Feb. 2017.

Wong, Alia. "How Should Universities Atone for Their Past Mistakes?" The Atlantic.

Network Solutions, LLC, 29 Sept. 2016. Web. 14 Nov. 2016.

SELECTED PUBLICATION DATES

The Clarion Ledger

November 7, 1997

November 23, 1997

November 24, 1997

November 25, 1997

November 23, 2009

October 27, 2015

August 20, 2016

Oxford Eagle

October 23, 1997

November 20, 1997

October 23, 2009

November 3, 2009

November 11, 2009

November 13, 2009

October 26, 2015

August 21, 2016

September 21, 2016

The Daily Mississippian

October 23, 1997

November 4, 1997

November 6, 1997

November 7, 1997

November 20, 1997

November 21, 1997

November 24, 1997

October 20, 2009

October 26, 2009

November 2, 2009

November 4, 2009

November 5, 2009

November 6, 2009

November 11, 2009

November 20, 2009

October 26, 2015

October 27, 2015

November 4, 2015

August 19, 2016

August 22, 2016

APPENDICES

I. CODE BOOK

Definitions via Dictionary.com and Wikipedia

Research Question 1

• Inverted Pyramid: a metaphor used by journalists and other writers to illustrate

how information should be prioritized and structured in a text. A simple triangle

with one side drawn horizontally at the top and the body pointing down. The

widest part at the top represents the most substantial, interesting, and important

information the writer means to convey, illustrating that this kind of material

should head the article, while the tapering lower portion illustrates that other

material should follow in order of diminishing importance.

• Wall Street Journal: writing formula consisting of

o (LEAD) The story opens with an anecdotal, descriptive, or narrative lead.

§ Anecdotal lead- a story beginning that uses humor or an interesting

incident about a person

§ Descriptive lead- a story beginning that describes an object or

event

§ Narrative lead- a story beginning that uses a story to explain the

topic/issue at hand

o (NUT GRAF) Paragraphs 2-4 explaining the lead.

o (BODY) The body of the story is supporting information (quotes, facts,

developments).

o (ENDING) The ending includes another anecdotal or description of the

people/person featured in the story.

Research Question 2

• Direct Quotes: a direct quotation is a report of the exact words of an author or

speaker. Unlike an indirect quotation, a direct quotation is placed inside quotation

marks.

• Paraphrase: v.) express the meaning of (the writer or speaker or something

written or spoken) using different words, especially to achieve greater clarity; n.)

a rewording of something written or spoken by someone else.

• Description: n.) a spoken or written representation or account of a person, object,

or event.

Research Question 3

• Framing: the media focuses attention on certain events and then places them

within a field of meaning.

• News Frames:

o Patriotism- the quality of being patriotic; vigorous support for one's

country.

o Moderation- the avoidance of excess or extremes, especially in one's

behavior or political opinions.

o Law and Order- a situation characterized by respect for and obedience to

the rules of a society.

o Violence- behavior involving physical force intended to hurt, damage, or

kill someone or something.

o Racism/Ethnocentrism- prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed

against someone of a different race based on the belief that one's own race

is superior; evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions

originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture.

o Constitutionality- the quality of being in accordance with a political

constitution.

Research Question 4

• Point of View: a particular attitude or way of considering a matter

• First Person: a literary style in which the narrative is told from the perspective of

a narrator speaking directly about himself or herself.

• Third Person: a form of storytelling in which a narrator relates all action using

third-person pronouns like "he" or "she."

o Omniscient- the narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of all of the

characters in the story.

o Limited- the narrator only relates his own thoughts, feelings and

knowledge of various situations and other characters.

• Subjective: pertaining to or characteristic of an individual; person; individual.

• Objective: not influenced by personal feelings, interpretations, or prejudice;

based on facts; unbiased.

Research Question 5

• Tone: the general character or attitude of a place, piece of writing, situation, etc.;

what the author feels about the subject.

o Supportive- giving support; providing sympathy or encouragement;

providing additional help, information, etc.

o Neutral- not taking part or giving assistance in a dispute or war between

others; not aligned with or supporting any side or position in a

controversy; of or belonging to a neutral state or party.

o Oppositional- the action of opposing, resisting, or combating; antagonism

or hostility.

II. ARTICLES

A few samples of articles analyzed for this study.