TEMPLE OF ORISSA

Bishnu Prasad Panda*

ABSTRACT The fundamental purpose of the building art of India is to represent the concrete form of religious consciousness of the people. The highest achievement of Indian architecture is seen in the temple. In the temple of India the ritual dominates the material. The temples of Odisha is known as Kalinga style of architecture. Architectonically, the temple of Odisha resolves themselves into three broad orders known to local terminology as Rekha, Pidha and Khakara. The builders of the temples of Odisha are several canonical texts to guide them in planning and execution of a temple.

Key words: Indian architecture, Greek architecture, Kalinga style of architecture, Nagara, Veesara, Dravida, Mastaka, rekha, Pidha, Khakara, Sikhara, Jagamohana, Jangha, Sandstone.

INTRODCTION Architecture has played the most important role in the socio-religious life of mankind from time immemorial. In each of the major historical development of architecture, there is one basic principle underlying its conception, which is supremely distinctive. For example, Greek architecture is famous for its defined perfection, Roman buildings are famous for their scientific construction, and Frech Gothic reveals a condition of passionate energy, while Italian renaissance reflects the Scholarship of its time. Similarly, Indian architecture attracts the attention of the whole world due to it extra outstanding quality. The fundamental purpose of the building art of India is to represent the concrete form of the prevailing religious consciousness of the people. Of the different expressions of India architecture, the highest achievement is seen in the temples. Its majestic height and dignified proportion, varied forms of exquisite wealth of varying has made the Indian temples ranking height among the outstanding productions of world architecture. The India temples were designed for congregation worship. They are considered as the most sacred monument and an object for devotion in itself. In the language of common people Indian temple are a ‘dwelling place of Gods”. Besides the presiding deity, the temples are

* Professor, Department of History, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Orissa. 2 Bishnu Prasad Panda provided with numerous niches, recesses, alcoves and altars, all of them contain sacred images of the presiding deity. This makes the whole structure into a place of assembly of the Devas or Gods. From this, it becomes clear that in India temple architecture, religious, philosophical and metaphysical qualities dominated the artistic character, in other words, it is the Indian temples where the spiritual dominates the material. The temples of Orissa which is known as Kalinga style of temple architecture in Indian context received a special attention by scholars in this article we have made a humble attempt to focus on architecture of temples of Orissa in detail and also discuss in brief the motives behind the decorative motifs of temple of Orissa. However, the Indian Silpashastras grouped the India temples under three categories according to their style. They are the Nagara, the Dravida, and the Vesara (Saraswati, 1989). The text also agree that different style came to exist due to the regional development in architecture whereas some texts also mention that all types may be found in all regions (Ibid.). According to Silpashastras, Nagara style was present in the region, between, Himalayas and Vindhyas; the Dravida style confined to the region lying between river Krishna and Kanyakumari and the Vesara style to the region between the Vendhyas and river Krishna (Ibid.). The Nagara type of temple is characterized by horizontal tiers in exterior and a circular plan of the sanctuary (Vimana). The pointed surmounting portion is known as sikkhara. The essential plan includes an inner chamber (garbhagriha) for the divine image, a mandapa or a pavilion for the assembly of devotees, and the anatarala of a vestibule connecting the vimana and the mandapa and the paradakshina patha or the circumnutating passage round the sanctuary. The Dravida type of temple has a polygonal and often octagonal Sikhara and pyramidal vimana or sanctuary. This type of temple has a polygonal and often octagonal sikkhara and pyramidal vimana or sanctuary. This type of temple is notable for its towering gopurams or gate towers. And the Vesara temple has the apsidal type of vimana. According to the silpashastras, the geographical extent of the Nagara style coincided with northern India i.e. the region between Himalayas and Vindhyas. But actually, the style transcends the canonical limit far to the South. The Nagara style of temples can be seen from Himalayas in the North to Bijapur District in the South, from Punjab in the West to Bengal in the east (Ibid.: 534). with such a vast geographical extend naturally occur local variations and ramification. Of all regional development of style, the Orissan temples were erected in India, for which S.K.Saraswati has truly observed “there are perhaps more temples now in Orissa than in all the rest of Hindustan put together” (Ibid.: 535.). The Orissan temple are “one of the most compact and homogeneous architectural group in India (Fergusson, 1910). Like the temple of other regions of India, there occurred elaborations and modifications in case of Orissan temple. The innumerable temples now exist in Orissa, which enable one to study their evolution as they have maintained continuity and gradual architectural evolution. It become possible because of certain reasons (Panigrahy, 1981). Firstly, the Muslim rule in India started in the last part of 12th Century A.D., but Orissa continued to be Hindu kingdom up to 1568 A.D. In the same year, it was occupied by the Muslims. Orissa thus gained a period about 375 year to continue her temple- building activities without any disturbance.

Vol. 1, No. 1, January 2016 Temple of Orissa 3

Secondly, Orissa came under Muslims in 1568 A.D. and that too for a short period i.e., from 1568 A.D. to 1751 A.D. and in this period no large scale destruction could be made by the Muslims to the Hindu monument of Orissa. Thirdly, from 6th Century A.D., to 13th A.D., Orissa was ruled by different dynasties. Each of them patronized the temple building activities not making any interference. Resultantly number of temples began to enhance. All these reasons become responsible for the survival of enormous ancient monuments in this eastern part of India. And the most important characteristics of Orissan temple architecture is that in spite of passing through unbroken architectural processes it remained nearest to the original archetype. But its distinct features create an impression as if it is a different group of temples, which is evident from an inscription on the capital of a pillar in the Mukhamandapa of Amartesvara temple at Holal dated 1235 A.D., mentioned Kalinga type along with Nagara, Dravida and Vesara as one of the four categories of the temples in India (Das, 1994). The architectural journey culminated with the Sun Temple at Konark, one of the architectural wonders of the world is worthy of observation and discussion. ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF ORISSA TEMPLES Architectonically, the temple of Orissa resolves themselves into three broad orders, known to local terminology as rekha, pidha, and khakhara. In a typical Orissan temple the first two i.e, rekha and pidha go almost side by side and form for the glimpse of deity and ritual worship, the pidha deula is meant for congregations, where the visitor may wait, meditate, or read. Two more pidha deulas were added in the fully developed form, known as natamandira (festive hall) and bhogamandapa (hall of offering). The khakhara order is coffined with mother Goddess and Shakti cult. However, the builders of temples of Orissa are several canonical texts to guide them in planning and execution of a temple. Some of these texts which have come to limelight are Bhubanapradipa, bhuvanapravesa, silpipothi, sipasastra, sudhikagama, Vastu sutra upanisad, Silpa Ratna Kosa, silpa Sasrini, Baya Chakada, Silpa prakasa, Deula-mapagunagara etc. Indicating the standard achieved by our ancestors in the field of temple architecture. Without these silpasastras, it would have been impossible to encore the standardization in the temple architecture. The different sections of each part are known by a particular name. These names indicate the different architectural features of a temple. As the first Orissa temple appeared in a fully form, there is on opportunity to trace the origin of the sikhara type of temple in Orissa. Hence, it is very difficult to explain whether the temples were constructed first, then the silpasatra were written, or silpasastras were written first then the temples were constructed. The study is totally based on the temples in situ. An attempt has been made in this study to discuss temple architecture of Orissa as referred in Orissa silpasastras. As such, the study encompasses, in its scope, a study of number of temple architecture as evinced from the Orissan from the temple culture, with special emphasis on their unique and varied architectural peculiarities. Not only the evolution temple architecture, but also the peculiarities of decorative motifs, technique of construction of the temples and their lineage gave been discussed.

Global Journal of Indian History and Culture 4 Bishnu Prasad Panda

Rekha Deula The rekha style is represented by the main temple called vimana in which enshrines the deity in the sanctum. Surmounting the curvilinear spire combinely is known as redha deula also known as badadeula. The body of all the Orissan temples can be divided into the vertical axis into four principal parts, namely the pista or the pedestal, the bada or the wall, the gandi or the body and the mastaka or the crown. The temple symbolically compared with body of a man or purusha with such parts. Pista The pista does not form an essential part of the temple proper. The temples of any importance are generally provided with plinth but there the many important temples, which have no plinth at all. As a typical case, the temple of Lingaraja at Bhubaneswar may be cited as an example. This can therefore be expected that the small temples scattered all over the Orissa should show no plinth. Pista consists of two elements, the upper one is called as khura pista, and the lower one is know as tala pista (Ganguly, 1921). The former recedes back from the latter by several inches. In a temple dedicated to Vishnu, the khura pista is carved with petals of lotus. In a saiva temple, on such carving in noticeable, as it does not consist of the two element mentioned above. However, the khura pista is higher than the tala pista. The plinth of the Sun temple at Konark is pre-eminently beautiful. Bada Above pista comes bada, Bada raises upto a certain height; bada is composed of a number of broad division, which is capable of being resolved into a number of fine elements. The elements of the bada are the pabhaga or division corresponding to the foot (the base), the jangha or the shin and the baranda, which is a set of mouldings crowning the bada. In the early temples, the bada is composed of three elements, viz., pabhaga, jangha, and baranda. The later temples gained much height resultantly, the bada also become higher. In the later temples, the bada gained height with the division of the jangha into parts i.e, tala jangha and upara jangaha with a set of moulding called bandhana. Three-segmented bada is known as trianga while the five-segmented bada is known a panchaga bada. Tala Jangha The tala jangha, other wise known as panchakarma, consists of five elements viz. pada, kumbha, pata, kani, bansanta. • Pada: pada consists of a fillet supporting a cyma reversa not deeply fletched. This is technically called marandi. The inflection for the convex elements of the cyma is rather sharp. The cyama ends in a cavetto of gentle curvature. The curvature terminates either in a recess or small bead. • Kumbha: The idea of kumbha is derieved from a vase and is invariably represented in almost all temples. It is an ovalo of gentle inflection, surmounted by a scotia; the ovalo is often provided with an intermediate bead. Vol. 1, No. 1, January 2016 Temple of Orissa 5

• Pata: The pata consists of cyma rectum, supporting a fillet ending in a cyma reversa. • Kani: The kani is like the pata except that fillet is replaced by two sloped lines. The kani ends in a groove or recess and over it rests the basanta. • Basanta; Basanta is a cyma recta, a fillet. Bandhana is otherwise known as tinkarma, consisting of three components viz. pata, kani and basanta. Upara jangha is otherwise known as satkarma consisting of pada, padma,pata kani and basanta Gandi The gandi or the curvilinear tower rises from the edge of the bada; but in large temples, there is a recess or set back of about two inches. The tower rises in courses of slopes inwards vary gradually by an imperceptible diminution of projections. The last course of stone is called as ghad chakada or bisama (Saraswait, 1953). The gandi is divided into several pagas by the continuation of the projection of the bada. In the earlier temples, there is only one projection in the middle of each exterior face dividing the wall into three rathakas or pagas. Two of them lie in the same plane and the other disposed a little forward. A temple, in which the central paga has been once more treated in this manner. Will have five pagas on its face; such an example is called pancharatha. So also, a temple might have even seven pagas. Accordingly, the treatment is repeated three or four time on the central paga. The central, end and intermediate pilasters are technically called raha paga, konikapaga, anuraga page and anarathapaga (Ganguly, op. cit, 112). The brahmins kshatriyas, vaisyas and sudras have the following classes assigned to them respectively navarathna, saptaratha, pancharatha and triratha and Ekaratga temple is of no classic importance (Ibid.). According to Slipasastra if one builds a navaratha temple, which is Brahmin (by caste) then the names of the person will dwell in the region of Brahmana, the Supreme being. If one builds a saptaratha then one’s manes will verily in the Surya and Chandra-lokas. If one builds a Panchartha temple then one’s manes will dwell in the region of the Rudras. If one builds a Sudra or triratha temple then one’s manes will dwell in the region of moon.” (Bose, 1932) Kanika paga is futher divided into a number for horizontal section or storeys called bhumi by miniature bisamas (ribbed disc resembling an amalaka fruit) called bhumi-amalas. The height of the bhumis is not equal. M.M. Ganguly has fixed their proportion in the following manner (Ganguly, op.cit, p. 124). First bhumi= ¾ the length of the kanikapaga Second bhumi= ¾ of the first bhumi Third bhumi= ¾ of the second bhumi and the proportion goes Likewise, they have ¾ as the common multiple. Besides this to add to the sikhara and to produce, an impression of great height and the anaratha paga is decorated with miniature rekhas called angasikharas (Behera, 1949). Mastake The upper most part of the deula is called as mastake. It has a number of elements that crowm the deula. The recessed portion immediately above the gandi is called beki or kantha.

Global Journal of Indian History and Culture 6 Bishnu Prasad Panda

The flattened spheroid ribbed at the edge above the beki is known as amla sree, amla and amalaka sila. In the space between the bisama and amla are placed, at regular intervals, four female figures called deulacharinis or the mistress that are placed just over raha paga. In the four corners of this recess are placed the figure of lion called dopichha simha. Over the amla rests a sort cylindrical portion called as tripatadhara. The dome like section next to tripatadhara is called khapuri, the outlines of which resembles and umbrella. Above the khapuri comes kalaspada, a cylindrical portion surmounted by a segment of sphere having a short height. Above kalasapadadori, a moulding separates the kalasapada from kalasa, the weapon of the deity to whom the temple is dedicated i.e, a trident in Siva temple or chakra in Vishnu temple. M. M. Ganguly gives the following proportion of the element of the mastaka of a rekha deula (Ganguly, op. cit. 124). The height of the amla shot be twice that of the beki. The khapuri of the amla should be the same as that of beki. Kalasapada is ½ of khapuri. Tripatadhara is 1/3rd of amalakasila, kalaspadadori is 1/6th kalasahandi and kalasadori i.e, 1/4th of Kalasahandi. Tripatadhara is of the same height that of beki, the maximum width of kalasahandi is ½ of the kalasa including pada and dore. The height of the gandi of the rekha deula is generally 2 ½ the length of bada measured between ragha paga and pilaster (Ibid., p. 127). In few cases however, the height becomes three times of the length. In Agni Purana the ratio has been fixed between 2 to 3, whereas the rule laid down in Brihate Purana Samhita is that the height of a temple should be three time of the perpendicular height of the bada (Ibid., p. 130). Vidya Daheja has classified the rekha deula into two categories (Daheja, 1986). They are early Rathayukat and late padmagarbha. Early Rekha Rathayukta The temple of this category bears a trianga with large niches on the raha paga on three sides which contains the parsva devatas, closely connected to the enshrined deity. In a Siva temple, the parsva devatas are Parvati, Ganesa and Kartikeya; in case of a Vishnu temple, we find three incarnations of Vishnu; and in a Devi temple, three forms of the goddess. Flanking the central niche, there are little niches decorated with double dotted arch, and the bandhana is decorated with blends of jail alternating with ghatas or mithunas. Both the side of bandhana are mouldings decorated with chaitya arches human figures and edged with successive rows of dots and pendants. The wall is purely vertical up to bandhama. The sikhara is pacharatha. The raha paga projects a niche decorated with arch known as vajramastaka. The kanikapaga is divided into five bhumis. The majority of the early temples including parasurmesvara, Swarnjaleswar, Markandesvara, and Sisiresvara are of this type. The instructions of Silpaprakasa are closely related to this type (Ibid. p.42). Late Rekha Padmagrabha The wall of late rekha Padmagarbha is panchartha plan. The raha paga projects the parsva devata niche. The kanikas are carved as broad flat pilasters decorated with naribandha, scroll motif, kirtimukha and bhara-bahakas. The anaratha paga contains niches with pidha roof. The anuraha pagas are decorated with naga pillars. Silpapardasa describes about the architectural features of padmagarbha (Ibid.). Vol. 1, No. 1, January 2016 Temple of Orissa 7

Pidha deula Up to baranda there is hardly any distinction between the rekha deula and pidha deula except in the matter of proportion. But with gandi, the two orders assume their individual characteristics. In the early phase, it was just a flat roofed porch. But in the later period the gandi is made up of a number of pidhas diminishing in a pyramidal shape till the topmost pidha is reduced to about a half of the lowest one. They are arranged in such a manner that the sides of the pyramidal roof strike horizontally at an angle of 450 or less. The height of the pidhas depends upon the number chosen. Usually an odd number is employed as 3, 5 or 7; but there are also deviation noticed in several cases. The height of the pidhas taken together including ghada chakada and forming a frustum of pyramid is usually ¾ of the height of the bada. The later period pidhas are arranged in one or two tiers. With moderate heights of vertical walls called as kanthi or kanti intervening between them. Each of these tiers is called potal. The cross-section of any point square. Mastaka (Pidha) In a full-fledged pidha deula, the lowest member of mastaka is beki, above which is ghanta (an enormous bell-shaped member, sometimes ribbed) crowned by a succession of beki, amla khapuri and kalasa. All the element are circular in cross-section. Ganguly has fixed the proportion of the element of mastaka of a pidha deula (Ganguly, op. cit., p 125). According to him, the diameter of beki is half of the maximum breadth of the ghada chakada or bisama. The diameter of amalaka must be ascertained by drawing lines from the extreme ends of pidhas to the kalasapada. The diameter of kalasa in centre should be equal to the height of kalasa measured from the base to the bottom of the khapuri above it. The diameter of khapuri above kalasa should be half of the height of kalasa from its base in the bottom of the khapuri. The height of the portion from the top of the bisama to the base of kalasa is usually ¾ of the frustums of pyramid. The height of the beki is equal to the ½ of the last pidha with ghada chakada. The height of amalaka is equal to 1 ½ of beki. The height of tripatadhara is equal to ¼ of amalaka. The height of khapuri above sree is equal to ¾ of amlasree. The dori above khapuri should be as the base of kalasa. The breadth of ghada chakada should be equal to height of pidhas taken together. The pidha should project beyond the bada or cubical portion by a length equal to the half of the height of upara jangha. The pidha deula stands inseparably in front of the vimana with its curvilinear tower giving thereby the impression of a perfect structural balance and stability. They symoblise bride and bridegroom. Khakhara Deula The plan of the khakhara deula is oblong and it mastaka is distinguished by barrel- vaulted elongated roof called khakhara by Orissan silpins due to its faint resemblance to khakhara or voita kaharu, the local name of the variety pumpkin gourd. The gandi of the khakhara temple is composed either like that of a rekha as the Vaital Temple in Bhubaneswar or like that of a pidha with certain minor differences as in the Gouri temple in Bhubaneswar. The mastaka is composed of one two khakharas, this being a structure resembling a rectangular parallelo-piped with the vertical sides substituted by cyma reversa. The vertical sides Global Journal of Indian History and Culture 8 Bishnu Prasad Panda mays curve inwards either along one horizontal axis only or along both. In former case, the cross-section of mastaka at different heights above the base is reduced those lying below it only in the matter of its width. However, the length remains same at all heights e.g. the temple of Vaital. In other cases, it is reduced both in length and width as in Gouri temple at Bhubaneswar. One or more miniatures amlas may be placed among the crest of khakharaor there might be a kalasa in the middle with figures of crouching lions at both sides placed instead. Silpaprakasa distinguishes two types of khakhara temple such as Vaitalika and Kamagarbha (Ibid.: 126). The back wall of vaitalika temple is divided into five niches of equal size with images in each, known as Vigrahabandha. Each niche is completed with barrel-vaulted shrine decorated with double dotted arch. The sikhara curves inwards from both sides without any carving. On the front and two sides are found vajramastaka with figures of deity. This type of temple meant for tantrik worship. Vaital temple at Bhubaneswar bears these characteristics. In kamagarbha the walls of the shrine are pancharatha type similar to the padmagarbha type of rekha. But here the kanika and the anurahas are broad and flat pilasters, decorated with scroll and erotic figures. The anurahas are either serpent pillars or decorative pilasters. The sikhara narrows to the barrel-vaulted top of undecorated blocks. The raha consists of 16 horizaontal levels with two sets of vajramastaka. The Varahi temple of Chourasi comes under this category. N. K. Bose mentioned that in silpashastras, there are specification of 55 rekha,6 bhadra or pidha and 3 khakara temple. But he has not given any further information regarding the names or architectural characteristics of these temples (Daheja, op. cit., p.43). Ground Plan In an orissan temple ground plans for both rekha deula and jagmohana are square or rectangular. Orissan architectural texts mention that a shrine dedicated to siva or Vishnu should be square while a shrine dedicated to Devi should be rectangular (Bose, op. cit., p. 81). There are some temples having star shaped ground plans. Another floor plan is provided by the Panchayatana temple, where there is an addition of four redha shrines at the four corners of the main shrine (Daheja, op.cit, p. 33). In Orissa in a panchayatana Saiva temple, the four corner temples containing lingas, but the usual practice in panchayatana Siva temple, the four corners shrines are to be dedicated to Durga, Ganesh, surya and Vishnu. We find such examples at Kualo, paikapada and Suklesvara. However, this is another type of temple containing three more side temples called as astaparivara temples. Among these three temples, two are dedicated to linga and one to saptamatrikas (Rajan, 1972). The Patalesvara temple at Paikapada is astaparivara variety. The soil of Orissa has a hard substration of laterite soil a few feet below the surface. Unlike other buildings, trenches for foundations were not dug, but the whole surface proposed to be covered was excavated till the hard substration was reached. The whole surface was then built- up with stone and from the plinth level, the walls were to be raised (Daheja, op.cit. p.33). Direction The Orissan temples usually face the east, so that the observer looking the image will have his face turned towards the west. But there are some exceptions to this general rule e.g. Parsuramesvara, Muktesvara temple etc.

Vol. 1, No. 1, January 2016 Temple of Orissa 9

Selection of Site: In Agnipuranam, there are indications about selecting a site for a temple. In the 24th chapter, it has said that the quality of soil is assigned to brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaisyas and sudra. This classification of soil based on the colour of the soil. According to the Silpashastra, in the land where the seasum seed could sprout in 3-4 days is well suited for the Brahmana temple or a navaratha temple (Ganguly, op.cit. p. 140). 5th day suits a kshatriya temple or a saptraratha temple, 6th night a vaisyas temple or a pancharatha temple and if they sprout on the 11th night it is appropriate only for pasisachas. Materials The temples of Orissa were mostly built of sandstones. Its small grain, homogenous texture and great firmness allowed the builder delicate carving without causing any damage. But as laterite is easily available material throughout Orissa, it was used for the foundation, outer- wall, porticos and all structures of secondary importance. Besides sandstone and laterite, chlorite, khandolite, granite were also commonly used in temple-building. The chlorite stone was frequently used in Sun Temple at Konark. Techniques of Construction (Rajan, op.cit, p. 30) It was at the quarry that huge blocks of stone were hewn to size and the surfaces then finely hammer-dressed and so prepared that each block rested smoothly on the other. The prepared blocks would then be transported from the quarry to the temple site. And these were raised into position by groups of labourers. The huge blocks of stone were laid dry evenly and horizontally in courses, one upon another and kept in position largely by their own solid weight and by their even balance. No cementing mortar of any kind was used. Block was placed upon block and with the simple and basic principle of weight being transmitted directly downwards. Occasionally grooves and offsets were cut into the blocks, so that they slotted into one another and very occasionally, in certain vital portions of consturction iron dowels were used. The general practice in temple building in Orissa seems to been to first construct completely the main temple or the rekha. After this jagmohana was commenced. As the deula rose in height, the practice was to surround it with great mounds of earth, which acted as platform. An inclined plane was then made on one side, and along these large blocks of stone was dragged up for construction of upper levels of deula. To provide earth for the mound huge tanks were dug nearby the temple site which subsequently served as source of water (Daheja, op cit., p. 29). Almost all the Orissan temples are found to have been lavishly decorated. It seem that unlike other parts of India, in Orissa carving took place after the completion of structural construction, which is evident from the unfinished carving on some of the temple, the most important being the Mohini temple on the bank of Vindu Sarovar, where the outlines were sketched. One can notice that the decorative works remain unfinished. On the completion of the shrine and its tower the mounds of earth surrounding it were removed and the construction of jagmohana started in a similar fashion. Some Important Features Thought the Kalingan group of temples are considered as the finest production of Nagara group of temple, still, due to some of its original features, it has been mentioned as one of the

Global Journal of Indian History and Culture 10 Bishnu Prasad Panda four categories of the temples of India. One of the most important features of Orissa temple is the use of ceiling or muda. It appears that the Orissan architects were conscious of the weakness of construction of the temple with wall corbelling inwards up to the end of the gandi. To strengthen the wall of the temple built on the technique of corbelling, the opposite walls are tied by a number of ceiling called mudas. Depending upon the height of the temple in almost all the temples, we find a ceiling above the cella or the garbha-griha known as garbha-muda. In larger temple, there is repeat of the process of ceiling, creating a second ceiling generally known as ratna-muda. With the increase of the height of the temple, the number of mudas is also increased. The Lingaraja temple has one more muda above the ratna-muda. The huge compound wall around the temple marks another distinction in this regard. From the Somavamsi period onwards, the temples were used as forts. This is the reason that in almost all the large temple of later period, we find compound walls around the temple. There are double compound walls erected around the Jagannath temple at Puri. Dating of Orissa Temples There are very few temples in Orissa, which bears inscriptions and help themselves in précising their date. They are Brahmesvara, Meghesvara, Ananta-Vasudeva and Papanasini Temple at Bhubaneswar. Sobanesvara Siva temple at Niali, Chatesvara Temple at Kisenpur and the Chandrakesvara Temple at Kailasa hill (Misra, 1977, Vol.I Part-II). The inscriptions available at Lakshmanervara, Parsuramesvara, and Vaital Temples at Bhubaneswar, Paschimesvara Temple at Amangail Island, Mallikeswar at paikapada and Somesvara temple at Ranipur Jhariar help for an approximate dating of the monument on the basis of palaeography. There are epigraphs, which indirectly help to determine the date of Jagannatha Temple at Puri and the Sun Temple at Konark (Donaldoson, 1985). Hence, it would be very difficult to arrange the Orissa temple in a chronological manner. Moreover, the builders preference to anonymity made the task more difficult. However, the architectural feature and the decorative motifs of Orissan temples helped the architectural feature and the decorative motifs of Orissan temples helped the archaeologists and historians to fix a tentative chronology and dating. The literary works like Ekamra Purana, Svarnadri Mahodya, Ekamra Chandrida, Kapila Samihta, Madalapanji are not very dependable sources to workout the chronology of Orissan temples (Ibid.). The period from 1st Century A.D to 6th Century A.D. has been considered as the “dark period” in the history of Orissa temple architecture (Ibid.). But the so called, “dark period “ has also adorned Orissa with shrines evident from epigraphic sources. The Hatigumpha inscription mention Kharavela renovating the ‘devayatanas’. A piece of stone supposed to be the lintel- portion of a ruined temple refers to one Magaraja Gana of 3rd Century A.D. (Panigrahy, 1961) The Asanpet inscription of Saturbhanja mentions about the construction of a temple sometime in the 4th Century A.D. (Banerjee, 1931) The Nilakantheswar temple on the Jagamanda hill near Padmapur in Rayagada district has been assigned to Imperial Gupta period another temple is seen at Magendragiri. But none of the above-mentioned shrines provide evidence to the evolution of sikhara type of temple in Orissa. Hence the Satrughnesvara group of temples is considered to be the earliest group of temples are considered to be the earliest group of temples of Orissa, which is in a fully evolved form and dated around 575 A.D. Vol. 1, No. 1, January 2016 Temple of Orissa 11

Another noteworthy thing to be observed is that practically there is no relationship between the ruling dynasties of Orissa and the gradual evolution of temple architecture in Orissa. There is no evidence to prove that the ruling families of Orissa determined the style, although they were responsible from building of temples and their maintenance. The temples were considered as the state property. Hence, by applying the above- mentioned methods, the chronology of Orissa temples has been fixed. REFERENCES Banerjee, R.D. (1931). History of Orissa, Calcutta, Vol. II . Behera, K.S. (1949). Brahmnic Temples of Orissa, Orissa Review, Monuments Special, Cuttack. Bose, N.K. (1932). Cannons of Orissan Architecture, Calcutta. Daheja, V. (1986). Early Stone Temple of Orissa, New Delhi. Das, R.P. (1994). Terminology of Orissan Temple Architecture, National Seminar, Lalita Kala Academy, New Delhi, December. Donaldoson, T.E. (1985). Hindu Temple Art of Orissa, Leiden. Fergusson, James (1910). HIEA, II, London. Ganguly, M.M. (1921). Orissa and her Remains, Calcutta. Misra, P.K. (ed.) (1977). Comprehensive History and Culture of Orissa, New Delhi. Panigrahy, K.C. (1961). Archaeological Remains at Bhubaneswar, Calcutta. Panigrahy, K.C. (1981). History of Orissa, Cuttack. Rajan, K.V. Sounder (1972). India Temple Style, New Delhi. Saraswaiti, S.K. (1953). Temple of Orissa. OHRJ. Vol. I, No. 4, — (1989). Architecture, The Struggle for Empire, Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan: Bombay, Vol. V.

Global Journal of Indian History and Culture