: Context and Meanings

by Andriy Portnov, Berlin

10 January 2014

urrent events in , which have al- had no political leaders. Rather, it was a spon- Cready received the metaphorical tag of taneous assembly of indignant social network “Eurorevolution”, have caught everyone off users, which gathered a few hundred people guard: the Ukrainian authorities, the opposi- at most. Initially, thousands of participants of tion, the European Union, the Russian Federa- Saturday meetings, as well as of similar Eu- tion. This multifarious and dynamic situation roMaidan gatherings across Ukraine, empha- surprised many observers with a realization sized that their demand is the signing of the that a sizeable part of the country’s population EU association agreement, and that they are is formulating a demand for a new (“Europe- not aligned with any political power what- an”) political and social lifestyle. In the given soever. text I try to reconstruct the chronology of some It would seem that the demonstration’s main events and propose their contextual in- depoliticization might have launched its in- terpretation. evitable marginalization. But at 4 a.m. on The very first part of the protest took place Saturday 30 November, something appalling during the night of Thursday 21 November took place on the Maidan. Under the pretence 2013 on the Independence Square (known as of having to prepare the square for the tra- the Maidan) in . It took shape as a reac- ditional New Year’s tree, special police force tion against the refusal of the authorities to “Berkut” brutally attacked the students who sign the Ukraine-EU Association Agreement were camping there. Outraged by this devel- at the Vilnius Summit of the Eastern Partner- opment, hundreds of thousands of people ship. On Saturday 23 November, for the first poured into the streets of Kyiv on Saturday. time since the , Kyiv saw Thus, the protest turned not only political, a large gathering of up to 100 000 demonstra- but also plainly anti-governmental: idealistic tors under the slogan of European integration. calls for Euro-integration were accompanied I would say that a significant part (if not the now with demands for resignation of both the outright majority) of those protesting in the President and the Prime Minister. capital that day were reacting not to the gov- The leaders of the three oppositional par- ernment’s declaration of putting the negotia- liamentary factions (Arseniy Yatseniuk from tions with the European Union on hold per se, `s “Bat`kivschyna”, Vitaliy but rather to the style and form of the way Klychko from “Udar”, and Oleh Tiahnybok it was announced*. Citizens were informed from far-right “Svoboda”), now officially about this decision post-factum, without any heading this protest, were totally unprepared sort of open discussion, even though on the for its scope. They were also not prepared previous day the authorities assured everyone to deal with provocations that aimed to por- that the Association agreement will certainly tray scenes of violence and frighten observ- be signed in Vilnius. ers, particularly external ones. The epicentre Those who congregated on the Maidan of such provocations was the storming of the that night were not political activists, and they Presidential Administration using a building

* author’s emphasis

Euxeinos 13 (2014) 9 Andriy Portnov

excavator, the subsequent beating by police of Kiselev, over the past month the authorities all who were nearby, and the arrest of about “made obviously wrong decisions with en- ten random passers-by on the charge of public viable consistency, and every such decision incitement to violence. In practice, this lead to lifted the task of solving the crisis onto a new unprecedented mass protests in Kyiv. Demon- level of difficulty” [1]. Meanwhile, the end strators occupied several municipal buildings of December made clear that the Maidan is (including the City Council headquarters) a problem for the opposition as well as for and returned to the Maidan. This time, they the government. The former, the opposition, brought tents, barricades, and a stage. keeps trying to tame the Maidan, which un- On Tuesday 3 December the Verkhovna doubtedly surpasses the level and scope of its Rada did not gather enough votes to force the political outlook. And the latter, the govern- government’s resignation. Neither the author- ment, attempted to counter the Maidan with a ities nor the opposition, it seems, took note of big concert in support of the acting president advice offered by Victoria Nulland (the Assis- on Saturday 14 December. At this event, Prime tant Secretary of State for European and Eur- Minister Nikolai Azarov spooked the audi- asian Affairs at the U.S. Department of State) ence with declarations that the EU demands and Catherine Ashton (High Representative of Ukraine include legalization of same-sex of the EU for Foreign Affairs and Security marriage. Policy). They called for a proper roundtable By arranging this Anti-Maidan, the au- and for formation of a coalition government, thorities wanted to show that the crisis is not which could assume a full responsibility for about people opposing the government; it’s the unavoidably painful economic reforms. about one part of Ukraine opposing another During the visit of these VIP guests, on the part. Manipulations with this faulty notion night from Tuesday to Wednesday 10 De- was made simpler by the fact that existent cember, police forces in Kyiv attempted to distrust of the government in the East and dislodge the demonstrators, and dismantled South of the country does not find a reflec- some of their barricades. This was streamed tion in these regions’ electoral preferences. live online. Within a few hours, thousands This is due to the fact these regions, in general, of Kyiv residents gathered on the Maidan. do not view the country’s “national-democrat- By dawn, the police backed off. The Maidan ic” political factions as capable of represent- was elated. And the protest, now fully and ing them, and the ruling can irreversibly, surpassed the reaction to Euro- exploit votes to stop “the nationalists” from integration hindrances, and turned into op- coming to power [2]. Indeed, in Ukraine, there position to the current political regime. The is currently no democratic force committed to government, meanwhile, approached all calls working consistently with the primarily Rus- for political roundtables not as a potential way sophone electorate in the East and South of the out of this crisis, but rather as a decorative ar- country. rangement for the West (even though on 13 But in no way does this situation mean December both President Victor Yanukovych that, on socio-cultural and political levels, and the leaders of the opposition participated geographically defined “two Ukraines” actu- in one such roundtable). ally exist, one of which allegedly dreams of To sum up, in the words of Evgeniy nothing but a “reunion” with Russia, while

Euxeinos 13 (2014) 10 Andriy Portnov

the other is busy only with merging its pro- Putin announced that this help for his “frater- European notions with a cult of a nationalist nal” country came “without any kind of condi- hero Stepan Bandera. Regularly replayed in tions”. Kyiv’s courtier journalist commented: both English- and Russian-language publica- “Who prevented the central banking institu- tions around the world, the defective theory tion of the European Union – European Bank about the non-existence of Ukraine as a cul- for Reconstruction and Development – from tural entity – complete with prompts for a purchasing Ukrainian bonds, say, for 15 bil- “peaceful divorce” of its two parts [3] – mis- lion euro? They’ve got no money for Ukraine? takenly describes contemporary Ukraine as an Too bad. Turns out Russia does have money analogue of Czechoslovakia, where the Slovak for Ukraine” [5]. But soon it became clear part can split, in a “velvet” manner, from the that Moscow’s gifts were far from altruistic. Czech part. In reality, the curious phenom- They are not without an expiration date (for enon of existing diverse interpretations and instance, the gas discount will be reviewed definitions of “Ukrainian-ness” in the con- every quarter) and they are directly linked to text of post-Soviet political realities – as well Ukraine’s “proper” behaviour [6]. No official as co-existence and competitiveness of these admission into the Customs Union was men- different understandings – supports Rory Fin- tioned, which allowed less far-sighted observ- nin’s important observation that “the thesis of ers to overlook the Kremlin’s bid for a new Ukraine’s ‘weak’ national identity is not only model of integration, consisting of owning conceptually vague but analytically useless” and controlling strategic areas of Ukraine’s [4]. It is evidence of the potential of a search economy. (The new framework will be built for new concepts and new terminology that on interlocking, inter-sectorial integration – in could describe Ukraine’s social reality. other words, on Russia’s co-ownership and On Sunday 15 December, in advance of co-management of the key sectors of Ukraine’s the million-strong people’s gathering against economy. [7]). Ukraine’s joining the Customs Union of Belar- Russian money gave President Yanu- us, Kazakhstan, and Russia, many worried that kovych some time to stitch up the most appar- “a clash of the two Ukraines” will be staged ent holes in Ukraine’s budget. But it did not there. But the publicized meeting of the Party solve the structural problems of the country’s of Regions was cancelled. As for the gathering economy – direct results of multiple errors in support of the authorities, it was declared by the current and previous governments. “indefinite”, and after a few days those camp- It’s worth noting that Ukraine stood on the ing near the were sent home. verge of bankruptcy not due to the threat of Most observers agreed that the government signing the EU agreement, but due to the gov- adopted the tactic of ignoring the Maidan in ernment’s extensive leaning on the economy, hopes for its self-marginalization. as well as an unfavourable business climate, On Tuesday 17 December, President Ya- widespread corruption, and irresponsible nukovych left for a business trip to Moscow. populism of the ruling elites [8]. As a result of his visit, Ukraine was promised This short-term ability to save the status- a credit of 15 billion dollars, as well as a lower- quo through capitulating (an important in- ing of the cost of gas from around 400 to 268.5 gredient of which, it seems, will be Ukraine’s dollars per thousand cubic meters. President loss of control over the gas transport system)

Euxeinos 13 (2014) 11 Andriy Portnov

was positioned by Azarov’s government as a also suspected of trying to head something it big economic success. President Putin looked did not actually create, and which surpasses far more convincing in his role as a winner, it intellectually. As Yuriy Ruban accurately having acquired another trophy following commented, the Maidan is looking for an- Snowden and Syria. But the biggest illusion swers to a problem which will not be solved of Kremlin seems to be a deep believe that, in by any of the opposition leaders’ victory in general terms, Ukrainians and Russians are presidential elections [11]. In other words, the “one people” [9]. This stereotype automati- Maidan is trying to formulate the need for a cally blocks official Moscow`s ability to ade- programme of reforms, which not does exist, quately access both the Maidan events and the as well as the need for a new socio-political social disposition in Ukraine in general. force, which also does not exist yet. At the same time, the diplomats of most So what exactly is the Maidan? How can countries of the European Union (it is diffi- we explain the phenomenon of its self-orga- cult to speak about a thoughtful and coordi- nization? Which historical metaphors can de- nated EU foreign policy) either truly do not scribe its nature? Possibly the most popular, understand, or not want to understand, the though far from incontestable, is the metaphor Kremlin’s reasoning as far as the Ukrainian of the Zaporizhian Sich. It refers to the early question is concerned. The European negotia- modern political phenomenon of Cossack self- tors did not quite comprehend President Ya- government, ended by Russia’s absolutism at nukovych’s position when they kept talking to the end of the 18th century [12]. While most him about freeing Yulia Tymoshenko1, instead visitors live in tents set up in the centre of of addressing his expected topics of finan- Kyiv, the crowded weekly Sunday gatherings cial assistance and guarantees of re-election are comprised of educated, enterprising and in 2015. Neither did they grasp the depth of well-off middle-aged people who weave their the Kremlin’s interest in disrupting Ukraine’s hopes for change into a loosely-defined notion signing of the EU association agreement. As of Europeanization (I will return to this topic James Sherr astutely notes, for Brussels the shortly). The Maidan, then, can be described Association agreement was an alternative for as a temporary space of non-conflicting coop- Ukraine`s EU membership, but for Moscow it eration and coexistence of people from very was the EU enlargement by other means [10]. different social circles. I think most of these During the traditional crowded Sun- individuals are united by their denunciation day Maidan gathering on 22 December 2013, not only of the ruling authorities, but also of the leaders of opposition took the stage and Ukraine’s post-Soviet political and economic announced the creation of an NGO called situation in general. Any positive aspects of “People`s Union Maidan”. This amorphous this alliance are vaguer and less rationalized: body, brought forth without any open discus- they merges elements of nationalism with the sion, quickly raised questions and suspicions. mythology of Europe. First of all, it was presumed that the opposi- As far as nationalism is concerned, the tion is trying to look busy despite its lack of Maidan has already legitimized nationalist strategy or decisiveness. The opposition was slogans (such as “Glory to Ukraine – Glory to the Heroes!” [Slava Ukrajini – Herojam sla- 1 Yulia Tymoshenko was released 22 February, va!]) and flags (such as the black-and-red flag 2014

Euxeinos 13 (2014) 12 Andriy Portnov

of the nationalist underground of World War new challenge for international politics. In II) as symbols of a pro-European protest [13]. this context, Ukraine’s ability to avoid mass The black-and-red flag was raised in place of violence while solving political conflicts is the monument to Lenin, which was destroyed absolutely vital. The country’s post-Soviet in the evening of December 8 near the Besar- history saw no parliamentary executions, no absky Market. The far-right party “Svoboda” use of firearms against demonstrators, no po- proudly claimed responsibility for this; at the groms. Both the society and the political elites same time, it curbed its usual anti-immigrant so far have shown their resistance to violent and homophobic rhetoric. As for “Glory to scenarios, leaning towards finding peaceful Ukraine!”, I think we can discuss not only its solutions to all crises. legitimization, but also the transformation of During the night of the Catholic Christ- meaning it underwent on the Maidan. This can mas, journalist Tetiana Chornovol was as- be illustrated by the speech given on the Maid- saulted in the vicinity of Kyiv. Once again, an by the leader of the Polish conservative Ukraine was pushed to escalate the conflict. party “Law and Justice” Jaroslaw Kaczynski, It was shoved towards the use of force, lead- which ended with “Glory to Ukraine!”, lead- ing to further isolation of the current govern- ing to a number of discussions in Polish right ment from the West. This mosaic, made up of periodicals. While one writer saw it as the Pol- slightly disoriented but still confident authori- ish politician’s “resurrection of Galician fas- ties, weak opposition, a self-assured Kremlin, cism”, historian and essayist Andrzej Nowak a newborn civil society that has no adequate wrote that at this time, “Glory to Ukraine!” parliamentary representation, and an eternal- has become analogous to the slogan “Long live ly confused and tardy European Union, can to Poland!” (Niech żyje Polska!) which has a develop in most (un)expected ways. Only one broad patriotic sense [14]. thing is clear: Ukraine’s economic and political As for Maidan’s pro-European rhetoric, crisis is not solved. And the story continues… it is based on the mythology of Europe as a space of the rule of law, social justice, free- dom of movement and expression, which was References widespread in countries of the former Warsaw Pact and the Baltic nations prior to their join- [1] Evgeny Kiselev, Maidan: prodolzhe- ing the EU. This mythology of Europe far sur- nie sleduet, http://newtimes.ru/articles/de- passes not only the content of the failed associ- tail/75987 ation agreement, but also the actual condition [2] Vladimir Pannioto, Net takoj partii!, of the European Union. It does not correspond http://www.capital.ua/news/11079-net-takoy- to the realities of today’s Europe. But I would partii suggest that it is equally important to discuss [3] An example of the text which denies the authenticity of such ideas themselves, as the subjectivity of Ukraine: Orlando Figes, Is well as their ability to mobilize the most ac- There One Ukraine?, http://www.foreignaf- tive portion of the population. Considering the fairs.com/articles/140560/orlando-figes/is- European Union’s lack of keenness for further there-one-ukraine His article was first called enlargement into the post-Soviet area, we have «There is no Ukraine». Compare the observa- the problem of “Europe beyond Europe” as a tions about the authors of the similar publica-

Euxeinos 13 (2014) 13 Andriy Portnov

tions in Russian: Anton Shekhovtsov, “Re-or- out/ ganisation” of the Ukrainian space, or Putin`s [10] James Sherr, Ukraina-Rossia-Evropa: agents in Ukraine, http://anton-shekhovtsov. otravlennyj treugolnik, http://gazeta.zn.ua/ blogspot.de/2013/12/re-organisation-of-ukrai- internal/ukraina-rossiya-evropa-otravlennyy- nian-space-or.html treugolnik-_.html [4] Rory Finnin, Ukrainians: Expect-the- [11] Yuriy Ruban, Maidan jak problema Unexpected Nation, http://www.crassh.cam. politychnoji ekonomii, http://glavcom.ua/ar- ac.uk/blog/post/ukrainians-expect-the-unex- ticles/16262.html pected-nation [12] One of the most vivid descriptions [5] Viacheslav Pikhovshek, Dekabr 2013 of Maidan as a new Cossack Sich was pro- goda, rabochij vizit Prezidenta Ukrainy v posed by the Russian journalist: Arkadii Moskvu, http://lb.ua/news/2013/12/17/247980_ Babchenko, Territoria voli: Maidan glaza- dekabr_2013t_goda_rabochiy_vizit.html mi rossijskogo zhurnalista, http://blog.i.ua/ [6] See the detailed analysis of the Mos- user/181571/1324078/ cow agreements in: Alla Eremenko, Tatiana [13] See more in: Andreas Umland, How Silina, Yuriy Skolotyanyj, Aleksey Izhak, Ar- Spread of Banderite Slogans and Symbols tur Lantan, Zapomni, kak vsio nachinalos`, Undermines Ukrainian nation-building, http://gazeta.zn.ua/internal/zapomni-kak- http://www.kyivpost.com/opinion/op-ed/ vse-nachinalos-_.html how-spread-of-banderite-slogans-and-sym- [7] James Sherr: Ukraine ‘is in dangerous bols-undermines-ukrainian-nation-build- situation’, http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ ing-334389.html politics/james-sherr-ukraine-is-in-a-danger- [14] Andrzej Nowak, Pytanie do Rafała ous-situation-334161.html Ziemkiewicza, http://niezalezna.pl/49626-py- [8] See the details about the economic tanie-do-rafala-ziemkiewicza crisis and its causes in: Boris Grozovskyi, Bankrotstvo Yanukovicha: pochemu Ukrainu zhdiot smena vlasti, http://www. About the Author: forbes.ru/mneniya-column/mir/248507- bankrotstvo-yanukovicha-pochemu- Dr. Andriy Portnov is a historian and essayist ukrainu-zhdet-smena-vlasti?fb_action_ from Dnipropetrovsk and Kyiv, currently ids=616033621786909&fb_action_types=og. Research Fellow at Wissenschaftskolleg zu recommends&fb_source=other_multiline&action_ Berlin and Guest Professor at the Humboldt object_map=[555981511142697]&action_type_ University in Berlin, founder and co-editor map=[%22og.recommends%22]&action_ref_ of the intellectual web-site Historians.in.ua map= The author of five books and numerous [9] Compare: Timothy Snyder, Ukraine: articles on intellectual history, historiography Putin`s Denial, http://www.nybooks.com/ and current memory debates in Eastern and blogs/nyrblog/2013/dec/13/ukraine-putins- Central Europe. denial/ See also his previous blog: A Way Out e-mail: [email protected] for Ukraine?, http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/ blog of Andriy Portnov http://urokiistorii.ru/ nyrblog/2013/dec/05/ukraine-protests-way- blog/308

Euxeinos 13 (2014) 14