Proceedings of the 27th Agricultural Economics Conference

In collaboration with

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Belize,

Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI),

The University of the West Indies (UWI)

and

la Asociación de Latinoamérica y del Caribe de Economía Agrícola (ALACEA) Improving Marketing and Sustaining Natural Resource Systems in Latin America and the Caribbean

Belize City, Belize

23rd - 27th July, 2007

Sharon D. Hutchinson Editor

Copyright @ June 2009 by the Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording or otherwise, without the prior consent of the publisher.

Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 98 Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago

Neela Badrie Corresponding Author. Department of Food Production, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago. E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Yasmin Baksh-Comeau National Herbarium of Trinidad and Tobago, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies;

Abstract

A vast number of over the counter drugs produced by pharmaceutical companies are derived from and animals. In 2005, 753 990 kg of medicinal pharmacy products worth 45,574,343 TT dollars were imported (C.I.F) into Trinidad and Tobago, while 16, 724 kg worth 2,008,228 TT dollars were exported (F.O.B.). In the Caribbean, there has been a long tradition of preparing ‘bush teas’ using indigenous and exotic plants for medicine. The Chemistry/ Food and Drugs Division, Ministry of Health, Trinidad and Tobago is responsible for monitoring and regulating the control, manufacture, importation, storage and disposal of drugs (pharmaceuticals) and herbal preparations. Establishing a sustainable medicinal plant industry in Trinidad and Tobago (T&T) could stimulate agricultural diversification and enhance socio-economic development. This paper provides an overview of the status of agriculture in T&T, some global and traditional trends vis-à-vis medicinal plant usage. It identifies some key elements in the development of a medicinal plant industry, such as identification of medicinal plants, Good Agricultural and Good Manufacturing Practices, identification of active health ingredients and intellectual property rights.

Keywords: medicinal plants, ‘bush medicine’, agricultural diversification, regulation, herbal remedies, herbal therapy

1. Introduction islands. Some of the global trends in the use of medicinal plants and the This paper highlights the status of prevalence of its use locally, based on agriculture in T&T and offers some local research findings, are examined. suggestions for the development of a Major challenges for transforming the medicinal plant industry on the now defunct sugar industry into a

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 99 viable and sustainable medicinal plant contribution of the petroleum industry industry are outlined. Some of the increased from 33.3% in 2002 to opportunities for innovative research 41.2% in 2006 (CSO, 2007a). In this and development in the selection and context, agriculture continues to face breeding of suitable medicinal plant considerable challenges to compete materials are identified. The effort for for productive resources, such as updating and /or revising the arable lands, affordable labour, and Chemistry/Food and Drug Act of the investment capital. This is Division of the Ministry of Health, compounded by praedial larceny, Trinidad and Tobago is rationalised. which operates as a disincentive for Issues governing Intellectual Property supporting a thriving agriculture Rights (IPR), with respect to the sector. breeding of new plant varieties, and Trinidad and Tobago is heavily patents have been included. dependent on imported food because of the historical legacy of sugar 2. Status of Agriculture in Trinidad monoculture (Pemberton, 1990). and Tobago Plantation owners were reluctant to ‘In the nineteenth century diversify from sugar and lose the Trinidad’s economy was social and political privileges, which overwhelmingly agricultural, with the were linked to sugar monoculture. major export crops of sugar and Sugar production has declined from cocoa accounting for the bulk of the 136.7 thousand tonnes in 1997 to colony’s revenues and employing 84.5 thousand tonnes in 2004, and most of the labour force. But in the exports declined from 109.3 thousand present century, oil has increasingly tonnes in 1997 to 43.8 thousand dominated the economy. More than tonnes in 2004. The recent demise of any other factor, it is the development the sugar industry is reflected by a of the oil industry that made twentieth- decline in the GDP from 0.5 in 2002 to century Trinidad relatively 0.2 in 2006 (CSO, 2007b). This prosperous.’ (Brereton, 1989). In should be an opportunity for 2005, the energy sector continued to government and the private sector to be the main driver of growth in the consider diversifying into a thriving economy expanding by 10.9%, while medicinal plant industry. the non-energy sector grew by 4% There has been a decline in the (Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago, number of persons employed in 2007). Table 1 shows the contribution agriculture in 2004 (26,000 persons) to the various industrial sectors to the compared to 1997 (43,700 persons) Gross Domestic Product (% (Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago, contribution) of Trinidad and Tobago, 2005). The total number of agricultural 2002-2006. The percentage land holders enumerated in Trinidad contribution of agriculture to the Gross and Tobago during the 2004 Domestic product declined from 1.4% Agricultural Census was 19,143 of in 2002 to 0.7% to 2006, while the which 18,169 (94.9%) were recorded

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 100 in Trinidad and 974 (5.1%) in Tobago to self-diagnose and self-treat for a (CSO, 2005). There was a decline of variety of acute and chronic maladies 11,423 holders or approximately (Barnes et al., 2002). 37.4% when compared to the total In 2005, 753 990 kg of medicinal number of holders (30,566) recorded pharmacy products worth 45,574,343 in the 1982 Agricultural Census. In TT dollars (6.3 TT dollars = 1US Trinidad, 74.3%, 15.3%, and 9.7% of dollar) were imported (C.I.F) into the holders were engaged in crop, Trinidad and Tobago, while 16, 724 kg mixed and livestock activities, worth 2,008,228 TT dollars were respectively. However, in Tobago, exported (F.O.B.) (CSO, 2007b). In although the majority of holders, Trinidad and Tobago, there is a well 38.9%, were engaged in crop activity, established tradition of the mixed and livestock activities were acceptance of specific medicinal also significant. Individual/household plants or preparations for use as colon /sole proprietor and joint partnerships and blood cleansers or laxatives, e.g. accounted for 99.5% of all holders. the product branded as "Tisane de Forty percent (40.0%) of the private Durbon" manufactured in Barbados holders were registered as farmers. under licence of Stella Ninety six percent (96.0%) of all Pharmaceutical, Ontario, Canada, and holdings were less than ten (10) sold by local distributors. hectares in area. The average size of There is a growing demand for a private holder’s household was 4.2 manufactured herbal products in the persons. The male/female ratio of form of herbal ‘teas’, health drinks, holders was found to be 5.9:1 (CSO, essential oils, phyto-medicinals, 2005). nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals. These commodities are value-added 3. Traditional Medicine plant-based preparations. Medicinal It is estimated that over 80% of plants may be traded as plant parts, the developing world relies on extracts or isolated active constituents medicinal plants as a major form of (Seaforth and Tikasingh, 2006). The healthcare therapy (Vincent and term ‘nutraceuticals’ was coined by Furnham, 1997). ‘Scientists have only the Foundation for Innovation in been able to exhaustively examine Medicine, and is defined as ‘any one half of one percent of the higher substance that may be considered a plants on this planet for their chemical food or part of a food and provides composition and pharmaceutical medical or health benefits, including potential. Yet these species have the prevention and treatment of yielded about one-quarter of all the disease’ (DeFelice, 1989). Hence drugs on the pharmacist’s shelf,’ there is a product, which is dual (Mack, 1997). It is noteworthy that purpose serving as both food and approximately 62% of Americans use medicine. some form of alternative and Trinidad and Tobago, like other complementary medicine, and prefer Caribbean countries, has evolved its

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 101 own unique medicinal plant tradition. health. This correlated to ‘average’ to This tradition is a complex fusion of ‘excellent’ acceptance scores in Amerindian, European, African and 56.8% of the sample (Khan et al., Asian traditions, which has 2005). Fifty percent (50%) of the incorporated well known exotic physicians could identify at least two species such as garlic (Allium cepa), Caribbean herbs or their uses. aloes (Aloe vera), ginger (Zingiber Two studies were conducted by officinale), turmeric (Curcuma longa), Meritt-Charles et al. (2003) to neem (Azadirachta indica), with investigate the use of herbal medicine indigenous plant materials such as by surgical out patients in Trinidad. shadobeni (Eryngium foetidum) or One study involving 97 adult patients Spanish thyme (Lippia micromera) to attending a surgical outpatient clinic at produce new blends of infusions or Eric Williams Medical Sciences ‘teas’. Complex, Trinidad, West Indies The most recent addition to the revealed that over 93% had used growing literature supporting the use alternative therapies, 49% used of traditional herbs is the Caribbean prescription medication and 23% did Herbal Pharmacopoeia (Germosén- not inform their physician prior to their Robineau, 2007), which contains a list surgery (Meritt-Charles et al., 2003). of medicinal plants along with their Also, 86% of the respondents also effects and directions for use. used some form of herbal therapy with garlic (45%) and ginseng (34%) being 1. Prevalence of ‘Bush’ Medicine the most popular herbs. Among the Usage herbal therapy users, it was found that In the Caribbean, there has been 40% used herbal remedies in the form the long established tradition of using of tablets, powdered products or a range of plants for making ‘bush’ drinks bought from a herbalist or teas or as spices and flavourings in pharmacy, 51% used ‘bush’ teas in culinary preparations. The use of the form of a decoction or infusion ‘bush’ medicine is inextricably linked made at home from plants e.g. to one’s belief system about illness. soursop leaf (Annona muricata), However, its application and use may vervine (Stachytarpheta jamaicensis) often conflict with the or lime bud (Citrus aurantifolia) and recommendations of some 44% of the home-made ‘bush’ professionals in the modern health medicine included garlic. care system (Morgan and Watkins, In the second study, which 1988). A study to determine the sampled 303 adult patients attending levels of acceptance and knowledge the surgical outpatient clinics at Port- of medicinal herbs by physicians at six of-Spain General Hospital, San major public hospitals in Trinidad, it Fernando General Hospital and Eric was revealed, that contrary to popular Williams Medical Complex, Trinidad, belief, 60.2% of physicians believed West Indies, it was revealed that the that the herbs were beneficial to most popular herbal remedies were

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 102 garlic (75%), aloe vera (31%) and conducted by Bnouham et al. (2006). ginseng (24%). The most commonly The large number of plants described ingested ‘bush’ teas were orange peel in this review (176 species belonging tea (47%), fever grass tea (39%) and to 84 families) clearly demonstrated soursop leaf tea (23%) (Merritt- the importance of herbal plants in the Charles et al., 2003). treatment of diabetes. It also showed In a specific study, which the effort to isolate new potential anti- investigated 622 persons with diabetic agents. The plant families, diabetes mellitus in Trinidad and including the number of species most Tobago, herbal medicines were used studied for their confirmed by 42% of the patients with 24% using hypoglycaemic effects include: them specifically for diabetes Leguminoseae (11), Lamiaceae (7), (Mahabir and Gulliford, 1997). The Liliaceae (8), Cucurbitaceae (7), findings also showed that ‘bush’ (6), Moraceae (6), medicine was most frequently used by Rosaceae (6), Euphorbiaceae (5) and the Afro-Trinidadians (52%) compared Araliaceae (5). The most studied to mixed race (48%) and Indo- species were: Citrullus colocynthis Trinidadian (36%). Most of the (Cucurbitaceae), Opuntia subjects (81%) reported gathering the streptacantha (Cactaceae), Trigonella plants themselves and 41% took them foenu- greacum (Leguminosea), more frequently than once a week. Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae), Table 2 shows the use of 12 most Ficus bengalensis (Moraceae), frequently mentioned plants for Polygala senega (Polygalaceae), and diabetes or for other indications Gymnema sylvestre (Mahabir and Gulliford, 1997). (Asclepiadaceae). The twelve (12) most frequently 5. Uses of some common mentioned plants used in ‘bush’ medicinal plants medicine by vernacular names as Several medicinal plants have reported by patients in a Trinidad and been used as dietary adjunct and in Tobago survey were vervine the treatment of numerous diseases (Stachytarpheta jamaicensis), soursop without proper knowledge of their leaf (Annona muricata), chandilay or function. Although phyto-therapy ball bush (Leonotis nepetifolia), fever continues to be used in several grass (Cymbopogan citrates), carailli countries, few plants have received (Momordica charantia), orange peel scientific or medical scrutiny. (Citrus sinensis), senna (Senna Moreover, a large number of alata), zebapique ( medicinal plants possess some lobata), aloes ( Aloe vera), black sage degree of toxicity (Marles and (Cordia curassavica), olive-bush Farnsworth, 1994). (Bontia daphnoides) and seed-under- A review of ten years of herbal leaf (Phyllanthus amarus) (Mahabir medicine research (1990-2000) with and Gulliford, 1997). potential anti-diabetic activity was A survey was conducted of the

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 103 most commonly used medicinal plants identification particularly when which are used for herbal involved in scientific investigation or preparations in Tobago (Seaforth et for labelling approved plant- based al. 1998). From this study, sixty plant products. Common names are often species were identified as being used variable as numerous names can be for treating about 12 different applied to the same species or the ailments. Among them Chromolaena same common name can be applied odorata, Cordia curassavica, Cecropia to many different species. For peltata, Cymbopogon citratus, example, at least three different Lantana camara and Neurolaena species of marine macro algae from lobata are the most commonly used. the genera Gracilaria and Hydropuntia One of the most significant which grow in south-eastern developments emerging from the use Caribbean are known as ‘sea weed’ or of Caribbean ‘bush medicine’ is the ‘seamoss’ (Baksh-Comeau, 2006). widespread use of ‘shado- The ‘sorrel’ (Hibiscus sabdariffa) beni’/culantro / fit weed, (Eryngium grown in Trinidad and Tobago is a foetidum) as acceptable food different plant from ‘sorrel’ (Rumex flavouring. Its pungent unique aroma acetosa) in North America and gives the characteristic flavour to Europe. Similarly, a ‘lime tree’ (Citrus dishes, in which it is incorporated, and aurantofolia) in the Caribbean is this is responsible for its increasing different from a ‘lime tree’ (Tilia x demand among ethnic populations europea) in Europe (Baksh-Comeau, resident in western developed 2003). On the other hand, the species countries (Ramcharan, 1999). The Eryngium foetidium mentioned earlier leaves are eaten in the form of is known by a plethora of common chutney, as an appetite stimulant names such as; ‘bhandania’ (Trinidad (Mahabir, 1991). But in traditional folk and Tobago), ‘chadron benee’ medicine, its use extends to the “leaf (Dominica), ‘coulante’ or ‘culantro’ ’ teas” for fever, flu, diabetes, leaf baths (Haiti), ‘recao’ (Puerto Rico), and’ fit for coughs, heat, urinary infusion weed’ (Guyana) (Seaforth et al., 1983; baths for fever, flu, and pneumonia, Seaforth, 1988). There are also as well as root decoctions for fever, names derived from different coughs, cold, pneumonia, malarial languages: ‘langer koriander’ fever and constipation (Wong, 1976). (German); ‘ketumbar java’ (Malay); Clearly, its long established traditional ‘pak chi farang’ (Thai); ‘ngo gai’ use has proven to be safe for human (Vietnamese); ‘culantro’, ‘racao’, consumption without the formal ‘recao’ (Spanish); ‘bhandhanya’ endorsement of scientific testing. (Hindi), and ‘spiny coriander’(Spanish) (Ramcharan, 1999). It is therefore 6. Identification of medicinal critical that plants are identified plants and formal nomenclature correctly by their scientific name or The use of common or vernacular Latin binomial, which is comprised of names is unreliable as a form of plant the generic followed by the specific

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 104 epithet. The danger of as aloe (Aloe vera), fitweed/shado misidentification of a medicinal plant beni (Eryngium foetidium) while others could thus lead to accessing incorrect such as carailli (Mormodica charantia) published information about the grown commercially as a food plant putative species. In Trinidad and and wild senna (Senna alata), Tobago, the National Herbarium of harvested from the wild, have the Trinidad & Tobago provides a potential for adding value as medicinal professional plant identification and products. It was found that while information service. farmers treasure their marginal and small-scale holdings of these crops, 7. Selection of medicinal plants the application of good agricultural At the outset, the selection of practices (GAP) and good medicinal plants for industrial manufacturing practices (GMP) is development should be limited to required to produce herbals of those species known to be safe for uniformly good quality (Palevitch, human consumption, including 1998). Aloe and ginger emerged as traditional food crop with known the best documented, but are highly phyto-medicines. Documentation and competitive on the global market. preliminary evaluation of medicinal Hibiscus sabdariffa (sorrel), Senna plants is a necessary step for alata (wild senna) were well establishing whether remedies could documented as nutraceuticals and be provided for health needs. In phyto-medicinals with potential. The general, it was found that information popular food plants, Eryngium about the processing technology, foetidium (shado beni) and market trends and trade of selected Momordica charantia (carailli), need medicinal plants was scarce. It would further research for their essential oil be necessary to compile profiles or and potential anti-diabetic extract monographs of selected medicinal (Seaforth, 2006) to be developed into plants. This will inform and medicines. encourage agriculturalists, farmers, extension personnel, processors and 8. Agronomy distributors to make the right selection The early selection, screening and of species suitable for cultivation and breeding of suitable plant cultivars agro-processing to deliver value- from the wild must be undertaken by added products, such as herbal teas agronomists and plant breeders. or essential oils. In the development This would be followed by intensive of a medicinal plant industry, it is vital laboratory screening of the various that information on the identification, cultivars to determine the best quality propagation, harvesting, storage and material yielding the highest quality processing of selected Caribbean natural product, with the desired plants must be established. Already agronomic traits, suitable for some traditional medicinal plants are commercial production by farmers. in cultivation for commercial use such This will ultimately guarantee the

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 105 economic returns for farmers’ quality medicinal products are in investments by producing the highest demand by consumers. Over the quality planting material acceptable years, GMPs have been undergoing for the market. significant changes, making them Agronomic studies testing an more compatible with international alley-cropping system in the United standards, regulations and guidelines. States Virgin Islands, using a tree These include International Standard crop in combination with medicinal Organisation (ISO) ISO 9001, and culinary herbs, showed promising ISO22000-2005, Hazard Analysis and results. It was undertaken to evaluate Critical Control Points (HACCP), Food the tree crop Moringa oleifera growing and Drug Administration (USA) – together with medicinal plants Current Good Manufacturing (‘inflammation bush’(Verbesina alata), Practices 21CFR Part 110, Codex ‘worrywine’(Stachytarpheta Alimentarius Recommended jamaicensis) and the aromatic and International Code of Practice – culinary herbs ‘basil’ (Ocimum General Principles of Food Hygiene. basilicum), ‘lemongrass’ A proper GAPs / GMPs (Cymbopogon citratus), ‘thyme’ programme will include inter alia the (Thymus vulgaris), ‘mint’ (Mentha accurate identification of the plant by piperita), ‘cilantro’ (Coriandrum its scientific name, the selection of sativum) and ‘chive’ (Allium appropriate plant materials, testing for schoenoprasum). The results chemical residues in soils, indicated that the initial yield of recommended fertility practices, intercropped medicinal plants with particularly if manure is used, weed culinary herbs was not significantly control, irrigation water quality, worker affected by the tree crop (Palada et hygiene and safety, facility sanitation, al., 2003). However, long-term pest control, trace back and trace studies are required to investigate the forward records and appropriate effects of different tree crops’ documentation of all activities at all interactions on the productivity of levels. other medicinal plant species. To illustrate the importance of GAPs/GMPs, in a South Carolina 9. Good Agricultural Practices study on the marketability of medicinal (GAPs) and Good plants grown by commercial growers, Manufacturing Practices the following factors, which prohibited (GMPs) saleability were; (a) excessive foreign The move towards a medicinal matter, primarily weeds (b) excessive plant industry will demand that Good ash content due to contamination from Agricultural Practices (GAPs) and sandy soils (c) presence of moulds Good Manufacturing Practices resulting from processing with (GMPs) be followed by farmers and excessive moisture content and (d) manufacturers in order to access infestation with insects during storage preferential markets where high (Rushing et al., 2003).

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 106 as the Ministry of Health, Chemistry, 10. Regulation Food and Drugs Division and the Some issues, which relate to the Customs and Excise Division, the use and sale of medicinal plant Ministry of Finance, private sector, products are safety, efficacy and health care providers, the public and quality. The market demand is for the Ministry of Agriculture as having good quality medicinal plant products, important roles in drug regulation for which must comply with national and public safety and improved health and international specifications and well being. (Seaforth and Tikasingh, regulations. The regulatory agencies 2006). are the ones expected to provide the guidelines to safeguard consumers. In 11. Intellectual Property (TRIPs) the USA, current laws and regulations Intellectual property laws allow the prohibit the development and creators to prevent others from using marketing of nutraceuticals without their creations for specific times to having Generally Regarded as Safe enable them to recoup their research (GRAS) status (Childs, 1997). In and development expenses, enjoy Trinidad and Tobago, the regulation of some returns and encourage further herbal products is under the innovation. The rules and norms of jurisdiction of the Chemistry/Food and those IP systems contained in the Drug Division of the Ministry of Health, treaties developed and administered Food and Drugs Act: Chapter 30:01 by the World Intellectual Property and its amendments (Teemul, 2003). Organization (WIPO) and the In Trinidad & Tobago, The National agreement on the Trade Related Drug Policy was approved in 1998. It Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights was the result of collaboration (TRIPs) of the World Trade between the Ministry of Health and Organization. the Pan American Health In Trinidad and Tobago, a new Organisation (PAHO) involving inputs variety of plant can be protected by from the private sector and university giving the breeder the legal right to academics. The document outlines exclude anyone for the purpose of broad policies for the several areas marketing, offering for resale or related to drugs, drug use, drug market. The Plant Breeders’ Right supply and its management in legislation in force in Trinidad and Trinidad and Tobago. In this policy, Tobago is the ‘Protection of New Section 16.0 deals with Varieties Act, 1997’ (2007). To qualify complementary medicine. Section for protection, a variety must be new, 16.0.2 indicates that the “Ministry shall distinct, uniform, stable and have an regulate herbal medicines in the same original variety denomination (IPO, way as are allopathic (conventional) 2007a). Patent legislation is in force in drugs used in ‘orthodox’ medicine”. Trinidad and Tobago: ‘The Patents The National Drug Policy document Act, 1996 (Act No. 21 of 1996)’. The identifies the major stakeholders such Patents Rules, 1996. Ideas and

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 107 discoveries (of things already existing and the creation of job in nature) could be patented (IPO, opportunities (e.g. medicinal 2007b). The rules and norms of industry) (European Union - Press intellectual property are embedded in Release, 2007). A parallel the treaties developed and situation now exists in Trinidad, administered by the World Intellectual where sugar production ceased in Property Organization (WIPO) and the 2007 and therefore one possible agreement on the Trade Related strategy would be for local sugar Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights workers to cultivate medicinal (TRIPS) of the World Trade plants. Organization. 3. The need to shift from a monoculture crop like sugar-cane 12. Conclusions and and diversify into multi-cropping Recommendations medicinal plant production will The following recommendations are take some time. This would not exhaustive, but offer suggestions require the support of new goods on paths to developing a viable and and services including but not sustainable medicinal plant industry limited to: accurate plant with the potential for improving the identification, analytical quality of life for the nation. The laboratories, clinical testing following recommendations take into facilities, biotechnology account the need to reduce the high laboratories and import of herbal /medicinal products diagnostic laboratories to support through import substitution using this industry and its farmers. mainly indigenous medicinal plants: 4. Systems should be in place to support farmers to produce 1. The Caribbean Pharmacopoeia organically-grown medicinal (2007) is an existing guide to the plants. Therefore, access to selection of well-researched and environmentally friendly chemicals validated Caribbean medicinal to replace the traditional inorganic plants as suitable substitutes for synthetics must be made readily householders and farmers to available and affordable. cultivate. 5. The development of a local 2. In mid 2005, St. Kitts and Nevis Caribbean-GAP system ceased commercial sugar specifically targeted to local production after 350 years. In medicinal plants, which will meet response to this, the European international standards. This Union has signed a grant system will facilitate monitoring at agreement of EC$9 million to the distributor level where support economic transformation. significant intermingling of The strategies include fiscal produce occurs and procedures sustainability, retraining of former designed to trace-back individual sugar workers and communities farms and scrutinize record-

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 108 keeping for quality control. In Baksh-Comeau, Y. 2003. addition, compliance with the 2006 Documenting Medicinal Plants for Trinidad and Tobago Occupational Advancing Herbal Medicine in the Safety and Health Act (TT OSH) is Caribbean. In: Advancing critical for such an industry. Caribbean Herbs in the 21st 6. The need for educational Century, Y.N. Clement and C.E. programmes and projects Seaforth (editors). Proceedings of designed to target schools and the Sixth International Workshop community groups to create on Herbal Medicine in the medicinal plant gardens and Caribbean, June 27-29th, 2003, training manuals. This will build pp. 9-13. Learning Resource awareness of the importance of Centre, The University of the West conservation of wild genetic Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and resources. Tobago, West Indies. 7. The development of stronger Baksh-Comeau, Y.S. 2006. Abstract - policies with stricter law Documenting Medicinal Plants for enforcement to eradicate the Advancing Herbal Medicine in the scourge of praedial larceny and Caribbean. Advancing Caribbean formulate a national campaign to Herbs in the 21st Century-11. sensitize the population to help Proceedings of the 7th protect farmers from this social International Workshop on Herbal menace. Medicine in the Caribbean. Hosted 8. The development of a regulatory by the Caribbean Association of framework for the registration, Researchers and Herbal establishment of conditions of sale Practitioners (CARAPA) and and monitoring of plant medicines Display of the Caribbean Herbal in the context of public safety and Business Association (CHBA), legislative imperatives. A safe and June 23-26th, 2005 at Bay cohesive system is needed for the Gardens Hotel, Rodney Bay, St. registration, classification and Lucia, West Indies. pp. 94. Y.N. monitoring of medicinal plant Clement and C.E. Seaforth (Eds.) preparations. Caribbean Herbal Business 9. The fostering of alliances with Association. MPC Printers, UWI, NGO’s like the Caribbean St. Augustine, Trinidad and Association of Researchers and Tobago. Herbal Practitioners (CARAPA) Barnes, P., Powel-Griner, E., McFann, and the Caribbean Agri-Business K., and Nahin, R.L. 2002. Association (CABA) for purposes Complementary and Alternative of networking and information Medicine Use Among Adults. sharing. United States, 2002. CDC Advance Data report 343, May 27, 13. References 2004. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Goergia.

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 109 Brereton, B. 1989. Oil and twentieth- Port of Spain, Trinidad and century economy, 1900-62. In: A Tobago History of Modern Trinidad 1783- CSO. 2007a. Gross Domestic 1962. Chapter 11, pp. 199-22. Product of Trinidad and Tobago, Heinemann Educational Books 2002-2006 (percent contribution). Inc. New Hampshire, USA. 262 Table 5. National Income Division. pp. http://cso.gov.tt/files/cms/gross. Bnouham, M., Ziyyat, A., Hassane Accessed 06/06/07. Mekhfi, H., Tahri, A. and CSO. 2007b. Imports and exports - Legssyer, A. 2006. Medicinal 2005 Analysis by groups of the Plants with Potential Antidiabetic S.I.T.C. (rev.3). Central Statistical Activity – A Review of Ten Years Office, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and of Herbal Medicine Research Tobago. (1990-2000). International Journal DeFelice, S. 1991. The Nutraceutical of Diabetes and Metabolism. 14: Initiative: A Proposal for Economic 1-25. and Regulatory Reform. The CSO. 2007. Gross Domestic Product Foundation for Innovation in of Trinidad and Tobago, 2002- Medicine, Cranford, New Jersey. 2006 (percent contribution). Table European Union (2007). Press 5. National Income Division. Release of the Delegation of the http://cso.gov.tt/files/cms/gross. European Commission in Accessed 06/06/07 Barbados and the Eastern Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago. Caribbean. Bridgetown, 22 2005. Review of economic and February 2007. (07)12834 financial developments, August- /65.1.3/WL. November, 2005. Overview. Germosén-Robineau L. (Ed.) 2007. Economic Bulletin, November Caribbean Herbal 2005 Vol VII, No. 3. Central Bank Pharmocopoeia. CD of Trinidad and Tobago, Port-of- IPO. 2007a. About Us- New Plant Spain. Varieties. Intellectual Property Childs, N.M. 1997. Foods that help Office, Ministry of Legal Affairs, prevent disease: consumer Port-of-Spain, attitudes and public policy http://www.ipo.gov.tt/applicationlo implications. The Journal of ader.asp. Accessed June Consumer Marketing. 14 (6): 433- 07/06/07. 444. IPO. 2007b. About Us- Patents www.http://proquest.umi.com/pqd (Inventions). Intellectual Property web. Office, Ministry of Legal Affairs, CSO. 2005. 2004 Agricultural Port-of-Spain, Census: Preliminary Report. The http://www.ipo.gov.tt/applicationlo Ministry of Planning and ader.asp. Accessed June Development Central Statistical 07/06/07. Office, National Statistics Building, Khan, K., Bernard, T., Bhola, S.,

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 110 Fortuné, M., Medupe, O., Nagee, 2003. Use of Herbal Medicines by K. and Seaforth, C.E. 2005. Surgical Outpatients in Trinidad. Attitudes and Knowledge of Public In: Advancing Caribbean Herbs in Health Sector Physicians the 21st Century. (edited by Y.N. Concerning Herbal Medicines in Clement and C.E. Seaforth)., pp Trinidad. In Advancing Caribbean 138-145. In: Proceedings of the Herbs in the 21st Century, eds. Sixth International Workshop on Y.N. Clement and C.E. Seaforth. Herbal Medicine in the Caribbean Pp. 83-93.Proceedings of the hosted by the Caribbean Seventh International Workshop Association of Researchers and on Herbal Medicine in the Herbal Practitioners, June 27th- Caribbean hosted by the 29th, 2003. Learning Resource Caribbean Association of Centre, The University of the West Researchers and Herbal Indies, University of the West Practitioners (CARAPA) and Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Display of the Caribbean Herbal Tobago. Business Association (CHBA), Morgan, M. and Watkins, CJ. 1988. June 23-26th, 2005, St. Lucia, Managing Hypertension: Beliefs West Indies. and Responses to Medication Mack, A. 1997. Biotechnology Turns Among Cultural Groups. Sociology to Ancient Remedies in Quest for Health Illness. 10: 561-578. Sources of New Therapies. The Palada, M., Becker, B.N., Mitchell, Scientist 11: 1-9. J.M., and Nair, P.K.R. 2003. Mahabir, K. 1991. Medicinal and Cultivation of Medicinal Plants in Edible Plants used by East Alley Cropping System with Indians of Trinidad and Tobago. Moringa oleifera in the Virgin Chackra Publication House: El Islands. In: Advancing Caribbean Dorado, Trinidad West Indies. Herbs in the 21st Century. Mahabir, D. and Gulliford, M.C. 1997. Proceedings of the sixth Use of Medicinal Plants for International Workshop on Herbal Diabetes in Trinidad and Tobago. medicine in the Caribbean. Pan American Journal of Public Proceedings of the Sixth Health.1 (13): 174-178. International Workshop on Herbal Marles, R.J. and Farnsworth, N.R. Medicine in the Caribbean hosted 1994. Plants as Sources of by the Caribbean Association of Antidiabetic Agents. Economic Researchers and Herbal and Medicinal Plant Research. 6: Practitioners, June 27-29, 2003. 149-187. Edited by Yuri N. Clement and Merritt-Charles, L., Chen, D., Compton E. Seaforth pp. 60-83. Akingbala, A., Bain, D., Conyette, MPC Printers, UWI, St. Augustine, L., Johnson, H., Neely, J., Trinidad and Tobago. Seetahal, S., Smith, T., Perera, Palevitch, D. 1998. Agronomic and G., Koppada, A. and Hunte, S. Medicinal Plants. In: Medicinal

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 111 Plants. Their Role in Health and Display of the Caribbean Herbal Biodiversity, T.R. Tomlinson and Business Association (CHBA), O. Akerele (Editors), pp. 103-119. June 23-26th, 2005, pp. 1-10. St. University of Pennsylvania Press, Lucia, West Indies. Edited Y.N. Philadelphia, USA. Clement and C.E. Seaforth. MPC Pemberton, C.A. 1990. Agricultural Printers, UWI, St. Augustine, Diversification: Policies and Trinidad and Tobago. Strategies. Proceedings of the Seaforth, C.E., Adams, C.D., and 19th West Indian Agricultural Sylvester, Y. 1983. A Guide to the Economic Conference, University Medicinal Plants of Trinidad and of the West Indies: St. Augustine. Tobago. Commonwealth Ramcharan, C. 1999. Culantro: A Secretariat: Pall Mall, London Much Utilized, Little Understood Seaforth, C.E., Ballah, S., Rollocks, Herb. In: Perspectives on New S., Craig-James, S. 1998. Crops and New Uses, J. Janick Medicinal plants used in Tobago. (ed.). pp, 506-509. ASHS Press, Fitoteraia. Volume LXIX, No. 6: Alexandria, VA. 523-527. Rushing, J.W., Gangeni, J.D., Seaforth, C.E. and Tikasingh, T. 2006. Boyleston, L., Hassell, R.I., Case Study-Regulation of Herbal Dufault, R.J., and Shepard, B.M. Products in Trinidad and Tobago. (2003). Impact of Good Caribbean Association of Agricultural Practices and Good Researchers and Herbal Manufacturing Practices on the Practitioners (CARAPA) and Marketability of Medicinal Herbs: Display of the Caribbean Herbal A pilot project with commercial Business Association (CHBA), growers. In: Advancing Caribbean June 23-26th, 2005, pp. 39-49 St. Herbs in the 21st Century: Lucia, West Indies. Edited Y.N. Proceedings of the Sixth Clement and C.E. Seaforth. MPC International Workshop on Herbal Printers, UWI, St. Augustine, Medicine in the Caribbean, June Trinidad and Tobago 27-29th, 2003, Learning Resource Teemul, S. 2003. The Regulatory Centre, The University of the West Situation in Trinidad and Tobago Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and for Trade in Herbal Medicinal Tobago, edited by Y.N. Clement Products. Proceedings of the 6th and C.E. Seaforth, pp. 77-83. International Workshop on Herbal Seaforth, C.E. 2006. Important Medicine in the Caribbean, June Herbals for the Caribbean 27th-29th, 2003 P. 84. Edited by Community. In: Proceedings of the Y.N. Clement and C. E. Seaforth. Seventh International workshop Learning Resource Centre, The on Herbal Medicine in the University of the West Indies, St. Caribbean. Caribbean Association Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago. of Researchers and Herbal Ramcharan, G., Telang, B.V., Knott, Practitioners (CARAPA) and P., Pillai, G.k., Maxwell, A. and

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 112 Mootoo, B.S. 2003. Screening of St. Augustine, Trinidad and Local Plants Against a Human Tobago, edited by Y.N. Clement Leukaemia Cell Line. Advancing and C.E. Seaforth. MPC Printers, Caribbean Herbs in the 21st UWI, St. Augustine, Trinidad and century. In: Proceedings of the Tobago. Sixth International workshop on Vincent, C. and Furnham, A. 1997. Herbal Medicine in the Caribbean Complementary Medicine - A hosted by the Caribbean Research Perspective. John Wiley Association of Researchers and and Sons: London. Herbal Practitioners, June 27-29th, Wong, W. 1976. Some Folk Medicinal 2003. Learning Resource Centre, Plants from Trinidad. Economic The University of the West Indies, Botany. 30: 103-142.

Table 1: Contribution of Gross Domestic Product of Trinidad and Tobago, 2002-2006 (at constant (2000) prices (Percentage Contribution)

Industry 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Petroleum industry 33.3 38.3 38.1 38.2 41.2 Non-petroleum industry 66.2 61.8 61.3 61.7 58.7 - Export Agriculture 1.4 1.1 0.7 0.7 0.7 - Domestic Agriculture 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.5 - Cane farming and 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 cultivation Manufacturing 1 7.2 7.0 7.0 7.2 7.2 Services 2 57.7 53.7 53.6 53.7 50.8 1 Excludes oil refining and petrochemical industries (See ‘Petroleum Sector’) 2 Excludes distribution of petroleum products (See ‘Petroleum Sector’) Source: CSO (2007).

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 113

Table 2: Use of 12 most frequently mentioned plants for diabetes or for other indications

Botanical Name Common % of persons % of persons Name using bush using bush medicine for medicine, but diabetes not for diabetes Momordica charantia Carailli 28 11 Stachytarpheta Vervine 8 28 jamaicensis Aloe vera Aloes 15 5 Neurolaena lobata Zebapique 13 6 Leonotis nepetifolia Chandilay 5 13 Annona muricata Soursop leaf 3 14 Bontia daphnoides Olive-bush, 10 3 Cymbopogon citrates Fever grass 2 13 Senna alata Senna 5 7 Citrus sinensis Orange peel 1 10 Phyllanthus amarus Seed-under- 7 1 leaf Cordia curassavica Black sage 3 5 Source: Mahabir and Gulliford (1997)

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Towards a Sustainable Medicinal Plant Industry in Trinidad and Tobago 83

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