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Home , Fire ecology, Fire regime

Module 2: Module 2:

Proposed Agenda

Time Section name 8:00 8:30 Welcome 8:30 9:00 Introduction and Objectives 9:00 9:30 Activity I and discussion 9:30 10:00 Break 10:00 10:30 Fire Regimes and Fire Behavior Across Gradients 10:30 11:00 Example of Wildland Fire Dynamics Across an Oregon Gradient (1) 11:00 11:30 Activity II (Fire ) 11:30 12:00 Example of Wildland Fire Dynamics Across an Oregon Gradient (2) 12:00 12:30 Lunch 12:30 1:00 Activity III (Cooperation, Collaboration, and the WUI) 1:00 1:30 Abiotic Effects 1:30 2:00 Biotic Effects (1) 2:00 2:30 Biotic Effects (2) 2:30 3:00 Activity IV (Fire Ecology Crossword) 3:00 3:30 Break 3:30 4:00 Activity V (Fire Ecology Information System) 4:00 4:30 Wrap-up 4:30 5:00 Discuss plans for the Fire Field Trip

Overview gradient and how these adaptations relate Fire is a agent across landscapes. to wildlife and disturbance Fire has occurred often enough through time ■■ Describe the relationship of fire behavior over our , rangeland, meadows, and across environmental gradients. Describe wetlands that plants and animals have adapted to the role of plant succession within a historic it and in some cases depend on it. In this module, context. Given the historic context, under- students will create a fire-adapted animal, plant, stand how that has defined fire regimes or house and work with a group to determine over time. the and fire ecology of their creation. ■■ Understand the role humans have to influ- Students will also examine case studies and work ence and affect disturbance and succession with a partner or small group to create a poster more than natural causes—and the results illustrating living and nonliving relationships to on individuals, populations, communities, fire. Students will define common vocabulary and landscapes. used when discussing fire ecology. Learning Outcomes Learning Objectives Apply concepts learned in this module to ■■ Understand how individual plants and design a landscape for your area with natural communities of plants have adapted to adapted to your local climatic occupy niches along an environmental and topographic conditions—paying close

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“Light yourself on fire with passion and people will come from miles to watch you burn.” John Wesley English theologian attention to microsites. Monitor the growth and Introduction development—and resistance to and Fire ecology is a branch of ecology that disease effects of these plants and compare to concentrates on the origins of wildland fire non-natives. and its relationship to the nonliving (abiotic) Content Outline and living (biotic) environment (together making up the ). We also propose ■■ Introduction that the definition of fire ecology applies to the ■■ Dynamics of fire relationship of a structure fire to its environment. ❏❏ Plant succession Fire does not have a personality, is neither ❏❏ Fire regime evil nor good. Fire can save life and take it. Fire ❏❏ Fire behavior across an environmental can be beneficial and detrimental. Our history gradient has ingrained into us a fear of fire more than a ■■ Example of Wildland Fire Dynamics across respect for it. How many of us have a history of an Environmental Gradient family members or neighbors negatively affected ■■ Fire Effects to Abiotic by a or house fire? ■■ Fire Effects to Biotic ❏❏ Vegetation gradient In the 1930s, early fire researchers in the ❏❏ Vegetation succession southeastern United States challenged the ❏❏ Wildlife public’s predominant negative feeling towards ❏❏ Humans fire. They argued that controlled, prescribed fire was essential to the wildlife and the

Source: http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/ vchembook/540carbohydrates.html Figure 1. Plants take carbon dioxide molecules from the air, water molecules, and the energy from the sun to produce Source: http://chemistry.elmhurst.edu/ vchembook/540carbohydrates.html a simple sugar such as glucose, with oxygen molecules as a Figure 2. occurs when any organic material byproduct. The simple sugars convert into other molecules (such as cellulose) is reacted (burned) in the presence of such as cellulose. oxygen to give off the products of carbon dioxide and water and energy.

3 Module 2: Fire Ecology forests of that region. This was one of the first times fire was perceived by credible science as having a benefit to and not entirely negative or harmful. Fire ecology was born with this understanding. The scientists would have used the words “ecosystem” and “ecology” then, but for the fact that these terms first appeared in 1935 (credited to George Tansley—1871–1955). Plants take in energy from the sun during photosynthesis (Figure 1). Combustion burns the organic matter stored in plants and releases energy (Figure 2). ✔✔Activity I1 – Personal and professional insights

Fire is a chemical reaction. It is a natural Source: https://learn.weatherstem.com/modules/learn/ disturbance process and a component of an lessons/121/12.html Figure 4. Weather is the most unpredictable of the three ecosystem. How fire fits into and reacts with an sides—and the most variable. Topography ties directly to the ecosystem requires an understanding of systems. environmental gradient. Look beyond an ecosystem’s present state for that understanding. Build on that understanding with Fire has a place throughout. Fire, similar to an investigation of: , earthquakes, , and other disturbances, is a dynamic force of nature that induces change in ■■ An ecosystem’s origin an ecosystem. When the Fire Triangle is complete, ■■ Possible future stages of an ecosystem fire will occur Figure 3). When the Fire Behavior ■■ The cycles through which an ecosystem Triangle is complete—how a fire progresses and progresses to the intensity and severity it burns across the landscape or in a structure becomes predictable— the relationship of fire to the nonliving and living components of an ecosystem begins to make sense. Disturbance interacts with environmental variables such as slope, elevation, aspect, wind patterns, precipitation, and terrain, to shape succession modifications of vegetation structure and composition (Figure 4). All living things have some traits that are adaptations to disturbances and constraints of their environments. Disturbances include physical and biological disturbances, of which fire is one. Hurricanes, Image: University of Southern Mississippi floods, and insect and disease epidemics are Figure 3. The fire triangle demonstrates how energy, other forms of cyclic disturbances to which oxygen, and combine to creat fire. vegetation has adapted. Human disturbances such as road building, heavy , , 1Refer to the Activities section for details on all activities in this curriculum. housing developments, cities, and introduction

4 Module 2: Fire Ecology of occurring over a long-enough Dynamics of Fire period of time will influence how species adapt. Fire dependence applies to species of plants Human disturbances can severely alter a natural and animals that rely on the effects of fire to community. make the environment more hospitable for their There is a fire ecology to structure . regeneration, growth, and regrowth. Examples Since the beginning, fires have historically been of fire-dependent species are whitebark pine beneficial in our dwellings, especially in cold () in the alpine forests of the . Cooking, warming, and aesthetics Pacific Northwest and Rocky Mountains, are all good and common uses of fires indoors. and longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) found in Conversely, our ancestors found out right the southeast (eastern Texas, Virginia, and away how that welcoming warmth can quickly Florida). Being fire-adapted means plants become detrimental and destructive, consuming and animals have behaviors, physical features, everything flammable. The fire ecology of and/or characteristics enabling them to live, structure fires has a direct relationship, positive survive, and sometimes thrive with repeated or negative, to the abiotic and biotic components fire. Examples of fire-adapted species include either directly within or outside any dwelling or ponderosa pine (), western larch place of work. (Larix occidentalis), and snowbrush ceanothus ✔✔Activity II – Fire Adaptations (Ceanothus velutinus). The genetic make-up of living organisms ❍❍Discuss plant, animal, and ecosystem constantly strives to mutate and adapt in adaptations to fire, fire history, and fire regimes—and why all are different across an environmental gradient.

Source: Flora of the Earth (in Russian) Figure 6. North aspects on steep slopes are cooler than at the same elevation on south aspects. More solar heat reaches the surface of a steep south slope than on the same Source: Types for Kids eleva-tion north slope—for a longer period during the day. Figure 5. Temperature drops 3 degrees for every 1,000-foot Humidity increases going up in elevation and temperature increase in elevation. Vegetation has adapted to these decreases at the same time during the day. Plants have changes. adapted to these changes and fire behaves differently.

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response to changes in an ecosystem that Examples of fire adaptability of structures: occur over a long-enough period. The genetic Metal roofs; fire-resistant siding on the outside and adaptations are manifest in physiologic fire resistant building materials on the inside; fire characteristics. Opportunism, , alarms; sprinkler systems; fire extinguishers; clean and the basis of survival interact with these gutters; defensible space surrounding the structure adaptations. When change occurs too fast or and outbuildings; and fire-resistant vegetation too intensively, organisms cannot adapt quickly close to the outside of a house. enough and will leave the system, replaced by those organisms that can. Examples of fire adaptability of plants: Thick bark on that will slough off when burning; the The following are core beliefs of the science ability to send roots underground, insulating the of fire ecology from theAssociation for Fire plant from surface fires; thick, that will Ecology: sprout following a fire; and serotinous cones that ■■ Fire is a critical ecological process in many break open with heat. ecosystems throughout the world. Examples of fire dependence: Fire prepares the ■■ Land-management goals often reflect plant for seeding establishment and growth by mak- communities with a past history of repeated ing nutrients more available for plant use. Fire also fire events. However, fire regimes have been reduces competition from other species that may significantly altered on many landscapes, absorb needed nutrients or shade out necessary which may threaten native plant and sunlight for sun-tolerant species. animal assemblages, resulting in uncharac- teristic ecological consequences. ■■ Plant communities, species composition, throughout history (and today) are composed of and have been significantly altered on the third side of the fire triangle: fuel. many landscapes, causing change in the fire Throughout history, our dwellings have regime. adapted over time with better building materials ■■ Cultural burning has historically been for strength and weather resistance—and for fire part of the fire regime in many areas of the world. ■■ Restoring and maintaining native plant and animal assemblages and appropriate fire regimes is desired, although it is recognized that this may not always be possible. ■■ Science and education are critical in help- ing us understand ecological patterns and processes, how land management has affected fire regimes, and how vegetation and fire regimes can be restored. ■■ Science should inform both policy and land-management decisions that affect fire regimes. Source: U.S. Forest Service, Intermountain Forest & Range We also try to adapt our structures to fire. Our Experiment Station ancestors depended on fire within their dwellings Figure 7. An elevation gradient in northwest Montana for survival. The majority of our dwellings illustrates forest communities from low elevation to high.

6 Module 2: Fire Ecology prevention and fire resistance. As wildland plants furnishings and the effect on fire behavior. adapted to survive with fire, we also adapted to This is an example of structure fire ecology and the constant presence of fire in our lives and in fire effects on biotic vs. abiotic in a structure our dwellings. Yet, even after all the adaptations environment. made to reduce detrimental, harmful fires in our structures, the National Fire Protection Plant Succession Association states, “Cooking equipment is the A fire starts when fuel, heat, and oxygen leading cause of home structure fires and home interact together. Remove any one of these fire injuries. Smoking is the leading cause of and the fire goes out. How a wildland fire civilian home fire deaths. Heating equipment behaves—how intense and severe it becomes—is is the second most common cause of home fire determined by weather, fuel, and topography. fatalities.” The interaction between intensity, severity, and There is a fire ecology within and adjacent frequency of fire as a disturbance process and to our structures. Fire behavior is predictable vegetation as fuel across a landscape creates within a structure and has an effect to the abiotic different patterns in the successional process, (building materials, stored materials, synthetic structure, and composition of vegetation, to furniture, etc.) and to the biotic (organic which some animal species have adapted. materials, living things in dwellings—including Vegetation structure and composition also effects us) to the degree of amount and composition of how fire behaves. Successional patterns within all the flammable—or -resistant materials. and between associations of plants across a An example of this is a research study that times landscape also continue in the absence of major the fire behavior in terms of spread and intensity disturbances. Landscape patterns created by between “legacy” furniture and furnishings disturbance or by the absence of disturbance compared to “modern” materials. Watch the form habitat for opportunistic species. video and see the differences: The fire regime of an area is defined as the https://www.youtube.com/ historical context for the pattern, frequency, and watch?v=IEOmSN2LRq0&t=53s severity of wildland fire interacting with that area’s topography, weather, and vegetation. The video documents a study conducted by the Underwriter’s Laboratory (UL) (Kerber Fire intensity (the amount of energy or 2012). This research documents the much shorter heat given off by a forest fire at a specific point times a structure fire takes to achieve the highly in time); severity; the effects of a fire on the combustible state of flashover compared to environment, including vegetation and soils; some decades ago—less than 5 minutes now vs. and frequency will shape the structure and over 30 minutes in the past. This is important composition of vegetation across the landscape because cannot enter a structure when over time. flashover occurs due to extreme danger of heat ✔✔Activity III – Local Fire Ecology and . In the past, firefighters had more time to conduct rescues and put out the fire directly. ❍❍Remind students that their neighborhood or local area is subject to adaptations to slope, The UL study cited many reasons for the elevation, and aspect, whether urban or rural, difference, including houses built with larger, where homes exist and where extending into more open spaces and shorter ceilings. The forested or ecosystems. video illustrates the modern synthetic, more flammable furnishings vs. the older, more organic

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Source: Journal of Alpine Research Figure 8. Differences in low-intensity, low-severity fire regime interpretations.

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Source: Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior, © National Coordinating Group Figure 9. Diagrams demonstrating the effect of slope on fire behavior.

Fire Regime Fire Behavior Across an Environmental Gradient Fire regime refers to the nature of fire occurring over long periods (generally hundreds Many components contribute to a wildland of years) and to the prominent immediate effects fire behavior. One of these components is of fire that generally characterize an ecosystem. topography (Figure 9). Fire will generally burn uphill faster than downhill. The steeper the Fire regimes are patterns of wildland fires slope and the higher the fuel load, the faster the that include factors such as frequency, extent, fire will burn, especially with wind driving the intensity, severity, type, and reason for burning burning. The next topographic component is the (Figure 8). The role fire plays in an ecosystem breaks in steep terrain. varies with the characteristics under which the ecosystem evolved and or adapted. On saddles (low areas between two higher ridges) and in box canyons, fire moves upslope The interactions of humidity conditions, very rapidly due to a chimney-like preheating wind, temperature, , and ignition sources of the higher-level fuels and upslope winds. If a will determine the fire regime (based on fire canyon is very narrow, radiant heat can raise the behavior) for a particular land area. A fire regime temperature of fuels on the opposite slope closer is a function of the frequency of fire occurrence, to their ignition temperature. Then fire spotting the fire intensity, the fire severity, and the amount can more easily propagate multiple ignitions of fuel consumed. on the other side. Night downdrafts can lower Both frequency and intensity of fire vary and temperatures and increase humidity, slowly are interdependent. Frequency of fire depends moving a fire downhill. on the ignition sources and the duration and Fuel load and depth can help determine character of weather. whether a fire ignites, its rate of spread, and its Intensity of fire depends on the quantity of intensity. Fuel load and depth directly relate to fuel available and the fuels’ combustion rates. vegetation structure and composition. Structure Wind, topography, and other weather influences, and composition are the result of vegetation such as temperature and humidity, also affect the adapted to slope, elevation, precipitation, and interaction between frequency and intensity of soil types—and to disturbance succession. fires. As vegetation changes in response to the

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Illustration: Laurina Manning Figure 10. An artist’s conception of an environmental gradient bisecting the state of Oregon from the coastline to the Idaho border. environmental gradient, fire behavior will also Steens Mountain to the Idaho border (Figure change. Land management—or the absence of 10). The topographic gradient from west to east it—can create higher or lower fuel loadings than affects weather patterns originating from the would have happened historically. Pacific Ocean. Vegetation has adapted to this topographic gradient. Vegetation composition Environmental gradients affect structure fires. and diversity developed in response to changes Homes built in box canyons, on steep slopes in elevation, precipitation, and solar radiation (especially south-facing slopes), within strong with general weather patterns. Fire, once started wind influences, and at the mouth of downwind within this context of weather and topographic ravines are much more susceptible to wildland influence, will behave with available fuels and fires or to fires that start in the structure. burn with intensity and severity until weather or Example of Wildland Fire Dynamics fuels change. These abiotic and biotic elements Across an Environmental Gradient interact with fire disturbance to shape landscape and local patterns of wildlife habitat. The best example of wildland fire dynamics Here are some capsulated examples of follows a cross-section of Oregon from the vegetation (as fuel) to environmental Pacific Coast eastward up the slopes of the Coast attributes such as: precipitation, slope, aspect, Range. Continue over the top and down to the elevation, and solar radiation (and as adapted Willamette Valley. Pass across the valley and to fire response and behavior)—going from the upward against the west slopes of the Cascade Oregon coastline east to the Idaho border: Mountain Range and over the top to the eastern slopes. Pass eastward into the Basin and Range 1. Florence—This area (elevation 14 feet) is flats and ultimately against uplifts typified by the strongly influenced by the maritime climate

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The Oregon Coast The Coast Range near Florence

of the Pacific Ocean. Florence, located Tillamook Burn (350,000 acres 1933-1951); on the convergence of the Siuslaw River Yaquina Fire (480,000 acres 1853); Siletz Fire tidelands and the Oregon Dunes, has an (800,000 acres 1849); and the Nestucca Fire average of 71 inches of rain per year and (290,000 acres in 1848). Fire regime: Mixed snowfall of 1 inch. On average, there are severity, with fires every 250–500 years, 160 sunny days per year. The July high is intermediate sites 150–200 years (Frost and around 69 degrees. The January low is 39. Sweeney 2000). Coniferous forests in this region occur on 2. Cougar Pass—Here, at the 769-foot summit soils ranging from stabilized sand to soils on of the Coast Range between Florence and old marine terraces. These forests are pri- Eugene, an orographic effect takes place marily composed of shore pine, Sitka spruce as maritime winds carry precipitation (Picea sitchensis) and, in more protected eastward, lifting up over Cougar Pass and areas, Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga( menziesii bringing up to 120 inches of precipitation var. menziesii) and western hemlock (Tsuga a year. This creates a rain shadow going heterophylla). These coastal forests have a into the Willamette Valley towards Eugene. dense composed of many , Plants include large stands of Douglas-fir such as red alder (Alnus rubra), rhodo- (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii), dendron (Rhododendron macrophyllum), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), black twin- and western redcedar (Thuja plicata), with berry, and wax myrtle (http://oregonexplorer. portions of these forests including old- info/content/coastal-vegetation-and-plant-ecol- growth stands. Other flora include Sitka ogy). Some of the more dense forests in spruce (Picea sitchensis), salmonberry Oregon lay just east of Florence. With min- (Rubus spectabilis), salal (Gaultheria salon), imal frost and abundant rainfall, trees grow tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), and west- large and undergrowth is very dense. Most ern azalea (Rhododendron occidentale). vegetation has a thick layer of moss. Fires Portions of the range are in the Elliott State do not occur often, but when temperature, Forest. The 1868 Coos Bay Fire burned humidity, and wind combine and red flag over 300,000 acres throughout this section conditions result, fires can burn with high of the Coast Range. Fire is infrequent but intensity and severity. Historic fires include

Red flag conditions are in effect when air temperature is greater than 80oF, humidity in the atmosphere is less than 20 percent, and surface wind speed is greater than 10 mph.

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The Blue River in Willamette the Cascades Valley near Eugene

potentially severe and widespread when Historical-Vegetation-in-West-Eugenected). conditions allow it. Fire regime: mixed The largest fire in Oregon’s history burned severity, with fire return intervals of 95–145 almost 1 million acres in the Willamette years (Frost and Sweeney 2000). Valley about 60 to 70 miles north of Eugene 3. Eugene—Here at 430 feet elevation in the in 1865 (the Silverton Fire). Fire regime: Willamette River Valley, average annual Frequent, low-intensity, with fires every 3 temperature is 52.1°F and annual precipi- to 55 years (Frost and Sweeney 2000). tation is 50.9 inches. Average snowfall is 5 4. Blue River—This area, east of Eugene at inches. There are 155 sunny days per year. 2,500-foot elevation in the Cascade Range, , , and woodland or forest averages 47 inches of rain per year. Snowfall vegetation with an oak component occupy is 52 inches. There are 157 sunny days per nearly 64 percent of the area. Prairie and year. The orographic effect of rain-laden savanna dominate the southern and central storms crossing the Willamette Valley and valley, with woodland and forest occurring proceeding up the western slope of the as small to large patches usually peripheral Cascades exceeds that of the Coast Range to prairie and savanna. Native Americans due to greater elevation change. Douglas-fir routinely burned back the vegetation, (Pseudotsuga menziesii) is the predominant changing the habitat from forested, scrub- species and forest type on the densely for- wetland to wet prairie . ested slopes. Other species such as western While the native wetland habitat may have hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), western been changed by burning practices, the redcedar (Thuja plicata), white fir Abies( amount of wetland acreage remained the concolor), and grand fir Abies( grandis) are same, not affecting hydrologic conditions. common at lower elevations, with Pacific Despite periodic burning, the Willamette silver fir Abies( amabilis), mountain hem- Valley retained a mosaic of wetland— lock (Tsuga mertensiana), lodgepole pine marshes, wet forests, and wetland (), and subalpine fir Abies( intermingled with upland prairies, wetland lasiocarpa) found at higher elevations. shrub/swale, and forested streams and Wildfire is the main natural disturbance swales. The Willamette Valley resembled in the western Cascades. Studies in the a Midwest prairie predominantly covered Blue River watershed have determined that with tall tufted hair grass Deschampsia( the fire regime was of mixed severity and cespitosa) (https://www.eugene-or.gov/1763/ varied greatly with elevation and aspect in

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Bend, on the Burns, in east side of the the Oregon Cascades Outback

the watershed (Teensma 1987, Morrison the landscape typified by Bend was fre- and Swanson 1990, Weisberg 1998). quent, low-intensity burns caused mainly Wildfire in the lower elevations was histor- by lightning activity. Brush species, more ically of moderate frequency and intensity. affected by wildland fire exclusion than Fire history in the upper elevations was of other vegetation associations, have grown more infrequent and severe fire behavior. in, and densities are normally higher Patch sizes were larger in the upper ele- than in historic times. Past logging prac- vations. Topography played an important tices have also removed much of the older, role in affecting local fire severity and tree overstory trees. Current conditions without survival in the western Cascades, with a management have created high risk for tendency towards higher severity on dry severe and high-intensity fires. Fire regime: upper slopes and lower severity in moist Frequent, low intensity, with a fire return draws (Cisel, et.al. 1999). Fire Regime: interval of 2 to 47 years (Fitzgerald 2005). Mixed severity with a fire return interval of 6. Burns—Approximately 130 miles 130 to 150 years (Agee 1993). east-southeast from Bend, Burns is in the 5. Bend—This area, over the 5,128-foot Oregon Outback and the northern Basin Willamette Pass, down the eastern slope of and Range ecoregion at 4,147 feet in ele- the Cascades, and north about 50 miles is at vation. Annual average high temperature an elevation of 3,623 feet. Annual average is 59.1°F, average annual low temperature high temperature is 59.6°F; annual average at 29.8°F, and the average temperature low temperature is 33.4°F, average annual is 44.45°F. Average annual precipitation precipitation in rainfall is 11.38 inches in rainfall is 10.89 inches and average and average annual snowfall is 23 inches. annual snowfall is 35 inches. There are 211 Annually, there are about 162 sunny days sunny days per year in Burns. Vegetation in Bend. The difference on the east side of is diverse and related to topographic the Cascades and in the rain shadow of the changes—and the influence of the moun- mountain range is striking. Ponderosa pine tainous Malheur National Forest to the is the dominant tree species surrounding north and the Basin and Range ecoregion Bend, with common shrub species such to the south. Ponderosa pine forests pre- as bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), bear- dominate on the Malheur (southern extent berry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), greenleaf of the Blue Mountain Range). There is also (Arctostaphylos patula), wax an extensive northern Great Basin sage- currant (Ribes cereum), and prince’s pine brush/bunchgrass system to the south and (Chimaphila umbellata). Fire history within high-elevation, sub-alpine vegetation, and

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Images: U.S. Forest Service Figure 11. Most large fires burn in a mosaic pattern of varying intensities and severities. This creates a patchwork quilt of succession stages of vegetation, which becomes habitat for species.

burned over large areas and kept vegetation at a low density. This resulted in low fire severity. Active fire suppression over the last 100 years has allowed brush species aspen forest, found on Steens Mountain, and juniper to expand range dramati- Trout Creek, and the Pueblo Mountains. cally. Current fires are now burning much Interspersed throughout the Burns area are hotter and over larger areas. Fire regime: extensive juniper forests and woodlands. Frequent, low intensity with a fire return Lightning storms and Native American interval of 2 to 47 years (Fitzgerald 2005). burning shaped fire history. Over 1,000 7. Adrian—The last stop eastward before the lightning strikes occur each year. Prior to Idaho border, Adrian is 136 miles from active fire suppression, wind-driven fire Burns at 2,225 feet in elevation. Adrian

Source: U.S. Forest Service Figure 12. The patchwork of openings can be a natural landscape feature, or created by management.

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has approximately 10 inches of rain and 6 burned (with varying intensities and severities) inches of snow per year. The average annual and unburned sections of a landscape within the number of days with any measurable pre- burn perimeter. This creates a mixture of openings, cipitation is 60. On average, there are 209 partial openings, and full-canopy conditions with sunny days per year. The average July high minor disturbance (Figure 12). This can possibly is around 93oF. The end of our gradient create forage, hiding cover, and breeding areas for from the Pacific Coast to the Idaho border many species of wildlife. is on flat terrain and subject to seasonal Ash and from will drift with winds. It has the highest annual tempera- the wind and settle on water surfaces, ultimately ture and the lowest average humidity. ending up on the bottom with other sediments. Vegetation is primarily high desert sage or This can produce a record of wildfire intensity and grasslands. Fire history has been frequent severity over time when sampled. and intense, but of short duration, due to lightning and fast-spreading and wind- The degree of heat transfer from the burning driven fires. fire on the surface directly to the soil is the ✔✔Activity IV – Fire Ecology Crossword measure of fire severity. When that transfer is hot enough, the soil’s physical and chemical ❍❍Have students create a crossword puzzle properties can be altered. Chemicals and using at least 10 vocabulary words used in nutrients can volatilize. discussing and understanding fire ecology (e.g. fire regime, fire scar, or disturbance). Fire Effects to Biotic

Fire Effects to Abiotic Vegetation Gradients Wetlands are less likely to burn, and when Plants have adapted as individuals they do, they burn less severely than upland sites. and communities to occupy niches along Breeding and survival for certain wildlife species environmental gradients, such as from moist occurs with little interruption within wetlands valley bottoms to dry ridgetops. Weather (solar that provide a refuge from fire disturbance. Fire in radiation, precipitation, persistent winds) and wetlands usually increases areas of open water and topography (slope, elevation, aspect) affect plant stimulates an increase in forage. adaptations, too, resulting in vegetation structure, composition, and diversity differences along Streams, lakes, and meadows can act as this gradient. There are inherent differences influencing the spread of the fire. There is in fuel type: moisture content, size/shape, inherent moisture in these . Humidity can continuity, and arrangement are a result of these be higher than the surrounding upland vegetation. relationships. Plant associations (an aggregation Because wetlands are predominantly in lower- of plants growing together in a given habitat) elevation terrain than the surrounding upland, cool reacting to persistent or episodic disturbance also air drains downward, especially in the evening. Fires alters fuel characteristics. Vegetative species— can burn in these habitats, but usually not to the individually and in association—have developed intensity and severity as the upland. physiological characteristics in response to Mosaic landscape patterns usually result during disturbance when it’s persistent over a long- a wildland fire (Figure 11). Few fires burn over enough period. many acres in one pattern, one intensity, or uniform An example most are familiar with is the severity. Mosaic patterns are mixtures of totally

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Source: U.S Department of Agricultiure Figure 13. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map helps gardeners and growers determine what will thrive at a certain location.

USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map. The map is adaptations to occur. These factors are the main the standard by which gardeners and growers can explanation for why vegetation is where it is on determine which plants are most likely to thrive the landscape. at a location. That is nothing more than a climatic Plant species are not mobile and cannot and environmental gradient to which plants have migrate to adapt to changes in the environment. adapted. We can grow banana plants anywhere— Species have had a greater need to adapt over as long as we provide the proper growing time to acquire physiological characteristics conditions to which it has adapted for survival. in response to repeated fire intensities and An adaptive trait is a behavior, physical frequencies. Tree species such as ponderosa feature, or other characteristic that helps a plant pine (Pinus ponderosa) and western larch (Larix or animal survive and make the most of its occidentalis) are more fire-adapted and sun- habitat. Arrayed across landscapes, aggregations tolerant than the shade-tolerant western redcedar of plants—in the complexes of assemblages, (Thula plicata) and western hemlock (Tsuga populations, and associations of vegetation heterophylla). Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) communities—are in the process of adapting and giant sequoia () to the environment. These communities have have thick, platy bark adapted to resist fire. adapted to moisture (precipitation, water holding Lodgepole pine can establish itself following a capacity), solar radiation (angle of incidence, high intense fire due to its serotinus cones and slope, aspect), and elevation differences that have mycorrhizae, which allow lodgepole pines to occurred for a long-enough period for individual colonize nutrient-poor sites following an intense

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Source: D. Leavell, (2000). School of , University of Montana, Missoula, MT Figure 14. This chart shows vegetation and process of Kootenai National Forest. fire. Snowbrush ceanothus Ceanothus( velutinus) will proceed through succession, which can result has seeds with a very hard outer layer that needs in severely overstocked forests or grasslands. a high-temperature fire to scarify in order to Ecosystems do not remain static with or without germinate. These seeds can remain buried in duff disturbance. for over 200 years until a wildfire occurs. Highly Plant communities are not static, even though sun-tolerant, shade-intolerant snowbrush can fix some may have successional stages that can nitrogen and disappear when overtopped by tree last for hundreds of years. Plants can shift in species. structure, composition, and function in response Vegetation Succession to disturbance and to the absence of disturbance. Plants are opportunists in order to gain a Plants adapt to varying levels of precipitation, competitive edge and to perpetuate populations. soils, solar radiation (slope and aspect), and (See Figures 14 and 15) elevation even in the absence of disturbance. Snowbrush ceanothus (Ceanothus velutinus) is Plants also adapt to disturbance frequency, an example of a fire-adapted species (Figure 16). intensity, and severity. Depending on the severity Adaptations include the production of seed that and intensity of disturbance, there will be an can be dormant in the duff for hundreds of years immediate effect to species and communities until a very hot fire (more than 200oF) scarifies and an effect that can last long afterward. In the the seed coat, enabling . absence of disturbance, species and communities

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Ceanothus is very shade intolerant and thrives in open, full-sun conditions following a fire, with roots that fix nitrogen, making it ideal to establish following a severe fire. It is so shade-intolerant that once overtopped by tree species, ceanothus leaves the system until another fire burns through. Ceanothus leaves, twigs, and stems contain volatile waxes or oils, and the thick, leathery leaves have a strong odor when crushed or when exposed to the hot afternoon sun. Sap is gummy, resinous, and has a strong smell. This sap is extremely flammable and burns very hot, making way for other seeds to germinate and produce vigorous plants. False huckleberry (Menziesia ferruginea) is an example of a non-fire-adapted species (Figure 17). False huckleberry contrasts with ceanothus in being very shade tolerant (it Source: U.S. Forest Service grows best in 5 percent of full Figure 15. A model of forest succession in a moist Douglas-fir habitat as sunlight) and is associated with influenced by fire. PIPO is ponderosa pine; PSME is Douglas-fir; LAOC is larch; cool, moist sites on northerly PICO is lodgepole pine.

Photo: Oregon State University Photo: Oregon State University Figure 16. Snowbrush ceanothus (Ceanothus velutinus) is a Figure 17. False huckleberry (Menziesia ferruginea) is a fire- fire-adapted shrub found on south to northeast aspects. resistant shrub found on north aspects. 18 Module 2: Fire Ecology aspects. False huckleberry is fire-resistant with moist, supple leaves. It does not accumulate dry, dead material within the plant. The sap is watery without a strong odor. Exactly what happens after a fire occurs depends on the landscape, the severity of the fire, and the species involved. The event always sparks a succession of changes as plants, microbes, fungi, and other organisms recolonize the burned land. As trees and plants age, light and other features change— Source: Ecology and Field Biology and the composition of Figure 18. and adapt to different successional stages historically created creatures in the area changes by fire intensity and severity. in response. Wildlife arrangement, and characteristic of habitats across the landscape (Figure 18). Immediately Fire changes wildlife habitat. Wildlife after a fire, there can be a temporary loss of or habitats, like forests, are not static; they evolve increase in food and shelter. Animal species are and respond to disturbances, as do other opportunists. Unlike plants, animal species and natural systems. Fire changes the proportion, populations may shift from species that prefer

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica Figure 19. Fire creating secondary succession in Yellowstone National Park.

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Fire-generated spatial patterns across landscapes determine the distribution of animal species. Given a long- enough period of time, animal species adapt to the habitat resulting from disturbance.

Source: University of Montana Figure 20. Vertical stratification of plants create diversity of habitats for wildlife created by fire or human disturbance. dense forest conditions to ones that prefer warm, wildlife species. Cavity-nesting birds favor high- to open forest conditions. Some animals can leave moderate-burn severities; open-cup, ground- a burned area that does not suit their needs to nesting birds occupy moderate to low severity an unburned area that does. Unburned areas burn areas; and open-cup, canopy-nesting species adjacent to burned areas supply a mosaic of favor unburned habitats. Fire-killed trees become habitats with a range of vegetative conditions food for millions of insect larvae and/or snags from which wildlife can find food and cover. that provide perches and feeding sites for many and species that prefer herbaceous species. The black-backed woodpecker is an vegetation for cover prefer the grass/ habitats “eruptive” species, meaning it thrives in response or broad-leafed forests that often establish after a to increased insect population build-up. The black- burn. Depending on the vegetation type, burning backed population will increase in response to the can increase or improve forage for wildlife from insect build-up, but will decrease in number as the a few years to as long as 100 years. In some insect population decreases. (Figures 19–21) cases, the nutritional content and digestibility ✔✔Activity V – Fire Effects Information of plants will temporarily increase as well. Fire- System killed trees become food for millions of insect larvae, becoming food for species of birds. Humans Snags and downed woody debris also provide Humans are a part of the biosphere and important habitat for cavity nesters, , connected to most ecological systems around the small mammals, and even large mammals such as planet. We have become one of the significant bears. disturbance factors. We can plant vegetation Fire can provide temporal habitat for some where it would not likely migrate and plant

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Source: Daniel Leavell, © Oregon State University Figure 21. species that would not normally adapt. Trying record. Before settlement of the area, fire was a to gain a mastery over fire or reeling in fear of sustaining force on the coastal prairie. Fires set fire has affected all of us in one way or another. by lightning fed on the dormant grasses and kept We cannot generate hurricanes or tornados, but trees in check, while the roots and bulbs of the we can light a fire for beneficial or destructive native prairie plants remained unaffected by fire purposes. at the surface. Fire suppression practices, grazing, mowing, and fragmentation of the prairie Our wildland fire suppression efforts are over landscape through agriculture and urban sprawl 90 percent effective, yet thousands of acres burn have all but eliminated wildfire as a dominant every year—the 10 percent we can’t suppress. factor in the modern coastal prairie ecosystem. “People have triggered five out of six wildfires in (https://www.nwrc.usgs.gov/factshts/018-00. the U.S. over the last two decades, tripling the pdf) length of the wildfire season and making it start earlier in the East and last longer in the West, “What made the fires of 1998 so a new study finds. Scientists analyzing fire data devastating, and what is causing the 2007 from 1992 to 2012 found that 84 percent of all fires to be so hard to stop, is that despite lots US wildfires—but only 44 percent of the total of warnings, we have allowed huge quantities acres burned—were started by people, either by of fuel to accumulate. Plummeting accident or on purpose. Human-caused blazes prices have spurred industrial forest owners have more than tripled the length of the wildfire to plant lower densities and thin their stands, season from 46 days to 154 days, according to a but many and forests are still too study in the journal Proceedings of the National dense. Academy of Sciences (Balch, et al. 2017). Consequently, instead of the creeping The Florida fires of 1998 were the largest, surface fires that have burned across Florida most destructive and costly seasonal blazes on for millennia, we now face unstoppable crown

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fires. Instead of investing in fuel management the view of fire only as a threat, rather than from through controlled burning and fire- a broader perspective of values evident in today’s preventing treatments such as , we let society.” pine-needle brush collect in tinderboxes of epic Benefits we can achieve with judicious proportions. management of fire-adapted ecosystems where Some of us remember back in 1998, we live are: when the fire bearing down on the town of 1. Fire removes low-growing underbrush, Waldo was transformed from a raging crown cleans the forest floor of debris, opens fire to a moderate-intensity understory fire it up to sunlight, and nourishes the soil. when it reached landowner Clark Smith’s well- Reducing this competition for nutrients managed pinelands. His efforts at ecosystem allows established trees to grow stronger management through frequent controlled and healthier. burns saved the town. We need more Clark 2. Wildlands provide habitat and shelter to Smiths, more and open-canopied forest animals and birds. Fire clears wild- woodlands, and more preventive action so lands of heavy brush, leaving room for new as to lessen the extent and the power of the grasses, herbs, and regenerated shrubs that wildfires inevitable in Florida. Instead, we provide food and habitat for many wildlife have burdensome regulations on controlled species. burns, native savannas choked by invasive 3. Fire kills diseases and insects that prey on hardwoods, residents who don’t recognize the trees and provides valuable nutrients that benefits of frequent low-intensity fires, pines enrich the soil. More trees die each year planted as thick as the hair on a dog’s back, from insect infestation and disease than massive amounts of fuel, firefighters risking from fire. their lives, homeowners losing their home,s and smoke in the air.” (Not learning lessons ✔✔Activity VI – Fire Ecology Field Trip of ‘98 fires will prove costly. May 20, 2007. Francis E. `Jack’ Putz, Special to the Sentinel) Notes to Instructor

Working and living with a knowledge of Room Setup fire ecology and applying the concepts through which these ecosystems adapted over time can Facilitator should secure a room large enough only benefit us—and all abiotic components that to comfortably accommodate participants. inhabit these systems with us. We can grow a Organize the room in a U‐shape fashion with banana tree anywhere we want and we can place long tables and chairs. The room should have a a house anywhere we want. How much we are large screen to display the presentation. There willing to pay? The consequences we are willing should be a large table up front (6 to 8 feet in to accept should influence our decisions. length) for the instructor to use for in‐class demonstrations and to display various props, James Agee, in his concluding chapter of such as samples of various trees, shrubs, and Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forests . (1993, Island Press), states, “Consensus on fire management, however, requires the Total Time Needed incorporation of human values, and most past fire management policies have been derived from Approximately 8 hours in the classroom

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Equipment/Materials Needed Evaluation Instrument ■■ Computer with PowerPoint 1. Students take on the role of journalists ■■ Projector and screen working for a podcast such as “On Air” ■■ Handouts or “Think Out Loud’ on Oregon Public ■■ Flipcharts and easels or wall space Broadcasting (OPB). Students will be ■■ Plant samples responsible for creating a graphic organizer ■■ FEIS manuals outlining their podcast. Students will then ■■ Maps to illustrate the gradient trip across record a 10- to 20-minute podcast about Oregon a Fire Ecology topic. This podcast can ■■ Photographs of specific stops along that pertain to house fires, fires in the WUI, or gradient wildland fires. It must include informa- Delivery Methods tion about how communities (human or wildlife) learn to live with fire, ways that ■■ Presentation from instructors communities can be fire resistant or fire ■■ In‐class demonstrations resilient, and how post-fire succession ■■ Outdoor demonstration affects communities. ■■ Discussion 2. After Action Review (AAR): Conduct an ■■ Online with Canvas AAR after the prescribed fire field trip exer- Handouts cise. The AAR has these components: ❏❏ What was planned? ■■ A copy of the PowerPoint presentation (3 ❏❏ What really happened? slides per page to allow for note taking) ❏❏ Why did it happen? ■■ Other handouts can be downloaded from ❏❏ What can be done better next time? the section Additional Student Resources. Source: http://www.fireleadership.gov/toolbox/ PowerPoints/Videos after_action_review/aar.pdf ■■ Module 2: Fire Ecology—PowerPoint Class evaluation—Provide a survey for student ■■ Underwriters Lab research demon- feedback for each module as a form of formative stration video of legacy vs. modern evaluation. furnishings https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=IEOmSN2LRq0&t=53s

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Activities scattered and clumped flame lengths as the wind blew up the slope. The I. Personal and Professional Insights retreated to a safety zone off the flank of the fire and the IC ordered air tankers of fire Some years ago in northwest Montana, retardant and helicopter buckets of water a passing lightning ignited a wildfire. It to stop the from going over the ridge was late in the season, one of those fall storms into what the IC thought could that had a little rain with it, but still ignited become an escaped, uncontrolled burn that the downed fuel, shrubs, and grass made drier could easily get out of hand. He then ordered with the early morning frost. The fire occurred six 20-person crews to assist. The local Type on a relatively isolated mountaintop, as 3 IC heard the radio traffic, landed at the lightning fires do and it quickly spread on the nearest helispot, and officially assumed south slope warmed by the sun. This part of command of the fire with the smokejumper Montana, west of the Continental Divide and IC’s blessing. The first thing the Type 3 IC near to the Idaho border, has steep, dissected did was cancel the air tankers, helicopters, topography and has an annual precipitation and four of the six crews. Why the change in of 60 to 80 inches—much in the form of tactics? winter snow. The contrast between north and south aspect is striking. Gain elevation, Neither IC was right or wrong—that and even more so. As soon as the local fire was not the issue. The smokejumper IC lookout reported it, a crew of smokejumpers made his calls based on his experience in dispatched to the fire. This crew was busy the Southwest, which has drier, more open all during the fire season throughout the burning conditions where most species of southwest and eastside of Montana where fires vegetation are born to burn. The local Type burned on and off since the previous May. 3 IC had worked in northwest Montana for years and knew the vegetation, terrain, and The smokejumpers landed, designated other environmental conditions that created their Incident Commander (IC), selected the fire response typical for that landscape. their gear and made a quick assessment of At that higher latitude (near the Canadian the fire conditions—sufficient to set a strategy border) and at that elevation (7,000+ feet), in place, get the tactics together, and order and on steep slopes, the angle of sunlight late resources to deal with the fire. While this in the season and maritime weather influence was happening, a local Type 3 Team was put created fire-adapted species on the south together to take over the management of the slopes and fire-resistant species on the cooler, fire. more shaded, higher humidity north slope. Meantime, the new Type 3 IC was The false huckleberry was thick on the north circling the fire in the local helicopter, doing slope just over the ridge from the fire—the the initial recon and ready to take over from temperature dropped 20oF, the humidity the smokejumper IC. That’s when the fire, rose 20 percent. In spite of the wind coming heated by the afternoon sun on that south over the ridge, the fire behavior immediately slope—made its run. The ceanothus from dropped to almost nothing when it crossed an old fire, the plentiful beargrass, and the on to the north slope. The flanks of the fire clumps of sub-alpine fir (all with high fuel also cooled down, making mop-up (after they content in the sap) burned hot on contact anchored in) by the two crews that came later with the flames and heated the fire to 80-foot that afternoon easy work.

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That night, the Type 3 IC ordered a ■■ Have students take notes about their areas, good meal delivered at the old mining camp including: 1) site conditions, 2) vegetation that served as the Incident Command Post to both native and introduced to the area, and thank the jumpers, reminisce about bygone 3) other information they think is pertinent fires, enjoy good times with old friends, and to understanding the vegetation ecology feed the crews for the next day’s shift. Later and fire ecology of the area. that night and towards the early morning, the ■■ Students will then work in groups to dis- storms driven by westerly/northwesterly winds cuss how fire regimes and fire ecology are dropped over an inch of rain and snow. The similar and different in rural, urban, and fire season had officially ended for that year “wild” areas and everyone went home—safe and sound. IV. Fire Ecology Crossword II. Fire Adaptations ■■ Have students create a crossword puzzle using at least 10 vocabulary words used in ■■ Discuss plant, animal, and ecosystem discussing and understanding fire ecology adaptations to fire, fire history, and fire (e.g. fire regime, fire scar, or disturbance). regimes—and why all are different across ■■ Each vocabulary word should have a hint an environmental gradient. that is different from the definition of the ■■ Ask students to identify characteristics that word. make plants and animals more fire resistant ■■ These links could be helpful in this or fire resilient across an environmental assignment: gradient, such as Mount Lemon in Arizona; ❏❏ http://learnforests.org/sites/default/files/ Southern Oregon Cascade Range from EcologicalRoleofFire.pdf Newport to Bend; and Steens Mountain. ❏❏ http://learnforests.org/sites/default/files/ ■■ Have students design their own fire- HistoricalFireRegimesModule.pdf adapted animal, plant, or house. ■■ Once students are finished, have them V. Fire Effects Information System share their creation with the class. (FEIS) ■■ Put all of the creations together in fire- ■■ Have the class collectively log on to the adapted communities and ecosystems FEIS homepage (http://www.feis-crs.org/ across the gradient, based on their feis/) and explain the sidebar and options characteristics. for use of this system. ■■ Wrap up the activity by having students ■■ Discuss the publications, webinars, and work with the other students to discuss other features. how fire would likely affect their commu- ■■ Have the class come up with species they nity or ecosystem. have studied in the course of this module III. Local Fire Ecology and enter names for the species reviews, related fire studies, and fire regimes. ■■ Remind students that their neighborhood or local area is subject to adaptations VI. Fire Ecology Field Trip to slope, elevation, and aspect, whether ■■ Arrange a field trip to permit your stu- urban or rural, where homes exist and dents to view a prescribed burn with an where extending into forested or grassland agency that conducts prescribed burns as ecosystems. part of their natural resource management

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plans. Suggested agencies include The Answer: Biotic: any living organism(s). Nature Conservancy, Oregon Department Abiotic: any nonliving components of the of Forestry, Walker Range Fire Protection planet. Examples of biotic: Snowbrush Association, the Fremont-Winema National ceanothus and black-back woodpeckers. Forest, Bureau of Land Management, Examples of abiotic: soils and rocks. and Crater Lake National Park. Arrange 2. What is the difference between the organic transportation, safety training, a pre-trip formula for photosynthesis and the formula orientation and a follow-up activity. for combustion? ■■ At a minimum, students can participate in the field trip and engage in follow-up Answer: In photosynthesis, plants take discussions. As part of a pre-trip activity, energy from the sun, carbon dioxide from suggest that the fire manager visit the class- the atmosphere, and water from the soil room and discuss prescribed burns. to produce plant-building materials, while ■■ If the activity takes place in the spring, a releasing oxygen back into the atmosphere. follow-up visit later in the season will show Combustion is the process where carbon- the students how a management-ignited based living or non-living fuel ignites, prescribed fire stimulates forest or grass- producing heat and releasing carbon land succession. dioxide into the atmosphere. ■■ Conduct a photo poster session, written 3. Give one example of a fire-dependent essays, and/or a poetry/prose workshop species and one example of a fire-adapted for the students. Place students into three species. groups and instruct them to illustrate with words, drawings, or photos before the burn Answer: Fire-dependent species: whitebark (the forest or grassland before the burn and pine. Fire-adapted species: ponderosa pine. the preparation and materials for the burn), 4. Explain “Fire regime.” the prescribed burn-taking place, and the result after the burn and how various plants Answer: Fire regimes are patterns of respond. wildland fires taking place over long ■■ Although this can be an exciting field expe- periods of time that include factors such as rience, make safety a top priority. Also, frequency, extent, intensity, severity, type, teachers must be prepared for a “no burn” and reason for burning. decision based on unacceptable environ- 5. Give an example of a vegetation gradient. mental conditions (e.g., high wind, high temperature) for prescribed burning. Answer: Florence, Oregon across the state, east to the Idaho border—the state of Assessment of Knowledge Oregon in a transect east from the Pacific Gained Ocean to the Idaho border.

(Questions and Answers) 6. Out of all the millions of species that exist on Earth, what is the only one that can 1. What are the differences between biotic start, extinguish, and/or manipulate fire? and abiotic? Give two examples of each that Answer: The human variety. pertain to fire ecology.

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Additional Resources that is found in the top layer of soil. ■■ http://fireecology.org/ Mechanical treatments: The use of people or ■■ http://learningcenter.firewise.org/Firefighter- machines to thin or reduce the density of live and Safety/1-10.php dead trees and plants. ■■ http://www.pacificbio.org/initiatives/fire/ Predators: Animals that prey on other fire_ecology.html animals as a food source. ■■ https://www.nps.gov/romo/learn/education/ upload/Fire-Ecology-Teacher-Guide-for-web. Prescribed fire: The planned application of pdf fire to fuels, including logging debris, grasslands ■■ http://www.fema.gov/pdf/library/woods/ and/or understory vegetation, such as palmettos, athome_woods.pdf in order to meet outlined resource management ■■ http://learnforests.org/sites/default/files/ objectives. EcologicalRoleofFire.pdf Scavengers: Animals that feed on dead or ■■ http://learnforests.org/sites/default/files/ dying animals or discarded materials from HistoricalFireRegimesModule.pdf human societies. ■■ http://www.feis-crs.org/feis/ Serotinous: A pinecone or other seed case Glossary of Terms that requires heat from a fire to open and release the seed. Adaptation: An alteration in structure or function of a plant or animal that helps it change Succession: The gradual replacement of one over the course of successive generations in order plant and animal community by another, as in to be better suited to live in its environment. the change from an open field to a mature forest. Biological diversity: The sum total of all Wildland Fire Use: A commonly used term living organisms and the interaction thereof. to indicate a policy of allowing naturally ignited fires, such as those started by lightning, to burn Ecosystem: An area in which energy, while being closely monitored to meet specific nutrients, water, and other biological and management objectives without initial fire geological influences, including all living suppression. organisms, work together and influence one another. Wildfire:Unplanned fire burning in natural (wildland) areas such as forests, shrub lands, Fire community: A plant or animal grasslands, or prairies. community that is adapted to live in a habitat frequented by fires. Wildlands: Forests, shrub lands, grasslands, and other vegetation communities not Fire Dependent Ecosystems: Plants or plant significantly modified by agriculture or human communities that rely on fire as one mechanism development. A more specific meaning for to create the optimal situation for their survival. fire managers, used by the National Wildfire Fuel load: The amount of combustible Coordinating Group (which coordinates material (living and dead plants and trees) found programs of participating wildfire management in an area. agencies nationwide), refers to an area in which development is essentially non-existent (except Habitat: An area that supplies the needs of a for roads, railroads, power lines, and similar population of animals or plants living there. transportation facilities); structures, if any, are Humus layer: Decomposed organic matter widely scattered.

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References Fitzgerald, S. 2005. Fire Ecology of Ponderosa Pine and the Rebuilding of Fire-Resilient Agee, J, 1993. Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Ponderosa Pine Ecosystems. USDA Forest Forests. Island Press, Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-198.

Balch, J.K., B.A. Bradley, J.T. Abatzoglou, R.C. Florida fires of 1998: https://www.nwrc.usgs.( Nagy, E.J. Fusco, and A.L. Mahood. Human- gov/factshts/018-00.pdf). Fire Ecology in the started wildfires expand the fire niche across Southeastern United States. 2000. USGS the United States. 2017. Proceedings of the FS-018-00. U.S. Geological Survey/National National Academy of Sciences of the United Wetlands Research Center, Lafayette, LA. States of America. 114 no. 11: 2,946–2,951. Accessed 6/15/2015.

Barbier, N. 2015. The Controversial Management Formula for photosynthesis: (http://chemistry. of Fire in the National Forests of Idaho and elmhurst.edu/vchembook/540carbohydrates. Western Montana. Journal of Alpine Research, html). Virtual Chembook, Emhurst College. 103–4. Charles E. Ophardt, 2003. Accessed 6/15/2015.

Cissel, J.H., F.J. Swanson and P.J. Weisberg. 1999. Formula for combustion: (http://chemistry. Landscape management using historical elmhurst.edu/vchembook/540carbohydrates. fire regimes: Blue River, Oregon. Ecological html). Virtual Chembook, Emhurst College. Applications. 9(4): 1217–1231. (Pub No: 2502) Charles E. Ophardt, 2003. Accessed 6/15/2015.

Coastal vegetation and plant ecology: http:// Fukarek, F; Hempel, I; Hûbel, G; Sukkov, R; oregonexplorer.info/content/coastal-vegetation-and- Schuster, M. 1982. Flora of the Earth (in plant-ecology?topic=11278&ptopic=98. Oregon Russian). 2. Moscow: Mir. 261 p. Explorer Natural Resources Digital Library, Oregon State University Libraries and Press and Institute for Historical Vegetation in West Eugene. City of Natural Resources. Accessed 6/15/2015. Eugene, Oregon, Parks and Open Space, 1820 Roosevelt Blvd., Eugene, Oregon. https://www. Detweiler, A.J. 2006. Fire-Resistant Plants for eugene-or.gov/1763/Historical-Vegetation-in- Home Landscapes (PNW 590), Oregon State West-Eugenected. Accessed 6/15/2015. University Extension Service, Corvallis, Oregon. 48 pp. Kerber, S. 2012. Analysis of Changing Residential Fire Dynamics and Its Implications on Fire behavior triangle: (https://learn.weatherstem. Operational Timeframes. Fire com/modules/learn/lessons/121/12.html). Technology, October 2012. 48, no. 4: 865–891. WeatherSTEM lesson PowerPoint (slide 12 of 24). Copyright 2017 by WeatherSTEM Kessel, S.R. and W.C. Fisher. 1981. Predicting (3019 North Shannon, Lakes Drive, Suite 203, post-fire plant succession for fire management Tallahassee, Florida. Used with permission. planning. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rept. Int-91. Fire Triangle: http://www.pslc.ws/fire/howwhy/ triangle.htm. Polymer Science Learning King fire maps severity maps.https:// Center, University of Southern Mississippi. inciweb.nwcg.gov/incident/map/4126/0/40958/. Accessed 6/15/2015. Used with permission. InciWeb Incident Information System,

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Eldorado National Forest, USDA Forest Succession: Biological Progression. 2006. Service. Accessed 6/15/2015. Enclyclopedia Britannica, online. Retrieved from: https://www.britannica.com/science/ Laurina Manning artistic rendering of an Oregon ecological-succession. gradient. Student project for Biology 410 ( and Reptiles of Oregon), taught Teensma, Peter D.A. 1987. Fire history and fire by Dr. Tom Titus, University of Oregon. regimes of the Central Western Cascades http://pages.uoregon.edu/titus/herp/herp.html. of Oregon: PhD. dissertation, Department Accessed 6/15/2015. of Geography, August, 1987. University of Oregon. Leavell, D. Vegetation and process of the Kootenai National Forest. 2000. School of Temperature of the atmosphere gradient: (https:// Forestry, University of Montana, Missoula, sites.google.com/site/climatetypes/highland). MT n: dissertation abstracts, catalog Climate Types for Kids webpage, “What are #9970-793, vol. 6l-04B, p.1744. Ann Arbor, the temperatures like?” Accessed 6/15/2015. Michigan. 508 pp. USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map: http:// University of Montana, Missoula, MT. In: planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/PHZMWeb/. 2012. dissertation abstracts, catalog #9970-793, vol. USDA Agricultural Research Service and 6l-04B, p. 1744. Ann Arbor, Michigan. 508 pp. Oregon State University PRISM Climate Group. Accessed 6/15/2015. Morrison, P.H. and F.J. Swanson. 1990. Fire history and pattern in a Cascade Range Weisberg, P.J. 1998. Fire history, fire regimes and landscape. USDA Forest Service General development of forest structure in the central Technical Report PNW-GTR-254 Western Oregon Cascades. PhD Dissertation, Department of Forest Science, Oregon State Pfister, Robert D., Kovalchik, Bernard L., Arno, University, Corvallis, OR. Stephen F., Presby, Richard C. 1977. Forest habitat types of Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-34. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest & Range Experiment Station. 174 pp.

Putz, F.E. Not learning lessons of ’98 fires will prove costly. 2007. Francis E. `Jack’ Putz, Special to the Orlando Sentinel. http:// articles.orlandosentinel.com/2007-05-20/news/ FIRE20_1_fires-forest-service-lightning-capital.

Smith, R.L. 1990. Ecology and field biology, 4th ed., HarperCollins Pub., NY, NY. 922 pp.

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Evaluations

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