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The Development and Improvement of Instructions VICTIMS OR VICTORS? EXPLORING AMERICA‘S SLAVERY ROOTS A Dissertation by LINDA MBOMBOLO LELO Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 2011 Major Subject: Recreation, Park, and Tourism Sciences Victims or Victors? Exploring America‘s Slavery Roots Copyright 2011 Linda Mbombolo Lelo VICTIMS OR VICTORS? EXPLORING AMERICA‘S SLAVERY ROOTS A Dissertation by LINDA MBOMBOLO LELO Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, Tazim Jamal Committee Members, Corliss Outley Amanda Stronza Larry Yarak Head of Department, Gary Ellis December 2011 Major Subject: Recreation, Park, and Tourism Sciences iii ABSTRACT Victims or Victors? Exploring America‘s Slavery Roots. (December 2011) Linda Mbombolo Lelo, B.S., Institut Supérieur de Commerce et d‘Administration des Entreprises, Morocco; M.S., Texas Tech University Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Tazim Jamal A large part of the tourism literature has focused on the phenomenon of slavery tourism, or the visitation of sites related to the Transatlantic Slave Trade. In the U.S. South, former plantation homes are popular sites of visitation, albeit very few studies have looked at African Americans‘ experiences there. The purpose of this qualitative dissertation is to understand both the politics of representation of slavery at slavery related sites (production side) and the different ways African American visitors make sense of these sites (consumption side). The present study uses the case of the African Burial Ground National Monument, a former cemetery for enslaved and free Africans living in colonial New Amsterdam (today New York City) and now a National Park in Lower Manhattan, which exhibits a complex combination of ―darkness‖ and ―sacredness.‖ The site exposes the public to its contentious process of development and reveals that African American visitors have mixed perceptions of slavery and the way it should be remembered and iv represented on site (Africans as victims or as victors), as well as a range of motivations to visit, experiences and emotions attached to the site. This research illustrates how slavery tourism sites choose to represent slavery, whether from the perspective of the White slaveholders, as it has traditionally been done, or from the perspective of enslaved Africans, as it is done at the African Burial Ground. Whatever the strategy they choose, this study demonstrates that there is a process through which these sites go in order to create the final product to be presented in the brochures, tour narratives, and exhibits. This study illustrates how visitors‘ relationship to the site influences their experience there, including the physical, spiritual, and psychological acts they exercise (volunteering, praying, pouring libations, communicating with the ancestors, etc.), and the meanings they attach to the site visited, whether it is pride, sadness, anger, or peace. The significant insights from this study contribute to the current literature on slavery tourism, particularly the one on African American visitors‘ experiences, and suggest managerial propositions for the National Park Service and other institutions offering interpretive programs on slavery. v DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my ancestors, whose life and death was never acknowledged and whose sacrifices and prayers allowed me to be where I am today. I hope this humble effort gives them a voice and raises awareness about their contributions. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my committee chair, Dr. Tazim Jamal, for believing in me and pushing me to be a better scholar year after year. Tazim, thank you for your dedication and the inspiration you gave me to produce quality work that can have positive impacts in this world. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Outley, Dr. Stronza, Dr. Yarak, for their support, guidance and feedback throughout the course of my research and my time at Texas A&M University in general. I am grateful to the National Park Service and particularly to the current and former staff of the African Burial Ground National Monument in New York City, including Tara Morrison, Cherie Butler, Monamma AL-Ghuiyy, LaShaya Howie, Douglas Massenburg, Cyrus Forman, Eric Joseph, Amarelis Avila, Tanisha Steed, Tamika Guishard, Randy Williamson, and Jordan Wright. I cannot forget all the 27 participants of this study who took the time and effort to share their stories with me and supported my research. Thanks also go to my friends abroad who encouraged me through phone calls, emails, and online chats (Sonia, Rama, Stella, Emma, and Mélaine), my friends in College Station for allowing me to have enjoyable time outside of the books (Blanca, Sunwoo, Thorn, Smriti, Amanda, Ramaa, Xiangping ―Coco,‖ Lavell, Sam, Harrison, Stephanie, Annette, Zilda and Paulo Barretto, and many more), as well as the faculty and staff in the Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences for their dedicated vii teaching and assistance during my five years at Texas A&M University (special thanks to Marguerite Van Dyke, Irina Shatruk, and Tina Vega). My deepest thanks and appreciation go to my family: Papa, Maman, Bernie, Andy, et Christopher, merci pour votre patience et soutien tout au long de ce processus. Ceci est pour vous! Last but certainly not least, thanks to Mbei Enoh for his love and encouragements. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION....................................................................................................... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... x LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. xii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1 1.1. Research Problem and Purpose .......................................................... 1 1.2. Research Questions ........................................................................... 2 1.3. Significance of the Research .............................................................. 3 1.4. Structure of the Dissertation............................................................... 5 II LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................. 7 2.1. History of Slavery in America ........................................................... 7 2.2. Formation of African American Identity ........................................... 11 2.3. Heritage Tourism ............................................................................... 14 2.4. Dark Tourism .................................................................................... 17 2.5. Slavery Tourism ............................................................................... 23 III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................... 39 3.1. Research Design ................................................................................ 39 3.2. Research Approach …………………………………………………. 40 3.3. Research Setting ................................................................................ 45 3.4. Data Collection .................................................................................. 56 3.5. Data Analysis .................................................................................... 84 3.6. Trustworthiness of the Study ............................................................ 93 3.7. Ethical Considerations ...................................................................... 97 ix CHAPTER Page 3.8. My Reflexive Journey ...................................................................... 98 IV PRODUCTION AND REPRESENTATION OF SLAVERY HERITAGE ... 104 4.1. Development and Management of the African Burial Ground . .......... 104 4.2. Representation and Interpretation of Slavery ..................................... 148 V CONSUMPTION AND EXPERIENCE OF SLAVERY TOURISM ............. 175 5.1. Participants‘ Profile .......................................................................... 175 5.2. Relationship to the Site ..................................................................... 208 5.3. Acts ................................................................................................... 216 5.4. Visitor Experiences and Meanings ................................................... 223 VI INTEGRATIVE DISCUSSION ............................................................... 247 6.1. Representation and ―Production‖ of Slavery at Slavery Tourism Sites 247 6.2. Collective Memory ............................................................................ 276 6.3. Relation to Black Identity .................................................................. 282 6.4. ―Telling the Truth‖ about Slavery ..................................................... 292 VII CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................... 302 7.1. Concluding Thoughts .......................................................................
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