Teachers’ Resource REPRESENTING WOMEN
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 1 04/03/2015 10:44:08 CONTENTS
1: REPRESENTING WOMEN: AN INTRODUCTION Katherine Faulkner
2: GOYA: THE WITCHES AND OLD WOMEN ALBUM CURATOR’S QUESTIONS Stephanie Buck
3: SAINTS AND SINNERS, WIVES AND WITCHES: REPRESENTATIONS OF GENDER Meghan Goodeve
4: REPRESENTATIONS OF WOMEN: AN ART HISTORY Rachel Hapoienu
5: ALWAYS THE MODEL, NEVER THE ARTIST Katherine Faulkner
6: MASTER AS MUSE Nadine Mahoney
7: SPANISH LANGUAGE RESOURCE LAS MUJERES RESPETABLES DE COURTAULD RESPECTABLE COURTAULD WOMEN Leticia Blanco & Alice Odin
8: GLOSSARY 9: IMAGE CD
REPRESENTING WOMEN Compiled and produced by Katherine Faulkner and Sarah Green
Terms referred to in the glossary are marked in BLUE
To book a visit to the gallery or to discuss any of the education projects at The Courtauld Gallery please contact: e: [email protected] t: 0207 848 1058 Unless otherwise stated, all images © The Samuel Courtauld Trust, Typeset by JWD The Courtauld Gallery, London
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 2 04/03/2015 10:44:09 WELCOME
The Courtauld Institute of Art runs an exceptional programme of activities suitable for young people, school teachers and members of the public, whatever their age or background.
We offer resources which contribute to the understanding, knowledge and enjoyment of art history based upon the world-renowned art collection and the expertise of our students and scholars. I hope the material will prove to be both useful and inspiring.
Henrietta Hine HEAD OF PUBLIC PROGRAMMES
This resource offers teachers and their students an opportunity to explore the wealth of The Courtauld Gallery’s permanent collection by expanding on a key idea drawn from our exhibition programme. Taking inspiration from the exhibition Goya: The Witches and Old Women Album, the theme of this teachers’resource, is ‘Representing Women’.
We hope teachers and educators of all subjects will use this pack to plan lessons, organise visits to The Courtauld Gallery and for their own professional development.
Sarah Green PROGRAMME MANAGER GALLERY LEARNING
COVER IMAGE: Francisco de Goya y Lucientes Singing and dancing (Cantar y Bailar), 1819-20 Brush and black ink on paper, with scraping 23.5 x 14.5 cm
THIS PAGE: (detail) Pierre Auguste Renoir La Loge 1874 Oil on canvas 80 x 63.5 cmna.
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 3 04/03/2015 10:44:10 1: REPRESENTING WOMEN AN INTRODUCTION
Katherine Faulkner
WOMEN’S BODIES, PARTICULARLY THE FEMALE NUDE, women, founding feminism as a modern political movement. But the question of HAVE BEEN USED BY MALE ARTISTS, AND MORE RECENTLY women’s rights was complex. Women’s FEMALE ARTISTS TOO, TO MAKE STATEMENTS ABOUT ART, lives and experiences were rarely referred to when discussing the rights of man. BEAUTY AND WAYS OF SEEING THE WORLD... Whereas the Declaration of the Rights of Man demanded that all men shared the rights previously held only by a privileged few, writers like de Gouges and Wollenstonecraft were demanding rights ” that had never been extended to any woman. Although the Rights of Man went on to form the basis of our understanding of universal human rights, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the term ‘human’ was synonymous with the word ‘man’, with women left out of the equation all together. Women could argue for their own rationality and for their entitlement to citizenship, but their lives were lived in relation to and in dependency on men. Within patriarchal society women were daughters of fathers, wives of husbands and mothers of sons, rather than individuals in their own right. The status of men and women throughout history is clearly communicated to us through visual culture. Art has played an important role in perpetuating stereotypical images of women and femininity, both negative and positive. As 1 Meghan Goodeve explores in her essay Francisco de Goya (1746-1828) was pure rationality of the Enlightenment, it is on female stereotypes, in visual art women perhaps the most important Spanish important to consider the wider political can be characterised as good or bad, artist of the late eighteenth and early and intellectual atmosphere in Europe beautiful or ugly, sacred or profane. As nineteenth century. Stylistically his artwork at this time. The ideas formulated in the Goodeve explains, these categories are spans the period from the late Rococo to Enlightenment would go on to become rarely as simple as they first appear and Romanticism and even, in his last works, fundamental in the later nineteenth female archetypes such as the virgin, the shares qualities with Impressionism. He century, especially in France, and informed mother and the witch are complex and produced over 900 drawings during the key political debates and conflicts, with problematic. course of his career lasting six decades, which artists and writers such as Gustave Museums of modern art, such as the which reflect the rapidly changing political Courbet and Emile Zola (a close friend of Museum of Modern Art in New York or and intellectual climate of Spain and Edouard Manet) became directly involved. Tate Modern in London, as well as smaller Europe. Goya lived through regime change The democratic rights of the individual galleries like The Courtauld Gallery have in Spain, from absolute monarchy, French citizen were central to Enlightenment occupation and briefly, a constitutional political discourse, manifested most clearly government. This period also coincided in the French Revolution. The French INTRODUCTION with an intellectual movement in Europe Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Image 1 Image 3 and America in the late eighteenth century Citizen, of 1789, which began, ‘All men are Edouard Manet Amedeo Modigliani known as the Enlightenment, where born and remain free and equal in rights,’ Déjeuner sur l’herbe Female Nude scientists and philosophers strove towards immediately prompted the question of c. 1863-68 c. 1916 Oil on canvas Oil on canvas rational and scientific thought, free from whether women had comparable rights. 89.5 x 116.5 cm 92.4 x 59.8 cm superstition and religious intolerance. Pioneering campaigners, such as Image 2 Although much of Goya’s work, particularly Olympe de Gouges in France and Mary Paul Gauguin Te Rerioa, 1897 his private albums such as The Witches and Wollstonecraft in Britain were quick to Oil on canvas Old Women Album seem to counteract the demand legal and political rights for 95. 1 x 130.2 cm
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 4 04/03/2015 10:44:11 also contributed to our understanding of the role of women in western art history. Although feminism and gender studies have played an important role in the shaping of art history in universities since the late 1960s, the impact in art galleries has been less visible. Museums and galleries perform a mediating role between ‘experts’ like university researchers and curators and the museum-going public. Museum and gallery displays are caught in the middle, curators may agree with the new theories and critical ideas explored by their colleagues in universities, but the museum is also under pressure to present art and knowledge in ways that can be understood by the widest possible audience. Traditionally, displays of modern art in museums tend to remind us of what we already know about art and art history, rather than challenging us.
Alfred H.Barr, the first director of the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1929, is still a highly influential figure in 2 museums and galleries and the story collector Samuel Courtauld, founder of The female nude. The female body becomes an of modern art he told at MoMA went Courtauld Institute of Art and Gallery. Fry object of the male artist’s imagination, to on to become the authoritative story advised Courtauld to buy the Impressionist be looked at, and not granted the right to of modernism for both art experts and and Post-Impressionist works that form the act. Although women make up the majority for the general public. He arranged the heart of The Courtauld Gallery collection of museum visitors and spend more money museum’s collection of modern art to tell today. The Courtauld collection contains on exhibition tickets and in the gift-shops, a story of successive, but formally distinct some of the most significant examples of the display of works of art is still scripted styles of art – Neo-Impressionism, Cubism, French nineteenth-century art by some of for or framed by the male gaze. The large Constructivism – all moving towards the most celebrated male artists: Monet, number of female bodies on display – bar abstraction. Artists like Cezanne, Picasso Degas, Van Gogh. The collection also maids, dancers, wives, mothers, daughters and Duchamp played heroic roles in this enables us to understand how women were – and the lack of work by female artists on narrative, each with their unique and new seen and represented in the nineteenth the walls, specifies the modern art museum artistic achievement, their ‘genius’ growing century and how also how art museums as a predominantly male space and out of or negating something that came perhaps reinforce assumptions about the reinforces the idea that making art is a before. This version of the development role of women in art history. male endeavour. of modern art is still on display in many museums and galleries around the world, In a classic essay, ‘Visual Pleasure and Today female artists have the same and as we will see in the essay on women Narrative Cinema’ (1975) the film historian access to training and education as their artists in this collection, women found it Laura Mulvey claims that up until very male counterparts, although they are still almost impossible to fit into this masculine recently, the role of women in film has underrepresented in major museum and artistic ideal. been to be ‘looked at and displayed,’ for gallery collections. As Nadine Mahoney’s the male gaze. Mulvey’s analysis is based essay shows, exploring the representation on her viewing of Hollywood films and the of women in art throughout history can be way the camera frames actresses like Greta a source of inspiration for artists of both Garbo or Marilyn Monroe - out of context, genders. As Mahoney says, the works of isolated, in soft-focus – as fetishized the male old masters have now become objects rather than active subjects. We her muses, enabling her to explore identity can make comparisons between women in new and exciting ways. The essays in this in films and the ways that women have collection are intended to encourage you been represented in the works of modern to do the same, to look again at the images art discussed in the essays that follow of women in The Courtauld collection and by Rachel Hapoienu and Alice Odin. to question what they tell us about identity Women’s bodies, particularly the female and gender then and now. nude, have been used by male artists, and more recently female artists too, to make statements about art, beauty and ways of seeing the world. Take the disruptive female nude figures in Manet’s Dejeuner sur l’herbe (image 1), pointing the artist’s critical view of the hypocrisy of bourgeois society, Gauguin’s exoticised and languid nudes, reflecting his desire for a simpler and more colourful life away from Paris in his idealised Tahiti (image 2), or FURTHER READING: Modigliani’s nude who’s body has become Carol Duncan. Civilizing Rituals: Inside a simplified set of shapes, lines and colour Public Art Museums (London: Routledge, 3 as the artist worked out new ways of 1995). representing the visible world (image 3). Roger Fry was a central influence on Barr’s Tamar Garb. The Body in Time: Figures These female bodies are symbolic objects, understanding of the Modern. Barr met Fry of Femininity in Late Nineteenth-Century representing political, erotic or aesthetic in London in 1927 and became a follower France (Seattle: University of Washington, ideals, rather than representing real female of Fry’s theories and writings about modern 2008). art. In the early twentieth century Fry more subjects with lives or ideals of their own. or less defined what made art modern Modern artists often made big Laura Mulvey. Visual and other pleasures and he was also a close advisor to the art philosophical or artistic statements via the (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 5 04/03/2015 10:44:13 2: GOYA: THE WITCHES AND OLD WOMEN ALBUM CURATOR’S QUESTIONS
Stephanie Buck
Could you tell us a little bit about your about the original making of the album Do you have a favourite drawing from the role as Curator of Drawings and about and the sequence of its drawings. The album? significance of The Courtauld Gallery’s original order has been lost since it was collection of drawings? taken apart after Goya’s death and the It is difficult to choose a single drawing. page numbers which Goya had added I particularly like the sequence of The Courtauld Gallery’s collection of were sometimes erased or cropped. floating couples as the white paper around 7,000 drawings is one of the This forensic research involved a great turns into wide and open space in finest in Britain and includes works deal of international travel and many which the figures fly and tumble. from all major national schools, ranging conversations with colleagues and At the same time the powerful image in date from the fifteenth century to experts to interpret our findings. The of Madness (Locura) (image 1) is today. As Curator of Drawings I have the result was a suggested reconstruction of extremely gripping and the drawings stewardship of this part of the collection the album, published in the exhibition of visions and nightmares capture and enjoy researching it and making catalogue, and we now look forward to incredibly well the haunting nature of it accessible to the public, students testing it during the exhibition. bad dreams. But those individual figures and scholars alike. Exhibitions play an are fantastic too, in which Goya’s acute important role in this but it is equally What can we learn from looking at artists’ observation of movements and facial important to encourage visits to our preparatory drawings and private albums expressions capture the person’s state Prints and Drawings Study Room where as opposed from their ‘finished’ works? of mind. works can be enjoyed and discussed, in seminars and during individual Preparatory drawings give fascinating visits. Collaboration with the paper insight into an artist’s working practice conservator and the close examination and allow us to participate in the of the drawings are two aspects of my creative process as we see ideas take role that I particularly enjoy. shape, are followed up or disregarded until a final solution is found. THE ‘WITCHES AND Why was the ‘Witches and old women’ OLD WOMEN album originally intended to be seen only A preparatory drawing is always meant ’ ALBUM IS by Goya and a few of his close friends? to be a step towards a final result, ONE OF EIGHT KNOWN it remains work in process, and as ALBUMS THAT GOYA The ‘Witches and old women’ album is such is not produced independently. one of eight known albums that Goya On the other hand drawings from a CREATED OVER THE created over the course of around private album as Goya produced them COURSE OF AROUND thirty years. He kept all of them until are immediate expressions of ideas, his death when his son Javier inherited experiences and observations. They are THIRTY YEARS... them. None was meant for publication not made to prepare other works but or sale, nor were the album drawings may in fact be considered finished even preparatory for other works that were to if they are closely linked to other works be seen by a broad public. They were like paintings and prints. As drawings, private works and as such only meant to both types of works have however a be seen by those close to the artist. particularly unmediated quality that ” engages with the viewer with great How did you and your fellow curator go directness. about researching and reassembling the album?
I had the great privilege to work on this project with one of the world’s leading Goya scholars, Juliet Wilson-Bareau, who directed our research with enormous knowledge and experience. Together with CURATORS QUESTIONS: Kate Edmondson, paper conservator Image Francisco de Goya Lucientes at The Courtauld, we first looked very Madness (Locura) carefully at virtually every drawing from 1819–23 the album, examining the paper and Brush and black and grey ink media carefully in the conservation 225 x 140 mm © New York, The Morgan studios, studying the drawing technique, Library & Museum, the watermarks and finding small hints Thaw Collection, evt 294
1 Goya teachers pack v2.indd 6 04/03/2015 10:44:14 THE POWERFUL IMAGE OF MADNESS (LOCURA) IS EXTREMELY GRIPPING AND THE DRAWINGS OF VISIONS AND NIGHTMARES CAPTURE INCREDIBLY WELL THE HAUNTING NATURE OF BAD DREAMS... ”
1 Goya teachers pack v2.indd 7 04/03/2015 10:44:18 3: SAINTS AND SINNERS, WIVES AND WITCHES: REPRESENTATIONS OF GENDER IN THE COURTAULD GALLERY
Meghan Goodeve
‘THE MESSAGE HAS BEEN CLEAR THROUGH THE CENTURIES. ON THE TYMPANA OF MEDIEVAL CHURCHES AND IN HOLLYWOOD FILMS, WOMEN ARE PORTRAYED AS EITHER GOOD OR BAD, SAINTLY OR SINFUL.’
(Jane L Carroll and Alison G Stewart, Saints, Sinners, and Sisters: Gender and Northern” Art in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, 2003)
Since the introduction of feminist art history in the late 1960s, art historians and artists have been asking the question ‘what role do women have in art’? This study of gender is still important today. ‘Gender’ however is a wide-reaching term, covering both men and women, male and female. It is impossible to cover the many diverse aspects of ‘gender’ in this one essay. Instead, I will investigate specifically how women have been represented in The Courtauld Gallery collection. This essay will explore representations of women as subjects within three female stereotypes: saints, mothers, and witches. These themes will be illustrated by three focus paintings reaching from the sixteenth century to the nineteenth century: Quentin Massys, The Virgin and Child with Angels, c. 1500-09 (image 1), Peter Paul Rubens, Family of Jan Brueghel the Elder, 1613-15 (image 2), and Francisco de Goya y Lucientes, Singing and dancing (Cantar y Bailar), 1819-20 (image 3). Traditionally, history has positioned these ‘female’ subjects into oppositional categories, such as ‘saints’ or ‘sinners’, ‘good’ or ‘bad’. This essay will argue that these stereotypes cannot be divided so
easily. 1 SAINTS Let us begin this investigation with Massys’ following famous artists of the Northern falls into the ‘good’ category. The colour of painting of the Virgin Mary and the theme Renaissance such as Jan Van Eyck. Like his Mary’s clothing is one of the most striking of the saint (image 1). This is not the predecessors much of his artwork has a clues as to her high status. Blue was usually earliest example of a female saint in The religious subject and function. only worn by the ruling classes of the time. Courtauld Gallery, yet it is a good place The blue pigment Massys would have to start this essay. Massys was a leading In this painting there are a number of visual used was amongst the most expensive, painter in early sixteenth-century Antwerp, elements that indicate that Mary, a saint, the purest and richest of blues made from
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 8 04/03/2015 10:44:19 indicate the function of this image. It is thought that this painting was created for a wealthy patron and originally would have been hung in their home. The Madonna was a popular subject of the time and this impression would have been used as a devotional image, there to aid the owner’s prayer. At a time when the most people could not read or write, images of saints like this played an significant part in reaching out to the masses and leaving the monastic context it first began in. As such images began to reach a mass audience through public display, it became more important for representations of the saints to teach lessons of piety and ‘goodness’. To do this Mary must represent an ideal of womanhood and importantly of maternity.
MOTHERS Considering the Virgin Mary’s role as mother brings us to our next painting. This time, however, the subject of woman as ‘mother’ moves from a religious and saintly context to that of an artist’s family. Rubens’ portrait Family of Jan Brueghel the Elder, 1613-15 (image 2), shows Ruben’s friend and fellow artist Jan Brueghel the Elder, with his second wife Catharina, and their two children, Pieter and Elisabeth.
‘Motherhood’, like ‘sainthood’, is often classed as a ‘good’ role for women in art and in this case the two stereotypes share many similar characteristics. In Rubens’ painting Catharina is shown as ‘mother’ in a similar way to Massys’ Virgin Mary. Just as Mary held Jesus, Catharina’s hands protectively wrap around her son’s shoulders and clasp her daughter’s hand. By positioning Catharina to hold or touch her children, Rubens’ emphasises the bodily comfort offered by and associated with ‘good’ mothers. This 2 concept of closeness within motherhood the lapis lazuli mineral mined in remote has continued into visual culture in the CATHARINA’S HANDS Badakshan in Afghanistan. In this painting, twentieth century with sculptors such as PROTECTIVELY WRAP Mary wears blue from head to toe, with fur Barbara Hepworth raising post-war spirits lined sleeves and an intricate gold pattern and family unity through sculptures of AROUND HER SON’S spilling around the edge of her robe and mother and children touching and twisting SHOULDERS AND CLASP presented in its full glory against the together. It is often argued that this bodily patterned church floor. Here, removed from ideal of motherhood is biological or HER DAUGHTER’S HAND... the religious context, one could argue that ‘natural’ and in many ways underscores the Mary looks like any noble woman from the concept of ‘mother’ as ‘good’ in art. upper ranks of sixteenth-century Northern Europe. To further this, in this image, like a In addition to this ‘natural’ connection, noble women, Mary’s goodness and virtue this painting also places Catherina is emphasised through her fine clothes and as ‘Mother-wife’. The husband leans ” jewels. This focus on the material, from awkwardly into the painting, his left-hand today’s perspective, could be argued as arm twists away from his family rather than vain, over-indulgent or greedy. Therefore, towards them. This is remarkably different lines between the simple dichotomy of to the interlocking arms and hands of the women as either ‘good’ or ‘bad’ begin to mother-child relationship and brings to become blurred. the fore the question: is this a happy family as they would like us to believe? Besides the Virgin Mary’s clothing, she Further marking her as ‘mother-wife’ is the is shown by Massys holding Jesus as a bracelet, which her son Pieter reaches and SAINTS AND SINNERS... child. In most images of saints, they are feels. This piece of jewellery is believed to Image 1 be a betrothal present and is a symbol of Quentin Massys shown with an attribute, which tells the Virgin and Child with Angels, viewer the story behind their sainthood. her unity with her husband. Moreover, this 1500-09 In this instance, by carrying the holy painting would have been on display in the Oil on panel child, the figure of Mary is connected public spaces of the family’s house, putting 61.7 x 46.9 x 5.3 cm to the Immaculate Conception. Massys forward an idealised image of the family Image 2 has further emphasised Mary’s role as to visitors. Consequently the stereotype Peter Paul Rubens ‘Mother ‘ by surrounding her with three of motherhood in seventeenth-century Family of Jan Brueghel child-like angels positioned behind her Holland is tied to the domestic space. The the Elder, simple equation of ‘mother’ equals ‘good’ 1613-15 and putti, or sculptures of putti, holding Oil on panel a floral garland above her head. These in the ‘natural’ sense of a bodily protector 125.1 x 95.2 cm attributes and accompanying figures also seen earlier becomes more complicated.
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 9 04/03/2015 10:44:20 Rubens’ depiction of Brueghel’s family factor. In Massys’ and Rubens’ paintings ALTHOUGH GOYA’S is tied up with more complex notions of both the ‘good’ women, the saints or ‘mother-wife’. For example, Catharina’s mothers are shown as youthful. Hence it PORTRAYAL OF A WITCH status as a ‘good’ mother would have seems in art old equals ‘bad’, which in this OMITS ATTRIBUTES SUCH indicated Brueghel’s own position as a case equals witch. good provider, through his success as AS A BLACK CAT OR A an artist. Therefore ‘good’ is not always However, this stereotypical depiction of BROOMSTICK, BOTH ‘natural’, but part of a larger picture of an old, wrinkled witch does raise some WOMEN IN THIS DRAWING society, politics, and domesticity, which questions in terms of the drawing’s falls somewhere between the opposition of function. This particular sketch connects FIT THE STEREOTYPICAL women as ‘good’ or ‘bad’. to the writings of Goya’s friend and IDEA OF WITCHES IN OTHER playwright Leandro Fernandez de Moratin, WITCHES who published a report of an Inquisition WAYS... ‘Her representation swings between witchcraft trail in 1811 and 1820. He recalls the hideous and the sublime, between the tale of someone being awoken one the engaging and the troubling, night by between the charmingly seductive …a sudden strong noise of voices and ” and the alarmingly menacing.’ (Lorenzo Lorenzi, 2005) musical instruments that sounded in the air. Rubbing his eyes, he sat up Although this essay sought thus far to as fast he could, and looking up, he question the polar nature of ‘good’ and discerned a multitude of shadows in ‘bad’ women, the last two examples have the form of human bodies… he heard presented two stereotypes ‘saints’ and the voices of men and the cackles and ‘mothers’, which conventionally fall into shrieks of women, and the sound of the ‘good’ category. Contemporary visual small guitars and tambourines. culture already tells us that ‘witches’ will Moratin was writing a comedy, drawing out unquestionably be categorised as ‘bad’. the humour in the association of witches as But why? ‘evil’ or ‘devil-worshipping’. It also tellingly associates the merriment of music-making Goya’s Singing and dancing (Cantar y with the goings-on of ‘witchcraft’ in the Bailar), 1819-20 (image 3), is an example night. The comic nature of this writing pairs with the amusing tone of Goya’s drawing, which shows a woman who holds a guitar and wears flamboyant dress, much like an actor in a comedy. Thus, in this case, witch does not equal ‘bad’ in such a straightforward way. Instead, witch falls somewhere between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ in the category of wit. FURTHER READING CONCLUSION K L Belkin, Rubens (London: Phaidon, 1998) This essay has presented three different J M Bennett, The Oxford Handbook of stereotypical representations of women Women and Gender in Medieval Europe in The Courtauld Gallery. Each theme or (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, category; saint, mother, and witch, has 2013) been conventionally classed as either ‘good’ or ‘bad’. This process of creating C M Brown; A M Legare, Women, Art, and oppositional categories leads to a Culture in Medieval and Early Renaissance divided and far too simplistic reading of Europe (Turnhout: Brepols, 2013) women’s roles in both society and art. The problematic divisions between ‘good’ J L Carroll and Alison G Stewart, Saints, and ‘bad’ should be explored further, Sinners, and Sisters: Gender and Northern particularly in contemporary society: how Art in Medieval and Early Modern Europe have contemporary artists experimented (Aldershot; Ashgate, 2003) 3 with these stereotypes of saint, mother, and witch? Are perceptions of women R Hughes, Goya (London: Harvill, 2003) of a drawing from the group that is now today simply divided between those known as the Witches and Old Women who are ‘good’ and ‘bad’? Are women L Lorenzi, Witches: Exploring the Album. An old woman holding a guitar still categorised into stereotypes in art? Iconography of the Sorceress and opens her mouth to sing and seems to be Ultimately, we must question how and why Enchantress (Florence: Centro Di, 2005) floating mid-air. Below her, holding her women have been represented as subjects D Petherbridge, Witches & Wicked Bodies nose and gazing up her companion’s skirt, in the past, in order to further complicate (Edinburgh: National Galleries of Scotland, is another woman who could be perceived these categories in the future. Women 2013) as a witch. This classification is due to the both inside and outside art are far more bowl and spoon set to one side of her, multifaceted than ‘good’ or ‘bad’, ‘saints’ M Rubin, Mother of God: A History of the perhaps just used to mix up some potions. or ‘sinners’. Virgin Mary (London: Allen Lane, 2009) When studying this scene more closely, stereotypes of what sets aside ‘bad’ women P C Sutton, et al, The Age of Rubens from ‘good’ women becomes apparent. (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1993)
In visual culture currently, we mostly expect Image 3 (detail) J A Tomlinson, ed., Goya: Images of for a witch to be a ‘white-haired aged crone Francisco de Goya y Lucientes Women (Washington DC: National Gallery clad in black and flying on a broomstick’. Singing and dancing of Art; New Haven: Yale University Press, Although Goya’s portrayal of a witch (Cantar y Bailar), 2002) omits attributes such as a black cat or a 1819-20 broomstick, both women in this drawing fit Brush and black ink on N Toshiharu, Images of Familial Intimacy in paper, with scraping the stereotypical idea of witches in other 23.5 x 14.5 cm Eastern and Western Art (Leiden; Boston: ways. For example, age is an important see cover for full image Brill, 2013)
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 10 04/03/2015 10:44:20 4. REPRESENTATIONS OF WOMEN: AN ART HISTORY
Rachel Hapoienu
EVE’S BODY, IMPROBABLY PROPORTIONED AND FREE FROM HAIR AND IMPERFECTIONS, SUGGESTS THAT CRANACH BASED THE FIGURE ON A SCULPTURE RATHER THAN A LIVE WOMAN...
Until the nineteenth century, women were predominantly portrayed” in art in a religious context, and the most frequently depicted female image was that of the Virgin Mary. Depictions of the nude female body were restricted to scenes from classical mythology, as the paganism of the Greeks and Romans excused their lack of modesty, or in images of Eve, as seen in Lucas Cranach the Elder’s Adam and Eve (1526) [image 1]. In this work Eve’s pose deliberately recalls depictions of the Virgin Mary. Eve’s body, improbably proportioned and free from hair and imperfections, suggests that Cranach based the figure on a marble sculpture rather than a live woman, seeking harmony and beauty rather than anatomical correctness. This was the standard practice in artistic training. Drawing from live female models was not inappropriate for young, male art students. Classical sculptures from antiquity were thought to represent the best and most beautiful aspects of the female form, as determined by ancient artists and philosophers, and were preferable prototypes. By the late sixteenth century, Peter Paul Rubens, the leading painter in the Baroque style, became justly famous across Europe for his religious altarpieces and grandiose historical and mythological scenes. Today, however, he is better known for his preference for depicting fleshy, curvaceous women, so much so that 1 we now refer to such body types as ‘Rubenesque’. The Courtauld owns a Jan Brueghel the Elder, but also because REPRESENTATIONS particularly unique work by Rubens, a it is an unprecedented version of a OF WOMEN portrait of the Family of Jan Brueghel family portrait. Such group images were Image 1 the Elder (1613-15) [see previous page]. commonplace at the time, but would never Lucas Cranach the Elder The painting is special not only because of feature the wife and mother at the centre of Adam and Eve 1526 the intimate nature of the work, presented the composition, as Jan’s wife Catherine is Oil on panel as a gift to his close friend and collaborator, here. She seems to edge her husband out 117.1 x 80.8 cm
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 11 04/03/2015 10:44:21 THE IMPRESSIONIST STYLE, [image 4], finished in 1882. Scholars have speculated widely about the representation OF BRIGHT SCENES AND of the barmaid in this scene. Many think THE ACCENTUATION OF her bare hands imply that she worked as a prostitute on the side, in contrast to the LIGHT PLAYING OVER properly gloved women in the audience. SENSUOUS SURFACES, HAS Conversely, some historians see the BEEN DESCRIBED barmaid as a Virgin Mary type, because her position with palms turned outwards is AS ‘FEMININE’ echoed by many contemporary depictions of the Virgin. Whatever the deeper THE MAN IS LITERALLY meaning behind the work, it is undoubtedly RELEGATED TO THE a commentary on contemporary society, BACKGROUND, OBSCURED and the rapidly changing roles for women in the newly industrialised Paris. IN SHADOWS. THE FOCUS IS CLEARLY ON THE WOMAN...
3 ” La Loge (1874) [image 2], demonstrates this clearly: a man and a woman sit in a theatre box, but the man is literally relegated to the background, obscured in shadows. The focus is clearly on the woman, and the
theatre box quickly became a favourite 4 setting for fellow Impressionists, who realised that it provided the perfect context The Post-Impressionists continued to focus for painting beautiful women on display. predominantly on women in their works. Paul Gauguin is well-known for his sojourns A fellow founding Impressionist, Edgar in the South Pacific, where he sought Degas, famously loved ballerinas, depicting to find an unspoiled Eden far from the them in over 200 works in various media. corruption of European society. Gauguin He explained his fascination, saying, ‘my often complained about the difficulty of chief interest in dancers lies in rendering finding willing female models, so he relied movement and painting pretty clothes’. on his young mistresses to pose for him. However, his representations were not We see this in Nevermore (1897) [image always flattering, as he was a believer 5], in which his teenage paramour appears 2 in the misguided pseudo-science of naked and vulnerable. The composition physiognomy, a method of reading a was likely inspired by a long tradition of of the frame, and she is the one embracing person’s facial features or expression, for reclining nudes in European art, from the children in a protective, dominant clues to their character or social origin. Titian’s Venuses to Ingres’ Odalisque. gesture. There is a practical reason behind Degas’s interest in physiognomy is evident Gauguin’s depictions of Tahitian women this unprecedented dynamic, however, in The Courtauld’s canvas of Two Dancers as naked ‘primitives’, fed into stereotypes Jan was actually a later addition to the on a Stage (1874) [image 3]. These dancers of women of colour in Europe, and he scene. We will never know why he was not in the wings would have been in the chorus, confirmed this aim when he explained in a originally included, but this does explain and therefore probably from working- letter, ‘I wished to suggest by means of a why his wife takes on a central role in the class backgrounds. Degas depicted them simple nude a certain long-lost barbarian painting. Catherine’s position is an anomaly with snub noses and plain faces, which luxury’. His Poèmes barbares, an image of in the otherwise patriarchal family portraits he believed reflected their lower social a nude woman and an imp-like creature, commissioned in the Netherlands in the status and unsophisticated personalities. caused a sensation in England when seventeenth century. He favoured the contrast of such ordinary it was used on a poster for the first features with the finesse and glamorous Post-Impressionist exhibition in 1910. A stark contrast is evident between costumes imposed on these women for these earlier works and those by the performances on stage. Gauguin’s contemporary, Georges Seurat, Impressionists and Post-Impressionists. offered a very different take on the female These revolutionary artists burst onto One of the most enigmatic representations image, in his Young Woman Powdering the art scene in the second half of of a woman at this time is in Edouard Herself (c. 1888-90) [image 6], painted in the nineteenth century, and almost Manet’s Bar at the Folies-Bergères his distinctive style of Pointilism. Modern universally chose women as their subjects. The Impressionist style, of bright scenes and the accentuation of light playing over sensuous surfaces, has been described as ‘feminine’. Pierre Auguste Renoir’s,
THIS PAGE: Image 2 Image 4 Pierre Auguste Renoir Édouard Manet La Loge (Theatre Box) Bar at the Folies-Bergères 1874 1881-82 Oil on canvas Oil on panel 80 x 63.5 cm 96 x 130 cm
Image 3 Image 5 Edgar Degas Paul Gauguin Two Dancers on a Stage Nevermore 1874 1897 Oil on canvas Oil on canvas 5 61.5 x 46 cm 60.5 x 116 cm
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 12 04/03/2015 10:44:25 6
audiences are often surprised to discover that this is a portrait of Seurat’s mistress, Madeleine Knobloch, as her image does not appear very complimentary: she is comically overlarge for the frame, and juxtaposed beside the spindly table and mirror, the composition seems to unkindly emphasize her size. However, art historians think it more likely that Seurat was representing her metaphorical struggle, as a working-class artist’s model trying to fit into an aristocratic world in which she found herself as Seurat’s lover. Her attempts to squeeze into tiny clothes and to mask her face with powder and perfume reveal the difficulties she faced as a woman in trying to assimilate into a new social class, to which she was unaccustomed. Seurat’s Pointilist, or Divisionist technique, reveals a growing tendency towards geometry in painting, in which shapes and forms increasingly took precedence over subject and colour. Amadeo Modigliani’s Female Nude (c. 1916) [image 7] exemplifies the growing tendency to break down the human body into simplified forms. The artist makes no attempt to provide background or context, in order to concentrate solely on the female form. In contrast to Cranach’s modest image of Eve, Modigliani focused on depicting his model’s pubic area in a very realistic manner. It proved a little too true-to-life for local police, as Modigliani’s first and only solo show was shut down after only a few 7 days for being too explicit. Undoubtedly, Modigliani relied on female models to pose for him, but, like Cranach, his women IN CONTRAST TO CRANACH’S MODEST IMAGE OF EVE, are idealised and unrealistic; they have MODIGLIANI FOCUSED ON DEPICTING HIS MODEL’S PUBIC swan-necks and angular mask-like faces, AREA IN A VERY REALISTIC MANNER. IT PROVED A LITTLE with blank or closed eyes. His female nudes are certainly more erotic than their TOO TRUE-TO-LIFE FOR LOCAL POLICE, AS MODIGLIANI’S precedents in Western art, but their lack FIRST AND ONLY SOLO SHOW WAS SHUT DOWN AFTER of expression and narrative means they are still inactive objects, submitting to the ONLY A FEW DAYS FOR BEING TOO EXPLICIT... whim of the artist. acclaim and renown received by their male It is evident that over the centuries, women counterparts. Journalists and scholars increasingly emerged from the shadow of who were willing to express admiration for religion and became a central feature of art female artists often described their style in the public sphere. However, they were as ‘virile’ to make it more palatable. It is THIS PAGE: ” still predominantly painted by men. There therefore clear, that although the depiction Image 6 Image 7 were a few notable female Impressionists, of women changed radically from the Georges Seurat Amadeo Modigliani such as Mary Cassatt, Berthe Morisot fifteenth to the twentieth centuries, they Young Woman Female Nude and Eva Gonzalès. As women, however, still remained objectified by male artists, Powdering Herself c. 1916 they were restricted to domestic scenes c. 1888-90 Oil on canvas who fashioned their images chiefly for the Oil on canvas 92.4 x 59.8 cm of ‘private’ life, and were denied the gratification of the male gaze. 95.5 x 79.5 cm
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 13 04/03/2015 10:44:26 5. ALWAYS THE MODEL NEVER THE ARTIST
Katherine Faulkner
‘WHY HAVE THERE BEEN NO GREAT WOMEN ARTISTS?’
This question seems simple, as Linda Nochlin, feminist art historian,” points out. But if we begin to read the assumptions behind these words we will find the root of the problem spreads across a wide variety of academic disciplines: from history of art, to history, politics, psychology and biology.
Some of the first attempts to determine why there have been no great women artists involved the discovery or rediscovery of underappreciated women artists throughout history, such as the eighteenth-century painter Angelica Kauffmann (1741-1801) – the first woman to be elected to the Royal Academy of Arts when it was founded in Somerset House in 1768 (image 1). Studies of individual women artists are, of course, worthwhile, and enable us to build up an art history of female achievement. Trying to make a place for women in the art historical canon, however, does not get us closer to confronting our original question of why there have been no great women artists.
Another approach to the question is to 1 argue that great art by women artists would look different than art by their the problem is not our concept of what male counterparts. Women’s experience femininity in art is, but with our conception is different from men’s, therefore, art of what art is. An idealistic notion of ALWAYS THE MODEL historians argued, women and men would art as, ‘the direct, personal expression NEVER THE ARTIST create art in different styles. But assuming of individual emotional experience – a Image 1 that men and women would produce translation of personal life into visual Angelica Kauffmann different styles of art can make us see Venus, Cupid and Psyche terms’ still persists in art history, particularly (date unknown 1741-1801) artificial similarities in the work of women in museums and galleries. Making art, Watercolour (grey) on paper artists. Should we search for the ‘subtle however, is often carefully worked out 16.7 x 17.1 cm essence of femininity’ in artworks by Berthe and a self-conscious process, building on Image 2 Morisot and Frida Kahlo, any more than we conventions and systems that have been Charles Joseph Natoire should in the literature of Charlotte Bronte learned through education or long periods Life Class at the and Sylvia Plath? In each case, the stylistic of experimentation. Royal Academy of Painting characteristics of work by women writers and Sculpture 1746 and women artists arise from the period There are no female equivalents of Pen and black ink, grey wash and cultures they lived in, rather than their Rubens, Manet, Cezanne or Picasso who all and watercolour, gender. happened to be born white, middle class 45.3 x 32.2 cm
and male. The status of these ‘Great Artists’ Image 3 Instead of excavating forgotten women underlies our question about women William Etty artists or looking for an essentially feminine artists. The myth of the ‘Great Artist’, Three standing Female style of art, we need to examine the ‘unique, godlike – bearing within his person Nudes, 1815-45 terms of the question to begin to reach a ... a mysterious essence ... called Genius’ Oil on millboard satisfactory answer. As Nochlin explains, – has been part of Western culture for as 53.6 x 44 cm
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 14 04/03/2015 10:44:26 intelligence, opportunity and talent – not divine genius.
Once we have dismissed the notion of the mythical genius of the ‘Great Artist’ we can approach our original question more objectively. Nochlin demonstrates the conditions and institutional barriers to women artists using one simple, but important issue: the availability of the nude model. Since the Renaissance, detailed study and knowledge of the nude model was essential to any artist wanting to pursue a serious career. The ability to represent the human figure convincingly and beautifully was central to the most prestigious category of art – history painting. Life drawing from the nude male (mostly) model was a central part or artistic training in art schools (image 2).
It was almost impossible for women art students to study the nude model at all. Until 1893, women were not allowed to join life-drawing classes at the Royal Academy in London and even then the model was ‘partially draped.’ The importance of studying from the nude can be seen in the large volume of surviving, detailed drawings of the nude studio model existing today, for example William Etty’s studies of male and female nudes in oil and chalk (image 3). This was a crucial stage in the development of an artist from talented beginner to professional artist. Women were deprived of this training and thus prevented from creating the most esteemed forms of art. Women aspiring to be painters found themselves restricted to ‘minor’ categories of art: portraiture, genre painting, landscape or still-life.
The availability of the nude model was 2 just one institutional obstacle in a woman artist’s path, but it is symptomatic of long as there have been artists. Influential philosophers such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault questioned our assumptions about individual achievement and authorship in the late 1960s, but the notion of the ‘Great Artist’ still prevails, particularly in art historical monographs. Often, the talent or genius of the individual is given more importance than the social and institutional systems around him or her, which are considered as mere ‘influences’ or ‘background.’ Men overcome these systems and social conditions thanks to their genius. By this logic, if any woman artist had genius within her, it would have revealed itself. Or, as Nochlin puts it:
‘If ... van Gogh with his fits could make it, why not a woman?’
To dispassionately address the question of why there have been no great women artists, we have to do away with the notion of genius all together. Aptitude can be established so early that it may appear to be ‘natural’ or an innate gift to the casual observer – like Mozart’s debut as a classical musician aged six, or Picasso receiving acclaim for his paintings when he was just fifteen. As psychologists have proved, ability and intelligence are built up, step by step, from when we are babies, coming to fruition earlier in some people than 3 others. Exceptional achievers benefit from
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 15 04/03/2015 10:44:29 IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, DRAWING AND WATERCOLOUR PAINTING WERE ENCOURAGED AS SUITABLE PAST-TIMES FOR YOUNG LADIES. ETIQUETTE MANUALS AND ART CRITICS WARNED YOUNG LADIES NOT TO BE TOO AMBITIOUS OR TO THINK OF ENTERING ART AS A PROFESSION... ” much wider discrimination that prevented women from becoming proficient artists, let alone great ones. Nochlin points out that in other artistic fields, such as literature, women were able to compete with men on far more equal terms. As we have seen, making art requires a specific set of skills, learnt in a particular order, in an institutional environment rather than the home. Whereas, learning to read and write is accessible to almost anyone anywhere and it is possible to practice and develop one’s skill as a writer independently within the home. This is a simplified argument, but it does gives us a clue as to why 4 Virginia Woolf was able to achieve the status of a ‘Great Novelist’, while her sister marriage and motherhood was generally FURTHER READING Vanessa Bell’s paintings do not receive the discouraged. The Pre-Raphaelite artist and Roland Barthes, ‘The Death of the Author’ same level of attention (image 4). poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti promised to (1967): teach his model and lover Elizabeth Siddall www.ubu.com/aspen/aspen5and6/ The ‘lady painter’ was positioned up to draw and paint, but he soon lost interest threeEssays.html#barthes against the ‘Great Artist’. While he was and without a thorough training she was Michel Foucault, ‘What is an Author?’ single-minded and committed, she prevented from making art a professional Twentieth-Century Literary Theory, was accomplished, but frivolous. In career (image 5). Today she looks out at us ed. Vassilis Lambropoulos and David Neal the nineteenth century, drawing and from countless Pre-Raphaelite paintings, Miller (Albany: State University Press of watercolour painting were encouraged but her own jewel-like watercolours are still New York, 1987), pp. 124-42. as suitable past-times for young ladies, a seen by many as minor works. pleasant way to spend afternoons at home. Linda Nochlin, Women, Art and Power and Etiquette manuals and art critics warned Up until the twentieth century, it was seen as highly unconventional for a woman to other Essays (Boulder: Westview, 1989). young ladies not to be too ambitious or to think of entering art as a profession. pursue a career at all, and a career as an artist even more so. It was only by adopting Griselda Pollock and Rozsika Parker, Anything that might divert them from Old Mistresses: Women, Art and Ideology their duties or ‘natural’ desires towards the characteristics of concentration, determination and dedication to ideas (London: I.B. Tauris, 2013). and craftsmanship, usually associated with masculinity, that women were able to succeed in the world of art. As Nochlin stresses, we should examine the institutional or public preconditions for success in the art world, rather than those that come down to the individual. As we have seen, straightforward factors such as the unavailability of nude model to women art students, made it institutionally impossible to achieve excellence or success at the same level of their male counterparts, irrespective or talent or ‘genius’. Image 4 Vanessa Bell A Conversation 1913-16 Oil on canvas 81 x 86.6 cm
Image 5 Dante Gabriel Rossetti Elizabeth Siddal seated at an easel, painting circa 1854-55 5 Graphite on paper 17.7 x 11.8 cm
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 16 04/03/2015 10:44:30 6. MASTER AS MUSE
Nadine Mahoney
My practise as a painter is focused on portraiture, but I do not paint people’s portraits. I’m interested in describing an emotion or state of mind rather than a person. Visits to museums and galleries are a great source of inspiration; I often use old master portraits as a muse for my own paintings, manipulating their sensitivity to the subject and formal structures. The paintings are not copies or reproductions of art historical portraits; they are created from the impressions the paintings make on me. In parallel to my studio practise, I work as an artist educator with The Courtauld Gallery. This has meant spending a lot of time with the collection, during which certain works have stood out and both directly and indirectly influenced my practice.
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Portrait of a Woman (1872-75) by Berthe Morisot (image 1) in The Courtauld collection has inspired several works. I’ve always loved this painting, and still 2 remember my first impression: I saw it as an understated piece in the collection, it the composition, distilling the brush her dress met with the background. Several seemed to be painted in mostly greys and marks and tones into short, continuous, paintings have been made in response to browns, but the longer I looked I begun thick or thin lines. Drawing is a vital tool Morisot’s portrait, and each painting is very to notice the browns had purple tones both in situ in museums and galleries different. within them, and the beige has pinks. and using photocopies in the studio. The The pinks that made up the flowers were process of drawing is not about mimicry, I often work on multiple paintings at once, reflected throughout the canvas. I loved for me it’s a tool to observe and distill and both Pretty in Pink (images 2 and 3) how such a small ornamental detail of the an essence of what interests me in the paintings were made together. Oil paint painting could impact on my perception original. The drawings I made of Morisot’s can take a long time to dry and I prefer to of the painting as a whole. As with most painting mostly engaged with the sense of keep working whilst waiting for paint to dry. works, my exploration of the painting grounding the triangle structure gives to The aluminium painting was in response came from drawing, my sketches explored the composition, and how the contours of to the gaze of Morisot’s sitter. In the flesh
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 17 04/03/2015 10:44:32 the background. The formal concerns I WAS INTERESTED IN THE between the foreground and background interested me, and I worked to create FACT THAT MORISOT’S a subtle yet direct distinction between SISTER POSED FOR THIS them. I make my own oil and waterbased paints, which allow a playful approach to PAINTING BUT SHE WAS manipulating material. This is especially NOT THE SUBJECT OF THE the case when exploring mat and glossy PAINTING... tones of a single colour. My memory of the nuances of pinks in Moritot’s palette was translated into working with a vibrant pink pigment, oil was mixed into the pigment parts of the surface to react whilst working for the figure and an acrylic binder for the on them. The oval format also refers to background. The bold monotone palate ” history of portraiture; the shape, material was created to juxtapose the sense of and scale of Sundae relates to lockets - in nostalgia the figure evoked. particular their sentimentality. Sundea (image 4) took inspiration from References can also be indirect, and this the sentiment behind the painting rather article offered the opportunity to review than its formal qualities. Although a the influence of The Courtauld collection. portrait, there was no clear identity to 3 Although Once More with Feeling (OMWF) which woman ‘portrait of a woman’ was (image 5) was not based on a portrait in the about. I was interested in the fact that there was something quite confrontational gallery, with hindsight I identified several Morisot’s sister posed for this painting but about her despite her scale. I felt that ways it related to Bonnard paintings in the she was not the subject of the painting. My the pink on aluminium responded to the gallery. sensation of being looked at. This piece practice is often steered towards arenas also explores surface textures, although where identity is open to discussion, so depicting her face, the texture of her dress the notion that this was a portrait of a was in my mind whilst manipulating the woman without a prescribed personality paint over the panel. The marks that make or character resonated with me. After up her features were inspired by observing working on various sketches depicting the folds of fabric in Morisot’s painting. women, a detailed drawing was traced Many of my works are built of multiple onto copper then obscured by textured layers, but this piece was made with one paint, to create the effect of a passing of thick coat, I purposely ground the oil paint time or incomplete memory. Copper is into an impasto (thick paste) to provide a such an exciting material to work with, it surface to draw and scrape into. is a beautiful colour to respond to and if uncoated it oxidizes to create wonderful With the canvas painting, I wanted to patinas. I use these natural qualities of explore the edges of where the dress met copper as much as possible, and allow
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I always start with a source image, OMWF responded to ‘Study of a little Girl, seated’ by Wenceslaus Hollar. I had seen this drawing at UCL’ s Art Museum, and loved how delicate yet bold the drawing was. My initial drawings focused on the simplicity of the composition, her hands and face were the main focus. She was posed in a traditional/ classical form yet something about her felt so modern. This sense of modernity from the Hollar drawing was the catalyst for my own, my drawings explored a heightened sense of modernity. Most of the details of Hollar’s drawing were edited out during the final painting process; the hands were the only detail that remained. It took a while to create the right intensity of her state, and as no other depiction of her features had the right impact I ended up working very fast bold gestural marks across the face. I work in a very intuitive way making decisions following my instinct with no direct reference material. Which is why I was so amazed to see then similarities of tone and gesture of Bonnard’s works. It was surprising to see what a powerful yet implicit influenceYoung Woman in an Interior (c. 1906) (image 6) and Pont de la Concorde (currently on display in The Courtauld Gallery) had made. After revisiting the collection, I noticed unintentional yet clear links between the 4 blue wall in ‘woman in an interior’ and
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 18 04/03/2015 10:44:32 the background of OMWF. The layering and juxtaposition of blues, greens and purples from ‘River Seine in Paris’ felt very reminiscent of the palette in OMWF. Bonnard is one of my favorite painters in the gallery, I am always impressed how their initial naturalistic appearance fades to such dynamic and rich tonal contrasts.
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Drawing has previously just been a thinking tool in the studio, but over the last year I have placed greater significance on their output, developing them into coherent works in their own right. The drawing below (image 7) is one of my favourites: and is based on the daughter from Peter Paul Rubens, Family of Jan Brueghel the Elder (1613-15) (see chapter 3 for image). Without being propped up by her mother, her body contorts unnaturally, giving a lovely dynamic pose. Taking her out of context allowed an initial ownership of the image, 8 which was expanded by a personal style of drawing. Various fluid sketchy drawings Unlike exquisite corpse drawings, these were made, editing Rubens figure to create forms felt very natural blurring the lines a subtle impression of the girl without between real and imagined figures. making it feel ghostly. Working fast has its Manet’s barmaid is so iconic, yet she is merits, but it is very easy to overwork an rarely identified. The second drawing image. When working with oil paint there is a combination of Goya portraits. is a greater possibility to undo unwanted The drawings take a playful approach marks but this style of drawing needs to be to perception and memory, they are right the first time, finding that balance can perceived as historical but rather than be frustrating, but very rewarding when it being recognisable they evoke a sense works. of implacable familiarity. This sense of ‘familiarity ’ is one reason why I continue to reference old masters; I’m fascinated how their images are embedded within our cultural memories.
MASTER AS MUSE 9 Image 1 Image 6 Berthe Morisot Pierre Bonnard a series of simple line drawings of my Portrait of a Woman Young Woman in an Interior favourite old master portraits, divided them 1872-75 c. 1906 Oil on canvas up, and reformed them to create a series Oil on canvas 56 x 46.1 cm 48.9 x 44. 5 cm 7 of art historical Frankensteins. The first example here (image 8) is a fusion of the Image 2 + 3 Image 7 + 8 Nadine Mahoney Last summer I made a playful series of barmaid in Manet’s A Bar at Foliès Bergère Nadine Mahoney Pretty in Pink untitled drawing drawings for the Art Car Boot Fair (a (1882) (see chapter 4 for image) and the Image 9: summer art fair that allows visitors to figure ofDon Franciso de Saavedra as Image 4 Nadine Mahoney Francisco de Goya y Lucientes view and buy art in a fun and informal portrayed by Goya (image 9). Working with Sundea Portrait of Don Francisco de Saavedra way). I wanted to create something fun multiple figures scattered indiscriminately 1798 and accessible for the fair and in keeping throughout Art History, this series Image 5 Oil on canvas Nadine Mahoney 200.2 x 119.6 cm with my practice. Taking my lead from the surprisingly came very naturally as many Once More With Feeling Exquisite Corpse style of drawing, I made figures fused wonderfully together. (OMWF) All images © the Artist
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 19 04/03/2015 10:44:34 7. REGARDE! LAS MUJERES RESPETABLES DE COURTAULD Spanish Language resource
Spanish translation: Leticia Blanco
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Al caminar por las habitaciones de The Haystacks (ilustración 3) (mujeres de como la mujer tahitiana de Gauguin la galería Courtauld dedicadas al una clase social muy diferente) comparten o Suzon o Nini, cuya piel destaca en Impresionismo y al Posimpresionismo, un elemento crucial de respetabilidad: sus los colores que las rodean, resaltando los y las visitantes suelen encontrarse ropas modestas. Todas visten ropas que así el cuerpo expuesto. La joven de frente a muchas obras que representan cubren sus cuerpos por completo, sólo las Gauguin en Nevermore está tumbada mujeres. Suzon, la camarera en Bar at manos y la cara quedan al descubierto. en una cama, desnuda y con una postura the Folies-Bergere de Manet (véase el Incluso el busto de Mette incluye los provocadora, mostrando claramente capítulo 4) expuesta normalmente en volantes de un cuello alto, que le taparía pechos y vello púbico. Está mirando de el centro de la habitación 6, a menudo el cuello y la parte superior del pecho y las modo amenazador a los dos personajes del es comparada con Nini, la mujer en La labradoras bretonas llevan mangas y faldas fondo, que parecen estar hablando de ella. Loge de Renoir (véase el capítulo 4), con largas, a pesar de la incomodidad que Es su mirada amenazante y la presencia de la joven de las pinturas Nevermore de supondría para el intenso esfuerzo físico esta otra gente lo que hace de este cuadro Gauguin (véase el capítulo 4) y con Portrait que realizaban. Cuando no están retratadas una obra incómoda de observar, sugiriendo of a Woman de Berthe Morisot (véase el por detrás o de lejos, todas aparecen con posiblemente que ella es una prostituta. capítulo 6). A primera vista, estas obras posturas recatadas. La modelo de Morisot Esta misma dinámica de una mujer parecen representar dos tipos de mujer: (probablemente su propia hermana) viste desnuda rodeada de hombres vestidos la respetable y la perdida. Por un lado, ropas de colores muy suaves, extendidas había escandalizado a los espectadores las mujeres respetables como la modelo en capas que tapan toda la piel y lleva una en Paris 30 años antes, en Dejeuner sur de Berthe Morisot, la mujer de Monet joya muy discreta y propia de la perfecta y L’herbe de Manet (véase el capítulo 1) pintada por Manet en The Banks of the respetable mujer burguesa, de gesto suave (también expuesto en la colección de River Seine at Argenteuil (ilustración 1), el y mirada viva pero no desafiante. Courtald). busto de mármol que Gauguin esculpió de su mujer Mette (ilustración 2) e incluso las En claro contraste nos encontramos, por Cuando examinamos a Suzon en Bar at labradoras en el paisaje bretón de Gauguin otro lado, con personajes más audaces the Folies-Bergere y a Nini en La Loge,
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 20 04/03/2015 10:44:36 INCLUSO EL BUSTO DE METTE INCLUYE LOS VOLANTES DE UN CUELLO ALTO, QUE LE TAPARÍA EL CUELLO Y LA PARTE SUPERIOR...
nos vemos en la necesidad” de analizar sus ropas y sus posturas en las pinturas, especialmente dadas las expresiones de aburrimiento, cansancio o desesperanza de sus caras. Ambas visten de manera seductora, llevan camisas o vestidos escotados, lo que iría en contra del código de vestimenta respetable de la época. Ambas además llaman la atención sobre sí mismas: Nini a través de su opulento y caro vestido y sus joyas brillantes, Suzon con un brazalete de oro en el brazo derecho que aparentemente, en el París de 1880 daba a entender que no estaba casada. Es más, Suzon está trabajando en un lugar de decadencia, donde el alcohol y el entretenimiento están a disposición de cualquiera, lo que sugiere que al tiempo que vende bebidas, podría estar vendiéndose a sí misma. En ninguno de los dos casos queda claro el estado civil de estas mujeres. Nini está acompañada por un hombre que no parece su marido, ya que está ocupado mirando a otra parte, posiblemente a otra mujer. La moral de este momento dictaba que las mujeres no debían ser vistas a solas con hombres con los que no tenían parentesco, lo que parece otro modo de poner en duda la respetabilidad de Nini y Suzon en las pinturas.
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posara para una mujer. Esta es una de las parecida a la de sus colegas masculinos, razones por las que las artistas mujeres que recibían clases en lugares diferentes. solían representar temas femeninos A finales de siglo, algunas de ellas también tradicionales como la maternidad o la empezaron a enseñar en estas academias. vida doméstica, y no solo porque se La sociedad aun prescribía que solo consideraban temas más apropiados, sino los hombres podían vivir del arte, pero además porque era más fácil para ellas unas pocas mujeres consiguieron vender conseguir modelos femeninos que posaran sus obras y que se las comisionaran. para sus composiciones. Los críticos de Obtuvieron premios en el Salón y artistas esos años a menudo desestimaban el como Rosa Bonheur, Louise Breslau y arte de estas artistas por ser demasiado Virginie Demont-Breton recibieron la “femenino” y sin interés. A pesar de esto, Légion d’honneur. Esto allanaría el camino artistas famosas como Berthe Morisot del reconocimiento a otras artistas mujeres o Mary Cassatt se ganaron el derecho a a principios del siglo XX. ser reconocidas en los libros de Historia del Arte. Durante el siglo XIX en Francia, el papel de las mujeres fue ganando 3 importancia en el mundo del arte. Fueron admitidas por primera vez en la Real Ambas fueron retratadas por artistas Academia Francesa a finales del siglo XVIII, LAS MUJERES RESPETABLES DE COURTAULD hombres y, aunque la mirada masculina y expusieron cada vez más en la sección Ilustración 1 parece sentir simpatía por ambas mujeres, oficial del Salón anual de París. En 1890, Edouard Manet Ilustración 3 Banks of the Seine Paul Gauguin aparecen marcadas por su soledad. más de un 15% de obras expuestas eran de at Argenteuil The Haystacks mujeres. 1874 1889 Las mujeres artistas del siglo XIX rara Óleo sobre lienzo Óleo sobre lienzo vez pintaban a hombres solos, ya que Para la segunda mitad de siglo, las mujeres 62.3 x 103 cm 92 x 73.3 cm la moral predominante dictaba que no se estaban creando una reputación en el Ilustración 2 Ilustración 4 debían retratar a ningún hombre que no mundo del arte. Al formarse en estudios Paul Gauguin Édouard Manet perteneciera a su familia o a su círculo de artistas (masculinos) famosos, como Portrait of Mette Gauguin Déjeuner sur l’herbe 1877 c. 1863-68 profesional. Habría sido, de hecho, la Académie Colarossi o la Académie Mármol Óleo sobre lienzo bastante escandaloso que un hombre Julian, se beneficiaron de una formación 34 x 26.5 x 18.5 cm 89.5 x 116.5 cm
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 21 04/03/2015 10:44:39 7. REGARDE! RESPECTABLE COURTAULD WOMEN Spanish Language resource
Alice Odin
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When walking through the Impressionist (image 3): their modest clothing. All are contrast to the colours surrounding them, and Post-Impressionist rooms of the wearing clothes that fully cover their therefore emphasising their exposed flesh. Courtauld gallery, visitors are often faced bodies, where only hands and faces are Gauguin’s young woman in Nevermore, with many works representing women. left bare. Even Mette’s bust includes the is lying entirely and provocatively naked Suzon, the waitress in Manet’s Bar at the frills of a high collar, which would have on a bed with her breasts and pubic hair Folies-Bergere (1882) (see chapter 4) hidden her throat and upper chest and clearly on show. She is glancing menacingly usually hung in the middle of room 6, can the Breton labourers are wearing long at the two characters in the background, often be compared with Nini, the woman sleeves and long dresses, regardless of who seem to be talking about her. It is from Renoir’s La Loge (see chapter 4), the how inconvenient it must have been with her menacing glance, and the presence young woman in Gauguin’s Nevermore their intense physical effort. When not of other people that make this painting painting (see chapter 4) and Berthe painted from behind or afar, all are also uncomfortable to look at, and possibly Morisot’s Portrait of a Woman (see chapter depicted in demure poses. Morisot’s model suggests she may have been a prostitute. 6). At a quick glance, these works seem (possibly her own sister) wearing very soft This same dynamic of a naked woman to represent two types of women: the coloured clothes, layered up to hide any surrounded by clothed men, had already respectable and the fallen woman. On the area of bare skin, and what looks like very shocked audiences in Paris over 30 years one hand, the respectable women such sensible and discreet jewellery embodies previously in Manet’s Dejeuner sur L’herbe as Berthe Morisot’s model, Monet’s wife the perfect respectable bourgeois woman, (see chapter 1) (also on display in the depicted in Manet’s The Banks of the River with soft facial expressions and a lively yet Courtauld collection). Seine at Argenteuil (image 1), Gauguin’s not defiant gaze. marble bust of his wife Mette (image 2) and Examining Suzon in the Bar at the even the labouring women in Gauguin’s This is in sharp contrast, on the other Folies-Bergere and Nini in La Loge, we are Bretton landscape The Haystacks (who are hand, to more audacious characters, such drawn to analyse their clothes and their from a very different social background) as Gauguin’s Tahitian woman or Suzon or position in the paintings, especially as share one crucial element of respectability Nini, whose skins are depicted in sharp their faces express boredom, tiredness or
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 22 04/03/2015 10:44:40 EVEN METTE’S BUST INCLUDES THE FRILLS OF A HIGH COLLAR, WHICH WOULD HAVE HIDDEN HER THROAT AND UPPER CHEST... ” despair. They are both dressed seductively, wearing low cut tops or dresses, which would have been against the respectable code of clothing at the time. They are both also drawing attention to themselves: Nini through her opulent dress and expensive, bright jewellery, Suzon through the gold bangle on her right arm which apparently, in 1880s Paris, signalled her unmarried status. Furthermore, Suzon is working in a place of decadence, where alcohol and entertainment are readily available, hence the suggestion that she might have been selling herself as well as drinks. In both cases, their marital statuses aren’t clear. Nini is accompanied by a man who doesn’t seem to be her husband, as he is busy looking elsewhere, possibly at other women. Morals of the time dictated that women shouldn’t be seen on their own with men to whom they were not related, which is another way in which Nini and Suzon’s respectability is being questioned in the paintings.
Both were portrayed by male artists, and while their masculine gaze seem to feel sympathy for both women, they are both singled out by their loneliness.
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compositions. Critics of the time often Louise Breslau and Virginie Demont-Breton dismissed females artists’ art as too received the Légion d’honneur. This would ‘feminine’ and uninteresting, nevertheless, pave the way for female artists to be much famous artists such as Berthe Morisot or more widely recognised at the beginning Mary Cassatt have since been rightfully of the twentieth century. recognised in art history books. In fact, throughout the nineteenth century in France, women played a growing role in the art world. Women were first admitted at the French Royal Academy at the end of the eighteenth century, and gradually exhibited in larger numbers at the annual official Paris Salon; by 1890, women accounted for over fifteen percent of the works displayed there. 3 By the second half of the century, women Women artists in the nineteenth century artists were establishing reputable art seldom represented men on their own, as practices. Studying mainly in famous the prevailing moral order dictated they (male) artists’ private studios, such as the RESPECTABLE COURTAULD WOMEN shouldn’t depict a man, outside of his Académie Colarossi or the Académie Image 1 family or his professional circle. It would Julian, they benefitted from similar Edouard Manet Image 3 Banks of the Seine Paul Gauguin indeed have been rather scandalous for a trainings to their male counterparts, who at Argenteuil The Haystacks woman artist to have a man pose for them. were taught on separate floors. By the 1874 1889 This is one of the reasons why women end of the century, a few of them also Oil on canvas Oil on canvas artists often depicted more traditional started teaching in academies. Society 62.3 x 103 cm 92 x 73.3 cm female themes such as motherhood still dictated that only male artists could Image 2 Image 4 and domesticity, not only because they make a living out of art, but a few women Paul Gauguin Édouard Manet were deemed more suitable themes, artists managed to sell and have works Portrait of Mette Gauguin Déjeuner sur l’herbe 1877 c. 1863-68 but also because it was easier for them commissioned. A few obtained prizes at the Marble Oil on canvas to get female models to pose for their Salon, while artists such as Rosa Bonheur, 34 x 26.5 x 18.5 cm 89.5 x 116.5 cm
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 23 04/03/2015 10:44:42 8: GLOSSARY
ABSOLUTE MONARCHY: the 7th-8th century BC, and to send with FORMAL STRUCTURES: A form of government in which the the rise of Christianity and decline of the Artistic term describing the appearance monarch has absolute power among his Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. and or placement of objects in a painting. or her subjects. An absolute monarch has unrestricted political power over the state CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT: FRENCH REVOLUTION: and its people. A form of government defined by the Also called the Revolution of 1789, the existence of a constitution – usually a set revolutionary movement that took place in ABSTRACTION: of principles generally accepted as the France between 1787 and 1799, reaching In this context, works of art where the fundamental law of the people – which a climax in 1789. The Revolution ended representation and imitation of objects and effectively controls the way political power the rule of the French monarchy and saw forms from the real world is secondary to is exercised. the beginning of the formation of a new the exploration of colour, shape and line. democratic republic. DEVOTIONAL IMAGE: ANTIQUITY: An image that shows a figure or narrative GENRE PAINTING: the ancient past, especially the period scene from a religious context in order to Paintings of subjects from everyday life, of classical and other human civilisations promote prayer or spiritual meditation in usually on a small scale. before the Middle Ages. the viewer. HISTORY PAINTING: ATTRIBUTES: EXQUISITE CORPSE: Paintings with subject matter drawn from In this case, an attribute is an object or A collection of words or images assembled classical history, mythology and the Bible, animal associated with a particular person. in a specific sequence. Also known as also used in the eighteenth century to refer picture consequences where a group each to more recent historical subjects. AUTHORSHIP: take a turn to draw a body part creating a Both Barthes and Foucault agreed that single figure. IMMACULATE CONCEPTION: the “Author” is an unnatural, historical This is a dogma of the Catholic Church phenomenon that has obtained similar FETISHISATION: which stresses that Mary became pregnant heroic status to ‘genius.’ Both writers A term from psychology, particularly the with Jesus although she remained a virgin. sought to criticise and complicate the writing of Sigmund Freud, where the notion of the author, but they did this in subject forms an erotic attachment to an IMPASTO: different ways. inanimate object (i.e. shoe fetish) or to a Painting technique, where paint is applied part of the human body. in a thick paste. BAROQUE: A style of art popular in the seventeenth century, characterised by heavy, ornate decoration, and an emphasis on emotional and dramatic narratives with a strong contrast between light and dark scenes.
BOURGEOIS SOCIETY: A social order dominated by the middle class, first defined by the political and economic philosopher Karl Marx in the nineteenth century. ‘Bourgeois’ or ‘bourgeoisie’ is often used in a pejorative way to denote small-mindedness, materialism and a concern for social respectability.
CANON: A body of works of art that have been traditionally accepted by scholars and curators as the most important and most influential in Western art history.
CLASSICAL: Relating to or inspired by ancient Greek or Roman literature, art or culture. The classical period is often taken to begin 1 with the earliest poetry of Homer, around
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 24 04/03/2015 10:44:43 IMPRESSIONIST: An artist who took part in the nineteenth- century art movement that originated with a group of Paris-based artists that chose to break away from the traditional style of painting taught at the Fine Art school (École des Beaux-Arts). The name came from the title of Monet’s 1873 painting Impression, Sunrise, shown at the first group show n 1874, and the artists involved were interested in depicting their impression of the world around them, from landscapes to modern social activity, often in a style that was considered sketchy.
INQUISITION: The Spanish Inquisition began in the 15th century to make sure Catholic orthodoxy was upheld in the Spanish kingdoms.
MODERNISM: Modern character or quality of thought, expression, or technique. A style or movement in the arts that aims to depart significantly from classical and traditional forms.
MODERNITY: A way of thinking or being that is particularly modern.
MONOGRAPH: A detailed study, usually a book or exhibition catalogue, on a single artist.
MUSE: Source of inspiration for a creative person such as a writer or artist - typically female.
MYTHOLOGICAL: relating to, based on or appearing in myths, usually of ancient Greek or Roman origin. The term can be used to mean something that is made up or based on a story or the imagination as opposed to documented fact.
NORTHERN RENAISSANCE: The Northern Renaissance is a period in art history roughly from 1430 to 1580. In art terms the ‘north’ could mean anywhere in Europe but outside of Italy. The Northern Renaissance was mainly based in the Netherlands and Germany and dealt with breakthroughs in oil painting and printmaking.
OLD MASTERS: Great artist of former times, usually European between 1300-1700.
PAGANISM: a broad term typically pertaining to indigenous and historical religious traditions, and primarily those of cultures known to the classical world, as opposed to Christian society.
PANEL: Material support to paint on normally made of wood or metal.
GLOSSARY Image 2 (detail) Image 1 Charles Joseph Natoire Édouard Manet Life Class at the Bar at the Folies-Bergères Royal Academy of Painting 1881-82 and Sculpture Oil on panel 1746 96 x 130 cm Pen and black ink, grey wash 2 and watercolour, 45.3 x 32.2 cm
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PARTIALLY DRAPED: POINTILISM: France. The style is characterised by its The model would be partly covered with a style of painting in France in the asymmetry and naturalism and often cloth or drapery to preserve the model’s nineteenth century which was created out features shell-like and watery forms. modesty. of small spots of pure colour, which were intended to coalesce into an unblemished ROMANTICISM: PATINA: image when seen from a specified distance. A cultural and intellectual tendency that A thin greenish layer, usually basic copper emerged in the late eighteenth and early sulfate, that forms on copper or copper POST-IMPRESSIONIST: nineteenth centuries in art and literature. alloys, such as bronze, as a result of natural a term coined by Roger Fry in 1910 to Essentially, Romanticism involved placing corrosion or chemical treatment. describe artists such as Cézanne, Van intuition and emotion before reason; a Gogh and Gauguin. Literally meaning ‘after belief that there are important areas of PATRIARCHY: Impressionism’, Post-Impressionist painting experience ignored by the rational mind A social system in which the father or uses some of the ideas invented by the and a belief in the general importance oldest male has control and authority over Impressionists but moves on significantly of the individual, the personal and the the family group, and by extension, one in terms of style, being more interested in subjective. or more men will exert control over the the qualities of form and colour than in the community as a whole. accurate representation of subjects. SITTER: A person who sits for a portrait. PATRON: PRE-RAPHAELITE: a person who gives financial or other A society of young artists, founded in THE GAZE: support to a person, organisation, cause or London in 1848, who were opposed to Intense look from a person; a term activity. In art historical writing the term is the aesthetic rules and conventions of the popularised by psychologist Jacques Lacan frequently used to describe the person who Royal Academy. for the anxious state that comes with the commissioned a specific work, or employed awareness that one can be viewed. an artist on a regular basis. PUTTI: Putti are often found in Renaissance TYPE: PHYSIOGNOMY: paintings and are angels or cherubs. a person or thing exemplifying the ideal or a person’s facial features or expression, They often are shown as small, naked defining characteristics of something – a especially when regarded as indicative of boys/ babies with wings. generalised understanding based on group character or social origin. characteristics rather than a specific person. ROCOCO: PIGMENT: A decorative style of the early to A dry powder that provides the colour for mid-eighteenth century, mainly influencing painting. the ornamental arts in Europe, especially
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 26 04/03/2015 10:44:45 9: IMAGE CD Including a list of the images
This CD is a compilation of key images THE CONTENTS OF THIS CD ARE FOR from The Courtauld Gallery’s collection EDUCATION PURPOSES ONLY: and the exhibition GOYA: THE WITCHES Please refer to the copyright statement for AND OLD WOMEN ALBUM related to the reproduction rights. theme ‘Representing Women’. IMAGE CD COPYRIGHT STATEMENT 1. The images contained on the Teaching The Power Point presentation included in Resource CD are for educational purposes the CD aims to contextualise the images only. They should never be used for and relate them to one another. All the commercial or publishing purposes, be images (and an accompanying image sold or otherwise disposed of, reproduced list) are also included individually in the or exhibited in any form or manner ‘images’ folder. (including any exhibition by means of a television broadcast or on the World Wide Web [Internet]) without the express FURTHER DETAILS: permission of the copyright holder, • All images can then be copied or The Courtauld Gallery, London. downloaded: 2. Images should not be manipulated, • PC users: right-click on the image cropped or altered. and select ‘Save Target As…’ Then choose the location to which 3. The copyright in all works of art used you want to save the image. in this resource remains vested with The Courtauld Gallery, London. All rights and permissions granted by The Courtauld • Mac users: control-click on the image Gallery and The Courtauld Institute of Art and select ‘Save Image As…’ Then choose are non-transferable to third parties unless the location at which you want to save the contractually agreed beforehand. image. Please caption all our images with ‘© The Courtauld Gallery, London’.
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All digital images © The Samuel Courtauld Trust, The Courtauld Gallery, London Image 3 (detail) unless otherwise stated. Dante Gabriel Rossetti To download a pdf of this teachers Elizabeth Siddal seated at an easel, painting c.1854-55 resource please visit www.courtauld.ac.uk/ Graphite on paper, 17.7 x 11.8 cm publicprogrammes/onlinelearning
Goya teachers pack v2.indd 27 04/03/2015 10:44:45 TEACHERS’ RESOURCE REPRESENTING WOMEN First Edition
Teachers’ resources are free to teachers, lecturers and other education and learning professionals. To be used for education purposes only. Any redistribution or reproduction of any materials herein is strictly prohibited.
Sarah Green Programme Manager - Gallery Learning Courtauld Institute of Art Somerset House, Strand LONDON, WC2R 0RN 0207 848 2705 [email protected]
All details correct at time of going to press
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