Academic Study on the Potential Nexus Between Corruption and Migration: The Case of Forced and Irregular Migrants in Sweden
Iryna Mikhnovets
Research Fellow IACA
IACA RESEARCH PAPER SERIES NO. 08
September 2018
IACARESEARCH &SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL ANTI-CORRUPTION ACADEMY
RESEARCH PAPER SERIES NO. 08
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International Anti-Corruption Academy (IACA) Muenchendorfer Str. 2 2361 Laxenburg AUSTRIA +43 (0)2236 710 718 100 www.iaca.int [email protected]
Laxenburg 2018
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Abstract
In the aftermath of the Arab Spring movement and the Syrian crisis one of the biggest migration crises in European history brought new challenges to the member states of the European Union. There were thousands of forced and irregular migrants who searched for asylum in many countries in Europe and many of them reached the borders of the European Union through illegal facilitation where corruption played a decisive role. This article explores the nexus between corruption and forced and irregular migration, and whether migration can potentially lead to the transfer of corrupt practices through the analysis of the case of irregular and forced migrants in Sweden. This qualitative study includes the outcomes of theoretical and empirical research and provides an analysis of the case of irregular and forced migrants in Sweden through the perspective of public servants and municipal workers who deal with these groups of migrants. Taking into consideration the fact that the research on the nexus between migration and corruption has a scarce character, this study adds to the existing research by focusing particularly on the actual experiences and observations of public servants and municipal workers in Sweden who work with migrants in this country of migrants’ destination.
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Contents
1. Introduction ...... 4 2. Migrants, migration and corruption: an overview ...... 6 2.1 Migration at a glance ...... 6 2.2 Migrants’ groups in focus ...... 6 2.3 Migration as a tool of profit and its connection to corruption ...... 7 2.4 Main travel routes ...... 8 3. Methodology and material ...... 9 3.1 The choice of the method ...... 9 3.2 Sampling procedure: the choice of participants in the study and conduction of interviews ...... 9 3.3 The choice of interview and type of questions ...... 10 3.4 Data analysis ...... 10 4. Literature review ...... 12 5. Analysis ...... 15 5.1 Countries in focus ...... 15 5.2 Openness against corruption ...... 18 5.3 Corruption and the decision to migrate ...... 19 5.4 Beyond the democratic wall: what public servants know? ...... 20 5.5 Reaching a safe heaven ...... 21 5.6 Does corruption know no borders? ...... 22 5.7 Vicious circle ...... 23 5.8 Migrants and unlawful influence ...... 24 5.9 Corruption as a delicate topic ...... 25 5.10 When the ethnic norms clash ...... 26 5.11 Migration and corruption: the local glimpse ...... 26 5.12 To cure the incurable ...... 28 6. Conclusion ...... 30 Reference list ...... 32
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1. Introduction
The European Union (EU) became Sweden, the United Kingdom, and Norway, attractive for third country national amongst others (Brekke, et al., 2014, immigrants several decades ago, for pp.146, 154). example, labor migrants; immigrants from former EU countries´ colonies; and those The lack of a common, clearly defined, migrants who immigrated to the EU integration policy within the Eurozone for through family reunion programs. a number of decades with regards to the different groups of immigrants into the EU The rise of the Arab Spring movement and has led to the national and sub-national the beginning of the Syrian conflict started responsibility for accepting and in 2011, less than two years after the integrating large flows of immigrants beginning of the Eurozone crisis while EU (OECD, 2015b, p.300). countries were still coping with the aftermath of financial cuts. Additionally, the lack of common policy has also changed the views of many Soon after 2011 a number of military European citizens in a once multicultural, conflicts, together with weakened inclusive and democratic “European democracy as well as political and home.” It has resulted in the creation of a economic instability in war-affected areas, differentiation between “first” and reinforced a new flow of forced and “secondary” migration countries that has irregular migrants to Europe with a large also produced an impact on the refugees´ influx in 2015 when the European integration prospects as it has become community faced an unexpected interconnected with the place in the EU integration challenge with almost 1.2 where they stay (Baker, 2017). Such a million people applying for asylum in EU differentiation has also made many countries that year (Eurostat, 2016a). In European countries redefine and fact, 333 350 asylum seekers were reconsider their national immigration and granted protection status in 2015 in integration policies. various EU countries (Eurostat, 2016b). With the rapid development of the This “refugee crisis” became one of the “refugee crisis“ in the EU since 2011, there biggest in European history and coincided are more and more forced and irregular with the continuing Eurozone crisis, immigrants starting to choose more heavily affecting the immigrants´ first realistic but riskier ways to reach Europe destination countries that had already in parallel with the known and safer routes dramatically suffered from the financial through family reunion or refugee crisis, such as Greece and Italy, which resettlement programs (Siegel, 2015). consequently made other countries share Behind these risky routes is not only life the burden (Caporaso, 2017). Thus, threatening dangers that await immigrants significant differences in welfare but also the occurrence of wide-spread provisions and reception programmes corruption that plays a significant role became decisive factors for many throughout the process of immigrants’ immigrants joining the secondary migrant journey and can affect immigrants even in movement within the European Economic the country of destination. Area (EEA) and seeking asylum in countries of “secondary migration” such as 4
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According to a Europol report in 2016, The case of forced and irregular migrants almost 90% of the refugees who arrived in who came to Sweden after the beginning Europe during one of the biggest refugee of the Syrian crisis and the Arab Spring crises in history reached their countries of movement in 2011, which brought one of destination through the illegal operations the highest migration influxes in of human smugglers (Europol, 2016, pp.2, Sweden´s history, has been chosen for 5). In fact, almost 2.2 million individuals this study that includes the outcomes of were found to be illegally present within both theoretical and empirical research. the EU borders in 2015 alone (European This study will be investigated through the Parliament, 2017b). 439 505 migrants in perspective of the Swedish public servants 2017 were denied the ability to cross and municipal workers who deal with this external borders of the EU (ibid.). These group of migrants. statistics from official reports demonstrate that migrants´ travelling to Europe often In the following pages, a broader overview have an illegal nature and, as a on migrants´ typology and connection consequence, can be linked to potential between migration and the international corrupt activities that may occur at operation of criminals that is maintained different stages of migrants´ journey. by broad corrupt activities will be given. Therefore, the purpose of the given Then, the description of methodology academic study is twofold as it aims to applied in this study and an analysis of identify the nexus between migration and previous research that is touching on corruption during forced and irregular problems relevant to this study are migrants´ migration journey to and in the provided. The next section presents the country of destination, distinguished by results of the study and its discussion. The democracy, the rule of law and last part of the article presents the transparency. May migration have a role summary of the main findings and the of a potential channel for corruption to be conclusion. transferred?
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2. Migrants, migration and corruption: an overview
2.1 Migration at a glance contributed 7% of first-time asylum applications (ibid.). Lastly, Nigerian and Historically, migration flows to the modern Pakistani citizens make up 6% and 5% of territory of the EU have been formed by a the total amount of first- time asylum number of nationalities that have arrived applications respectively (ibid.). during different time periods. In the 1950’s during the postwar period, more Syria, Afghanistan and Iraq are known on industrialised countries in the north of the international arena as countries where Europe attracted migrants from the many civilians are threatened by war; agricultural south (Sturm-Martin, 2014, extremist groups; violations of human p.5). The UK and France have had a long rights; corruption and undermined experience of post-colonial migration democracy (Freedom House, 2018). But during the post-war period (ibid.). Asylum besides the groups of asylum seekers seekers from African, Asian and Latin from these three countries, a large flow of American countries started to arrive at economic migrants from North Africa and European borders in the 1980s and 1990s, Pakistan, places that are currently not the flow of asylum seekers to Europe affected by war, were registered during intensified due to the outbreak of war in 2016 as a part of the “refugee crisis” as the former Yugoslavia, Iraq and asylum seekers in the EU on the pretext of
Afghanistan (Bundy, 2016). Finally, the being refugees (Salim, 2016). escalation of the Syrian crisis in 2011, followed by a number of systematic 2.2 Migrants’ groups in focus conflicts in South Sudan, Afghanistan, Libya and Somalia have brought countless According to the definition provided by flows of asylum seekers to European the European Commission, asylum seekers borders which broke records in European are “individuals who have requested migration history (ibid.). asylum in a formal way in a second country due to a potential life-threatening Over one quarter of all first-time asylum danger existing in their home country” applications in the EU in 2016 were (European Parliament, 2017b). UNHCR individuals from Syria, with individuals defines another group of individuals who from Afghanistan and Iraq in second and came to Europe in the aftermath of the third place respectively (European Syrian conflict as refugees - individuals Parliament, 2017a). Syria has been in first who escape persecution and war conflicts place since 2013 with regards to the total (UNHCR, 2016b). amount of asylum seekers who have travelled to the European border through The definition of forced migration is the Aegean Sea and applied for asylum in closely related to refugee migration and the EU (Eurostat, 2018). implies movement due to life-threating danger caused by natural disasters, armed Nationals from Iraq have contributed 7% of conflicts or famine, amongst other reasons the total amount of first-time asylum (IOM, 2011). Irregular migration, in its applications to the EU and are followed by turn, is connected to illegal migration and Afghan nationals who have also signifies a migration movement “that 6
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takes place outside the regulatory norms immigrants’ place of origin, during their of the sending, transit and receiving transit, or at the destination country countries” (ibid.). Irregular migration (UNODC, 2013, p.3). Criminals who are implies entering or staying in the country involved in human smuggling between of destination without legal authorisation countries very often take advantage of and crossing the border of the country of war, conflict, and the misery of migrants origin without administrative permission by offering the illegal facilitation of (ibid.). migration processes based on corrupt practices (OECD, 2015b). Human It is important to note that due to the smuggling and human trafficking are two complexity, size and consequences of the criminal activities that reached their height “refugee crisis” and a prevalent illegal against the backdrop of the European form of thousands of migrants´ entry into “refugee crisis” and built their activities on the EU, the terms of “refugee”, “asylum the recruitment of “clients” - migrants, seeker” and “irregular migrant” became a transferring them through transit routes piece of one chain. Refugees and asylum and delivering them to the country of final seekers, who have been arriving to the EU destination (Shelley, 2014, p.6). However, since 2011, follow the carved routes of despite the presence of corruption in both irregular immigrants and become subject processes, there is a difference between to illegal and corrupt activities of human smuggling and human trafficking. international groups of human smugglers While human smuggling refers to (Prabandari, et al., 2016). According to the immigrants who have a form of agreement new Post-Stockholm Programme adopted with those who facilitate their journey and by the European Council in 2014, which usually become free after they reach the built on the progress of the Stockholm country of destination, human trafficking programme that was designed for justice refers to migrants that are trafficked and and home affairs for the period of 2010- often exposed to slavery if fallen victim to 2014, the term “irregular migration” does their traffickers (Shelley 2014, p.12). not mean necessarily “illegal” in the legal sense, and “irregular migrant” is a migrant According to the OECD definition, who during any point of the migration smuggling immigrants has a transnational process broke migration rules of entry character and always signifies an illegal process or residence (Kostas, 2017 p.424). act (OECD 2015a, p.2). In many cases, those individuals who give their consent to Since 2011, the amount of asylum be smuggled through smugglers´ services seekers, refugees and irregular can also become victims of human immigrants have overshadowed other traffickers, as several interviewees in this groups of migrants such as labour qualitative study have noted. It may occur migrants and those migrants who arrived in situations when the fee for smugglers´ in the EU due to family reunion. Such a services is raised once a migrant has shift in migration focus has also crossed the border of the country of predetermined a change in current origin, or arrived to the country of academic research trajectories. destination. In order to pay off the higher fee that the migrant cannot afford, he or 2.3 Migration as a tool of profit she is often forced to engage in illegal and its connection to labour or to provide sexual services, therefore falling into the category of a corruption victim of human trafficking that does not The process of human smuggling is necessarily have a transnational character maintained by well–organized, corrupt (ibid.). activities originating either in the 7
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In many cases, migration routes used by The sea route that helps migrants to reach human smugglers can originate in and European countries consists of three across countries undermined by long-term different points of entry – the Eastern political or military conflicts, a corrupt Mediterranean with the arrival point in system, a weak rule of law, and the Greece, the Central Mediterranean with the violation of human rights. These factors arrival point in Italy, and the Western provide the basis for wide-spread bribery Mediterranean route with the entry point that can provide an additional income to in Spain (Europol, 2016, p.5). The public servants, border control guards, Northern route via land is another popular police, and immigration officials, amongst route used by smuggling facilitators that other relevant actors during the migrants´ transport irregular and forced migrants to journey (OECD, 2015c, p.3). the EU via Russia with an entry point in Norway (Europol, 2016, p.5). Smuggling of 2015 saw the highest peak in migration migrants by air is considered to be the flow to Europe with around 90% of most expensive way and is rarely used. migrants using facilitation services, However, if it takes place, the support of supported by smugglers in order to reach falsified documents and fake identities Europe, whilst 3-6 billion EUR was the plays a key role in the smuggling process estimated profit associated with (Europol, 2016, p.6). According to the smuggling of migrants in 2015 beyond Europol report 2016 about migrant and within the EU (Europol, 2016, p.13). smuggling in the EU, 44% of criminal The most common services that human groups involved in smuggling to the EU smugglers can offer to those migrants consist of non-EU citizens, 30% of EU- who want to reach the EU by means of nationals and 26% represent a mixed illegal facilitation include illegal group (Europol, 2016, p.7). transportation and accommodation, fake immigration documents and falsified Keeping in mind such a breadth of the identity cards. criminal networks’ geographical dimension, it is worth mentioning that the 2.4 Main travel routes process of trafficking individuals, as well as the smuggling process, will not be as The EU became a highly attractive widespread as it is today without an geographical area for the operation of influence of corruption that originates criminal networks and the development of from cooperation of criminals and corrupt corrupt practices in the aftermath of the officials (OECD 2016, p.7). In some Arab Spring and the Syrian crisis. For a concrete cases corruption can occur, for deeper understanding of the broadness of instance, when migrants need “to get a the irregular migration’s dimension, it is passport (Iraq)…to pay bribe to be put on important to note that these criminal the airplane (Iraq)…pay to local militias networks have created several extensive (mojahedins) to take you out of the smuggling routes over sea, land and air country (Afghanistan), to pay at the that have helped to bring migrants to their boarders of Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan to first and second countries of destination. get out of the countries…” (Interviewee 6).
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3. Methodology and material
3.1 The choice of the method interviewees, representing experts on corruption from academia in Sweden was This academic study is based on the chosen in order to receive a more general qualitative research method that combines perspective on potential challenges that qualitative content analysis and open- the Swedish state may face in relation to ended questionnaires, which have been corruption. chosen as the most suitable as it allows for the study and analysis of the research At the initial stage of the study there were question through the perspective of 54 potential participants with relevant relevant interviewees - public servants and professional background contacted and municipal workers in Sweden, thereby invited for participation in the qualitative enabling the study of what they know questionnaire. As a result, there were 23 about migrants´ subjection to corruption interviewees who expressed their interest during their journey and after arrival to in the study and agreed to participate. The Sweden, and includes interviewees’ own general tendency of cautious and reluctant experiences and observations, based on attitudes towards the topic of the study their professional interaction with was observed during the stage of migrants. The data collection method used communication with potential is considered to be the most suitable for interviewees. However, those interviewees the framework of this study due to its who agreed to participate were of the quickness, flexibility and the short time opinion that this study will be useful and frame given for this research. contribute to existing research on the problem of corruption but they remained 3.2 Sampling procedure: the choice highly concerned about the confidentiality of participants in the study and aspect. conduction of interviews Thus, due to the high sensitivity of the Qualitative content analysis and open- investigated topic, complete anonymity ended anonymous questionnaires create became central during the design of the the methodological basis for this study. anonymous questionnaire and its With the aim of collecting a broader collection that was conducted with the interpretation of the investigated problem, help of internet-based platform Survey the focus of this study is centered on two Planet, which allowed responses to be groups of interviewees chosen with the completely anonymous without providing help of snowball sampling. any potential link to the personal data of The first group of interviewees, the interviewees. Prior to participation, all representing public servants from several the interviewees received a form of public authorities and municipal workers consent that informed them about the with regular or occasional affiliation to the complete anonymity and respectful forced and irregular immigrants in Sweden treatment of the collected data. Questions with between 1 to 28 years of work that may link interviewees with their name, experience related to migration, was age, place of work and profession, chosen with the aim of collecting specific nationality or place of residence were opinions on the potential nexus between excluded from the questionnaire in order corruption and forced and irregular to insure individuals´ complete migration. The second group of anonymity. 9
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Skype interviews were anonymized and 3.4 Data analysis references to anonymous questionnaires and Skype interviews have therefore a The analysis of the data collected between sequence of numbers based on the 11 May-18 June 2018 with the help of 21 numerical order of the received answers. qualitative open-ended web questionnaires In the analytic section of this study, and 2 Skype interviews was conducted participants are called Interviewees. through several stages described below.
3.3 The choice of interview and The first stage included a critical assessment of the responses derived type of questions through 21 anonymous web The anonymous web questionnaire and questionnaires that were conducted by the questionnaire for the Skype interview author of the study with an aim to identify consisted of 17 open-ended questions and and exclude incomplete and irrelevant 3 demographic questions in order to answers. During the second stage of the gather general characteristics of data collection two Skype interviews were Interviewees such as gender, education conducted and summarized in written and years of professional experience documents, which helped to extract the related to migration. The questionnaire´s most relevant information for further content design was based on reviewed analysis. scientific literature and official reports relevant for this academic study. The third stage consisted of necessary Additionally, the questionnaire was comments that were written by the author divided into 3 groups of questions that of this study in relation to the relevant encompassed the Interviewees´ general interview responses. During the fourth perception on migration to Sweden and stage, the author conducted analytical the potential occurrence of corruption reading of all relevant responses with an related to migration in this country, aim to single out all analogous and awareness about corrupt practices that contrasting opinions provided by may occur in the migrants´ country of Interviewees in connection to 3 groups of origin, and corrupt practices during their questions described in the previous migration journey. More narrowly, the section. During this stage the most questions encompassed an awareness important meanings and direct quotations about corrupt behaviour and particular were identified, allowing the author to cases that may occur in the country of focus on the analysis of the relevant destination (in this case Sweden) in literature and the data collected through relation to migrants as well as the questionnaires. presence of anti-corruption prevention Finally, several pairs of questions about mechanisms in Sweden for fighting the occurrence of corruption in migrants´ corruption in the public sector and in country of origin or information about particular, corruption related to migration. countries of migrants´ origin were The questionnaires for experts from generalised, which allowed the author to academia consisted of 3 questions, put more focus on subjective observations focused on the most common types of of Interviewees. As the result, the author corruption that are identified in Sweden could study and assess what Interviewees and the existing anti-corruption know about the potential link between prevention mechanisms. corruption and migration in the country of destination where they affiliate with this target group through work; as well as the occurrence of corruption during a migration journey and whether it can be
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linked to corrupt practices that can occur Interviewees’ quotations rather than even after the journey ends. quotations from academic sources. In those parts of the analysis that focus on It is important to note that during the corruption prior to migrants’ arrival to the analysis of interviewee responses and country of destination (e.g. corruption relevant literature, the lack of previous during the migration journey), the author studies in relation to migration and of this study refers primarily to the corruption in the country of destination existing research and reports found on was observed, creating a significant this problem due to the fact that limitation during the analysis of this Interviewees could provide mainly only particular problem. Hence why a part of their assumptions about this challenge. the analysis was mainly provided by
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4. Literature review
The nexus between corruption and designated countries’ corruption level and migration started to attract the attention suggest that there are potential positive of researchers relatively recently, due to a effects of corruption connected to considerable rise in the influx of migration migration from a more corrupted country to Europe. There were a number of cutting on the designated country that is less edge academic articles found with a focus corrupt. on corruption as a push factor for migration. However, due to the novelty of Åkesson, et al., (2017) focuses on the the debate, a limited number of nexus between corruption and migration statements and studies using the from a different perspective. The authors application of mixed research methods, formulate the hypothesis about the with differing levels of consistency, were potential nexus between corruption and found with regards to the potential nexus migration through the perspective of the between corruption and forced migration. European Self that is perceived as Below a brief overview of these literature developed and non-corrupt while the sources is presented and summarised in Other that is often, on the contrary, less Table 1. developed and corrupt. The reversed processes of migration whereby There were three issues that were of Portuguese nationals have migrated particular interest during the literature during recent years to Angola with the aim review process in this study: of finding better employment or seeking economic opportunities is chosen for the Whether migration can be a channel analysis of the connection between “non- through which corrupt practices may corrupt Self” and the corrupt “Other.” This be transferred, phenomenon counters the one from Whether and how corruption can affect previous years when Angolan nationals migrants during their migration route were inspired to leave their corrupt and to the country of destination, and war-affected country and move to Portugal Whether migrants could be involved in, for better opportunities. Corruption, or subjected to, corrupt practices in according to Åkesson, et al., (2017), is the country of destination when their often presented as a characteristic of a journey ends. less developed global South that is perceived as the Other, compared to the The possibility for corrupt attitudes and Western non-corrupt Self. behaviour to be transferred to the country of destination is discussed by Dimant, et Based on qualitative interviews conducted al. (2014). According to the authors, with Portuguese and Angolans, the despite remaining corrupt behavior that authors illustrate two different migrants from highly corrupted countries perspectives. On one hand, the corrupt might still have in the country of behaviour shown in Angola by Portuguese destination, it is the population´s nationals has a legitimized character that behaviour and institutional regulations in creates more similarities rather than the new country that play a crucial role differences between these two states. On (Dimant, et al.,2014). In addition, the the other hand, Portugal has been authors present a hypothesis about the perceived by the northern European insignificance of migration on a community not as the European Self but as 12
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a corrupt Other. During the “refugee crisis” scarcely mentioned in other studies and is those forced migrants who arrived to valuable for this qualitative paper in Portugal as a first destination country (i.e. several ways. For instance, countries with a country where migrants register for the high levels of corruption, such as Sudan, first time after their arrival) tried to leave are characterized by high levels of the country and reach countries of emigration, whereas countries where secondary migration (i.e. other countries concern about corruption problems is low, of destination where refugees can seek such as Singapore or Switzerland, have protection) such as Sweden and Germany, high levels of immigration. Corruption in due to the access to better integration and connection to migration processes can employment prospects (Radjenovic, 2017). affect states, migrants and communities on the local level in different ways. Finally, The interconnection between cultural the authors highlight the following ways in norms and corrupt behaviour in a foreign which migration and corruption can be country will be discussed further as a part linked: corruption as a facilitating factor of the analysis of collected empirical data for illegal migration, corruption as a in this paper; which was also highlighted hindrance for the development of by Fisman, et al., (2007) in the survey initiatives created by diaspora groups and study about United Nations officials in investments done by migrants that are New York City. It was found that the supported by remittances, corruption in diplomats who come from highly the country of origin as an aspirational corrupted countries collected a higher factor to migrate and a discouraging amount of unpaid parking violation factor to return back, migration as a tickets. A natural tendency in the sustaining tool for corruption, and social diplomats´ behaviour to violate norms and values as a reducing factor for regulations for the sake of private gain in corruption. This last factor has two cases when enforcement is not considered different and contradicting trajectories. On is particularly underlined (ibid). In fact, the one hand, migration from countries those individuals who come from with high corruption to countries with low countries with low levels of corruption do corruption levels can provoke a critical not have a tendency to break the rules in view among migrants about the situation these situations where there would not be in their own country. On the other hand, it legal consequences, and those individuals can have a negative impact by contributing who come from corrupt countries may be to the transfer of corrupt practices or involved in many violations (ibid.). behaviour to the less corrupted destination states (Carling, et al., 2015). Moreover, those diplomats who are sent abroad behave in a similar way to state In addition to the above mentioned officials in their home country irrespective scientific research, there are also three of the level of corruption (ibid.). A similar other reports that are of value for this situation also occurred in Great Britain in paper. The reports “Unlawful influence on the context of electoral fraud when a Swedish Migration Authority personnel” higher tendency for electoral fraud cases (Brå, 2016:14) and “Unlawful influence on was recorded in areas where the public agency personnel” (Brå, 2016:13) community had a mixed ethnic character were conducted by the Swedish National (Carl, 2017). Council for Crime Prevention (Brå) which highlight the subjection to unlawful There is an opinion about the risk of influences, threats or improper offers migration flow becoming a channel experienced by public servants from the through which corruption may be Swedish Migration Agency and a number transferred (Carling, et al., 2015); it is of other public authorities in Sweden with 13
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regards to their clients and authorities´ statistics on the situation of the recent preventive work in such situations. These “refugee crisis” in the EU with a focus on two reports are of value for this paper as smuggling migrants as the primary way they provide an example of existing for facilitating transportation of forced challenges in interactions between and irregular migrants to Europe where individuals with both migrant and non- corrupt practices have played a crucial migrant backgrounds and representatives role. This report is particularly valuable for from the public sector in Sweden. the analysis of empirical data in this study that focuses on migrants who arrived to The third report, “Migrant smuggling in Sweden in the aftermath of the Syrian the EU” (2016) was undertaken by Europol crisis. and provides an accurate summary and
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5. Analysis
There were two main limitations arena for its “principle of publicity” or encountered during the analysis of the transparency principle, and ombudsman collected empirical results. Firstly, the fact system, widely applied in a society that is that there were 31 potential participants often perceived as “the see-through out of 54 contacted in total, who society.” Such openness puts the Swedish expressed an interest in participation, only state on the list of top ten countries with 21 participants had filled in the low levels of corruption and serves as an questionnaire and only 2 participants important tool for the prevention of agreed to participate in a Skype interview, various types of wrong-doing. Sweden is creating a major external limitation. ranked 8 out of 180 on the Corruption Secondly, the analysis of potential corrupt Perceptions Index 2017 (Transparency practices in relation to migrants in the International, 2017). In addition, Sweden country of their origin and during their has been known for decades for its focus migration journey is based on the on humanitarian migration and assumptions provided by Swedish public international humanitarian aid support in servants and municipal workers and developing countries which has placed this reflects only a one-sided opinion as it does state on the list of the world ́s top seven not include the opinion of the migrants humanitarian donors (Sida, 2017). themselves. Interviewee 12 explains more about the Swedish image in relation to migration The empirical foundation of this academic “…Sweden during a long period of time study consists of two elements – has had a good reputation as a serious responses derived from the results of 23 and helpful country when it comes to qualitative interviews, and a qualitative migration.” review of the relevant scientific literature. In fact, 2015 saw Sweden accept the To give a better understanding of the highest number of asylum applications in analysis of collected empirical results, Northern Europe and registered 163 000 based on the perspective of the Swedish asylum seekers from Syria, Afghanistan, public servants; workers from municipal and Iraq along with stateless forced organisations and the experts on migrants (Karageorgiou, 2016). corruption from Swedish academia; broader information about a country – Sweden where the qualitative study was conducted; and information about the most common countries of migrants´ origin that this study mainly focuses on were included in this part of the study.
5.1 Countries in focus
Sweden is a special case on the list of preferred destinations for immigrants in Europe that brings an interesting perspective to this study. First of all, Sweden is well known in the international
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Table 1. Summary of the academic work about the nexus between corruption and migration.
The author and publishing The title Research focus and main arguments year A Crook is a Research focus: migration from a general perspective and corruption. crook…But is he Main arguments: still a crook abroad? 1.) The population´s behaviour and institutional regulations in the country of destination play a crucial role in the Dimant, E., Krieger, T. and On the effect of decrease of corrupt practices in relation to migrants; Redlin, M., 2014 immigration on 2.) The impact of migration on the destination country corruption level is insignificant; destination-country 3.) There is a potential positive effect of corruption connected to migration from a more corrupted country on the corruption. destination country that is less corrupt.
North-South Research focus: Portuguese migrants in Angola. Migration and the Main arguments: Åkesson,L.and Orjuela.,C, Corrupt Other: 1.) North-South migration perspective: non-corrupt European Self and the less developed and more corrupt Other; 2017 practices of bribery 2). Phenomenon of reversed migration: corrupt behaviour of Portuguese nationals in Angola has a legitimized character; among Portuguese 3.) There are more similarities than differences between the European Self and the Other. migrants in Angola.
Research focus: cultural norms and corrupt behaviour in the country of destination (case of United Nations officials in Corruption, norms, New York City). and legal Main arguments: Fisman, R. and Miguel, E., enforcement: 1.) Diplomats from highly corrupted countries conduct more parking violations; 2007 evidence from 2.) Individuals from countries with low levels of corruption do not break the rules in the situations that do not imply diplomatic parking legal consequences, and vice versa; tickets. 3.) Diplomats behave abroad in a similar way to state officials in their country of origin irrespective of the level of corruption.
Research focus: economic and forced migration and corruption. Finding Main arguments: Connections: the 1.) Corruption facilitates illegal migration; Carling, J., Paasche, E. and nexus between 2.) Corruption in the country of origin hinders initiatives of diaspora groups; Siegel., M., 2015 migration and 3.) Corruption in the country of origin aspires to migrate and discourages returning back; corruption. 4.) Migration is a sustaining tool for corruption; 5.) Social norms and values in the country of destination have a two-fold impact on corruption in relation to migrants.
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Research focus: survey with employees from 12 Swedish authorities and 2 unemployment funds during the summer Unlawful influence 2015. The Swedish National Council on public agency Main arguments: for Crime Prevention (Brå), personnel. A follow 1.) The Police Authority and the Migration Agency are the most exposed when it comes to vandalism; 2016:13 up. 2.) The percentage of respondents who received improper offers is greatest at the Migration Agency (7%); 3.) Exposedness to improper friendships is the greatest at the Migration Agency (6%).
Research focus: survey with personnel from Swedish Migration Authority in 2017. Unlawful influence Main arguments: The Swedish National Council on Swedish 1.) One-half of participated employees mentioned exposedness to some form of unlawful influence during the most for Crime Prevention (Brå), Migration Authority recent 18 months; 2016:14. personnel. 2.) Employees are exposed to threats and harassment from applicants; 3.) Improper offers include money, meals of gifts.
Research focus: “refugee crisis” and human smuggling. Main arguments: Migrant smuggling Europol, 2016. 1.) 90% of irregular migrants who arrived to Europe in 2015 used services of human smugglers; in the EU. 2.) 230 locations in and outside EU where illegal facilitation of migrant smuggling occurred were identified; 3.) Corruption is the main facilitator in human smuggling.
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Sweden registered 13% and Germany 30%, 5.2 Openness against corruption respectively, out of all asylum applications in the EU in 2014 (Karageorgiou, 2016). According to the European Commission, Syria, Afghanistan and Iraq are ranked by the principle of public access to Transparency International in 178, 177 information plays an inseparable role in and 169 places, respectively (CPI the legal order, political life in Sweden and Transparency International, 2017). the Swedish constitution (European Additionally, these three countries have Commission, 2014, p.7). This distinctive been undermined by prolonged armed and feature entitles citizens and political conflicts that have also resulted in representatives from the Swedish media to a massive displacement of civilians, access the information about the activities violation of human rights, corruption and of the state and municipality. More a drastic decrease of democracy. Such a specifically, it implies that citizens have a big discrepancy between profiles of the right to read the official documentation of above mentioned countries brings an Swedish public authorities, and state additional challenge of studying corrupt employees are not entitled to hide practices that may potentially occur at any information from those who request it point of a migrants´ stay or movement (ibid.). Furthermore, those individuals who irrespective of the country. are employed by the state have a right to disclose information to the media for In 2013, with an escalation of the Syrian publishing or even to publish information conflict, Sweden became the first country personally, and lastly, the public as well as in the world that started to grant the media in Sweden have a right to visit permanent residence permits to all Syrian the meetings where decision making takes asylum seekers (Scarpa et al., 2018, place (ibid.). Such openness makes the p.199). In 2014, the nationalist party of level of corruption, its perception and Swedish Democrats who promote criticism actual experience, low (European of multiculturalism won 13% in the Commission, 2014, p.3). This factor of Swedish national election, thereby openness in the public sector is important securing third place in Parliament (Groll, for the analysis of this paper, as presence 2014). In 2015, Sweden became the first of openness foresees an easier disclosure country in the EU that introduced identity of potential corrupt practices in relation to and document checks at the border with migration in the country of destination. At Denmark, which had not happened since the same time, according to the the 1950s (Scarpa et al., 2018, p.200). experiences of Interviewees in this study, Such a policy change also contributed to corruption that as well may occur in the strengthening of punishing measures relation to migration takes place in the against human smuggling (ibid.). In country of destination in spite of the addition, after this policy change in presence of such strong anti-corruption permanent residence permits for refugees, tools as openness and transparency. who reached Sweden beyond the common EU refugee quota, were changed into Despite abovementioned characteristics, temporary ones (ibid.). Interviewee 1 the Swedish state has received criticism argued that this change in Sweden with and a number of recommendations from relation to migration might have been the Group of States against Corruption influenced by the right wing party: “… (GRECO) in relation to the improvement of recently, Swedish politics has changed the Swedish institutions´ ability to detect quite a bit. It could be because the party of public corruption, and weak transparency Swedish Democrats have received many when it comes to financing of political mandates in Parliament.” parties’ activities (European Commission, 2014, p.5).
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be quite relevant to a group of highly 5.3 Corruption and the decision to skilled or labour migrants who can find migrate more favorable working conditions abroad. This paper focuses on the forced Prior to the investigation of the formulated and irregular migrants, who are not driven research objective that is two-folded and to migrate to Sweden due to the focuses on identification of the nexus corruption in their country of origin in the between migration and corruption, as well first place, as Interviewees in this study as on answering the question of whether also noted. Forced and irregular migrants, migration can transfer corrupt activities, it on the contrary, are driven to leave their is important to study the role of county by armed conflicts, lack of security corruption in forced and irregular and violation of human rights whereas migrants´ decision to migrate. corruption plays a minor role for them (Moore, et al., 2004, p.742). One of the definitions of corruption implies “the abuse of a trust, generally one The combination of different complex involving public power for private benefit factors that include political and personal which often, but by no means always, security, repression, and weak governance comes in the form of money” (Johnston, is often linked to the forced migration 2005, p.11). Yet corruption in its various process (Merkle, et.al., 2017, p.26). expressions and forms has been a notion Consequently, in those states where that has known no border limitations. One citizens have a limited civic freedom, the should, however, make a distinction migration process can rise in connection between corruption in poor and rich to liberalisation movements (ibid.). countries. A poor country citizens are the According to the UNHCR, in 2016 there most vulnerable to corrupt practices as were around 65.6 million forcefully they are often forced to illegally pay for displaced individuals likely influenced due access to services and resources that are to the Syrian crisis between 2012-2015, otherwise free for citizens in rich countries and political conflicts in Iraq and Yemen, and are a part of their rights as a citizen amongst others states (UNHCR, 2016a). (Graycar, et al., 2015, p.586). Corruption in rich countries differs from that in poor The collected empirical data has further countries and often implies unauthorized shown that some Interviewees have influence, cronyism or lobbying, among awareness about the recurrent corrupt other procedures (ibid.). behaviour that exists in the migrants´ countries of origin, which they have There are academic studies indicating that experienced through direct contact with corruption in the migrants´ country of these migrants. Interviewee 8 mentioned a origin is a push factor that affects story told by migrants regarding corrupt individuals´ migration aspirations officials: “All the boys I work with that (Lapshyna, 2014; Cooray, at al., 2014). A came here as unaccompanied minors have correlation between corruption and the a story where the Taliban, politicians and decision to migrate has been highlighted leaders behave themselves only in a by a number of researchers but evidence corrupt way…” Interviewee 3 contributed is still somewhat scarce (Dimant, et.al., to the above mentioned experience with a 2013). However, corruption as a driving following argument “Oh yes, differences factor for migration is not the same for all between the counties of origin and Sweden types of migrants (Poprawe, 2015, p.339). are enormously big. Previously, Sweden Thus, if the level of corruption in the had an extraordinary low corruption index country is high, it can result in shaky and many of the countries of origin were working or business conditions and may placed respectively lower in this scale. I
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have often discussed it in long decide to use the services of human conversations with youngsters whom I was smugglers. Many forced migrants turn, in contact with and who were open for this however, to the services of smugglers in kind of conversation…” the absence of accessible legal ways to migrate; poor economic conditions; fear of The situation with corruption in the persecution; financial inability to afford country of origin may push migrants to the legal channels of migration or political apply the same tactics in the country of instability in the home country, amongst destination in order to receive services other reasons (UNODC, 2018, p.38). For they might not be eligible for: “…it has instance, migrants from Syria are eligible happened that clients wanted to receive for international protection, but in reality some kind of help and after receiving a they do not have easy access to cross the refusal they have asked me if I could European border in a legal and safe way, abandon the law and to make an exception which makes them often turn to the because we share the same origin and services of smugglers (ibid.). come from the same geographic area. It has also happened that clients have There is a wide spectrum of corrupt described how differently things can work practices from petty corruption in order in their home countries and that they are for migrants to get access to the border, corrupted.” (Interviewee 2). to grand corruption with involvement of government officials from the consular Identifying the place of corruption in the and migration authorities who cooperate migration process of forced and irregular with smuggling networks (UNODC, 2018, migrants, it was found, that corruption p.51); Interviewee 2 stresses on that plays a facilitative role in relation to forced notion: “…I have heard about one family and irregular migration flow where that wanted to apply for a passport in smuggling of human beings regularly their country of origin as their son has takes place and is characterized by various applied for a family reunion here in types of corruption in general, and Sweden but they were forced to wait an widespread bribery in particular, that may unreal time for passports to be issued. occur at any stage of the migration Then it may mean that an officer involved journey (OECD, 2015c, p.3). This finding wants to have a bribe.” was even supported by the opinion of 2 Interviewees where one has indicated that Despite the rights to protection stated in “…corruption is a means in order to the Protocol against the Smuggling of migrate rather than a reason…” Law Migrants by Land, Sea and Air that is a enforcement officers, military officers, supplementary part of the United Nations naval and border security and Convention against Transnational representatives from consulates and Organized Crime, the migrants´ rights embassies are the most common actors have been repeatedly violated and many involved in bribery on the migration route migration routes have become fatal or (Europol, 2016, p.12). have led to torture or sexual and labor exploitation (UNODC, 2018, p.42). It is 5.4 Beyond the democratic wall: also common that forced and irregular what public servants know? migrants may be trafficked along the smuggling routes or even continually According to previous research and exploited after their arrival to the empirical results collected with a help of destination country and, according to 2 the questionnaire, corruption plays the Interviewees in this study; it is under-aged role of “greasing the wheels” during the migrants and women who are mostly at migration route of those individuals who risk of falling into this group.
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13 out of 21 Interviewees from Sweden vulnerability. Even other refugees have who either deal with migrants on a daily demanded money in order to progress in basis, or have occasional professional their own escape…” contact with them, stressed the fact that irregular and forced migrants who reached 5.5 Reaching a safe heaven Sweden, came with the help of corrupt practices occurring in the context of the The quality of Swedish democracy is smuggling process. Interviewee 8 ranked, according to the latest Global explained that “…almost everyone I know Democracy Ranking, published in 2016, rd has been corrupted in order to do certain in 3 place among the total number of 112 things to survive themselves when countries presented in the ranking list sometimes it was about everything from where position 112 indicates the lowest killing and smuggling to violence with an democracy rate and position 1 signifies aim to be able to survive but not about the highest one (Global Democracy money.” Ranking, 2016). A Eurobarometer study on corruption from 2017 placed Sweden as An idealized picture of the country of one of the countries in the EU where low destination that is free from corruption amount of citizens think that corruption in was presented by several Interviewees. the country has a widespread character Interviewee 3 noted that corruption in (European Commission, 2017). High relation to migration typically exists respect for democratic values, high levels beyond the border with Sweden “…the of trust and living standards, along with a whole market around migration from the culture with a long tradition of openness country of origin until our country´s are the prerequisites for the low levels of borders is, de facto, corrupt. Everything corruption that Sweden has developed from managing parents through bribes, over many decades (Transparency black payments and offers about the International Latvia, 2016, p.51). “right story” up to the journey itself. I have more stories like this than I can recall…” According to the poll on corruption from Interviewee 15 also acknowledged similar 2014, less than 1% of individuals in problem when “…many were offered help Sweden were asked to pay a bribe during in order to come to Sweden in an illegal the last 12 months compared to 4% of the way through smuggling. Some of them EU average (European Commission, 2014, who were imprisoned on the way, for p.3). After a recommendation by GRECO, example in Greece (that is considered Sweden established the National Anti- corrupt), would pay in order to be freed Corruption Unit of the Office of the from prison. Individuals from police that Prosecutor General in 2002; and in 2012, are corrupt have freed persons in Sweden established the National Anti- exchange for things or services…” Corruption Police Unit in order to support investigations and foreign bribery cases Consequently, migrants who come to (ibid.). Sweden experience various types of corrupt practices or are subjected to In 2011, Sweden conducted a national corrupt behaviour of civil servants on integrity system assessment which showed different stages of their journey that lead that Swedish cultural orientation is linked to the country of destination where the to strong trust on an inter-personal level, situation with corruption is different. In high level of secularity, and general addition, Interviewee 12 explained that “… positive opinion about foreigners and many stories from refugees include ethical minorities (Andersson et al., 2012, corruption where other people have taken p.20). Therefore, with regards to the advantage of their (refugees´) question of whether the Swedish state is
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seen as attractive from the migrants´ from Latin America; the Balkan countries; perspective, 18 public servants and and, at a later stage, migrants from Middle municipal workers out of 21 who agreed East who wanted to escape dictatorship to participate in this study, gave a positive and political oppression. The current reply. trajectory in Swedish politics, caused by the previous avoidance of the political elite 16 participants in the study mentioned of the question of asylum politics, affected that Sweden might also be an attractive the general image of Sweden and “…it has country to migrate to because of its primarily led to the growth of racist / generous and well-functioning welfare nationalistic streams/ parties and more system: “refugees know through the widespread “popular scepticism” towards information from relatives and friends migrants. This, I believe, has echoes in the that we have a good system of social vision of Sweden as a country of insurance that applies to everybody who destination.” (Interviewee 3). lives in the country. Schools and health care are equally available to all people.” 5.6 Does corruption know no (Interviewee 12). Interviewee 7 even borders? mentions that the trusting nature of Swedish society may be attractive for The intent of the first objective for this migrants: “…it is even the Swedish model paper was to identify the nexus between that attracts people. The society is built to corruption and migration, focusing on the a large extent on trust and shared values, migrants´ migration journey and upon which benefit society as a whole.” arrival in the country of destination, seen through the perspective of public servants However, Interviewee 17 contradicts and municipal workers in Sweden. In the previous interviewees and confronts with previous part of the analysis it was found an opinion that “…there was a myth that corruption plays a facilitating role created about Sweden as a dream country during migrants’ journey but it is not a where everything is perfect and free of driving factor for migration aspirations of problems.” Here Interviewee 17 relates the forced and irregular migrants, as it can be colorful picture that migrants usually get for other groups of migrants. from smugglers about the country of destination prior to embarking on their Previous research also indicates that journey. corruption in the country of destination in relation to migrants is very scarcely Interviewee 15 also expresses a rather investigated, and demonstrates that sceptical opinion with regards to Sweden usually corrupt practices have a tendency still being an attractive country from to occur in the context of departure from migrants´ perspective: “I think that the country of origin, as well as during the Sweden was an attractive country, taking transit way to the country of destination to consideration what the country´s (Merkle, et.al, 2018, p.4). As mentioned asylum legislation looked like. Nowadays it further by Merkle, et.al (2018, p.4), there is more restrictive, which is also visible as were some indications given by migrants migration has decreased during the last in the study on corruption, gender and year…”and Interviewees 1, 3, 5 and 10 migration about the occurrence of provide an analogous opinion. corruption in the country of destination, that were based on migrants’ general Looking back in history, Sweden has been sceptical attitude and the lack of trust with known since the 1970’s as a country that regards to public officers in a new country has attracted labour migrants, and later without an indication of any concrete on, forced migrants and asylum seekers experience of corrupt behaviour or
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practices. It was noticed that a strong An occurrence of sexual exploitation that mistrust in public authorities and a biased refugees are subjected to in the country of way of thinking about the fact that contact destination, can take place, which with authorities may imply unlawful indicates that there is a presence of payments in exchange for services were human trafficking, where female and carried by migrants throughout their under aged migrants can be affected in journey. the first place: “…when one has paid to smuggler in order to come to Sweden and Such tendencies were repeatedly observed at the same time has not received what by Interviewees from Sweden who was promised but instead was forced to participated in this study and argued, that sell sex and/or pay more as it was decided such a deeply rooted mistrust is linked to from the beginning.” (Interviewee 15) and migrants’ stereotypic perception of that “it can be related specifically to corrupt behaviour as a social norm and women when they can be forced to that it often continues to exist even after prostitution in case they could not afford the arrival to the country of destination. to pay to smuggler…” (Interviewee 13). Having in mind the fact that the country of Sextortion as a form of corruption related migrants’ destination, chosen for this to gender primarily affects female qualitative study, is characterized by migrants when they are forced to pay with advanced democracy which far exceeds in their bodies during different stages of comparison to other countries in relation migration journey (Merkle, et.al, 2018). to the prevention of corruption; it will be of particular interest to investigate Interviewees 3 and 19 had, on the whether corruption in connection to contrary, a good awareness of certain migrants can potentially occur after their behavior that occurs in Sweden and can be journey ends in Sweden, and whether linked with corruption: “At the asylum for corrupt activities are observed in practice those who received a permanent residence by public servants and municipal workers permit I have experienced that certain in relation to forced and irregular personnel bends the rules both because of migration in Sweden. convenience and in order to avoid complaints…to bend the rules in the 5.7 Vicious circle asylum, as well as certain staff’s passivity, can be perceived, on my opinion, as The level of general awareness about corruption…” (Interviewee 3). potential corrupt behaviour or practices that occur in Sweden, which can be The question of temporality, focused on considered as corruption linked to the process tracing of potential changes migration, brought controversy to the that have been occurring throughout the interviews´ results. For example, years in Sweden in relation to the Interviewees 6, 7, and 9 stated that they development of corrupt practices and the cannot provide any concrete example of migration flow, was included into the such practices. Interviewees 2 and 6 could questionnaire. This allowed the ability to only refer to the news they have heard in define whether and how the “refugee the media about “…officers from the crisis” that started to develop in 2011 Swedish embassies, that were close to could potentially increase or, on the Syria, who gave a priority for interviews in contrary, decrease corrupt practices exchange for a big sum of money for related to migration in Sweden. persons/families who had ongoing family reunion cases…” (Interviewee 2). The situation took a turn for the worse since 2015 when a record inflow of irregular and forced migrants were
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registered in Europe and Sweden, which investigation of the authority´s was also noted by 6 Interviewees: exposedness to unlawful influence, and to “…drastic changes were needed, but those the necessity of which preventive changes that were done made many to measures could be taken (Brå, 2016:14, end up in a vulnerable situation. Before p.26, 27). The study within this report 2015 there was stability and a long term showed that the Swedish Migration vision in asylum process when the Authority is ranked in fourth place among regulations were followed very well…” thirteen Swedish authorities and two (Interviewee 10). Interviewee 5 added with unemployment funds in regards to the risk confidence that “…this (corrupt) behaviour of exposedness to unlawful influence due has increased, mainly since 2015 when a to the fact that this authority, alongside big wave of newcomers came. That time the authority for Social Security and there were many who needed authority for Public Employment daily accommodation and also many who took a grants important decisions about chance/opportunity to earn big money at individuals’ lives and financial support the state´s expense. There were even (Brå, 2016:14, p.30, 31). many who rented out accommodation directly to ( ) and earned high amounts.” The second report about the unlawful In fact, the year 2015 was frequently influence on public agency personnel from mentioned throughout the questionnaire the twelve authorities in Sweden within the context of the peak of the crisis mentioned an important interconnection and perceived by many Interviewees as a between how the work at the public turning point in migration politics, as it agencies in Sweden is performed and what decreased quality of asylum process the risks are for unlawful influence (Brå, management and administration, and 2016:13, p.14). Factors such as long implementation of general restrictions for waiting periods before granting a decision migration to Sweden, done in response to to an applicant, decision formulation the crisis’ escalation. protocol, and application of four eyes principle can affect or reinforce Interviewee 19 demonstrated, however, an opportunities for unlawful influence (ibid.). opposite opinion and described that However, the report does not provide a “automatization and a modern computer clear picture on the motives of unlawful system make all decisions to be reviewed influence that can, for example, be caused several times. The most authorities have by frustration of individuals related to the their own computer systems, which control long waiting periods for decisions, or that officers cannot “touch” a case in actual intention to influence the process of which they are themselves involved.” an authority’s decision making (Brå, 2016:14, p. 24). In addition, the report 5.8 Migrants and unlawful does not specify which groups of clients influence usually expose public servants to unlawful influence, which makes it difficult to The report on unlawful influence on assume whether it is migrants who try to Swedish Migration Authority personnel influence public servants or not, and if so, denoted that during the second part of what type of migrants. 2015, the flow of migrants has increased; the recruitment of additional personnel to The Swedish National Council for Crime the Authority was raised; the Prevention also refers to the studies about accommodation access for migrants unlawful influences that were conducted in became tighter; and the case management previous years in Sweden; pointing out time was prolonged drastically. This was that Swedish public agencies primarily of particular importance to the focused on their preventive work against
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threats and violence that clients often services from my clients so in return I express towards public servants but not could help them with different things e.g. on corruption cases that may bring more economic. It was not offered directly but serious consequences (Brå, 2016:14, suggested through hints.” Interviewee 13 p.14). In fact, threat and violence attempts added that “it is very common when an are often targeting public servants in asylum seeker threatens a public officer Sweden, Interviewee 3 pointed out one with a suicide that is interpreted as an example: “I have seen several times when attempt to influence an officer…” public officers from the social service were partial in their decision making process 5.9 Corruption as a delicate topic because they were threatened by unaccompanied minors who wished to be Due to the general sensitivity of the moved to certain places.” problem, investigated in frames of this academic study and particularity of certain The results of the study conducted with questions, an occurrence of self-criticism around 45 500 public servants by the among Interviewees, participated in an Swedish National Council for Crime anonymous questionnaire, was noticed. It Prevention in 2015 further demonstrated was connected to the question about that public servants from such Swedish Interviewees’ awareness about the cases authorities as the Migration Authority, the or allegations in Sweden where public Prison and Probation Service, and the officials might have used their position to authority for Public Employment are request or receive an offer from migrants approached more often than public in exchange for acting or refraining from servants from other authorities with acting in the exercise of their functions. inappropriate offers. Examples come in the form of dinner invitations, attempts of Studying an area involving corruption is nepotism (especially if a public servant especially difficult as the self-censure of speaks the same language or comes from interviewed participants can occur which the same geographic area as an applicant), can lead to a complete denial to reply to presents or money from individuals who the question or evoke a reply that is are in a vulnerable situation and depend considered the most expected, but not on the public servant’s decision that might necessarily the most subjective one (Brå, impact their life conditions are just a few 2016:14, p.18). It can be observed examples (Brå, 2016:14, p.52; Bra through responses of 7 Interviewees, who 2016:13, p.29; Brå, 2016:13, p.75). referred to the known cases of bribery in the public authorities in relation to In spite of a careful choice of words and migrants that appeared in the Swedish formulations provided in the responses national media in different years, that this related to the concern of being identified, was the only information they knew: “I do there are still several Interviewees who not have my own experiences of such provided their subjective opinions based behavior from my work as a public on what they have experienced through servant. But I have read about cases, work. Interviewee 7 verifies that “I have especially about public officers from the experienced it myself. ( ) has asked me Migration Authority who ‘sold’ residence to look in the case of one acquaintance in permits…” (Interviewee 5). exchange for money. I have explained what it can lead to and that there is zero Only Interviewees 2 and 7 could relate to tolerance for it at my work. It was about their own experience when they were to grant a more beneficial decision in one offered inappropriate offers in exchange case.” Interviewee 2 shares a similar for facilitation or help with processing of a experience at work when “…I was offered case and Interviewee 15 added that “I can
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imagine that it happens…” referring careful when they come in contact with indirectly to the cases when public clients, who share the same ethnic servants might have used their position to background, as they feel concern accept inappropriate offers. Interviewee 19 expressed by their manager or colleagues was, however, aware about the situation about the actual threshold of their loyalty that happened within the Interviewee’s (Brå, 2016:13, p.86). organization when “…a lower qualified personnel from ( ), who worked with The question about different levels of housing, could sometimes prioritize ethnic loyalty between the societies is certain asylum seekers in exchange for interconnected with a level of trust economic profit when it came to granting between citizens, which is also clearly accommodation.” demonstrated in the experiment conducted with Swedish and Romanian 5.10 When the ethnic norms clash students with a focus on social trust and corruption. Swedish students were asked, It is worth mentioning that there are many in Swedish, about whether most people migrants who come from societies where can generally be trusted and the result the authorities do not work for the showed that 60% of students agreed with interests of citizens and, therefore, the this definition (Rothstein, 2011, p.171). contacts with public servants often imply When the same experiment was performed some form of gift that the citizen brings with Romanian students, in Romanian, as a gratitude for the received service, and there were only 16% who indicated that that is not considered by these individuals they can trust other people (ibid.). as corruption (Brå, 2016:13, p.121). When such behaviour occurs in the country of In fact, Interviewees 2, 7, 10, 12, 16 and destination, it can be challenging for 17 mentioned a similar tendency observed public servants to draw a line between a by them about a link between different gesture of gratitude and an actual attempt levels of loyalty and an ethnic background of inappropriate behaviour: “…we, who that may play a crucial role in interactions conduct oral investigations, observe from between a public servant and a client in time to time how applicant tries to come in Sweden. These Interviewees have even contact with us, employees, and it can be mentioned cases when they were through a chocolate bar as a gratitude, we approached by their countrymen with an will however accept a chocolate and later improper offer due to the common ethnic will share it with other employees as it is link that could help to facilitate the rather not OK to deny completely.” decision to provide a service. Some of (Interviewee 16). these Interviewees related such migrants’ behaviour to the low trust in the state A shared ethnic background between the systems they come from that make influencer and a public servant can lead to migrants assume the system in Sweden a risk factor, as the influencer can functions in a similar way: “it can be eventually try to take advantage of the noticed that they come already with an ethnic connection, in certain ethnic groups inherent scepticism and lack of trust in the it can be more common to use one’s authorities” (Interviewee 10). professional position for relatives to personally benefit (Brå, 2016:14, p.52; 5.11 Migration and corruption: the Brå, 2016:13, p.86). The study in the local glimpse abovementioned report further shows that there were many authorities’ employees This study showed that public servants’ with non-Swedish background, who and municipal workers´ awareness about stressed that they become particularly corrupt activities of illegal networks in
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Sweden, where migrants can be to the limited opportunities for education unintentionally or intentionally involved, is or work, which are not the same for all very different. For many migrants, contact individuals in the countries of migrants’ with smugglers continues even in the origins, which sometimes are only country of destination when they can be accessible to elites. This behaviour is also forced to work if they have not paid more common for those migrants who enough for their illegal journey to Sweden. belong to minority groups in their country In such cases, unaccompanied minors, of origin and do not have the same access who belong to particularly vulnerable to resources compared to the majority of group, and women, who are often forced the population that was noted by into prostitution, are especially at risk. Interviewee 12. Therefore, these migrants There are many newcomers, especially are forced to adapt by developing youngsters, who are involved in selling particular behavioral patterns supported in drugs, and besides that, there are some their country of origin in order to survive. immigrants who became smugglers in Often such behavioural patterns can have Sweden and may go to the countries that a corrupt nature that is carried along the are close to Syria and smuggle refugees migration route to the country of for money, which was sharply noted by 6 destination where migrants can potentially Interviewees. apply the same behaviour due to the developed biased attitudes and views. It is necessary to keep in mind that the analysis in this qualitative study is based Undermined democracy and weak rule of on empirical data derived from a total law in the country of origin contribute as amount of 21 public servants and well to a specific type of survivalist municipal workers, who expressed interest behaviour among migrants: in participating in the questionnaire, which “…unaccompanied minors here (in limits an empirical scope to only personal Sweden) had hard times to accept rules, opinions, observations and experiences policies, understand that there is a from this small amount of Interviewees. framework of laws what they have never However, this limited amount of collected done before… they were looking for a opinions of a bipolar character in shortcut, for an easy way that is combination with a relevant academic corruption; it caused so much anger, they literature analysis, that is scarce, helps to were escaping school…” (Interviewee 21). touch on the second part of the first research question about the interplay Two main limitations expressed through between migration and corruption in the an inconsistency in responses from country of destination, Sweden, and the collected questionnaires and the lack of second research question on whether previous research, aiming to explore migration can lead to a transfer of corrupt potential transfer of corrupt practices practices. through migration, do not allow a comprehensive answer on the second The outcome of the empirical research in objective of this paper that aimed to study this study shows that corrupt behaviour whether migration can lead to corruption can start already at the initial phase of the transfer. Nevertheless, the collected asylum application where migrants can be empirical data shades the light on the fact perceived by public servants as initiators that migrants´ behaviour of potential of corrupt practices. Though it is corrupt nature in the country of “understandable,” as per definition of destination, when migrants can have a role Interviewee 3, due to the individual’s lack of initiators, is linked to the embedded of social trust in the authorities that widely lack of trust in the state that has roots in prevails in the country of origin; and due
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their country of origin that can be carried authorities and public sector organisations throughout migration journey. that affect social capital and trust (Linde, et al., 2013, p.587). If citizens think that At the same time, migrants are not only there are many people in the country who seen as potential initiators of corrupt are engaged in corrupt activities, it can behavior, but also victims of corrupt become an initial stage in the process of practices in the country of destination, changing norms and attitudes about what irrespective of the fact whether they carry can be acceptable and normal (Oscarsson, with them a corrupt behaviour or not. 2010, p.255). In case it happens, an individual can perceive that it is costly not As noted by 6 Interviewees, migrants can to take part in the corrupt activities (ibid.). be offered to receive a priority in the queue for housing in exchange for illicit Many studies indicate that necessity to financial compensation, facing a choice of investigate and study corruption and its paying for an overpriced second-hand prevention in low-corrupt countries such accommodation with very bad conditions, as Sweden, has not been previously given or becoming victims of dishonest enough importance and attention since employers who may take advantage of the country continuously scores high in their vulnerability, or even being sexually international rankings as being “clean” abused at the facility for migrants. These from corruption (Bergh, et al., 2016, p.12). examples further indicate that despite the This high ranking, however, does not openness and transparency in the country automatically imply that the system of of destination and its public sector, corruption control is good enough and corrupt practices occur there and migrants that the state is free from corrupt can become victims of these practices. practices (Erlingsson, et al., 2011, p.7).
According to Bergh, et.al (2016) there is a In support of these literature findings the number of surveys and studies that derived responses about the existing anti- independently demonstrate that Swedish corruption prevention mechanisms in the citizens more often perceive public public sector in Sweden and its officials and politicians as less impartial effectiveness in fighting corruption, and more corrupt which has increased especially in relation to the migration flow over time; this made the country stand out showed, that not all Interviewees who compared to its Nordic neighbours when it represent the public sector and have comes to mistrust for the public sector experience in work with migrants, are despite high scores of being a “clean” aware about concrete preventive anti- country in the international context corruption mechanisms, and more (Bergh, et al., 2016, p.9). The repetitive specifically, in relation to the migration reference given to Sweden as a country flow into Sweden. There is only one with a low level of corruption in many well- Interviewee, Interviewee 5, who referred to known rankings, and the rare cases when a concrete practical example when ” one corruption was punished, led to proposal came last week from a overlooking this problem and a lack of representative from a municipal housing gathered knowledge on this issue (Bergh, company, who called for an opportunity to et al., 2016, p.11). limit second hand rent. It is a good proposal that could prevent those 5.12 To cure the incurable problems we see today with a trade of addresses and tenancy agreements…” As These are citizens’ own experiences and previously mentioned in this chapter of experiences of other individuals, who live analysis, a high demand for housing for in the country, based on contacts with refugees in Sweden led to the increased
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illegal practices that often benefit from effective again, but there is a necessity of migrants’ vulnerability. the individual control of each officer’s work, where many things are given to 4 Interviewees could not recall, however, officer for evaluation and counselling of any anti-corruption prevention those who are in asylum process.” mechanisms in the public sector, while the (Interviewee 10). rest of Interviewees provided more general, but at the same time controversial Aiming to find out about the potential responses. challenges Sweden may face in relation to corruption, the responses of 2 When exploring the anti-corruption Interviewees – experts on corruption from mechanisms in the responses on the Swedish academia were included in this questionnaire of this paper, it is necessary paper. On the one hand, both experts to point out that in the Swedish authorities expressed a similar opinion about higher an investigation obligation is put into risks for corruption that exist on the local effect and requires a thorough reviewing level of government and municipalities, of every single case prior to granting the compared to other areas. On the other decision and “…implies that one should be hand, they could not specify cases of attentive for potential indicators of corruption in Sweden in relation to corrupted behaviour. In case there is a migrants. These Interviewees only noted, necessity, it should be reported internally that when it comes to corruption related and forwarded to other authorities that to the migration flow “there is not much will proceed with a question of empirical evidence for this” and “it is investigation.” (Interviewee 13). difficult to say if it is common or not without doing a survey” (Interviewee 23 Another perspective about the and 22). universalistic and inclusive vision of all individuals in Sweden as equal regardless Both experts further argued that bribery of of background, which predominates in public officials in Sweden is quite many social groups in Sweden, does not uncommon as such; the more common single out the group of migrants or any procedure is getting favours with the help other group from the context of crime and of contacts, networks or friendships that corruption. This fact can also explain why can also be used on the local level to the majority of the Interviewees in this create conflicts of interest between public study were not aware of anti-corruption and private sectors, for example, in prevention mechanisms in relation to procurement or building permits. When it migration flow to Sweden: “…in Sweden we comes to important control mechanisms, used to focus on society as a whole and according to an expert - Interviewee 22, not emphasize a specific group of people. the sanctions and rules against conflicts of Corruption exists among all types of interest for representatives from the local people and should therefore be combated municipalities in Sweden should be in the same way.” (Interviewee 11). strengthened. Finally, when it comes to the state agencies, where the clients, The negative consequences of a high peak including immigrants, are desperately of migrants in 2015 in Sweden have dependant on the agency’s decision that impacted the quality of case management, can create the risk for corrupt practices, which has led to certain potential risks as, the importance of specific training and for example, the higher risk of partiality of clear guidelines for officers should be public servants that intensified since prioritized. 2015: “…the time will come again when it (control system) will be restored and
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6. Conclusion
In the aftermath of the political instability participants in this study, the outcome of and armed conflicts, caused by the Arab theoretical and empirical research Spring movement and the Syrian crisis, demonstrates several important points. one of the biggest migration inflows in European history brought many First of all, corruption played a key role unexpected challenges to the countries of during the migration route of those forced the European Union. The lack of common and irregular migrants who reached integration policy within the EU made Sweden during the “refugee crisis,” differentiation on the countries of the whereas it plays a minor role for them in “first” and “secondary” migration, which the decision to migrate from their country has led to a disproportionate quantity of of origin. Secondly, the link between asylum applications and made some corruption and migration does not end countries become more attractive to upon arrival to the country of destination, migrate to then others. There were where the level of corruption is perceived thousands of forced and irregular to be low. Studying the nexus between immigrants who have travelled to the corruption and migration in the country of borders of the European Union by means destination through the perspective of of illegal facilitation where corruption public servants showed that migrants can played a central role, with an aim to have a role as both victims and initiators search for asylum. of corrupt behaviour in the country of destination. It was noticed that migrants’ This paper provided an analysis of the potential corrupt attempts in the country case of irregular and forced migrants in of destination are interconnected with Sweden through the perspective of public their general lack of trust in the state that servants and municipal workers who deal originates in the country of migrants´ with these groups of migrants. The origin, and is maintained during the analysis in this study, which is based on migration routes where different types of the qualitative research, aimed to identify corruption connected to public authorities the nexus between corruption and forced and officials facilitate migrants´ journey. and irregular migration, as well as whether At the same time, migrants can be migration can potentially lead to the subjected to corruption in the country of transfer of corrupt practices. The existing destination, e.g.to become victims of research about the link between unserious landlords or employers, and corruption and forced and irregular often victims of human traffickers. The migration has a scarce character and risk for corrupt practices can occur in mainly illustrates interplay between those cases where migrants´ situation corruption and migration in the country of depends on the decisions of the public migrants´ origin and during the migration servants and authorities in the country of route. This study aims to add to the destination. existing research by narrowing its focus on the actual observations and opinions of Based on the findings of the theoretical an public servants and municipal workers empirical research in this paper, the policy who deal with these groups of migrants in implications on the national level should the country of migrants´ destination – put more focus on the reinforcement of Sweden. In spite of being limited to stronger anti-corruption mechanisms in observations and opinions of only 23 those situations, when dependency 30
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between public servants and individuals in risks and preventive mechanisms should need, irrespective of their background or not be underestimated. origin, occurs. It can be done, for instance, though an obligatory implementation of Finally, a stronger emphasis on knowledge the four eyes principle prior the about legal mechanisms, core values of authority’s decision is made, and the democratic state and responsibilities improvement of authorities´ and rights of its citizens should be given automatization systems and control, which during the design of social orientation will allow to process certain categories of courses that will help newcomers to cases automatically and will help to reduce rebuild social trust vis-à-vis their new the waiting time for the decision. home. Furthermore, the continuous education of public employees with focus on corruption
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