Volume 4, Issue 3, Spring2005

Branding to Compete: Applications to and Apparel

Shanna M. Bruer, Ph.D. Student Nancy Cassill, Professor Michelle Jones, Assistant Professor NCSU

ABSTRACT

Purpose: The objective of this paper is to briefly review competitive strategies that are relevant to the U.S. and apparel , focusing specifically on differentiation and branding methods. The various approaches and strategies are then applied through specific examples and illustrations.

Methodology: A comprehensive review of secondary data sources, both research and trade combined with primary data sources (via industry interviews) are reviewed. Results are presented as the differentiation typology proposed by Barney (2002).

Findings: Numerous competitive strategies can aid textile and apparel firms in preserving and/or improving their current market position. A specific strategy used, branding, aids in the differentiation of product throughout both the textile and apparel industry.

Practical Implications: The compilation of literature on differentiation and branding will be useful in further research and studies that focus on textiles and apparel or those that are concerned with product differentiation. Direct applications to both textile and apparel firms are made and a potential structures by which they may develop brands is introduced.

Value of Paper: The paper will aid both academia and industry in the development of textile and apparel brands through the introduction of literature on the topic, as well as recommendations on brand strategy and creation.

Keywords: Competitive strategies, Differentiation, Branding, Private label, Textile and apparel industry

1. INTRODUCTION firms would compete for . Such measures, however, were found to lower The textile and apparel industry, due margins, create a lack of customer loyalty, to its low barriers of entry, is one of the product imitation and inadequate highly competitive profitability. sectors in the world [1]. As obstacles to trade among nations have declined due to As a result of this trend, competitive improved transportation systems, strategies have been an imperative subject of transfer and government cooperation, the study throughout academia and industry for industry has seen a rapid increase in the past thirty years [2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9]. globalization and competition. A common A specific area of concentration has been on trend seen throughout the 1970s branding as a means of textile and apparel was price competition as a means by which differentiation. This strategy has become

Article Designation: Scholarly 1 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 increasingly popular with manufacturers and of competition and then gradually narrow retailers in an attempt to achieve the into specific strategies and their application sustainable consumer appeal and to the textile and apparel industry (see profitability for which they strive. The Figure 1). paper will begin with a broad examination

Figure 1: Branding as a Differentiation Strategy in the Textile & Apparel Industry

Competition

Differentiation

Branding

Textile & Apparel Branding

Source: Author (Bruer, S. , 2004).

The research objectives of this paper include: 1. Identify key competitive issues in the textile and apparel industry 2. Discuss brand as a strategy, including brand models 3. Direct application of these strategies to the textile and apparel industry

1.1 Competitive Forces competitively priced in either domestic or foreign markets [12; 13]. Because the Currently there are four major areas in domestic industry is unable to compete on which the textile and apparel industry is price (greatly attributed to high labor costs), facing significant struggle: trade, economic firms are trying to find a competitive policy, product development and retailing advantage by specializ ing in the production [10; 11; 1]. The textile and apparel industry, of that are capital and technology until recently, was a well-protected sector intensive such as home furnishings and with high barriers for imported products due industrial textiles [14]. As developing to U.S. quota and tariff systems. With the countries are also investing in machinery World Trade ’s elimination of and , this strategy faces greater quota in 2005, one means by which the competition and less long-term advantage domestic industry has combated [15]. inexpensive, competitive products will also be eradicated and the door to foreign The final issue that the industry products and U.S. market penetration confronts is the growth of power by the opened. retailer, due to the development at the mass channel, as well as the consolidation of Economic policy, or lack thereof, many key players. The largest retailer in the has greatly affected the ability of industry to world, Wal*Mart, requires their suppliers to compete. With a strong U.S. dollar and deliver goods with little margin for the competing countries floating exchange rates, producer [16]. Control over the supplier is it is difficult for U.S. products to be also evident within the

Article Designation: Scholarly 2 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 channel as consolidation has escalated and Porter’s Five-Forces Model, introduced in buyers exert greater control over suppliers his 1990 text “The Competitive Advantage [17]. of Nations,” will be used to introduce the idea of competition. Application of the five 2. SETTING THE STAGE: forces to the textile and apparel industry INCREASED INDUSTRY have also been prevalent in the research [11; COMPETITION 18].

Figure 2: Forces Driving Industry Competition

POTENTIAL

ENTRANTS

Threat of new entrants

INDUSTRY Bargaining power of Bargaining power of COMPETITORS

suppliers buyers

SUPPLIERS BUYERS

Rivalry Among Existing Firms

Threat of substitute

products or services

SUBSTITUTES

Source: Porter, M. (1990). Competitive Advantage of Nations. (p. 35). New York: The Free Press.

2.1 Potential New Entrants patents, and finally, government policy can play a role in market entry and the ability to Porter [19] indicates that potential new compete [19]. entrants pose a threat due to the increased level of capacity they afford. Such 2.2 Rivalry Among Existing Competitors additional supply could drive prices down and cut into the profits of current producers. The intensity of rivalry among existing The chance of newcomers entering the competitors depends upon the level of market depends upon two variables – the saturation within the industry. If in order for barriers to entry and the probability and one firm to gain market share they must take severity of retaliation from the established it from a competitor, the level of rivalry that producers. The barriers include economies exists is high, often resulting in retaliation of scales, product differentiation, capital and price wars. Rivalry may stem from a requirements, switching costs, the variety of sources 1) numerous and equally accessibility of channels, balanced competitors; 2) slow industry advantages held by competing firms growth; 3) high fixed or storage costs; 4) including learning curves, location and economies of scale and overproduction; and Article Designation: Scholarly 3 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 5) high exit barriers such as economic , consumer [19]. The level of concentration strategic, and emotional factors [19]. within both the buying and selling industries affect the bargaining power of the supplier. 2.3 Competition from Substitute Products Probable instigators of supplier power can occur in the event of highly concentrated The threat of competition from suppliers and fragmented buyers; few or no substitute products occurs if multiple substitutes; the level of importance of the products are found to perform the same customer group or industry to the supplier; function [19]. Such substitutability the significance a supplier’s product plays as relinquishes much of the control from the an input into a buyer’s end product; the level firm to the consumer. No longer is the of differentiation or switching costs; and the consumer at the mercy of the producer for likelihood of forward integration. quality, price or availability; instead producers have to worry about savvy 2.6 Competitive Strategies consumers that consider the value trade-offs associated with their purchase and must Before delving into a discussion on offer a superior product to avoid the loss of strategy it is first important to define market share. competitive advantage:

2.4 Bargaining Power of the Buyer “A firm experiences competitive advantage when its actions in an Bargaining power of buyers occurs industry or market create economic when leverage is given to the buyer and value and when few competing firms demand for lower prices, increased quality are engaging in similar actions. Firms and more services are made [19]. The gain competitive advantages when their amount of power enjoyed by a buyer group theory of how to compete in an industry may be determined by the concentration of or market is consistent with the buyers or volume of purchases. Additional underlying economic processes in that occasion for high levels of buyer power may industry or market and when few other occur when the purchase represents a large firms share this theory or are unable to portion of the buyer’s overall expenditures, act upon it as completely” (Barney, if differentiation and switching costs are 2002, p. 9). low, if there is likelihood of backward integration and if the buyer is fully informed The theory of how to gain such a about demand, market prices and supplier competitive advantage, or compete costs. successfully, is considered a firm’s strategy. Competitive strategies are of such 2.5 The Bargaining Power of the importance that Porter wrote an entire Supplier on how they may be created and applied to specific industries paper [20]. Although Bargaining power of suppliers is a strategie s were not expressly applied to the concept that mirrors that of the bargaining textile and apparel industry, the following power of buyers, except the control is now generic matrix will be utilized for this. shifted to the provider as opposed to the

Article Designation: Scholarly 4 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005

Figure 3: Three Generic Strategies

STRATEGIC ADVANTAGE

Uniqueness Perceived Low Cost Position

by the Customer

Industrywide DIFFERENTIATION OVERALL COST

LEADERSHIP

Particular FOCUS

STRATEGIC TARGET Segment Only

Source: Porter, M. (1998) Competitive Strategy. (p. 39). New York: The Free Press

The first strategy identified by competitor and therefore maintain higher Porter, overall cost leadership, was margins. Cost leadership also offers mentioned in the introduction of this paper protection against the bargaining power of as a means of combating the saturated textile suppliers. Because the firm controls its and apparel markets of the 1970s. Cost costs from every aspect of the operation, an leadership requires the firm to implement or increase in a single input does not weigh as attain a variety of competencies including heavily on the overall cost or performance efficient-scale facilities, vigorous pursuit of of the organization. Being the low cost cost reductions from experience, tight cost leader is not an easy feat, it requires great and overhead control, avoidance of marginal internal planning, coordination and customer accounts, and cost minimization in relationships with suppliers and buyers. areas like , Such relationships are not easily imitated , sales force and advertising [20]. The and therefore can create a high barrier to goal of such policy is to reside at the entry for new firms wanting to penetrate the forefront of low-cost production or retailing, market. Last, the firm has a strong position and still achieve above-average returns. It is in the market compared to substitutes due to possible to understand how a firm can attain the lower costs passed on to consumers that such a competitive position within the other firms with similar products might have industry by analyzing the effects of cost- difficulty replicating [21]. leadership on the five forces. The bargaining power of buyers was seen as a Differentiation is the next of threat to firms because of buyer’s ability to Porter’s generic strategies to which the five drive down prices to the point of the next forces are applied. Differentiation may competitive supplier. occur in one of seven forms:

In the case of cost leadership, this is not as great a threat because the cost-leader is able to produce at a lower cost than this Article Designation: Scholarly 5 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 1. Product features efficiently than those firms that try to serve a 2. Linkages between functions broad population. For all practical purposes, 3. Timing one can look at the characteristics and 4. Location applications of each of the strategies listed 5. Product mix above to understand how the firm applying 6. Links with other firms focus might arrive at a competitive 7. Reputation advantage.

Figure 4: Ways Firms Can Differentiate Competitive strategies may be used Their Products individually or simultaneously, however, it is suggested by both Porter [20] and Barney Source: Barney, J.B. (2002). Gaining and [21] that to achieve excellence in either, a Sustaining Competitive Advantage. (p. 266). firm must concentrate on a single strategy Saddle River: Prentice Hall. and apply it to all endeavors. (Note: Appendix 1 includes a table of The ultimate goal of differentiation is organizational requirements needed to to create a product or service that is develop each of the three strategies, as well perceived by the consumer and/or industry as some of the opportunities and threats as unique and having superior attributes or associated with their implementation). In value. A successful differentiation strategy the subsequent sections of this paper one of allows for products to command brand the generic strategies - differentiation - will loyalty and a corresponding reduction in be further developed and applied to the price sensitivity – both helping to overcome textile and apparel industries and then the pressures of competitive rivalry. Unique narrowed further to focus on a single attributes and brand loyalty also create approach. barriers to entry for firms wanting to compete with like or substitute products. As 3 DIFFERENTIATION mentioned, consumers are not as sensitive to price when loyal to a differentiated product, Although individual industries and it is therefore possible avoid the need for a firms may find one competitive strategy low-cost position [22]. Both supplier and more likely to benefit their particular buyer power may also be overcome through situation than another, it will be the focus of the willingness of buyers to pay a premium this paper to consider the single strategy of for differentiated products. Suppliers may differentiation. Differentiation is a firm’s raise their prices and consumers will absorb attempt to create a product or service that is the costs, never damaging the margin of the perceived by the consumer and/or industry supplier. It has already been established that as unique and having superior attributes or buyers’ control is sacrificed because of their value [23; 24; 25]. It is important to note attraction to the unique attributes or that the existence of product or service perceptions associated with the differentiation lies in the mind of the differentiated product and are consequently consumer [23]. In fact, two products may be willing to pay a premium. identical, but are presented in such a way to the consumer that they believe one superior The final of the three generic to the other. In order to create such strategies is focus. This strategy may apply distinctions, a firm may use one or all of the cost leadership, differentiation or both to a seven distinctions. The seven bases of very specific market or segment of the product differentiation will now be market. The goal of focus is to serve a discussed using Barney’s [21] teachings as a group or market more effectively or guide for explanation.

Article Designation: Scholarly 6 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 Figure 5: Differentiation Tools

Differentiation Tool Application

Product Features Alter properties of product or service sold

Linkages Between Functions Relations between firm divisions

Timing Being the “first mover” or perfect timing in entering/exiting the market

Location Consumer accessibility or association through firm or distribution location

Mix of Products/Service Consistent and well-matched offering of related products

Linkages Between Firms or associations

Reputation Well known for quality, service and excellence

Sources: Author (Bruer, S., 2004). Barney, J.B. (2002). Gaining and Sustaining Competitive Advantage. Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

Regardless of the means by which a firm differentiates their product, Aaker [26], suggests that for it to be successful three characteristics must exist:

Figure 6: Successful Differentiation

Generate customer value A successful differentiation strategy Provide perceived value should Be difficult to copy

Source: Aaker, D. (2001). Developing Business Strategies. (p. 155). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

3.1 Economic Value of Differentiation identical products, the assumption that defines perfect competition is numerous Although and marketing firms in an industry, each of whic h are the disciplines that govern competitive controlling only a small portion of the strategies, it is important to consider the market. Because the firms have no control economic ramifications associated with over prices, they face a horizontal demand differentiation. In the study of curve and produce and sell at the point markets in which products with no distinct where marginal cost is equal to marginal attributes fall, firms are assumed to operate revenue, thus maximizing economic under perfect competition. In addition to performance. In a perfectly competitive

Article Designation: Scholarly 7 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 market the maximum return that a firm can that by differentiating a firm’s product achieve is normal economic profit. It is the above normal returns may be achieved. premise of both Porter [20] and Barney [21],

Figure 7: Product Differentiation and Firm Performance: The Analysis of Monopolistic Competition

MC P ATC

P e

ATC D

MR Q Qe

Source: Barney, J.B. (2002). Gaining and Sustaining Competitive Advantage. (p. 278). Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

Figure 7 shows how a firm might The diagram given in figure 7 shows successfully achieve above normal profits. four important lines MR (Marginal In selling a differentiated product, it is as if Revenue), ATC (Average Total Cost), D the firm holds a and therefore (Demand) and MC (Marginal Cost). The operates under monopolistic competition. intersection of MR and MC is used to This differs from perfect competition determine the quantity that should be because the firm is no longer at the mercy of produced (Qe) and prices charged (Pe) to the market price; instead it may be adjusted maximize profits. Because the demand for in such a way that consumer’s pay a the good is high enough that the price premium for the unique product being charged exceeds the ATC, the firm achieves offered. This change is represented by the above normal profits. The actual amount downward sloping demand curve that can be determined by multiplying the price x demonstrates the decision a firm must make quantity of the darkly shaded region above. to produce a relatively small quantity and Normal profits could be calculated by the command high prices or produce larger same method, but with the figures quantities and market them at lower prices. represented in the lightly shaded region. Firms still choose to maximize their profits by producing and selling at the point where 3.2 Differentiation Strategies marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue. The price that is charged at this point Exploration of differentiation strategies corresponds with the level of demand in the has led to the development of ways in which market – high demand means the firm may a product or firm might create a unique charge higher prices, conversely, low levels offering that commands a price premium. of demand result in decreased prices. The The next concern that must be addressed for key difference in this model, however, is firms that choose to implement this strategy that if the firm’s average total cost is below is how to maintain or sustain this the price it can charge, then the firm selling competitive advantage and avoid imitation the differentiated product can earn an above- by others, thus bidding away the above normal economic profit.

Article Designation: Scholarly 8 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 average profits that drove the firm to in vest in uniqueness. One strategy that is more costly to duplicate is the linkages across functions in The rarity and costliness to imitate a a firm because it is often difficult to product differentiation strategy are what duplicate the corporate or ultimately determine the long-run environment that successfully internalizes sustainability of the market position [27]. such communication and teamwork. Timing Of the seven potential different strategies is also difficult to duplicate for such an given, each offers a varying level of defense advantage is often arrived at by luck or a against product imitation – whether through history of predictors that are individual to direct duplication or substitutes. Often that firm. Location, like timing is unique in product duplication is a simple that a similar strategy might be accomplishment for rival firms as new implemented, but can never be precisely products are made public and the unique duplicated. Last, and potentially of the features can be identified and reproduced or greatest importance, is firm or product improved. The threat of duplication is reputation. According to Barney [21], “a difficult, if not impossible, to overcome if firm’s reputation is actually a socially firms are focusing their differentiation on complex relationship between a firm and its product features, product mix, links with customers, based on years of experience, other firms, product customization, commitment, and trust” (p.270). This is complexity, or consumer marketing. perhaps the only strategy that cannot be Duplication of all of these efforts do not earned quickly or readily bought and sold. come with the same ease, rather it is often costly and difficult to accomplish.

Armstrong and Kotler’s [28] approach to differentiation takes on more of a marketing strategy and is divided into four major areas of differentiation:

Figure 8: Market Differentiation Strategies

Product Service People Image Differentiation Differentiation Differentiation Differentiation

Features Delivery Employee hiring Images Performance Installation & training Signs Style Repair Customer Symbols

Design Customer contact Logos Consistency training Competence

Durability Consulting Courtesy A. Reliability services Communication Reparability

Sources: Author (Bruer, S., 2004). Armstrong & Kotler (2000). Marketing: An Introduction. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

There is a great deal of overlap strategy differs in that firms or products are among the strategies of Armstrong [28], perceived uniquely by consumers due to Barney [21], Porter [20] and Trout [29], differences in images, symbols, logos or most notably the similarities within product, signs, also referred to by Armstrong and service and staffing strategies. The Kotler as brands. As the number of choices difference that should be most strongly in the marketplace have increased, the noted and is the focus of the next section of importance of branding has become this paper is image differentiation. This increasingly obvious (Note: See Appendix Article Designation: Scholarly 9 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 2). With the proliferation of products under simplified ‘shorthand’ description of a a single category, it is obvious that package of value upon which consumers and differentiation purely on product attributes prospective purchasers can rely to be or other replicable offerings make it difficult consistently the same (or better) over long to evade rivalry and direct price comparison, periods of time. It distinguishes a product or but by creating a unique position in the mind service from competitive offerings” (p.13). of customers through the use of brands it is The definitions offered throughout the possible to achieve and sustain a firm’s various articles and on branding are differentiated advantage. According to Hitt, quite different and abundant, but the Ireland and Hoskisson [30], brands are of commonality among them all is that they increasing worth because they are intangible provide manufacturers and retailers a means assets that are difficult for competitors to by which they can enter the mind of the understand and imitate. The subsequent consumer as with some sort of differentiated sections will discuss brand marketing, value. different types of brands and the significance of each application. Nearly as numerous as brand definitions are the categories by which a 4 BRANDING brand might be organized. Listed below is a compilation of brand groupings followed by 4.1 Branding Defined an explanation of each category.

A brand, as defined by Keller [31], is “a product, but one that adds other dimensions that differentiate it in some way from other products designed to satisfy the same need. These differences may be rational and tangible – related to product performance of the brand – or more symbolic, emotional, and intangible – related to what the brand represents” (p.3). Mariotti [32](1999) defines a brand as “a

Brand Brand Market Brand Other Classifications Positions Type

Corporate brands Primary brand Product brand Channel brand House brands Secondary brand Service brand Own-label Range brands Tertiary brand Personal brands Co-branding Product brands Organizational brand Event brand Geographical brand

Figure 9: Brand Terminology

Sources: Author (Bruer, S., 2004) Nilson, H.N. (1998). Competitive Branding: Winning in the Marketplace With Value-Added Brands. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

According to Nilson [33], brands range brands and product brands. A can be classified into several different corporate brand is “a brand symbol categories: corporate brands, house brands, covering all activities of a corporation. It Article Designation: Scholarly 10 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 clearly and distinctly identifies the one who brands because it is not the goal of is responsible for the product or manufacturers and retailers to compete with service”(p.29). The purpose of a corporate primary brands, but to aspire to customers brand is to answer the questions in a that are more price conscious. consumer’s mind about who makes the product. It gives them further reassurance Yet another way in which Nilson about the quality of the product, as well as classifies brands is called the channel brand. the trustworthiness of the company [34]. Running a brand policy through the use of channel brands allows a manufacturer to Perhaps the most traditional way of create different products and brand names branding is the house brand [28; 33]. This for various channels [38]. method uses a name across a wide variety of products. The next level of branding Finally, Nilson talks about own labels mentioned is the range brand that has the and co-branding. Own labels or private purpose of unifying a large range of labels are just two names given to a product products. It is often used for a considerable line which is owned, controlled, number of products that have common and merchandised and sold by a specific retailer distinct values that are of a similar nature in its own stores [39]. Co-branding will be [35]. The product brand strategy is that of a the final of Nilson’s propositions to be single product and a single brand. This considered. Co-branding can occur in two method carries perhaps the most advantages different ways. The first of which takes and disadvantages, resulting in the majority place when two brands jointly endorse a of products beginning in such a way [36]. single product, the second method occurs The strategy is valuable if a firm can focus when one brand endorses the contents of a all of its attention on an individual product, main brand. however, it is an economic hindrance because of the smaller scale to which one is Coomber [40], author of “Branding” confined [37]. suggests that there are six different types of brands : product brands, personal brands, The next way in which Nilson [33] organizational brands, event brands and categorizes brands is according to their geographical brands. A product brand, the market position, or how they are situated definition of which differs from that of with respect to the competition. This is Nilson, is a commonly packaged good with broken down into three general categories: a well-known name. A service brand refers primary brands, secondary brands and to that of an intangible services, as opposed tertiary brands. The primary brand is often to the material things to which the brand referred to as the “market leader” (p. 27). It might refer. Personal brands encompass a is typically the first product to pop into the range of personalities, typically well-known. consumers mind when considering a product Such celebrity fame is then used by firms to category. The secondary brand is similar to associate the name or the individual with the its name – it is second, third or fourth in the product in an effort to transfer notoriety. mind of consumers. Its basic means of Additional personal brands might emerge survival is its distribution method. It is not from the corporation or brand’s founder (see necessarily the brand a consumer would Appendix 3 for a list of examples). choose within a product category, but it is what is available and therefore gets the sale. An organizational brand is one that Finally, tertiary brands are those that are “becomes an integral part to the strategic produced purely on price competitiveness planning process.” The organizational brand and hold that spot in the consumer’s mind. can include charities, political parties and The products that fall under this category corporate brands. The brand is no longer sell under a heavy discount (on average 25- just a product or service, but becomes the 30%), have average quality and little brand entire organization, or on the other hand, the association. They differ from secondary organization may become synonymous with Article Designation: Scholarly 11 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 product. Event brands are described as information they have received about the those that have taken on lives of their own brand – from experience, word of mouth, and are promoted as stand-alone brands. advertising, packaging, service and so on – Events that typically become their own modified by selective perception, previous brands are concerts, tournaments and races beliefs, social norms and forgetting.” (p. 7) Finally, geographical brands are often used in or for major tourist attractions by the “Brand identity is what we [marketers] . Further brand categories transmit to the market place – it is what is are presented in a model in Appendix 4. under our control, provided that we understand the essence and expression of 4.2 Brand Identity our brand.” (p. 7)

According to Randall [41], there are According to Figure “Branding many different dimensions of a brand and in Essence,” various dimensions of a brand – order to better understand the various functions, personality/image, differences aspects, it is first necessary to differentiate and sources - determine the brand’s essence. brand image and brand identity (to avoid The essence is what is held in the any confusion in the remainder of the paper, consumer’s mind – the brand image. If any a glossary of branding terms are given in of the brand dimensions are incoherent, then Appendix 5). the brand image is no longer consistent with the identity that the firm wishes the brand to “Brand image is what exists in the minds of present and the dimensions of the model consumers. It is the total of all the must be scrutinized and “tweaked.”

Functions Personality/ image How do people What is it? feel about it? What is it for? Do they like/ What does it do? Respect it?

User imagery

Essence

How is it better? What does the How is it different? company stand for? What are its aims?

Differences Source

Figure 10: Branding Essence

Source: Randall, G. (1997). Branding: A Practical Guide to Planning Your Strategy. London: Kogen Page Limited.

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The idea that brand essence is what is Brand extensions result from the broadening held in the consumer’s mind is contradicted or lengthening of current product offerings by Aaker and Joachimsthaler [42] who into products that may not be similar, but suggest that it is instead the brand’s vision require similar values by the consumer. or “a single thought that captures the soul of Finally, image transfer is a case where the the brand.” It is proposed that the vision is brand is not necessarily defined by its created with the consumer in mind. A functional values, but by expressive and model of brand identity and how brand central values, and is therefore able to go essence fits into the strategic planning of a beyond category limitations and can a firm can be found in Appendix 6. range of product types. A new product can be launched into the market more cheaply as 4.3 The Lifecycle of Brands and marketing dollars are spread over a larger Products number of products. This can help a firm with products or brands that are “dying off” Brands, unlike individual products, or losing equity in the eyes of consumers are considered to have infinite life (42; 43; [43]. Unfortunately such use of the already 44]. This thought is defended by the fact existing brands needs to be well thought out that products often have finite life or are and used sparingly as the brand might only protected by patents for a limited become diluted, consumers potentially period of time, whereas trademarks if become confused and your new products registered and maintained properly can go might cannibalize the current offerings [32]. on indefinitely. The lifecycle and its relationship to branding, however, is 4.4 Significance of Branding extremely important to marketers and manufacturers as it can help in extensions As indicated by Murphy [46], brands and revitalization [45]. are valuable to firms at two different levels: 1) as a credible guarantee to consumers of Three different types of expansion can value and satisfaction that evoke sales and be made through the use of brands: line future cash flow through loyalty; and 2) as a extensions, brand extensions and image strategic position by manufacturers to transfer [43]. Line extensions typically communicate with consumers and gain occur through the product category in which control over distributors and retailers. it already resides through the use of Keller [31] separates the importance of functional, expressive and central values that brands into how they benefit the consumer are similar to those of the original product and the manufacturers: (examples would fall under range brands).

Figure 11: Roles That Brands Play

Consumers Manufacturers Identification of source of product Means of identification to simplify handling or tracing

Assignment of responsibility to product maker Means of legally protecting unique features Risk reducer Signal of quality level to satisfied customers Search cost reducer Means of endowing products with unique associations Promise, bond, or pact with maker of product Source of competitive advantage Symbolic device Source of financial returns Signal of quality

Source: Keller, K.L. (2003). Strategic Brand Management. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

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D’Alessandro [47], establishes three implications of successful brands, Aaker and more reasons for which a company would Joachimsthaler [42] consider the financial have an advantage in the marketplace by outcomes to a firm. They suggest that firms creating a strong brand. The first is that the are no longer victims of vicious price very best people want to for the best competition because their products are not brands. The next is that brands help the seen as . Additionally, they employees focus and make decisions more offer brand equity to the firm that allows for easily because the identity the firm is driven the brand to be seen as an asset or liability to create for customers requires specific through its name or symbol that may add to strategies to be implemented and actions to or take away from the product or service be taken. Finally, he suggests that as being offered (see Figure 9). The exact employees derive a sense of belonging, calculations to determine a brand’s worth direction and purpose through the brands, are complicated and not always precise, but and do more than they otherwise would have they do reflect a fairly accurate believed they could to make the brand and representation of the brand’s worth to a firm. firm a success. In addition to those Appendix 7 gives a list of some of the best- intangible factors, Appendix 6 lists a variety known worldwide brands as a percentage of of benefits. Taking a different look at the the firm’s overall worth.

Figure 12: Brand Equity

Brand Brand Awareness Association BrandBrand Equity Perceived Equity Brand Quality Loyalty

Source: Aaker, D.A. (1998). Strategic Market Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

4.5 What makes a strong brand

For a brand to be a success, Stuart [48] identifies four pillars of a strong brand: 1. Differentiation: what is its distinctiveness and uniqueness? 2. Relevance: is it personally relevant in price, package, form etc.? 3. Esteem: does it measure up to expectations: is it special? 4. Knowledge: do consumers know and understand the brand?

Source: Stuart J. (1997)“How Great Brands Got to Be That Way.” Advertising Research Council

The four pillars are ways in which a brand must be created and perceived in order to be thrive. Mariotti [32], takes a different approach to a brand becoming successful through his “Three Ages of Brands” (Figure 13).

Article Designation: Scholarly 14 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 Figure 13: Three Ages of Brands

Brand Age Description Objective

First Age To differentiation/ Capture as large a share of consumer’s show wallets as possible

Second Age Value, status & Capture as large a share of consumer’s identity emerge minds as possible

Third Age Become ideologies Capture the largest possible share of consumer’s lives, and even their souls

Sources: Author (Bruer, S., 2004). Mariotti, J. (1999). Smart Things to Know About Brands & Branding. New Hampshire: Capstone US.

4.6 Differentiating Products Through by a specific retailer in its own stores [39; National Labels and Private Brands 52; 53]. Others include store brand, proprietary brand, own label or dealer Two major categories of branded owned label. apparel exist in the store today – national brands and private labels [49]. Note: The The question mentioned earlier by remaining product is considered unbranded many suppliers and retailers is about the rise or generic). One of the key issues in the of private-labels and whether this trend will global retail world is the current trend from continue. According to [32], the store brand national brands toward private label goods phenomenon seems to follow the economic and the question of who will have control - trends of the market in that as the economy the suppliers or the retailers. The Private begins to soften, the amount of private-label Label Manufacturers Association – PLMA goods sold will increase. Affirming this [50] conducted a study showing a 25% belief is the appeal of store brands to increase in store brand sales over the last consumers due to their lower costs. Such five years with continued growth projected. lower costs cause a high correlation between Specifically, there was a rise from 36 billion the private label purchases and personal dollars in 1996 to over 50 billion dollars in disposable income – as an individual’s 2000. In the recent past, national brands disposable income rises, the less likely they have been the consumer’s choice of product, are to buy private labels and the more likely but lately, whether it is from consumer they are to purchase national brand products demand or retailer push, the share of private [31; 53;54; 55; 56]. label on the retailer’s racks and in the consumer’s closets has been rapidly rising. When creating a private label In a poll by Brand Keys, a market-research program, retailers use two different methods firm, almost 61% of consumers said high- – 1) buy or license existing brands, thereby end apparel logos and labels are less piggybacking off an existing name important to them now than in years past recognition and advertising campaigns or 2) [51]. develop their own brands from the start [31]. Examples of these two methods are plentiful The name “private label” is just one and will now be discussed in some detail. of many given to a product line which is owned, controlled, merchandised and sold

Article Designation: Scholarly 15 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 4.7 Brand Models alliances capture the best parts of brand associations and avoids the negative aspects. Though a variety of brand models are seen throughout the literature, six will be The third model introduced the “4- considered in this analysis. The first “Brand D Model of Branding” is by Gad [59] (see Identity Planning Model,” pictured in Appendix 8). This model has four different Appendix 4, was presented by Aaker and dimensions that contribute to branding: Joachimstha ler [42]. It presents a structure by which a firm may analyze the three Function: concerns the perception of components that shape the competitive benefits of the product or service associated environment – customer, competitor and with the brand self. From there, the way in which the brand Social: concerns the ability to create will appeal to the consumer and compete identification with a group with other brands may be selected from Spiritual: the perception of global or local twelve potential categories/identities and responsibility then developed through value proposition Mental: the ability to support the individual and further brand . The final stages mentally include extension and maintenance of the current brand program. A study by Schultz These dimensions are needed to and Hatch [ 54] relied heaviliy upon the evaluate the brand’s potential strengths and models used in the Aaker and weaknesses, but does not only apply to those Joachimsthaler [42] text when focusing on brands in this specific period of time, rather brand identity, value proposition, and brand it can look at future brands as well as those positioning. that are already established, but are being evaluated at a strategic level. It is presumed Keller’s brand model [31] “ Building that for a brand to be successful, it must Consumer-Based Brand Equity” is shown in appeal to consumers on all four dimensions. Appendix 6 (2002). Keller’s model breaks Gad’s model was used to legitimize the need down the equity-building process into three for personalization through branding when major categories: 1) brand-building tools developing a corporate in a study and objectives, 2) consumer knowledge conducted by Heldal, Sjovold, & Heldal effects, and 3) branding benefits. Each [60]. category is contingent upon the other. The first category requires the organization to Kapferer [61] presents the “Pyramidal choose the elements by which they will Model of a Brand” (see Appendix 9). This create their brand (i.e. logo, symbol, etc.). model considers a brand as it progresses Once the element(s) is/are selected the firm through time – at the top of the pyramid is must determine how to transmit their the brand’s identity or core value which is marketing tool/program to consumers. The sustained over the long-run. The middle second category considers the effect the portion is the way that the identity is brand will have on consumer awareness and communicated to the consumer through the association – can the brand be easily use of labels and symbols. The lower tier is transferred or recalled and what perception seen as the direct communication method does it leave for consumers. Finally, the with the consumer – it is the way in which model gives consideration to the possible the brand is first communicated to the public outcomes these strategies may provide. The through the use of advertising strategies. model proposed by Keller [31] influenced Through this model, it is hoped that a brand the study conducted by Roberts and will evolve from within a firm from the top Morrison [58]. The elements were to the bottom, but with the consumer from considered in their acknowledgement of co- the bottom to the top to communicate the branding. They further used this idea to value proposition developed by the firm in evaluate consumer’s assessment of co- the top of the pyramid. The model was used branded products and whether strategic as a framework for a study developed by Article Designation: Scholarly 16 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 Gladden, Milne and Sutton [62] considering distribution channels to use and product or the antecedents, brand equity and line extensions.** consequences associated with various components of Division I college athletics The final model that will be and branding. introduced, the Integrated Brand Model, is by Lepla and Parker [64] (see Appendix 11). The fifth model that will be It is the goal of this model to help a firm considered is submitted by Knapp [63] build the “most important asset any through the “Brandstrategy™ Doctrine company has – its relationship with its Process (see Appendix 10). The model is customers.” The model is devised to help actually a system by which an organization companies better understand who they are may determine what fundamental principles and how to use this awareness in such a way should be used to develop a brand and how that they can create more successful brands to implement or communicate them to with greater financial results. The consumers. The first stage, the Brand Integrated brand model profiles three levels Assessment, is the period in which the firm of activity of all brands. The outer ring – investigates how already existing brands are Brand Conveyers – it is the activities that are perceived, what consumers desire from a the nearest your customer and focus on such product or brand and how to position these activities as the products, day-to-day brands (whether new or old) to be activities and communication or advertising. successful. Stage two of the model is the Many firms choose to focus all of their BrandPromise which is defined as “the efforts on this exterior, but it is important to essence of the benefits (both functional and consider the other two layers. The second emotional) that current and potential level, the Brand Drivers, include the customers can expect to receive from principle or base for which all actions and experiencing a brand’s products and messages are created for the brand, the services.” The promise contains both the personality (this was discussed in the viewpoint of the consumer and the heart, different ways a product can be branded in soul and spirit of the brand that will be section 5.1) and the associations or value communicated in the product offering. offering a consumer perceives. The Once the promise has been finalized, the innermost ring, Organizational Drivers, Brand Blueprint, which will be used in the includes the firm’s mission, their values and actual creation of a brand is developed. The history. The two inside layers are important purpose of the blueprint is to determine what in make it possible to convey a deep and sort of message(s) will be sent out to meaningful brand through the brand consumers to convey the brand’s essence, conveyors (the outer layer). This model is but does not establish the message itself. thought to be important because it is Step four, is Brand Culturalization. This possible for all members of the firm to ** stage is imperative to the success of the understand and implement. brand because it is the time where the entire firm (all employees and associates) 5 APPLICATIONS TO THE TEXTILE internalize the beliefs that were determined & APPAREL INDUSTRY in the first three stages. Through this new awareness, it is possible for the team 5.1 Differentiation Strategies members to better communicate the brand to the consumers. The fifth and final step of Barney’s seven differentiation the doctrine, Creating Brand Advantage, strategies introduced in section two are considers how a firm should nurture, enhance and innovate the brand – this stage ** Note: Extensive literature search has been consists of the actual communication conducted to identify sources that have used this process (may include advertising), what model. None have been found to date. ** Note: Extensive literature search has been conducted to identify sources that have used this model. None have been found to date. Article Designation: Scholarly 17 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 applicable to the textile and apparel industry budget into new product development in an and will be discussed using differential attempt to better service the market with examples obtained through primary product features they may demand, but (industry interviews) and secondary (trade) others have been unable to provide [68]. data sources. Another example includes the international retailer and their ability to offer timely 1. Product features – DuPont [69]. Every two weeks Zara 2. Linkages between functions – Nordstrom, personnel update the store inventory with Wal*Mart goods that are more stylish in color and cut. 3. Timing – Polartec, Zara 4. Location – Talbot’s 5.5 Location 5. Product mix – Ralph Lauren 6. Links with other firms – Ford, Eddie Talbot’s, a women’s careerwear retailer, Bauer locates stores in areas that are not 7. Reputation – Lands’ End necessarily near traditional shopping centers, rather they are located near the 5.2 Product Features residences of suburban working women that frequent the stores. Such a focus on locating An example of how a commodity was with the convenience of the consumer in made distinct through the use of product mind differentiates the firm from features is the StainMaster ™ by competitors [70]. Production in locations DuPont. Prior to this introduction, all that are attractive to consumers is another were perceived to be quite similar – instance in which differentiation might exist. fabricated by like and methods. The An example would be the production of introduction of the new finish allowed much of high-end shoes and products DuPont to charge a premium and gain in . Production of identical products consumer recognition and loyalty [65]. might be possible in locations such as or , but they do not have the same 5.3 Linkages Between Functions cache in the mind of the consumer.

The Seattle -based department store 5.6 Product Mix (not pricing) Nordstrom has tried to link sales, service, and buying functions to ensure customer A strong example of product mix is satisfaction. By involving sales and service Ralph Lauren and the various uses of the with the buying office, it is possible for brand name and extensions throughout those in purchasing to equip the stores with products in the apparel arena –Ralph, merchandise that is more in-line with Lauren, Polo, Polo Jean Co. and Polo Sport. customer wants. Knowledge of consumer Additionally, Ralph Lauren has branched satisfaction with products can come from into other areas such as home textiles – salesperson nteractioni with the client, as , bedding and towels, as well as well as explanation of discontent with and wall paper. products upon return [66]. Wal*mart has an excellent system that links distribution 5.7 Linkages Between Firms centers, suppliers and retailers in such a way to maximize just-in-time inventory Linkages between firms are obvious management [67]. with Ford automobile company and the retailer Eddie Bauer. The name Eddie Bauer 5.4 Timing was used to differentiate Ford SUVs and trucks through minor variations of A prime example of a “first mover” interiors and exteriors. The strategy was so within the textile industry is Malden Mills successful that it has been imitated by Jeep with their introduction of Polartec ™. with Columbia Sportswear and Subaru with Malden invests a significant portion of their L.L. Bean [71; 72; 73]. Article Designation: Scholarly 18 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005

5.8 Reputation 5.9 Life -Cycle Applications to the Textile & Apparel Industry An example of a strong retail reputation for both products and their organization is The idea that brands can be best Wisconsin-based Lands’ End. The company managed through further extensions and has developed a reputation that is applications was established in section four synonymous with quality and customer through life cycle of life-cycle supervision. satisfaction. To ensure customer confidence Four key types of brands can be created and in this representation, they offer then “spun-off” into other products and “Guaranteed. Period.” This promise is lines. Below are examples of textile and upheld regardless of the reason for return apparel products that have been successful (which does not have to be given) or the in these efforts. time of purchase (you can return the item even after 20 years of wear) [74].

Figure 14: Brand Leverage Strategies Used in the Textile & Apparel Industry

Single -product Line Brand Image Brand Extension Extension Transfer

Levi’s ™ Ralph Lauren Sorbtek ™ Jeans Polartec ™ ™

Boot- Flare

cut

Power Power Stretch Windbloc Dry

Apparel Furniture

Source: Author (Bruer, S., 2004)

5.10 Textile and Apparel Private Labels proliferation is rampant. Store brands tend to fall in one of two categories – inexpensive Literature focused on the or premium, and there seems to be some development of private labels is extensive correlation between the type of retailer and [35; 43; 61;75], but its reference to textiles the way in which they market their private and apparel is quite limited. The lack of label goods [31]. A list of apparel retailers mention in research is not reflected by an and their store brands is given below: absence at retail, rather private label

Article Designation: Scholarly 19 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 Figure 15: Private Label Apparel Brands by Channel

Wal-Mart – Kathie Lee, Catalina, Basic Equipment, Bobbie Brooks, Faded Glory Kmart – Jaclyn Smith, Kathy Ireland, Route 66 and Martha Stewart Target – Mossimo, Xhiliration, Cherokee, Meroa, Meg Allen JC Penney – Arizona, St. John’s Bay, Hunt Club, Worthington, Stafford, Home Collection Sears – Canyon River Blues, Lands’ End, Just for Women Macy’s – INC/International Concepts, Charter Club, Jennifer Moore

Source: Author (Bruer, S., 2004)

It seems that the further one travels down Keller, the appeal of private label to stores is the price continuum from discount retailer to an average gross margin of 25-30 percent – mass merchant to department store, the more nearly twice that of national brands. As exclusively the private label product is mentioned before, two different creation priced and promoted. It is well documented strategies may be implemented when that store brand product is less expensive for developing private labels – development retailers to carry [76]. This decrease in from scratch or purchasing/licensing an carrying cost can either be passed on to the already existing name. The following are a consumer, absorbed by the retailer or series of well-known retailers and their divided between the two. According to brand strategies.

Figure 16: Private Label Brand Strategies

Retailer Brand Name Branding Strategy

Sears Kenmore Develop

Sears Lands’ End, Structure Acquisition

Target Mossimo Acquisition

K-Mart Kathy Ireland, Martha Develop

Stewart

Wal*Mart Sam’s Choice Develop

Macy’s Charter Club Acquisition

Macy’s I.N.C. International Develop

Concepts

Source: Author (Bruer, S., 2004)

Article Designation: Scholarly 20 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005

5.11 Branding Models Applied to the Textile & Apparel Industry

Using the six models introduced in section 4.7, the following figure provides potential applications to the textile and apparel industry.

Figure 17: Branding Mode l Applications to Textile & Apparel Industry

Model Application to Textile & Apparel Industry

Brand Identity · Assists firms in identifying brand Planning Model applications to all aspects of the Source: Aaker & organization (internal/external) Joachimsthaler (2000) · Determines best means by which firm will develop brand identity

Building Consumer- · Aids firms in developing a Based Brand Equity continual process that creates Source: Keller (2002) equity through the use of different branding strategies · Particular strategies are identified base on strengths of the firm

4-D Model of · Model will serve as a tool to better Branding understand the consumer mindset Source: Gad (2001) when observing/perceiving brands

The Pyramidal Model · Model allows firms to understand of a Brand way in which brand may/will Source: Kapferer (1994) progress throughout time. · Enables firm to adjust strategy to meet opportunities or threats

The Brand Strategy™ · Gives firms a system to develop a Doctrine Process brand and implement or Source: Knapp (2000) communicate them to consumers

Integrated Brand · Profile three levels of activity with Model a brand (from internal to external) Source: LePla & Parker · Helps develop drivers that will best (1999) reach the consumer

Source: Author (Bruer, S., 2004)

5.12 The Future of Branding

Although it is difficult, if not easily imitated, but on values and impossible, to predict the future of branding, personality that are important to consumers many forecasts have been made. The first is [43]. Additionally, it is thought there will be that brands will no longer focus on growth in branding service goods, with a functional values and attributes that can be focus on consistency. It is also predicted

Article Designation: Scholarly 21 JTATM Volume 4, Issue 3,Spring 2005 that more high-tech brands will enter adds that brand management will likely Interbrand’s listing of the most well-known differ, as consumer’s tastes across national or profitable brands in the world as borders are quite similar, leading to the sale marketers become more savvy in converting of a single product to many populations. a successful product into a successful brand. This homogeneity of product, however, Non-traditional brands are also seen as a might not transfer through a brand or potential growth area, these consist of such marketing campaign, instead, we might see entities as charities and non-governmental different brands attached to products or . The growth of brands in conveyed in different ways in order to avoid international markets is thought to be likely alienating customers. The rise in the as most markets are not as developed as the number of branded products available to United States and Western in this consumers can be either a source of great marketing trend. As competition continues competition (as the number of suppliers rise, to increase and the cost of new product so does the amount of product on the market development rises, the use of already from which consumers may choose) or existing brands will likely help spread the greater customer loyalty (with an influx of costs of new product launches and line product means more difficult choices and extensions. the possibility that a consumer will repeatedly purchase goods they are initially Reiterating a great deal of what was satisfied with) – the outcome is yet to be established by Interbrand [43], Murphy [75] determined.

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