Transboundary Spatial Planning Axes: Discontinuities and Suggestions for Harmonisation in the Elbe/Labe Euroregion

ORIGINAL PAPER Transboundary spatial planning axes: Discontinuities and suggestions for harmonisation in the Elbe/Labe Euroregion

Sebastian Bartel1, — Juliane Albrecht1 — Vladan Hruška2 — Kristyna Rybová2 — Andreas Ortner3

1Leibniz Institute of Ecological Urban and Regional Development, Weberplatz 1, 01217 Dresden, Germany 2Department of Geography, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University, České mládeže 8, 400 96 Ústí nad Labem, Czechia 3Chair of Land Management, Technische Universität Dresden, Dezernat 8, 01062 Dresden, Germany [email protected]

Abstract Keywords Spatial planning axes are an important instrument of spatial planning to help connect Sustainable urban areas and ensure the accessibility of rural areas and their development. The plan- Transboundary ning of such axes can steer population and traffic flows, decisions on the locations ofeco- Development, Spatial Planning Axes, nomic developments as well as infrastructures such as cable networks. In this paper, Germany, current spatial planning axes and their continuity are analysed regarding their suitability Czechia to promote sustainable cross-border European development. Two neighbouring regions are investigated as examples, namely the Regional Planning Authority Oberes Elbtal/Os- terzgebirge (Germany, Saxony) and the Ústí nad Labem Region (Czechia). The overar- ching research question is how transboundary spatial planning axes can be harmonised? Received: This can be broken down into the following three sub-questions: (1) Which differences 28 August 2018 exist between the Saxon and Czech planning systems? (2) How is the need for harmon- Received in revised form: isation assessed by planning practitioners? (3) Which transboundary recommendations 10 December 2018 can be given from a scientific perspective? To answer these research questions, expert Accepted: interviews were conducted with relevant stakeholders from spatial planning authorities 11 December 2018 as well as scientific and political institutions.

Highlights for public administration, management and planning: • Different perceptions concerning the effects of the application of spatial planning axes were identified; i.e. spatial planning axes in Czechia primarily directed ateco- nomic activities, whereas established for improved connections and to boost development in Germany. • Incompatibilities between German and Czech spatial planning cultures may hinder any endeavour for cross-border governance of spatial planning axes. • Requirements and potentials for the harmonisation of spatial planning axes on both sides of the border are proposed. • For the current spatial planning axes in Czechia, a stronger line-oriented designation of existing and newly designated axes is desirable and legally feasible. • In the Saxon spatial planning documents, the rescaling of existing cross-border planning axes to Czechia would support the functions lost due to recent infrastruc- tural developments at other locations.

1 Introduction tant instruments of spatial planning to connect urban areas and to secure the accessibility of rural areas and their development. Within spatial Spatial planning axes (sometimes also referred plans, axes are used to organise and gather traf- to as development axes or corridors)1 are impor- fic flows, to steer decisions on the location ofeco-

114 © Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem GeoScape 12(2) — 2018: 114—123 doi: 10.2478/geosc-2018-0012 Available online at content.sciendo.com nomic developments as well as infrastructures such and regional authority of the Ústí nad Labem Re- as cable networks. Different interpretations of spa- gion (which cover the Czech area of the Eurore- tial planning axes can lead to considerable dis- gion Elbe/Labe), and − in order to receive more parities in their application as a planning instru- complex insight into the issue of spatial axes plan- ment. Clearly, cross-border cooperation is neces- ning − representatives of other two regions border- sary to support the physical continuation of axes ing with Saxony (Karlovy Vary and Liberec Region). and to enable the steering effect of this instrument. The structure of the interviews consists of a first One major result of the European research project part focused on rather general issues of the per- “Cross-Data” (2010−2013) on transboundary data ceived importance of the concept of spatial planning management for spatial planning was the identifi- axes and a second part concerning the cross-border cation of discontinuities between the spatial plan- designation and application of spatial planning axes. ning axes within the Saxon-Bohemian border region Interview notes and protocols have been evaluated (SMI et al. 2016). in an exploratory and case-specific manner with re- Based on this knowledge, a follow-up project2 spect to the research questions. was initiated by the Elbe/Labe Euroregion, which The structure of this paper is as follows: The fol- is particularly concerned by discontinuities in such lowing second section provides the theoretical back- axes. Based on two particular neighbouring bor- ground to the concept of spatial planning axes, der planning regions (the Regional Planning Author- with a discussion of their purpose and limitations. ity Oberes Elbtal/Osterzgebirge and the Ústí nad In the third section we analyse the institutional Labem Region) the aim of this paper is to analyse background and key spatial planning documents existing spatial planning axes and investigate their in both countries regarding the planning of axes. continuity in order to assess their suitability to pro- The fourth section focuses on spatial planning prac- mote sustainable cross-border European develop- tices accompanying the designation of spatial axes. ment. In the fifth section we examine the transboundary The main research question of the project and this discontinuities of planning axes in the case study paper is: How can the transboundary spatial plan- regions resulting from different planning attitudes ning axes be harmonised? This can be broken down in Saxony and Czechia followed by a discussion into the following three sub-questions: (1) Which of our main results. The concluding section offers differences exist between the Saxon and Czech plan- a summary of results as well as some recommenda- ning systems related to spatial planning axes? (2) tions for spatial planning with regard to axis plan- How is the need for harmonisation assessed by planning. ning practitioners? (3) Which recommendations for a transboundary axes planning can be given from a scientific perspective? 2 The concept of spatial The research involved a broad range of methods. planning axes Relevant German and Czech scientific literature as well as spatial planning documents were investigated at different planning levels (national – state While the instrument of spatial planning axes is fre- – regional – local). Based on the content analysis quently applied in Central European countries such of the spatial planning documents a detailed de- as Czechia, Germany, Poland and Slovakia or at scription of identified discontinuities was possible the European level (e.g. Trans-European Net- and a compilation of the different graphic repre- works), relatively less attention has been paid sentations was enabled. Furthermore, expert in- to this spatial planning tool within the scientific lit- terviews were conducted in 2017 in both coun- erature. From an academic perspective, the con- tries with relevant stakeholders from spatial plan- cept has been investigated over the years with ning authorities as well as scientific and political varying levels of intensity. First studies (from institutions to better understand the practical use the 1960s and 1970s) focused on the rise of lin- of spatial planning axes and their application in spa- ear urban patterns, their analysis and conceptual- tial planning. On the Saxon side, the interviews isation, whereas studies from the 1990s focused were conducted with the representatives of Saxon on the complex and multidimensional character and regional planning authorities (Saxon State Min- of spatial axes and their governance. The stud- istry of the Interior, Regional planning authority ies from the 1990s are tightly related to the grow- Oberes Elbtal / Osterzgebirge) and spatial scien- ing endeavour of the EU for borderless, more co- tists. Czech interviewers worked with represen- herent and better integrated Europe since 1990s tatives of the Ministry for Regional Development (Albrechts & Coppens 2003; Priemus & Zonneveld

2003). In this section, we will focus briefly on both tors; they also have the ability to induce them approaches. by their own mechanisms. This ability is deter- First, a number of studies occurred in the 1960s mined by the attractive force of cores (cities mea- and 1970s, when the concept of development axes sured by population or level and innovation level was devised (e.g. Pottier 1963; Boudeville 1966; of economic activity) that are connected by the de- Friedmann 1966; Hilhorst 1973; later also Geyer velopment axes as well as the distance between 1987; Blažek & Netrdová 2009). This was a reac- them. Both of these general theoretical approaches tion on a growing population decentralisation which are still acknowledged by spatial planners today. started in the 1960s and 1970s in the Western de- Second, since the 1990s increasingly more scien- veloped countries (in the post-socialist countries tists have recognised the multi-faceted character this process started in the 1990s with the shift of the concept of corridors (Priemus & Zonneveld to the neo-liberal and democratic mode of econ- 2003). Processes constructing development corri- omy and society). The growing population de- dors operate on many scales – local, regional, na- centralisation was followed later by decentralisa- tional or macroregional; integrate transportation tion of retail and manufacturing activities resulting and urban development planning; freight and pas- in leapfrogging urban sprawl or ribbon development senger transportation; different modes of mobility (Albrechts & Tasan-Kok 2009; Ženka et al. 2017). (rail, road, inland waterways). Therefore, corri- The concept of development axes is derived from dors cannot be defined simply as a linear infras- two general theoretical approaches, namely loca- tructure axes but rather as bundles of multidimen- tion and polarization theories. The purpose of these sional and multi-scalar relations influencing or pro- theories is, first, to identify factors determining ducing transport, economic and demographic pro- the selection of locations for economic activities, cesses (Witte 2014). Corridors also combine dif- and, second, to explain the spatial distribution ferent functions (urbanization corridors, ecologi- of economic activities (Blažek & Uhlíř 2011). For ex- cal corridors, transportation corridors, and eco- ample, the central place theory by Walter Christaller nomic development corridors – Albrechts & Tasan- (1933) plays a major role in the current imple- Kok 2009). mentation of axes in planning documents (whereby Witte (2014:27) argues that ’Despite the recognition the axes are understood as interconnections be- of corridors and corridor development as a valid, tween two or more central places). Polarization the- empirically observable phenomenon, accurate spa- ories attempt to understand unequal spatial devel- tial policy is oftentimes lacking.’ From this point opment by defining locations of economic growth, of view, the question on governing such a complex variously designated as ‘p’ (Perroux 1950), ‘growth body arise. How to establish a corresponding gov- centres’ (Boudeville 1966), ‘poles’ or simply ‘cores’ ernance structure in order to grasp this complex- (Friedmann 1966) in contrast to locations of eco- ity? Many authors draw attention to a weak insti- nomic decline or lagging peripheries. These the- tutional framework for governance of corridors – ories examine interdependencies between cores not only on the transnational (European) level but and peripheries, their structuring factors as well even on the national level. Here, the lack of insti- as options and tools for spreading development from tutional coordination is obvious especially on local cores into the peripheral areas. They became very level where local development interests intersect influential in regional economic planning although with central government land use and transporta- they never lived up to its early promise (Parr 1999a; tion policies (Witte & Spit 2016). Parr 1999b). Location theories may be significantly (albeit implic- From this perspective, development axes were itly) used for localization decision-making not only first conceived by Pottier (1963, quoted in Geyer by public representatives but by enterprise lead- 1987:272) and later developed by Boudeville (1966) ers and managers as well. In this way such the- and Friedmann (1966) as corridors with an in- ories are used to greatly shape the present geog- creased level of human activity (Blažek & Netrdová raphy of foreign (and local) direct investment, es- 2009). Pottier (1963) defines development axes pecially the locations of new branch plants, retail as “the dominating lines in a communications net- units and logistic parks, etc. (Blažek & Uhlíř 2011) work” (quoted in Hilhorst 1973:3). These commu- or they help to design emergency service plans lo- nication lines connect the spatial cores with the pe- cating e.g. new hospitals, fire stations, and warning ripheries, thereby enabling a more equal distribu- sirens (Murray 2009). tion of decision-making powers, innovation, employ- However, academics and planners have voiced ment and incomes (Hilhorst 1973). Moreover, de- criticism of the presented theoretical approaches velopment axes not only help to spread such fac- and their implementation in regional policy. Specifi-

116 © Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem GeoScape 12(2) — 2018: 114—123 doi: 10.2478/geosc-2018-0012 Available online at content.sciendo.com cally, location and polarization theories have be- as in Czechia, in both countries they are de- come unpopular in view of their unrealistic simplifi- fined at various planning levels. In Germany spa- cation of space (especially in the context of the cen- tial planning axes have been designated in spatial tral place theory) as well as the idealistic assump- plans at the state (Land) and regional level since tion of the rational behaviour of consumers (posited the 1950s (Kistenmacher 2005). Notably, spatial as Homo Economicus). A further reason is the em- planning axes have been regulated by the Federal phasis of geographical loca-tion as the most im- Spatial Planning Act (Raumordnungsgesetz) since portant location factor for companies while other 1998. In today’s Czechia, the concept of spatial factors are neglected, e.g. accessibility of labour, planning axes is relatively young. It was legally labour costs, land/property costs, the regional em- introduced by the Czech Act on town and country beddedness of the enterprise owner, etc. (Blažek planning and building code 183/2006 Coll. (here- & Uhlíř 2011). From the planning point of view, inafter within the text as Building Act) and prac- the concept of axes has been criticised again due tically implemented for the first time by the na- to the simplification of space and overestimating tional strategic document Spatial Development Pol- the role of transportation networks for spatial de- icy of the Czech Republic (Politika územního rozvoje velopment: Corridors very often do not form a con- – hereinafter within the text as PÚR) of 2008. tinuous area with an increased level of urbanisa- tion, economic activity etc. – they are rather neck- 3.1 Germany (Saxony) lace of pearl (Witte 2014), necklace of beads (Chap- man 2003) or pearls on a string (Albrechts & Tasan- Reflecting the country’s federal system, axes inGer- Kok 2009) where ’development’ concentrates only many are designated in state-wide spatial struc- in limited number of places along the transporta- ture plans of the Länder as well as in regional tion lines. More importantly, corridors have been plans. The competence for establishing spatial problematised due to their perception as a tool legit- plans at the national level is highly restricted (see imating unsustainable urban sprawl and ribbon de- Table 1); nationwide spatial plans have not yet velopment and dismantling the compact urban form been established apart from marine spatial plans (Albrechts & Tasan-Kok 2009). in the exclusive economic zone (cf. § 17 Rau- mordnungsgesetz, ROG). In Saxony, axes are com- ponents of the settlement structure, which must 3 Hierarchy of designing be designated (in addition to open-space struc- the spatial planning axes ture and infrastructure) in the state-wide spatial structure plans established by the Saxon Ministry of the Interior and in the regional plans. While Concerning the current state of implementation the term “axes” is mentioned in § 13 para. 5 sent. of key outcomes of aforementioned approaches 1 no. 1 ROG, it is not precisely defined. According to spatial planning, in Germany, the central place to the general understanding in relevant literature, theory is a crucial part of the country’s spatial plan- axes are characterised by the bundling of linear in- ning system. Axes are part of the legally bind- frastructure (especially transport routes) and a se- ing contents of spatial plans in Germany as well quence of concentrated settlements (Kistenmacher

Table 1 Spatial plans in Germany

Planning Level Planning Instruments Plan Contents Spatial plans for the German Exclusive Targets and principles for selected land or sea Federation Economic Zone and the federal territory, uses and functions (e.g. flood protection); § 17 ROG specification of individual principles of § 2 para. 2ROG State-wide spatial structure plan, Targets and principles for land use and land States (Länder) § 13 para. 1 no. 1 ROG, functions, esp. for settlement structure, Regional plan, § 13 para. 1 no. 2 ROG open-space structure, infrastructure Development concept for the municipal Municipalities Preparatory land use plan, §§ 5 ff. BauGB territory and its functional land use, type of urban development Site-related regulation of type Legal binding land use plan, §§ 9 ff. BauGB and density of urban development Source: Ortner et al. (2018)

Table 2 Spatial planning documents in Czechia

Planning Level Planning Instruments Plan Contents State-wide priorities of spatial planning, designation Spatial Development Policy of development areas and development axes, special areas, State (Politika územního rozvoje), corridors and areas for transport infrastructure § 31 Building Act and technical infrastructure Principles of spatial planning Demarcation of development areas and axes of national Regions (Zásady územního rozvoje), and regional importance, areas and corridors for transport, § 36 Building Act infrastructure and technical infrastructure Land use plan for the municipality, Development concept for the municipal territory § 43 Building Act, and its functional land use, demarcation Municipalities Legally-binding land use plan, of the development area, Site-related regulation § 61 Building Act of the urban development Source: Ortner et al. (2018)

2005). While supra-regional axes must be desig- by the regional authority and adopted by the re- nated in the state-wide spatial structure plans, axes gional assembly. As in Germany, axes are not desig- of regional importance are defined in the regional nated in municipal land use plans. However, the lo- plans. Consequently, the designation of regional cal plans must reflect the specifications of the supra- significant “interconnecting and development axes” local spatial plans. In addition to the mentioned is mentioned in § 4 para. 2 lit. d of the Saxon Plan- spatial plans, so-called strategic plans are estab- ning Act (SächsLPlG) as a necessary content of re- lished in Czechia, also termed “development strate- gional plans. Regional planning in Saxony is the re- gies and programmes”. While these plans must sponsibility of rural districts and urban municipal- be drawn up at the national and regional level, they ities, which band together for this special purpose are an optional instrument at local level. However, into regional planning communities. There is no le- the legal basis for these plans (Act on regional de- gal requirement for the designation of axes in local velopment support 248/2000 Coll.) does not refer land use plans. However, the stipulations of the lo- to the content of PÚR and ZÚR, and consequently cal land use plans have accord with the axes desig- ignores the axes designated therein. nated in spatial plans (cf. § 1 para. 4 Federal Build- ing Code − Baugesetzbuch, BauGB). 4 Practices and approaches 3.2 Czechia (Ústí nad Labem Region) for the designation of spatial planning axes In Czechia, so-called development axes are integrated into the national Spatial Development Pol- icy (PÚR). They are also included in regional plans Based on the expert interviews, it was possible (Zásady územního rozvoje − hereinafter within to identify similarities and differences in planning the text as ZÚR) (see Table 2). PÚR, which was es- practice. Axes seem to play a more prominent role tablished by the Ministry of Regional Development, in Saxony due to a greater experience with this con- specifies the requirements and framework of spa- cept as well as its complementarity to the cen- tial planning in the national, cross-border and in- tral place theory within spatial planning. Among ternational context (cf. § 31 Building Act). As de- other purposes, the axes in Saxony serve to con- termined by § 32 para. 1 lit. b Building Act, PÚR nect central places, making them an important com- designates areas with increased requirements re- ponent of spatial planning. On the Czech side, garding land use due to a concentration of activ- in contrast, municipalities are not hierarchically or- ities of international, national and supra-regional dered according to their central function, and hence importance, i.e. “development areas and devel- the interconnection of places on the same hierar- opment axes”. ZÚR incorporate the development chical level (for example between regional capitals concept for the region with the essential require- Karlovy Vary – Plzeň, Ústí nad Labem – Liberec etc.) ments for an appropriate economic framework (§ 36 is not a significant part of national spatial plan- Building Act). They designate “development areas ning. In Czechia as well as in Saxony, the trans- and development axes” and deal with supra-local port function is seen as one of the most impor- and regional interrelations. ZÚR are elaborated tant functions of axes. In Czechia, this is also

118 © Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem GeoScape 12(2) — 2018: 114—123 doi: 10.2478/geosc-2018-0012 Available online at content.sciendo.com connected with the economic development func- tice (however intensively promoted from the EU via tion, specifically with the attraction and concen- Trans-European Networks), there are other spaces tration of national as well as international invest- on the border that need further discussion with re- ments into the area defined by the axes in order gard to the harmonisation of axes planning. Based to save the landscape character beyond the axes. on the interviews, it seems that stakeholders al- In Saxony, a further important aim of axes is to sup- ready have suitable platforms for this like the Expert port rural development, while in densely populated Group Spatial Development (“Fachgruppe Raumen- areas it also has a regulating function to bundle twicklung”) of the Euroregion Elbe/Labe and the and concentrate infrastructures. Both sides men- Saxon-Bohemian Working Group for Spatial Devel- tioned the practical difficulties of applying the con- opment (“Sächsisch-Böhmische Arbeitsgruppe Rau- cept. Axes are of little significance at the munic- mentwicklung”). ipal level; instead, they play a bigger role in dis- cussions about the location of large investment projects. Depending on the interests of the mu- 5 Transboundary discontinuities nicipalities, axes can be utilised as an argument in spatial planning axes for or against a proposed investment. Particularly designation on the Czech side, there seems to be a lack of aware- ness of the concept at the local level. The Czech respondents pointed out the lack of funding pro- The analysis of spatial planning documents and the grammes to support the implementation of objec- expert interviews confirm the relevance of the con- tives resulting from the position on an axis. Without cept of spatial axes on both sides of the border. In- funding, the practical implications of axes remain consistencies, however, can be found between in- unexplored and municipalities are left to pursue vestigated Czech and German planning documents their own goals. Last but not least, the level of in- and ways of incorporation of axes as a spatial plan- stitutionalization of spatial planning axes as a planning concept. These inconsistencies start already ning concept is different in both countries resulting on the level of cartographical representation in spa- in different qualities of their implementation on var- tial planning documents. For instance, from the car- ious spatial scales. The evaluation of selected spa- tographical point of view, graphic representations tial plans in Czechia, with a focus on strategic plan- of regional and supra-regional spatial axes are al- ning documents in Czech cities, shows that the con- ways line-oriented in Germany. In Czechia, in concept of axes is a top-down steering approach from trast, area-oriented designations dominate in spa- the national level. The relative novelty of the spatial tial plans; line-oriented designations are relatively axes concept in Czechia (as already said, the instru- rare because this kind of representation is opment was first introduced in 2008 in the PÚR) might tional in Czechia whereas area-oriented axes must explain its poor implementation, especially within be designated in each region (Ortner et al. 2018). strategic planning documents where until now it has This leads to many misunderstandings in cases not been implemented at a regional or local level. when line-oriented representations in German doc- In contrast, Germany has a long-standing tradition uments meet Czech area-oriented representations of designating spatial axes based on the central of spatial axes evoking for German readers missing place theory. To realise the transboundary as well connection although it is present in reality. Regard- as supra-regional linking of axes, it is vital to en- ing the selected case study regions, we will now sure a common understanding of the axes concept discuss in more detail four concrete intersections in each region. When there is no such under- of spatial planning axes regarding the requirements standing, problems arise not only at the national and options for their harmonisation on both sides border between Czechia and Germany, but also of the border (see Fig. 1). at internal borders between neighbouring states in Germany and regions in Czechia. If neighbour- 5.1 Spatial Planning Axis Dresden – Ústí nad ing regions do not pursue common goals, it is Labem – Prague likely that the national or regional axes will simply terminate at the border rather than contin- As this axis is a part of the Trans-European Network uing on to the other side. The interviews con- (Orient/East-Med Corridor), it is designated on both firmed the deep interest in understanding and dis- sides of the border in the state development plan cussing the situation with neighbouring regions. of the Free State of Saxony and PÚR in Czechia, While the connection between Dresden and Prague and hence requires no harmonisation. It runs across was often mentioned as an example of good prac- both sides of the border (content-related and carto-

Fig. 1 Transboundary spatial planning axes in the case study planning regions “Oberes Elbtal/Osterzgebirge” and “Ústí nad Labem”. Source: Modified after Ortner et al. (2018). graphically) along the motorway Dresden – Ústí nad Dresden – Ústí nad Labem. Nonetheless, the classi- Labem, highlighting its international and national fication as a supra-regional axis has been retained relevance. The joint planning of the new high-speed in Germany even though its actual impact is primar- rail link from Dresden to Prague confirms its signifi- ily local, namely in fostering development impulses cance. for the towns of Teplice and Altenberg. The designation as a supra-regional axis on the German side 5.2 Spatial Planning Axis Dippoldiswalde – of the border could be therefore downgraded to a re- Zinnwald – Cínovec – Teplice gional axis.

On the Saxon side, this supra-regional axis passes 5.3 Spatial Planning Axis Dresden – from Dresden via Dippoldiswalde to Zinnwald Reinhardtsdorf-Schöna – Hřensko – Děčín at the Czech border. However, on the Czech side, there is no designation of a development From the German side of the border, a supra- axis. The original importance of the axis as an es- regional axis connects to a so-called development sential transportation connection between Czechia area of supra-regional relevance on the Czech and Germany has diminished since 2006 following side, close to the town Děčín. The continuation the construction of the transboundary motorway of the German axis to Děčín would support re-

120 © Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem GeoScape 12(2) — 2018: 114—123 doi: 10.2478/geosc-2018-0012 Available online at content.sciendo.com gional cross-border development. Consideration, are primarily linked to traffic flows and infrastruc- however, could be given to downgrading the Ger- ture, whereas in the Czech context the spatial plan- man axis from a supra-regional to a regional axis; ning axes are intended to resolve issues of busi- its relevance as an important (train) transporta- ness location and to foster development activities. tion connection will decrease in coming years due This might be given by the period of formation to the planned high-speed railway link between of development axes in Czechia as a spatial plan- Prague and Dresden. ning concept – at the beginning of 2000s the endeavour of central government to attract as many 5.4 Double Spatial Planning Axis Neustadt foreign direct investments as possible culminated in Sachsen – Langburkersdorf – Loben- (Zamrazilová 2007). New enterprises in manufac- dava – Velký Šenov respectively Sebnitz – turing, logistics etc. then very often preferred to lo- Dolní Poustevna – Velký Šenov cate in very well accessible locations along the major transport communications. The relative novelty This axis is highly important for the German towns of the spatial axes concept in Czechia (in Germany of Neustadt in Sachsen and Sebnitz because it is this planning tool has had tradition since the 1950s, the shortest connection to Zittau (via Rumburk) see above) might also explain its poor implemen- and further to Liberec or Bogatynia. However, there tation, especially within strategic planning docu- is currently no road connection between Lobendava ments where it has not been implemented at a re- and Langburkersdorf. Construction of this connec- gional or local level until now. Regarding this fact, tion is anchored in the text of the ZÚR of the Ústí it seems that the concept of axes in Czechia is imple- nad Labem Region although there is no graphic ex- mented within a top-down steering approach initiat- pression of this in the plan. The aim of Czech plan- ing from the national level with hitherto only limited ners is to kickstart or promote economic develop- implementation on lower tiers of spatial planning. ment for this economically weak region (Lobendava However, similar can be said about the German ap- – Křečany Special Area). However, it will prove dif- proach: with decreasing planning level the inten- ficult to implement this axis due to the resistance sity of implementation of axes is sinking and less of local people on the German side of the border tangible. This leads to the question of governance who are afraid of increased traffic and noise in their of spatial planning axes. Apart from their vague- municipality. ness on a local level where paradoxically their impact on local economy and society is most inten- sive, the cross-border coordination of axes needs 6 Discussion better coordination. This is obvious on at least three of the four investigated axes within the Eu- roregion Elbe/Labe (apart from the axis Dresden – Concerning the meta-theories of spatial planning Ústí nad Labem). This concerns the joint map lan- used in both countries, in Germany the central guage of documents, sharing of methodological ap- place theory plays a major role in the implementa- proaches for delimitation of axes and suggesting tion of spatial planning axes in planning documents. their hierarchical classification. However these dif- However, in Czechia planners got inspired rather ferences are results of unequal spatial planning tra- by the growth-pole-theory and in the planning doc- ditions in both countries and their equalisation will uments they identify apart from the development require mutual communication and understanding. axes also development cores (12 development cores on the national level) which should primary concentrate social and economic development. A less 7 Conclusions dense network of development cores in compar- ison with German spatial planning does not induce designation of regional and local spatial plan- The investigation has shown that different per- ning axes – thus, contrary to Germany, in Czechia ceptions concerning the effects of the application the spatial planning axes do not have the func- of spatial planning axes exist and that the level of in- tion of stabilisation and development of rural set- stitutionalization of spatial planning axes as a plan- tlements via their better accessibility. Other differ- ning concept is different in both countries resulting ences in spatial planning are the result of the dif- in different qualities of their implementation on var- ferent traditions of planning cultures in Germany ious spatial scales. Inconsistencies can be iden- and Czechia. The spatial planning instrument tified based on the investigated planning docu- of axes seems to have a higher relevance in Sax- ments. In Germany, for instance, we find only ony (Germany) than in Czechia. Axes in Germany line-oriented designations for regional and supra-

© Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem 121 Available online at content.sciendo.com GeoScape 12(2) — 2018: 114—123 doi: 10.2478/geosc-2018-0012 regional spatial axes, whereas in Czechia area- velopment axes” which is used in Czechia is not suitable for the oriented designations are dominant in spatial plans German “interconnecting and development axes” as explained in with line-oriented designations only used occa- Chapter 3.1. 2 Project “Untersuchung der Passfähigkeit der grenzüberschrei- sionally (Ortner et al. 2018). This is just one tenden Achsen in der Euroregion Elbe/Labe – Výzkum návaznosti of many examples of incompatibility between Czech přeshraničních rozvojových os v Euroregionu Elbe/Labe” funded and German spatial planning which hinder the en- by the European Regional Development Fund (within the Pro- gramme of Cross-border Cooperation – Free State of Saxony and deavour for a cross-border governance of spatial the Czech Republic 2014-2020). planning axes. We therefore give recommendations and highlight potentials for the harmonisation of spatial planning axes on both sides of the border. Acknowledgement Based on the chosen study area of the Euroregion Elbe/Labe, four concrete intersections of spatial We thank the Small Project Fund of the Euroregion Elbe/Labe planning axes were investigated regarding the re- for the financial support (Project “Untersuchung der Pass- quirements and potentials for their harmonisation fähigkeit der grenzüberschreitenden Achsen in der Euroregion on both sides of the border. For the current plan- Elbe/Labe – Výzkum návaznosti přeshraničních rozvojových os v Euroregionu Elbe/Labe”). The early version of the paper was ning axes in Czechia, a stronger line-oriented des- presented and discussed at the SEDER Conference - Social and ignation of existing and newly designated axes is de- economic development regional policy, held at UJEP Ústí nad sirable and legally feasible. If this could be re- Labem in June 2018. alised, the linear-oriented axes (coming from Ger- many) could be continued at least graphically also References in Czechia. In the Saxon spatial planning documents, the rescaling of existing planning axes would better reflect the reality of these communication Act on regional development support (Zákon o podpoře regionál- axes which lost their importance due to recent in- ního rozvoje), No. 248/2000 Sb. frastructural developments at other locations (Or- Albrechts L, Coppens T (2003) Megacorridors: striking a bal- tner et al. 2018). At a theoretical level and in ance between the space of flows and the space of places. Journal view of the relative neglection of spatial planning of Transport Geography 11(3): 215−224. axes by academics, spatial researchers can help Albrechts L, Tasan-Kok T (2009) Corridor and axis development. In: International Encyclopedia of Human Geography: Vol. 2. El- planners with the conceptualisation, designation sevier, Oxford, pp. 298−304. and implementation of axes in planning documents. From a scientific perspective, planning practition- Baugesetzbuch (BauGB) as amended and promulgated on 23 September 2004 (BGBl. I p. 2414), last amended by Law of 20 ers can draw useful information from the scien- July 2017 (BGBl. I p. 2808). tific literature to explain how development mech- Blažek J, Netrdová P (2009) Can development axes be identified anisms work and how spatial axes can be created by socio-economic variables? The case of Czechia. Geografie to foster increased development. This is especially 114: 245−262. needed at the local level, where axes find only lim- Blažek J, Uhlíř D (2011) Teorie regionálního rozvoje: nástin, kri- ited application. Local actors would benefit from tika, implikace. Karolinum, Praha. a clearer understanding of the conceptualisation Boudeville J R (1966) Problems of regional economic planning. and anchoring of axes in physical space, with regard Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. to the concrete infrastructure and planning mea- Building Act (Zákon o územním plánování a stavebním řádu) of 14 sures that have to be implemented locally. Based March 2006, No. 183/2006 Sb. on this ’localization of spatial planning axes’, finan- Chapman D, Pratt D, Larkham P, Dickins I (2003) Concepts cial sources and development grants can be more and definitions of corridors: evidence from England’s Mid-lands. efficiently employed to implement axes. 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De-velopment planning, we use the term spatial planning axes. The term “de- Southern Africa 4: 271−300.

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