Researcher Published by CQ Press, a division of Congressional Quarterly Inc. CQ www.cqresearcher.com Factory Are they the best way to feed the nation?

ost U.S. meat, poultry, eggs and milk come from so-called factory farms or CAFOs (con- centrated animal feeding operations), where thousands of animals are confined indoors. MWhile they efficiently produce abundant supplies of affordable food, CAFOs also raise questions about animal welfare, public health and environmental degradation. Large farms create huge quan- tities of animal waste, which produce noxious air emissions and Hogs on U.S. factory farms are typically confined contaminate water supplies when storage facilities leak or over- indoors in narrow crates from birth until they go to the slaughterhouse. flow. Overuse of antibiotics to keep animals healthy in crowded

conditions helps generate drug-resistant bacteria and spread infec- I tions in humans. And many critics argue that long-term confine- N THIS REPORT ment in small enclosures or cages harms animals. Organic S THE ISSUES...... 27 and free-range meat and eggs are increasingly popular, but they I BACKGROUND ...... 34 are more expensive than conventional meat and dairy products, D CHRONOLOGY ...... 35 and some organic suppliers are adopting industrial-style methods E CURRENT SITUATION ...... 39 to keep up with demand. AT ISSUE ...... 41 OUTLOOK ...... 43 CQ Researcher • Jan. 12, 2007 • www.cqresearcher.com Volume 17, Number 2 • Pages 25-48 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 46 THE NEXT STEP ...... 47 RECIPIENT OF SOCIETY OF PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISTS AWARD FOR EXCELLENCE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION SILVER GAVEL AWARD FACTORY FARMS CQ Researcher

Jan. 12, 2007 THE ISSUES OUTLOOK Volume 17, Number 2

• Do factory farms threaten CAFOs Under Pressure MANAGING EDITOR: Thomas J. Colin 27 public health? 43 Factory farms are under stress ASSISTANT MANAGING EDITOR: Kathy Koch • Should pollution from from regulators, alternative factory farms be regulated suppliers and home builders. ASSOCIATE EDITOR: Kenneth Jost more tightly? STAFF WRITERS: Marcia Clemmitt, Peter Katel • Can environmentally SIDEBARS AND GRAPHICS CONTRIBUTING WRITERS: Rachel S. Cox, friendly farming compete Sarah Glazer, Alan Greenblatt, with factory farming? Rise in Milk Production Barbara Mantel, Patrick Marshall, 28 Tom Price, Jennifer Weeks BACKGROUND Reflects Trend Factory farms produce more DESIGN/PRODUCTION EDITOR: Olu B. Davis with less. 34 ASSISTANT EDITOR: Melissa J. Hipolit and sheep grazed and How Much Manure Do pigs rooted on village com- 29 Animals Produce? mons well into the 1800s. A 1,400-pound dairy cow produces 22 tons annually. Federal Rules 36 A Division of Congress passed the first Chronology Congressional Quarterly Inc. Meat Inspection Act in 1890. 35 Key events since 1862. SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT/PUBLISHER: New Technology 36 Ethicist Sees Possible End John A. Jenkins 37 By 1945, only 16 percent to Factory Farming DIRECTOR, LIBRARY PUBLISHING: Kathryn C. Suárez of the U.S. workforce re- Peter Singer cites change in public attitudes about animals. DIRECTOR, EDITORIAL OPERATIONS: mained on farms. Ann Davies New Food Fears What Is a CAFO? CONGRESSIONAL QUARTERLY INC. 38 38 Size determines a factory Mad cow disease outbreaks farm’s classification. CHAIRMAN: Paul C. Tash revealed questionable feed- VICE CHAIRMAN: Andrew P. Corty ing practices. Vermont Dairy Farm PRESIDENT/EDITOR IN CHIEF: Robert W. Merry 40 Harnesses Cow Power URRENT ITUATION Blue Spruce Farm generates Copyright © 2007 CQ Press, a division of Congres- C S electricity from waste. sional Quarterly Inc. (CQ). CQ reserves all copyright Farm Bill and other rights herein, unless previously specified 39 At Issue in writing. No part of this publication may be re- Many livestock issues are 41 Should manure be regulated produced electronically or otherwise, without prior on the agenda as Congress under the Superfund law? written permission. Unauthorized reproduction or prepares to reauthorize transmission of CQ copyrighted material is a violation farm programs. FOR FURTHER RESEARCH of federal law carrying civil fines of up to $100,000. Labels, Monopolies CQ Researcher (ISSN 1056-2036) is printed on acid- 39 Organic advicates want For More Information free paper. Published weekly, except March 23, July 45 Organizations to contact. 6, July 13, Aug. 3, Aug. 10, Nov. 23, Dec. 21 and mandatory country-of-origin Dec. 28, by CQ Press, a division of Congressional labeling (COOL) for organic Bibliography Quarterly Inc. Annual full-service subscriptions for food. 46 Selected sources used. institutions start at $667. For pricing, call 1-800-834- 9020, ext. 1906. To purchase a CQ Researcher re- Outside the Beltway The Next Step port in print or electronic format (PDF), visit 42 Nine states have barred or 47 Additional articles. www.cqpress.com or call 866-427-7737. Single reports restricted corporate farming. start at $15. Bulk purchase discounts and electronic- Citing CQ Researcher rights licensing are also available. Periodicals post- 47 Sample bibliography formats. age paid at Washington, D.C., and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to CQ Researcher, 1255 22nd St., N.W., Suite 400, Washing- ton, DC 20037. Cover: Humane Society of the United States

26 CQ Researcher Factory Farms BY JENNIFER WEEKS

“We used to have about 50 hog farms in St. Charles Coun- THE ISSUES ty,” says Rehmeier, whose fam- nside a gestation barn ily has raised hogs in on Rick Rehmeier’s hog for five generations. “Now I farm in Augusta, Mo., the there are five.” His 12-person air is dusty, warm and thick. operation runs four sites with More than 400 sows are about 10,000 hogs. penned in individual metal Such concentration has been crates, each with a water increasing in the poultry and trough and feed dispenser. livestock industries for decades. The big animals can lie From 1982 through 1997, the down but cannot turn around. number of farms with con- Their excrement falls through fined animals declined by 50 floor slats into a pit, from percent, but the number of which it is periodically medium-size CAFOs increased flushed outside into a so- by 50 percent, and large farms called lagoon. Acrid whiffs more than doubled. 2 of ammonia waft up from Large CAFOs — those with the decomposing manure. more than 1,000 “animal Two employees move units” (1,000 beef cattle, 700 down the rows, artificially mature dairy cattle, or 2,500 inseminating sows with hogs larger than 55 pounds) semen collected from the — represent only 10 percent farm’s four stud boars. Each Getty Images/Daniel Pepper of all factory farms but con- About 21,000 chickens are raised in this 500-foot-long sow will remain in its crate Perdue Farms barn in Kentucky. Factory farms produce trol half or more of the total throughout its four-month massive quantities of animal waste that can pose animal inventory in some sec- pregnancy, and then give environmental hazards. Animal-rights activists say tors. Concentration is espe- birth in a farrowing crate factory farms are inhumane, but growers say they cially high in the hog and with an adjoining compart- provide climate-controlled, well-ventilated poultry industries. (See graph, living conditions for the animals. ment for the piglets. p. 32.) “In a loose pen, the sow will dig Farms that raise hundreds or Although factory farms can produce out a bed for herself, and if the piglets thousands of animals in such close large quantities of food cheaply, ani- go into it, she can roll over and crush confinement are widely known as mal-welfare advocates call them inhu- them,” explains Rehmeier. factory farms, or concentrated ani- mane, and environmentalists and local When the piglets are weaned at three- mal feeding operations (CAFOs). residents say they generate pollution to-four weeks of age, the sows will re- Large CAFOs are controlled under and noxious odors and byproducts. sume the breeding cycle, going outdoors federal and state water pollution reg- Runoff can pollute streams and ground- only when being moved between barns ulations because they produce mas- water with antibiotics, insecticides and or shipped off to slaughter. sive quantities of animal waste that pathogens and emit poisonous gases Such procedures are standard prac- can pose environmental and health that are hazardous or create offensive tice on today’s industrialized hog farms. hazards if mishandled. odors. Some health experts argue that “Confinement is good for hogs,” says Whatever one calls them, factory because CAFO wastes threaten nearby Joy Philippi, president of the Nation- farms represent the latest transfor- communities, neighbors should have al Pork Producers Council, who runs mation of U.S. . Before more say in granting permits for CAFOs. a nursery with 2,000 pigs in Bruning, World War II, crops and livestock Groups such as the Sierra Club, the Neb. “The barns are climate-controlled came primarily from small family- American Public Health Association and and well-ventilated, so livestock are owned farms that raised multiple prod- the Union — and even protected from the weather. We can ucts. Today most come from fewer, some counties and states — have deliver feed and water to them 24 larger farms that specialize in a single sought or imposed moratoriums or out- hours a day.” commodity. 1 right bans on new CAFO construction

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Jan. 12, 2007 27 FACTORY FARMS

the past 25 years at roughly $1 to Rise in Milk Production Reflects Trend $1.50 per pound for poultry and $2.50 The number of dairy cows fell by more than half from 1950 to 2000, per pound for pork. Beef prices have stayed below $4.50 per pound. 4 but overall U.S. milk production still rose because production per cow Americans’ high meat consumption increased more than threefold. The increase was largely due to the worries nutrition experts. The American trend toward factory farming. Before World War II, crops and Heart Association recommends eating livestock came primarily from small family-owned farms; today most no more than six ounces a day of lean output comes from fewer, larger farms that specialize in a single meat, poultry and seafood to reduce the commodity, rather than multiple products. risk of heart disease and stroke. 5 And many environmentalists argue that meat- No. of cows Milk production per cow Total U.S. production based diets — especially of grain-fed (in millions) (in pounds) (in million pounds) animals — consume more resources than vegetarian diets. 6 25 21.9 20,000 18,204 200 167.6 Grain is resource-intensive, requir- 20 15,000 150 116.6 ing large quantities of water and fos- 15 10,000 100 sil fuel (a key ingredient of synthetic 10 9.2 5,314 ) to grow corn feed for live- 5 5,000 50 stock, noted writer and activist Frances 0 0 0 1950 2000 1950 2000 1950 2000 Moore Lappe. As early as 1972, she dubbed grain-fed beef “a protein fac- Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, February 2001 tory in reverse” in her bestseller Diet for a Small Planet. or tightened permitting requirements farmers to avoid large capital invest- “The consequences of a grain-fed for new farms. ments for animals and feed and gives meat diet may be as severe as those Scientific and technical advances have them guaranteed markets. of a nation of Cadillac drivers,” she made livestock farming much more But there are drawbacks. “Farmers warned. 7 A recent study indicates she productive in recent decades. Between who produce on contract bear signif- was right. University of Chicago geo- 1950 and 2000 dairy cows’ average an- icant risk and don’t get well com- physical science professors Gideon Eshel nual milk yield more than tripled, pensated for it,” says Chuck Hasse- and Pamela Martin found that the typ- thanks to milking machines, refrigerat- brook, executive director of the Center ical meat-heavy American diet gener- ed bulk trucks, nutrition research and for Rural Affairs, in Lyons, Neb. “Under ates as many greenhouse-gas emissions new breeding techniques. 3 Confining contract, if you invest a million dol- — compared to a vegetarian diet — animals lets farmers feed them indoors, lars in buildings and then the com- as driving a sport-utility vehicle vs. a saving labor and allowing farmers to pany decides to locate somewhere fuel-efficient sedan. 8 When all of its milk cows more often. else or doesn’t want to work with you, impacts are added together, from clear- Animal production has also under- you’re left holding the bag.” ing land to growing feed with fertiliz- gone dramatic structural change as “ver- Contract production also allows large er and managing manure, the global tical integration” has concentrated vir- corporations to avoid environmental li- livestock industry generates more green- tually every step of the process — from ability, says Ed Hopkins, director of en- house gases than the transportation breeding to slaughter and processing vironmental-quality programs at the sector of the economy. 9 — in the hands of individual, big cor- Sierra Club. “They prescribe in detail Meanwhile, meat consumption is porations. In the pork and poultry in- the conditions under which animals are trending upward around the world, es- dustries — where vertical integration is to be raised and leave contract opera- pecially in developing countries like most pronounced — many farmers tors to deal with the waste,” he says. China. “Everyone likes meat. It’s the raise animals for major “integrators” like Food companies argue, however, first dietary item that people choose Perdue Farms or , that pro- that they provide consistent, afford- when they start to make some money,” vide growers with everything from an- able products to Americans, who eat says Marion Nestle, a professor of nu- imals and feed to medications and de- more meat than any other nation: 218 trition at New York University and au- tailed handling directions. The growers pounds per capita in 2004, up from thor of several books about nutrition receive a fee for each animal raised to 190 pounds in 1980. Inflation-adjust- and food policy. “We are omnivores, market age. The arrangement allows ed retail prices have held steady over and meat has status.” To accommodate

28 CQ Researcher the rising demand, other countries are adopting the CAFO model. How Much Manure Do Animals Produce? Critics have long argued that many A 1,400-pound dairy cow produces about 22 tons of manure annu- confined animal agriculture methods are ally, while a 375-pound sow and its litter produce about four tons. inhumane. For example, poultry farms trim the ends off of chickens’ beaks to keep them from pecking each other in Approximate Annual Manure Production tight quarters. To guarantee that veal calves will have pale, tender meat, Animal Type/Size Manure Production farmers raise them on liquid diets in Animal Size Manure Manure tiny stalls where they cannot exercise (Type) (lbs.) (lbs./day) (tons/year) and develop muscle tissue. 10 Cattle Many farmers argue that animals have easier lives indoors, where they are not Dairy cattle 500 43 7.8 exposed to blistering summers and freez- 1,400 120 21.9 ing winters, and that CAFO practices are essential for raising animals in close Beef cattle 750 45 8.2 quarters. For example, Rehmeier notes 1,250 75 13.7 that his sows’ ears and tails are scar- Swine free because they live in separate crates. “They’re very aggressive creatures, and Finishing pig 150 8.8 1.8 if another sow gets in their way when 200 13.1 2.4 they’re eating, they’ll fight,” he says. Sow and litter 375 22.5 4.1 Many consumers support humane treatment of animals when they learn Poultry how their meat, poultry and dairy prod- Layers 4 0.21 0.038 ucts are raised. In 2002 Florida voters banned gestation crates for pigs, and Broilers 2 0.14 0.026 in 2006 Arizona voters outlawed crates for breeding pigs and veal calves. Sources: Midwest Plan Service; University of -Extension Growing demand for grass-fed and humanely raised meat also indicate ris- But some innovations have caused lion pounds of non-therapeutic antibi- ing interest in farm-animal welfare. new problems, including the spread otics on animals every year. 13 “It’s a As Americans ponder the ethics of antibiotic-resistant infectious agents business decision,” says George Saper- and environmental implications of fac- and the proliferation of hormones in stein, a professor of veterinary medi- tory farming, here are some issues meat. 12 In addition, residents living cine at Tufts University. “The more ef- being debated: near massive livestock operations say ficiently your animals grow and put they suffer from a variety of air- and on muscle, the more profitable your Do factory farms threaten public water-borne illnesses resulting from business is.” health? CAFO-related pollution. Big livestock operations also give The U.S. food supply is safer and Many large farm operators routine- animals antibiotics as a preventative, Americans are better nourished today ly use antibiotics not just to treat sick because by raising only a few select- than a century ago, thanks largely to sci- animals but also to promote growth. ed breeds their animals have less nat- entific and technical innovations such as The Food and Drug Administration ural genetic protection against disease, pasteurized milk, enriched breads and (FDA) has approved 18 antimicrobial and sickness spreads easily in close cereals and advances in veterinary med- drugs for growth promotion in food quarters. Stress from overcrowding also icine. Deaths from food-related illnesses animals. Half of these, including peni- lowers animals’ resistance. such as diarrhea, typhoid fever and dysen- cillin and erythromycin, are chemical- To prevent excessive antibiotics from tery have fallen dramatically since the ly similar or identical to drugs used entering the food chain, animals treat- early 1900s, and nutritional deficiencies by humans. ed with antibiotics must be held for like scurvy, rickets and pellagra have Swine, poultry and beef cattle pro- a withdrawal period before being been brought under control. 11 ducers use from 16 million to 27 mil- slaughtered so the drugs can clear

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Jan. 12, 2007 29 FACTORY FARMS from their systems. But some develop bacteria. Campylobacter afflicts some beef quality. The United States argues antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains that 2 million Americans with diarrhea, fever that there is no scientific evidence that can pass to humans through either the and cramps and kills 50 every year. hormones in meat are a health threat food supply, use of their manure as Some large food purchasers have and calls the EU ban an unfair trade fertilizer or direct contact between an- heeded the warnings. Since Decem- restriction. The United Kingdom’s min- imals and farmworkers. ber 2005, McDonald’s has required ister of agriculture has also supported Resistant organisms cause serious in- that suppliers not use antibiotics that ending the ban, and in 1999 the World fections in humans, as Missouri pig are important in human medicine for Trade Organization ruled that the U.S. Russ Kremer learned when he growth promotion. Over the past was entitled to impose trade penalties was gored by one of his animals and decade poultry producers represent- on EU imports because the ban was his leg swelled to twice its normal size. ing nearly 40 percent of the U.S. broil- hurting U.S. beef exporters. The Unit- Doctors discovered the infection was er-chicken industry — Tyson Foods, ed States and the EU are still arguing caused by antibiotic-resistant mutated Gold Kist, Perdue Farms and Foster over what scientific evidence justifies staphylococcal bacteria. The most pow- Farms — have almost stopped using banning growth hormones in beef. 20 erful antibiotic available finally knocked antibiotics for growth promotion. 18 U.S. cattlemen say science supports out the infection. 14 Treating dairy cows with the con- giving cattle hormones. “For about 50 Kremer learned that the animal that troversial recombinant bovine growth years, growth hormones have helped gored him had been given daily doses hormone (rBGH, also known as us to safely meet growing demand for of penicillin by its previous owner in bovine somatotropin or rbST) to boost lean beef without impacts on human order to control a staph problem. Kre- milk production has also raised health,” says Michele Rossman, direc- mer stopped using antibiotics or growth health concerns. Using growth hor- tor of safety research for the Nation- hormones in his pigs and says his new mone increases production by 10 to al Cattlemen’s Beef Association (NCBA). methods not only are safer for hu- 15 percent, and , which “Our data show that this practice is mans but also save him $12,000 a year makes rbST, claims that it helps the safe and effective.” on drug and vet bills. 15 environment by allowing farmers to Beef cattle are also a source of E. coli The World Health Organization rec- produce more milk with fewer cows, 0157:H7, a rare but deadly strain of ommended in 1994 that antibiotics used using less water and land and pro- harmless bacteria found in all human in human medicine not be used to ducing less manure. Farmers also use and animal intestines. E. coli 0157:H7 promote livestock growth. 16 In 1998 other hormones to promote muscle sickens about 73,000 Americans each the European Union (EU) banned such development in beef cattle. year with stomach cramps and bloody antibiotics to promote animal growth, The FDA says hormone residues in diarrhea, and in September 2006 it and in 2006 it barred any antibiotics meat and milk are too minute to cause killed three people and sickened 200 for growth promotion. Levels of drug- any health risks to humans and that others in 26 states — an outbreak resistant bacteria in Europe fell fol- any traces remaining in meat are far eventually traced to tainted spinach lowing the restrictions. 17 smaller than the levels humans produce from California’s Salinas Valley. Cattle “If we’re going to preserve antibi- themselves. But critics point out that no manure in fields adjoining the sus- otics’ effectiveness, we should all stop one has conducted large-scale health pected spinach beds tested positive for using them so much,” says David L. studies on whether hormones used in the bacteria. 21 Smith, an epidemiologist and infec- livestock contribute to early onset of The beef industry says it has worked tious-disease ecologist at the National puberty in children and that rBGH has to reduce the incidence of E. coli Institutes of Health (NIH). “There are not been in use long enough to mea- 0157:H7 at farms, feedlots and pack- alternatives to antibiotics in agricul- sure suspected links between hormone- ing plants. “We have multiple inter- ture, just as there are in human med- treated milk and breast cancer. 19 ventions in place, including carcass icine. But drug companies benefit “It would be nice to know more, washes and steam pasteurization,” says from selling agricultural antibiotics, but if the government doesn’t fund Rossman. and they issue scathing responses when this research, it won’t be done,” says According to the Centers for Disease anyone calls for withdrawing them.” nutrition expert Nestle. Control and Prevention (CDC), estimated U.S. regulators are beginning to re- The EU banned imports of meat annual E. coli 0157 infections in a 10- strict non-therapeutic use of antibiotics treated with growth hormones in 1989 state sample decreased by about 29 per- in animals. In 2005 the FDA banned and forbids treating dairy cows with cent from the 1996-1998 level through Baytril in poultry because it may it, arguing that the hormones threat- 2005, possibly due to better monitor- promote drug-resistant Campylobacter en public health, animal welfare and ing of ground beef. 22

30 CQ Researcher Nevertheless, some consumers ratcheting upward. “Farm waste is and lakes that deplete oxygen in the have begun buying beef from cattle more strictly controlled than human water and kill fish. In 2005, a manure raised exclusively on grass, which are waste,” says Cecelia Conway, whose lagoon in Lowville, N.Y., spilled sev- less likely than factory-produced ani- family owns two large dairy farms eral million gallons into the Black River, mals to contain E. coli 0157:H7. 23 in Michigan and helps European dairy killing some 250,000 fish. 29 Accord- People who live near large livestock farmers relocate to the Midwest. “Our ing to the Environmental Protection farms complain about many health is- farms are designed very differently Agency (EPA), hog, chicken and cat- sues, including headaches, runny noses, today than they were in 1997 — tle waste has polluted 35,000 miles of sore throats, diarrhea, burning eyes, we’re implementing treatment rivers in 22 states and contaminated coughing, bronchitis and shortness of ponds and multiple storage lagoons groundwater in 17 states. 30 breath. “Air polluted with ammonia, hy- so that we can manage nutrients Nutrient pollution also occurs when drogen sulfide and dust from CAFOs more efficiently.” farmers apply manure to land faster is harming the health than plants can take up of both workers and its nitrogen and phos- residents living phorus. In a North Car- downwind from olina study, the amount these operations,” of nitrates in groundwa- Robert Lawrence, as- ter beneath fields sprayed sociate dean of John with liquid manure was Hopkins University’s five times the human School of Public health standard. One Health, told the survey found 10 percent House Energy and of the wells near facto- Commerce Commit- ry farms had unsafe lev- tee in 2005. 24 One els of nitrates. 31 recent study found The Clean Water Act elevated concentra- requires large concentrat-

tions of antibiotic-re- AP Photo/Michael Conroy ed feeding operations to sistant bacteria 150 Liquefied manure flushed from the main hog barn at a farm in obtain permits before dis- meters downwind of Fillmore, Ind., is stored in a large “lagoon” until it can be sprayed on charging pollution into a hog CAFO that fields as fertilizer. Pollution occurs when lagoons leak into streams bodies of water. Typically, or groundwater, or farmers apply manure to land faster than had stopped using plants can take up its nitrogen and phosphorus, discharges are allowed antibiotics four weeks leaving excess that washes out of soils. only during unusually earlier. 25 heavy and long-lasting CAFO animal wastes also contami- Should pollution from factory storms. Farms that discharge pollutants nate water with bacteria and nitrates, farms be regulated more tightly? without permits or that violate their per- which can cause “blue-baby” syndrome A single dairy cow produces more mits are subject to civil and criminal (a disorder in infants that prevents red than 20 tons of manure annually, and penalties of up to $50,000 a day. In blood cells from carrying enough a hog can produce more than two tons. 2003 the EPA directed all factory-farm oxygen). 26 In May 2000, an estimated According to the Sierra Club, livestock operations to apply for discharge per- 2,321 people became ill and seven died operations generate 500 million tons of mits unless they could show that they from E. coli O157:H7 and Campylobacter animal waste a year. 28 had no potential to discharge pollutants. infections in Walkerton, Ontario, after Farmers wash manure out of barns The agency also required permitted they drank well water that had been and store it in tanks or “lagoons” until facilities to develop plans for handling contaminated by livestock waste. 27 it can be applied to nearby farms as manure and wastewater. Agriculture groups contend that fertilizer. The stored, liquefied manure Environmental organizations called manure is not hazardous if it is can leak or be washed away by big the new rules too lenient; farmers said properly managed, and that they are storms, contaminating nearby waters they were too strict. In 2005 the Sec- working with regulators to address with bacteria, hormones, nutrients, an- ond U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals struck health and environmental issues. tibiotics and toxic chemicals. down several provisions and sent oth- Farmers say that their operations are Excess nutrients from manure spills ers back to the EPA for clarification. highly regulated, and standards are can cause large algae blooms in rivers Specifically, the court held that the

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Jan. 12, 2007 31 FACTORY FARMS

gases” that cause global warming. Other Hog Farms Getting Bigger gases, like ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, are primarily local hazards, the The number of hog farms with 2,000 head or more accounted for report said. 36 nearly 75 percent of total U.S. hog and pig inventory in 2001 — But people who live near CAFOs twice the number in 1994. During the same period, the number of complain that hog farm odors deprive hog farms fell by more than 50 percent, from more than 200,000 them of the use of their own back farms to just over 80,000. The hog inventory, however, remained yards. “They’re stealing our fresh air relatively stable, averaging about 60 million head. from us,” said Michigan farmer John Zachel, who lives across the road from 80% a hog farm. 37 Operations with 2,000+ head 70 The National Research Council con- Operations with 5,000+ head cluded, however, that available emis- 60 sion factors, rates and concentrations 50 are so uncertain that they “provide a 40 poor basis for regulating or managing air emissions” from the big factory 30 farms. The odors could be caused by 20 a mix of hundreds of compounds, the 10 report said. 38 0 In response, the EPA offered factory 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 farmers the option of installing up-to- date air-pollution control equipment and Note: Operations with 5,000+ head were not reported before 1996. allowing the agency to monitor emis- Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, “Farms and Land in Farms” sions. If the agency finds that factory farms are violating air-emission limits, it EPA could regulate only actual dis- several illustrative situations under will then publish methods for estimat- charges, not potential discharges, so which operators would have to apply ing emissions. In exchange, the agency the factory farms did not have to au- for permits,” says Allison Wiedemann, pledged not to sue the farms for past tomatically apply for permits. 32 branch chief for rural issues in EPA’s violations of the Clean Air Act or toxic In 2006 the EPA issued a new draft wastewater management office. And and hazardous-waste laws. rule requiring CAFOs to apply for per- while it leaves the determination up Environmentalists complain this ap- mits only if they plan to discharge pol- to the operator, she explains, “that’s proach was too deferential to the in- lutants, a rule environmentalists at- the way the entire program works for dustry. “EPA has authority under the tacked as weak. The Sierra Club, Natural other industries.” Clean Air Act to require farms to pro- Resources Defense Council and the At big livestock operations, air pol- duce this data. We don’t think it need- Waterkeeper Alliance — an environ- lution from decomposing manure, dust ed to give amnesty to these facilities,” mental group dedicated to protecting and gases produced by the animals can says Hopkins. “And they’re not going rivers, lakes and bays — argued that contain up to 160 separate chemical to monitor many sites, so we’re con- it “would allow CAFO operators to de- substances. 34 A recent study found un- cerned that the information won’t be cide whether their situation poses safe airborne levels of hydrogen sul- scientifically valid, and it will just be enough of a risk of getting caught hav- fide five miles from a manure lagoon, a long delaying game.” ing a discharge to warrant the invest- and hydrogen sulfide levels from a But Jon Scholl, counselor to the ment of time and resources in ob- CAFO lagoon exceeded safe EPA administrator, calls the plan an taining a permit.” 33 levels for human health 271 times in “innovative approach” that “will result “EPA could have been more ag- two years. 35 in more compliance than a tradition- gressive in writing the rule,” says the Air emissions from factory farms al approach of addressing violations Sierra Club’s Hopkins. “I don’t think can have a worldwide impact. A 2003 case by case.” they really want to regulate CAFOs National Research Council study found Some regulators have tried to con- that badly.” that large-scale animal feeding opera- trol CAFO pollution by suing farms But the EPA says its requirements tions produce nitrous oxide and for water discharges under the so-called are clear. The proposed rule “outlines methane — powerful “greenhouse Superfund law, which makes polluters

32 CQ Researcher liable for the cost of cleaning up their U.S. organic food sales totaled $12 fear the new buyers will use their clout hazardous wastes. * Tulsa, Okla., set- billion in 2004 — about 2.5 percent to push suppliers to adopt large-scale tled a case against Tyson Foods for of retail grocery sales — and are ris- production methods to drive down pollution from large chicken farms in ing by 14 percent annually. 39 More costs. Industrialization of the U.S. or- 2003, and Waco, Texas, settled a sim- than half of organic sales are for dairy, ganic-food market could trigger a weak- ilar suit with 14 dairy operations in egg, meat and poultry products, pre- ening of organic-production standards 2004. Oklahoma is suing large poul- sumably representing consumer con- and hasten the globalization of the or- try producers in both Oklahoma and cern about conventional methods of ganic market, they argue. Indeed, Wal- neighboring Arkansas for allegedly con- producing animal products. 40 The num- Mart vowed to offer organic foods at taminating Oklahoma rivers and lakes. ber of animals raised on organic poul- no more than 10 percent above con- Industry groups say manure should try and livestock farms increased from ventional food prices. not be regulated by the Superfund law. about 73,000 in 1992 to nearly 9 mil- “Because of its scale and efficiency “Manure issues are covered under the lion in 2003. 41 and notorious ruthlessness, Wal-Mart Clean Water Act and the Clean Air Act,” But because is more will force down the price of organics,” says Tamara Thies, director of envi- labor-intensive and yields are gener- wrote Michael Pollan, author of The ronmental issues for the National Cat- ally lower, organic food usually costs Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural Histo- tlemen’s Beef Association. The group about 25 percent more than conven- ry of Four Meals. While that’s good news is seeking legislation to exempt ani- tional products. Organic milk costs for consumers and the world’s envi- mal-feeding operations from both the even more — about $3.60 per half ronment, he added, unless consumers Superfund law and another law that gallon, roughly double the price of are vigilant, “the drive to make the price requires companies to immediately re- conventional milk. of organic goods competitive with that port hazardous-waste releases. (See “At Converting to organic production of conventional foods will hollow out Issue,” p. 41.) requires a costly, multi-year certifica- the word and kill the organic goose, Environmentalists counter that it’s tion process. But more and more farm- just when her golden eggs are luring legitimate to hold agricultural polluters ers are switching to organic produc- so many big players into the water.” 42 liable for damages and that talk of tion because they can get higher prices Already some farmers have set up turning farms into Superfund sites is for their commodities. Conventional “organic CAFOs” — farms with thou- a scare tactic. “Not a single farm has farmers’ profits are low due to many sands of dairy cows being housed in been put on the Superfund list be- factors, including overproduction, glob- indoor feedlots and fed organic grain. cause of manure,” says the Sierra Club’s al competition and rising energy and Two companies, Horizon and Aurora, Hopkins. “We’re talking about cost re- fertilizer costs. supply organic milk from several such covery for cleaning up contaminated “Farmers are getting astoundingly farms in Texas, Colorado, Idaho and water supplies.” higher prices for organics,” says Ronnie Maryland to Wal-Mart, Costco, Safe- Cummins, executive director of the Min- way and other chains. The Cornucopia Can environmentally friendly nesota-based Organic Consumers Asso- Institute, a Wisconsin-based watchdog farming methods compete with ciation. “Why wouldn’t they switch?” organization, has filed complaints with factory farming? Booming sales are also drawing the U.S. Department of Agriculture Debates about food safety, chemical big chains into organics. Since 2000, (USDA) charging Aurora and Horizon additives, animal welfare and farm pol- more organic foods have been sold with violating federal organic stan- lution are driving many Americans to at conventional grocery stores than dards by not providing dairy cows ad- look for healthier, more natural eating at so-called natural-food stores. Now equate access to the outdoors, as re- options, such as organic foods. Since mega-retailers like Target and Costco quired in federal organic regulations. Congress required national standards in are entering the market, and in 2006 Cornucopia also has filed a complaint 1990 for labeling products as organic, Wal-Mart — which began selling or- against Wal-Mart for allegedly misiden- the market for food produced without ganic milk and produce in 2001 — tifying conventional items as organic. 43 synthetic or chemical additives announced that it would double the In response, a company spokesman said, has been one of the fastest-growing number of organic products in its “We believe strongly that USDA stan- sectors in American agriculture. 4,000 stores. dards for organic products must not be The trend sounds good for U.S. or- compromised. Our customers who buy * The Clean Air and Clean Water Acts levy ganic farmers: Big, new buyers would organic products expect them to meet fines on polluters but do not require them to dramatically increase demand for or- those standards, so we feel they must pay for cleanup. ganic products. But organic farmers be maintained.” 44

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Jan. 12, 2007 33 FACTORY FARMS

The USDA is clarifying its access- in an environmentally responsible Foods already sells meat from animals to-outdoors regulation, and many or- manner.” raised humanely and without antibiotics ganic food advocates — including But that assumption isn’t automat- or hormones but plans to introduce Horizon — say it should be stricter. ically correct, says Tufts veterinary pro- new, more stringent animal-treatment Executives from the Whole Foods re- fessor Saperstein. “Treatment of ani- standards in 2008. Wild Oats, another tail chain visited Horizon’s Idaho dairy mals varies widely, and small farmers large natural-food chain, buys only hu- farm in 2006 and concluded the com- don’t always meet the best standards,” manely raised beef produced without pany was upgrading conditions for its he says, noting labels like “Humane- hormones or antibiotics. Both compa- cows. (Horizon is adding more than ly Raised” or Cruelty-Free” are not reg- nies sell only cage-free eggs. 3,000 acres of pasture to its Idaho ulated like organic standards. Conventional stores focus more farm.) But company President John But major suppliers of such products closely on profit margins than on pro- Mackey agreed that some organic dairy are enjoying strong growth. Niman Ranch, duction standards, says Sechler, who farms “have no real commitment to a leading natural-meat producer, is grow- has turned down requests to supply either animal welfare or pasture ac- ing by 35 percent annually with rev- Bell & Evans poultry to large retail cess” but are merely “commercial enues near $100 million in 2006. 47 Re- chains. “They have no passion for dairies using organic feed.” 45 search by industry groups indicates that doing anything right. They just want Whole Foods representatives visit- natural pork could win up to 25 per- to drive costs down, and they don’t ed Aurora’s Colorado farm in May cent of the fresh pork market. 48 care how you do it,” he says. 2006 and found it “unacceptable,” ac- “The demand is there, and the mar- cording to a Whole Foods spokesper- ket will continue to grow. People are son. Aurora is reducing the number realizing that it makes sense to spend of cows at the site to allow more graz- money on good food because it’s bet- BACKGROUND ing, but it also defends its practices. ter for them,” says Scott Sechler, pres- “Our record of animal welfare is cer- ident of Bell & Evans, a Pennsylva- tified by an independent third-party nia company that raises uncaged expert,” said marketing head Clark F. poultry using all-natural feed and no Free Range Driftmier. “Our animals are outside all antibiotics. year long; they’re never locked into But even with demand rising, niche n early America, animal agriculture barns.” 46 suppliers face big challenges. It takes I was all about open space. Cattle and Raising animals in confinement is time to develop natural production sheep grazed and pigs rooted on vil- especially problematic for organic farms, methods, says Sechler. “Some people lage commons — land owned jointly critics say, because diseases spread eas- think there’s big money and a quick by all town residents — well into the ily in close quarters, and organic farm- buck in it, but on the farm things don’t 1800s. Livestock ranching had developed ers cannot use antibiotics to treat sick move that quickly. Almost nobody out on a larger scale by the late 1700s in animals. there has the patience to build things Spanish-settled regions of what are now Demand is also growing for “nat- up and do it for the right reasons.” Texas, New Mexico and California. ural” meats, grass-fed beef and prod- Structural barriers also exist. Many In the 19th century, settlers took ucts from humanely raised animals, distributors pay higher rates to pro- their animals along as they pushed such as eggs from “cage-free” hens. ducers who can guarantee delivery of west across the Great Plains. Farmers “The market is increasingly seg- large quantities on schedule. And small raised cows, pigs or chickens along menting into different niches — one farmers have less access to slaughter- with their crops and slaughtered them for the lowest-cost product, where houses and milk processors, which when forage grew scarce in winter. industrial producers compete against often focus on large-volume cus- Cincinnati, located at the intersec- each other, and different markets for tomers. Processing services are im- tion of fertile Midwest lands and major natural producers,” says Hassebrook, portant even for farmers who sell di- navigable rivers, became an early meat- at the Center for Rural Affairs. “The rectly to consumers, because meat packing center, nicknamed “Porkopo- biggest opportunities today for small products from livestock must be pack- lis.” During the Civil War, Chicago be- farmers are in niche markets where aged in a facility that is federally or came the industry hub, as large family farms have a competitive ad- state-inspected, and many states for- companies like Swift and Armour built vantage. Consumers care about health bid sale of unpasteurized milk. up extensive packing and processing and the environment, and they trust Some retailers are working to raise complexes near railroad lines. small farmers to produce safe food standards for animal agriculture. Whole Continued on p. 36

34 CQ Researcher Chronology

1972 2001 1900-1930s Clean Water Act creates a national Wal-Mart starts selling organic milk. Government begins to regulate permitting system for pollution dis- meat industry. charges into U.S. waters, including 2003 concentrated animal feeding opera- The first U.S. case of mad cow dis- 1906 tions (CAFOs). ease is detected in a dairy cow im- Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle reveals ported from Canada. . . . Legislation filthy conditions in the meatpacking 1973 proposed by then-Rep. (now Sen.) industry. . . . Congress passes the Minnesota passes legislation re- Sherrod Brown, D-Ohio, and Sen. Pure Food and Drug Act, giving stricting corporate farms. Edward M. Kennedy, D-Mass., calls the government power to regulate for banning the non-therapeutic use food safety. • of seven classes of antibiotics as feed additives unless producers 1921 show using the drugs would not Congress passes the Packers and 1980-Present promote human resistance. Stockyards Act to maintain compe- Vertical integration of agricultur- tition and prevent unfair pricing in al production increases. Con- 2005 the livestock industry. cerns about large-scale farming FDA withdraws the antibiotic Baytril foster alternative options. from use in poultry because of in- 1933-34 creases in resistant Campylobacter President Franklin D. Roosevelt 1982 bacteria. . . . Whole Foods and creates price supports to shore up voters ban corporate Wild Oats grocery stores pledge to farm income and orders surplus farming. sell only cage-free eggs. . . . A sec- hogs and cattle slaughtered. ond case of mad cow disease is 1988 confirmed in the United States. • Great Britain bans the feeding of meat and bone meal from cows, 2006 sheep and goats to other rumi- Wal-Mart expands sales of organic 1940s-1970s nant, or , animals to limit products. . . . Whole Foods sets a Advances in science and tech- the spread of mad cow disease. goal of selling only humanely raised nology increase agricultural meats by 2008. . . . An outbreak of yields; major environmental 1989 E. coli 0157:H7 poisoning that kills laws adopted. European Union bans imported three people and sickens 200 is meat treated with hormones, set- traced to spinach grown in Califor- 1945 ting off a trade dispute with the nia, with cattle manure as a possible Farm productivity rises with mecha- United States. contamination source. . . . A third nization, rural electrification and ad- U.S. case of mad cow disease is vent of inexpensive nitrogen fertilizer. 1990 confirmed. . . . Eighth U.S. Circuit Organic Foods Production Act autho- Court of Appeals rules Nebraska’s 1951 rizes national organic standards, cre- ban on corporate farms is unconsti- Food and Drug Administration ap- ating base for a new . tutional; nine states — Oklahoma, proves use of antibiotics as feed Nebraska, , North additives for farm animals. 1993 Dakota, Wisconsin, Minnesota Environmental Protection Agency , Missouri and Iowa — have 1954 (EPA) approves use of bovine anti-corporate farming laws. U.S. Department of Agriculture growth hormone in dairy cows. (USDA) approves hormone treat- 2007 ments for farm animals. 1995 Reauthorization of the farm bill is A manure-storage lagoon ruptures expected, with industry groups hop- 1970 in North Carolina spilling 25 million ing for increased funding for conser- Environmentalists organize the first gallons of hog waste into the New vation initiatives, such as improved Earth Day celebration. River. handling of manure on CAFOs.

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Jan. 12, 2007 35 FACTORY FARMS

‘If You’re Going to Eat Meat’ Princeton University ethicist Peter Singer offers alternatives

rinceton University ethicist Peter Singer has argued for more n’t think public attitudes on the issue in the United States are than 30 years that animals can feel pain and suffering and very different from those in Europe. P that we should treat them as fellow beings, not material “There are significant differences in the political systems. Pub- resources to be exploited. With debate over factory farming grow- lic attitudes in the EU have more influence on legislation,” Singer ing in intensity, public opinion may be moving in his direction. argues. “Florida and Arizona voters have both given thumbs- Singer’s 1975 book Animal Liberation, which opened with the down to hog gestation crates, and those are not terribly liberal proposition that “All Animals are Equal,” condemned so-called fac- states. American politicians are the ones lagging behind Europe, tory farming and the use of animals in scientific experiments. In not American voters.” 1980 Singer and attorney Jim Mason coauthored Animal Facto- Although he’s a vegetarian, Singer does not believe that re- ries, a grisly tour of large-scale animal farms that shocked many nouncing meat is the only moral way to eat. Nor does he think readers with descriptions of practices like debeaking chickens. In that all food animals should be raised outdoors. “Europe isn’t their new book, The Way We Eat: Why Our Food Choices Matter, abandoning confinement, but they are outlawing sow crates, Singer and Mason show what has and hasn’t changed on large and we could do better without moving all the way to open- animal farms and look at what foods people buy, why they make range grazing,” he says. As an example, he notes that Niman their choices and the impacts of their decisions. Ranch — a major producer of natural, humanely raised meat “There’s huge interest now in animal agriculture,” says Singer. based in Marin County, Calif. — lets its farmers raise pigs in- “A lot of people are concerned about animal welfare, a sig- doors, but they have to give the animals outdoor access, more nificant number are worried about health and many others care indoor space than pigs have in CAFOs (concentrated animal- about supporting local farmers.” feeding operations), and deep straw for bedding. Comparing U.S. animal-welfare policies to steps already taken In The Way We Eat, Singer and Mason shop and eat with three in the European Union (EU), such as banning hog gestation American families. One household eats the “standard American crates, Singer says the United States would rate a zero or a 1 diet,” buying lots of conventional meat, dairy and processed foods on a 10-point scale, while the EU might be a 5. But he does- at Wal-Mart. The second family, described as “conscientious

Continued from p. 34 In the 1890s, the federal govern- adulterated food products — and the Grazing flourished after the war, as ment began carving out national forests Meat Inspection Act, which created U.S. troops pushed Indian tribes onto and restricting their use — an early sanitation standards for meat slaugh- reservations, and open-range ranching skirmish between livestock farmers and tering and processing plants and man- expanded onto unsettled federal environmental regulators. dated USDA inspection of livestock lands. 49 But ranchers overgrazed many before and after slaughter. Western lands, and when a series of Reformers also challenged the mar- hard winters struck from 1885 through Federal Rules ket power of large meatpacking com- 1890, up to half of the cattle on the panies. In 1905 the Supreme Court Northern Plains died. 50 he growing meat industry soon ruled that Congress had the power to Those losses and steady en- T came under other federal con- regulate anti-competitive practices such croachment from homesteaders forced trols. After some European countries as price-fixing in the meat industry. 52 ranchers to settle down on private limited imports of U.S. meat, Congress After further investigation the Federal holdings, although they still grazed passed the first Meat Inspection Act in Trade Commission charged the five livestock on public lands. Conserva- 1890 and strengthened inspection biggest meatpacking companies with tionists denounced the visible scars standards in 1891 and 1895. Muck- collusion, and they agreed to divest left across many Western states by raking journalist Upton Sinclair’s 1905 themselves of stockyards, railroads grazing: Naturalist John Muir called book The Jungle exposed filthy and and cold-storage facilities and not to domestic sheep “hoofed locusts, dangerous conditions in the meat- participate in retail markets. In 1921 sweeping over the ground like a fire packing industry, galvanizing public Congress passed the Packers and Stock- and trampling down every rod that support for national regulation of the yards Act, which sought to maintain escapes the plow as completely as food supply. In 1906 Congress passed competition in the livestock industry if the whole plain were a cottage- the Pure Food and Drug Act — bar- by banning price discrimination and garden without a fence.” 51 ring interstate sales of mislabeled or other unfair and deceptive practices.

36 CQ Researcher omnivores,” tries to buy organic and hu- manent, close confinement could become manely raised products that also pro- illegal,” he predicts. “Eliminating systems vide fair returns to workers. The third that concentrate large numbers of animals family eats a vegan diet, avoiding meat, and feed them on grain would take poultry, fish and dairy products. Com- longer, because that would cause signif- paring how each approach affects ani- icant price hikes. But we might decide, mals and the environment, Singer and for example, that raising cattle on grain Mason conclude that the standard Amer- is too wasteful of fossil fuel and con- ican diet is cheapest and easiest but not tributes too much to global warming.” an ethical choice, especially since alter- Not everyone is willing to spend more natives are available nationwide. for alternative meat and dairy products, as

“If you’re going to eat meat and Derek Goodwin Singer urges. But Singer and Mason argue Ethicist Peter Singer believes growing dairy foods, you should avoid factory concerns about animal agriculture that while conventional products seem farm products,” says Singer. “Find a could reshape the U.S. food system. cheap, they impose hidden costs outside source that doesn’t get them from large, of the production chain — like water pol- confined systems. It’s more expensive, but spend the same amount lution from CAFO discharges and increased risks of antibiotic- of money on better-quality products made from animals that have resistant infections. “It is understandable that people on low in- had better lives, and make up the difference with grains and comes should seek to stretch their dollars by buying the lowest-priced other substitutes. You’ll consume less animal protein, so you’ll do food, but when we look at the larger picture, the food produced yourself a favor healthwise as well.” by factory farming is not really cheap at all,” they write. 1 Singer believes that growing concerns about animal agricul- ture could reshape the U.S. food system in the coming decades. 1 Peter Singer and Jim Mason, The Way We Eat: Why Our Food Choices “It’s quite possible that within 20 years, raising animals in per- Matter (2006), p. 222.

Food prices were high through declared Agriculture Secretary Henry A. most of this period, but exports fell Wallace. “And we must think about New Technology after World War I, reducing farm in- consumers and try to get a uniform come. Farmers responded by boost- supply of pork from year to year at a n 1900, agriculture employed 41 ing productivity, aided by tractors and price which is fair to farmer and con- I percent of the workforce. By 1945 other new technologies. As the need sumer alike.” 53 only 16 percent of workers remained for hands-on farm laborers declined, The USDA created nationwide on farms. Productivity continued to Americans began migrating from rural school lunch and milk programs to skyrocket after the war, however, as areas to cities. Commodity prices col- use up the surplus food. Land-grant mechanization, rural electrification and lapsed, however, during the Great De- universities and the USDA’s Agricul- synthetic chemical enabled pression and worldwide recession of tural Extension Service taught farm fewer farmers to manage more acres the 1930s, and farmers were left with- families home gardening and poultry and animals. By 1954 the number of out markets for their products. production, marketing and other skills tractors surpassed the number of hors- The Roosevelt administration creat- to help them survive the Depression es and mules on farms. With fewer ed commodity price supports for pork, years. work animals, there was less demand beef and milk to curb overproduction To supply U.S. troops and allied for feed crops like oats, so farms and raise prices. It also ordered the nations during World War II, the gov- began specializing in high-value crops slaughter of more than 6 million hogs ernment subsidized production of or livestock breeds. in 1933 and thousands of beef cattle meat, milk and other commodities Other advances helped transform live- in 1934, distributing the meat to relief deemed essential. Price supports for stock farming from an art into a sci- programs. hogs and poultry were not ended ence. In 1951 the FDA approved adding “Some people may object to killing until 1950, however, when the econ- the antibiotic tetracycline to animal feed, pigs at any age . . . but we have to omy was growing and farming was and three years later the first hormone think about farmers as well as hogs,” back on its feet. treatments for cattle were authorized.

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Jan. 12, 2007 37 FACTORY FARMS

it gained support from a growing envi- What Is a CAFO? ronmental movement after the first Earth Day in 1970 and from consumer advo- Concentrated animal feeding operations are defined under the cates lobbying to reduce the use of pes- Clean Water Act’s National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. ticides, dyes and food additives. 56 An operation is a CAFO if it confines at least the number of animals In the late 1980s and early ’90s, when in any of the following categories: bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), or mad cow disease, killed dozens Animal Sector Large CAFOs Medium CAFOs (No. of animals) (No. of animals) of Europeans, consumers were shocked to learn that the disease was caused by Cattle or cow/calf pairs 1,000 or more 300-999 cows being fed ground-up cattle parts Mature dairy cattle 700 or more 200-699 — including brain and spinal tissue from Veal calves 1,000 or more 300-999 infected cows. 57 Swine (over 55 pounds) 2,500 or more 750-2,499 Regulators in Europe and North Amer- Swine (under 55 pounds) 10,000 or more 3,000-9,999 ica barred feeding ruminants (cattle, sheep or goats) supplements containing meat Horses 500 or more 150-499 and bone meal from other ruminants Sheep or lambs 10,000 or more 3,000-9,999 and banned potentially unsafe cattle prod- Turkeys 55,000 or more 16,500-54,999 ucts from human food and medicine. Laying hens or broilers 30,000 or more 9,000-29,999 But once consumers learned that cattle (with liquid manure handling system) routinely ate animal parts — along with Chickens other than laying hens (with 125,000 or more 37,500-124,999 other cheap protein such as poultry lit- non-liquid manure handling system) ter and feces — many either stopped Laying hens (with non-liquid manure 82,000 or more 25,000-81,999 eating beef or turned to alternatives such handling system) as naturally raised meat. CAFOs began to draw attention in the Source: Environmental Protection Agency 1990s as their number increased, espe- cially in the Midwest and Southeastern Advances in genetics produced new an- but growing numbers of ranchers states. In North Carolina, heavy rains in imal strains that maximized profits — shipped young steers to large feedlots 1995 and ’99 caused flooding that rup- broiler chickens that grew faster, hens that cropped up in the 1950s near major tured dozens of hog-waste lagoons, con- that produced more eggs and cows that grain fields and at collection points in taminating rivers and creating public health gave more milk. Agricultural extension Kansas and Texas. The facilities fattened threats. In response, the state adopted a agents and land-grant universities the cattle on grain, then handled the 10-year moratorium on new hog CAFOs spread these ideas nationwide. slaughter, processing and shipment. in 1997. Other towns and counties across Vertical integration hit the poultry the nation passed similar bans or tight- industry first. Because chickens and ened their permitting requirements. turkeys mature within a few months New Food Fears Then in 2003 and ’04, a deadly strain of hatching, poultry genetics could be of avian flu (H5N1) spread widely altered quickly so companies that he revolution in animal agriculture throughout poultry flocks in Asia and controlled the entire process from T filled U.S. stores with thousands of killed more than 75 people, spurring hatching to distribution could easily new products. As Americans became fears of a worldwide pandemic. 58 U.S. create and market new products. By more health conscious and demanded poultry farmers began testing birds for 1990 more than 82 percent of the na- convenient options, food producers re- the H5N1 virus in 2006. tion’s poultry and eggs were pro- sponded with innovations like boneless, Many critics and some experts ar- duced by farmers under contract for skinless chicken breasts and lean pork gued that poultry CAFOs were the large integrators. 54 — “the other white meat.” main route for spreading H5N1. “[F]ar Dairy farmers also pursued economies Meanwhile, a modest natural-food more likely to be perpetuating the of scale, aided by new techniques such movement was also developing, spurred spread of the virus is the movement as artificial insemination. The beef in- by environmentalists promoting organic of poultry, poultry products or infected dustry was more segmented: Many small- farming. 55 In the 1950s and ’60s or- material from poultry farms,” the British scale ranches in the West bred calves, ganic food was a small-scale trend. But medical journal Lancet editorialized in

38 CQ Researcher 2006. “This mode of transmission has shouldn’t continue to underwrite costs and extension services focused on or- been down-played by international to large companies,” says the Sierra ganic issues. In 2005, the USDA’s Agri- agencies, who admit that migratory birds Club’s Hopkins. cultural Research Service spent about are an easy target since nobody is to But other groups disagree. The Amer- 0.35 percent of its $1 billion budget blame.” 59 Like mad cow, avian flu ican Farmland Trust — a nonprofit that — or about $3 million — on organ- showed that animal-borne diseases could works to protect farm and ranch land ic projects, and Congress provided less spread readily through a centralized and preserve the environment — pro- than $2 million per year in 2004 and national food industry. poses converting existing price supports 2005 to support farmers transitioning into “green payments” to help guar- to organic production. antee farm income and reward all farms, “The European Union understands regardless of size, for good environ- that preserving family-scale farms is im- CURRENT mental performance. 60 portant and that the future of agricul- Public-health advocates may try to ture is organic,” says Cummins of the use the farm bill to address the Organic Consumers Association, “so SITUATION overuse of antibiotics. The Preserva- they use a large part of their subsidies tion of Antibiotics for Medical Treat- to help farmers convert.” Farmers con- ment Act — first introduced in 2003 verting to organic should receive price Farm Bill by then-Rep. (now Sen.) Sherrod supports while making the transition, Brown, D-Ohio, and Sen. Edward M. Cummins argues, because they must everal livestock issues are on the Kennedy, D-Mass. — would have adopt lower-yield methods but cannot S agenda as Congress prepares to banned within two years the non- sell their products until they are certi- reauthorize farm programs in 2007. therapeutic use of seven classes of fied as organic. With the prospect of More funding of re- tighter water-quality search on alternative and air-pollution reg- methods could help di- ulations, livestock versify U.S. agriculture, producers support says Hassebrook of the more federal fund- Center for Rural Affairs. ing for conservation “We’ve spent hundreds programs, such as of millions of dollars on improved manure- research to refine these management sys- confined-production sys- tems at CAFOs. tems, and you can still Under the 1996 raise hogs almost as ef- Environmental Qual- ficiently in an old shed,” ity Incentive Pro- he argues. “If we’d had gram (EQIP), the a balanced research port- USDA shares the cost folio that also focused

of conservation up- Humane Society of the United States on improving the effi- grades with farmers. Hogs on a typical factory farm are raised in two-foot-by-seven-foot ciency of smaller farms, From 2003 through crates that allow them to lie down but not turn around. the industry would look Manure is collected in pits under the cages. 2005, EQIP paid $1.2 very different today.” billion to livestock producers, of which two-thirds went antibiotics as feed additives unless to beef-cattle producers. Before 2002, producers show using the drugs Labels, Monopolies EQIP funds went to small farmers, but would not promote human resistance. the 2002 farm bill removed size re- Nearly 400 organizations endorsed rganic and small-farm advocates strictions. the bill, including the American Med- O also want Congress to imple- Environmentalists oppose paying ical Association, Consumers Union ment a provision of the 2002 farm bill CAFOs to clean up their pollution. and the Humane Society. requiring mandatory country-of-origin “These are public subsidies to an in- Organic-farming advocates want labeling (COOL) for beef, lamb, pork herently polluting industry, and we more funding for research, education and other agricultural commodities.

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Jan. 12, 2007 39 FACTORY FARMS

Vermont Dairy Farm Harnesses Cow Power Green farmers turn manure into electricity and extra profits

he approximately 1,000 milking cows at Blue Spruce asset. According to the Environmental Protection Agency, 82 Farm in Bridgport, Vt., produce about 24 million digesters were operating at dairy, swine, and poultry farms in T pounds of milk a year. Along with several hundred 23 states at the end of 2006, with another 19 projects planned. other cows, they also generate roughly 10 million gallons of State and national renewable-energy incentives, including a manure, an unwelcome threat to Vermont’s air and water Department of Agriculture grant program created in the 2002 quality. But in 2005, brothers Ernest, Earl and Eugene Audet farm bill, have helped to more than double the number of started generating a new non-dairy product — electricity from projects since 2004. 2 Hundreds of farm digesters are operat- cow manure. ing in Europe. Inside an anaerobic digester installed at the farm by the local The AD isn’t a cure-all for manure management: It works electricity provider, Central Vermont Public Service (CVPS), bac- best when it can be designed into a new facility, and it is teria break down manure in not economical for farms with an airless environment. The fewer than several hundred process generates methane, cows or pigs. In states that have a principal component of set ambitious renewable-ener- natural gas that can be gy generation goals, green burned to generate electric- power typically sells for a pre- ity. The process also yields mium, and public and private odorless solids that make funding is available to install good bedding for cows, digesters. More than one-third plus waste heat that can be of planned and operating AD used to heat water or build- projects are in three such states ings. Use of the byproduct — California, New York and for animal bedding alone Wisconsin. Effective marketing could save Blue Spruce Farm also helps: CVPS lets Cow up to $60,000 annually. Power subscribers advertise

The Audets expect to pro- © J. Raloff their participation to show that duce about 1.7 million kilo- An anaerobic digester at the Blue Spruce Farm in they support Vermont farmers watt-hours (kWh) of energy Bridgport, Vt., turns manure into odorless solids that and the environment, and of- per year. CVPS sells the can be used for cow bedding, as well as methane fers bright yellow “Energy that can be burned to generate electricity. electricity at a premium price Happens” T-shirts for $15. More to customers who sign up for Cow Power, then passes the than 1,000 CVPS customers have signed up for Cow Power, premium back to the farmers. Subscribing costs an extra 4 cents which is also supplied by three other Vermont farms. per kWh, which works out to between $5 and $20 per month “Many of our customers want to vote for renewable energy for residential customers, depending on whether they get all with their wallets,” CVPS spokesman Steve Costello said. “Sup- or part of their electricity from the program. “Cow Power has port of farmers, the environment and renewable energy are key done everything we’d hoped it would do for us, and more,” factors. People seem to like that it’s local, it’s practical and it’s said Earl. “It’s given us a new income stream, reduced our benefiting people who work the land and help keep Vermont costs, provided us options for handling our manure and virtu- looking like Vermont.” ally eliminated the odor of manure spreading.” 1 Basic anaerobic digester (AD) systems have existed since 1 Quoted in “Grants Fund Cow Power Generators at Four Vermont Farms,” Renewable Energy Access, April 6, 2006, www.renewableenergyaccess.com. the 1850s, but they are attracting new interest as a way to 2 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, AgSTAR Digest, winter 2006, generate renewable energy and turn farm waste back into an www.epa.gov/agstar.

COOL has been required for most other layed under two subsequent laws (for importing organic foods from abroad, U.S. imports since the 1930s, but live- all food products except seafood), and where standards may be lower. Indus- stock and meat products do not have is currently scheduled to start in Oc- try groups say COOL would increase to carry COOL after slaughter or pro- tober 2008. marketing costs by billions of dollars cessing in the United States. 61 The Organic advocates argue that COOL per year, but economists say the costs 2002 labeling requirement was de- will show consumers which retailers are Continued on p. 42

40 CQ Researcher At Issue:

ShouldYes manure be regulated under the Superfund law?

KELLY HUNTER-BURCH ROBERT T. CONNERY CHIEF, ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION UNIT, NATIONAL CATTLEMEN’S BEEF ASSOCIATION OKLAHOMA ATTORNEY GENERAL’S OFFICE FROM TESTIMONY BEFORE THE HOUSE ENERGY AND FROM TESTIMONY BEFORE THE HOUSE ENERGY AND COMMERCE SUBCOMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT AND COMMERCE SUBCOMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS, NOV. 16, 2005 HAZARDOUS MATERIALS, NOV. 16, 2005 ERCLA [the Comprehensive Environmental Response, he animal agriculture industry should be held responsible Compensation, and Liability Act, or Superfund law], for the release of hazardous substances, such as arsenic was passed in the wake of Love Canal for the pur- and phosphorus, to the same extent that every other in- C t pose of dealing with the “legacy of hazardous substances and dustry is held responsible. CERCLA already provides an exemp- wastes which pose a serious threat to human health and the tion for the normal application of fertilizer, but it does not pro- environment,” and “to clean the worst, abandoned hazardous- vide an exemption for massive disposal of animal waste far in waste sites in the country.” The legislative history contains a excess of crop needs and the resulting releases of hazardous litany of references to “synthetic,” “manmade” chemicals, “chemi- substances. . . . cal contamination” and the results of “modern chemical technol- In considering this issue, it is important to understand that ogy” as the problems CERCLA intended to address. It contains the waste produced by today’s animal feeding operation is no reference to an intention to clean up manure or urea, or substantially different from the waste produced by the family their byproducts, from cattle or any other animal agricultural farmer in the past. It is not “naturally occurring” and it is not operations. . . . composed of only ammonia, phosphorus and hydrogen sul- Congress also indicated the scope of the activities it intended fide. Accordingyes to the Environmental Protection Agency, the to cover in the noprovision it made for funding the “Superfund” primary pollutants most commonly associated with animal to pay for cleanup. The tax it imposed focused on “the type waste are phosphorus, nitrogen, ammonia, organic matter, of industries and practices that have caused the problems that solids, pathogens, odorous compounds, trace metals, pesti- are addressed by Superfund”; Congress chose to impose the cides, antibiotics and hormones. Trace elements in manure tax “on the relatively few, basic building blocks used to make that are of environmental concern include arsenic, copper, se- all hazardous products and wastes.” These building blocks, or lenium, zinc, cadmium, molybdenum, nickel, lead, iron, man- chemical “feedstocks,” are comprised of petrochemicals, inorgan- ganese, aluminum and boron. ic raw materials and petroleum oil because “virtually all haz- In order to achieve the growth rates [that] make it possible ardous wastes and substances are generated from these. . . . for a single poultry house to raise 5.5 flocks in a year, broiler Manure, urea and their byproducts, are clearly not among feed has been carefully engineered. Arsenic, copper, selenium these materials. and zinc have all been added to the feed to promote growth Cattle and other animal agriculture operations are subject to and inhibit parasites. As a result, the waste which comes out a vast array of federal, state and local environmental laws and of the birds and goes into the waste stream coming out of authority to deal with every conceivable environmental prob- these poultry houses is laden with these metals. . . . lem presented by them. They include the Clean Air Act, Clean In the first half of the 20th century, a farm might have a Water Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Toxic chicken coop or brooder house that might hold 500 chickens; a Substances Control Act [and] soil conservation, dust and odor large one might hold 1,400 birds. A “smaller” modern poultry control, as well as nuisance laws. . . . house can house a 25,000-bird flock at a time producing an av- The Superfund laws, by contrast, were adopted for the most erage of 5.5 flocks per year and 125 tons of poultry waste. . . . serious and drastic environmental problems, where all of the The amendment you are considering is not an effort to environmental laws had proved inadequate, and extraordinary protect the family farmer, as is so often claimed by poultry remedies were called for. . . . industry public-relations efforts. It is a blatant attempt by a Could Congress have intended to impose such liability on multibillion-dollar industry to protect its practice of dumping the hundreds of cattle operations across America’s heartland waste in an environmentally damaging manner. No other in- without even mentioning them? Of course not. In fact, in every dustry in the country has that kind of protection. Since adop- instance where possible application of Superfund laws to bio- tion of the federal clean water and air legislation, no other logic and natural processes was discussed, Congress was clear industryNo has so callously polluted our land and waters. to exclude those processes.

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Jan. 12, 2007 41 FACTORY FARMS

Continued from p. 40 Harkin, D-Iowa, the new chair of the In 2005, a federal district court would be much lower. A roughly 5 Senate Agriculture Committee, strongly ruled that Nebraska’s ban on corpo- percent jump in demand for beef and supports a ban on packer ownership. rate farms violated the Commerce pork over 10 years would offset the Harkin and Sen. Charles E. Grass- Clause of the Constitution. In December added costs of implementing COOL, a ley, R-Iowa, have asked the Justice De- 2006 Nebraska’s appeal was rejected study found. 62 In fact, USDA currently partment to investigate a proposed merg- by a three-judge panel of the Eighth projects that U.S. per capita meat con- er between the nation’s two largest pork U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. Many sumption will rise by about 5 percent producers, Smithfield Foods and Pre- states with similar bans filed briefs from 2005 through 2015. 63 mium Standard Farms (PSF). Together, supporting Nebraska, as did dozens of farmers’ associations. Nebraska At- torney General Jon Bruning said he would appeal the decision to the U.S. Supreme Court. “Some people in other states, including North Carolina, “Corporate-farming bans don’t keep people out of farming,” says the Cen- are proposing hog projects in Indiana. We think ter for Rural Affairs’ Hassebrook, “but they make them take personal liability that is a good thing.” for their operations, which corporations don’t want to do. The point is to level — Thomas W. Easterly, the playing field, because - ers assume liability and pay taxes as Commissioner individuals. Bans don’t drive all large Indiana Department of Environmental Management farms out, but they make family farms stronger competitors.” But there are mixed views on the ban in Nebraska. “The state does not Questions about market concentration they would own more than 1 million need this misguided and legally du- could also resurface in the farm bill. Crit- sows — 20 percent of U.S. hog pro- bious attempt to insulate the ag econ- ics argue that a few large meatpacking duction. “Very openly, CEOs of major omy against reality,” commented the companies dominate the industry and corporations have told farm groups that Omaha World-Herald after the ap- distort markets because the Packers and if you want to know why we own live- peals court ruling. 66 Stockyards Act is poorly enforced. Some stock for slaughter, it’s because we can CAFOS are under pressure in sev- question whether meatpackers should be butcher our own stuff when prices are eral states — including Iowa, Indiana, allowed to own livestock, because they high, and when prices are low we can Michigan and Ohio — where criticism are less inclined to offer competitive prices buy from farmers,” Grassley told Jus- from neighbors is drawing unfavorable to independent producers if they own tice’s Antitrust Division. 65 press coverage and prompting local of- their own herds. The Senate version of ficials to consider new limits on large the 2002 farm bill initially banned pack- farms. In September, a Jackson Coun- ers from “owning, feeding or controlling” ty, Mo., jury awarded $4.5 million in livestock more than 14 days before slaugh- Outside the Beltway damages to three families who sued ter, but the provision was dropped from PSF over smells from one of its CAFOs the final bill. o limit the economic impact of with 350,000 hogs. Other lawsuits are Not surprisingly, industry groups op- T large-scale farms and make small- pending against more than 20 other pose restrictions on packer ownership. er producers more competitive, nine PSF hog farms in Missouri. 67 “Government intervention must not in- states have barred or restricted cor- But CAFO-related jobs and tax rev- hibit producers’ ability to take advantage porate-owned farms. South Dakota and enues still speak powerfully to many of new marketing opportunities and strate- Nebraska went so far as to write the politicians, especially in economically gies geared toward capturing more value bans into their constitutions. Most of struggling regions. Hog CAFOs expand- from our beef,” National Cattlemen’s these policies exempt existing farms ed in North Carolina in the 1980s and Beef Association President Mike John and make exceptions for family- ’90s because contraction in the tobacco told the House Agriculture Committee owned corporations, cooperatives and industry made lots of cheap agricultur- in September 2006. 64 But Sen. Tom nonprofit corporations. al land available. Today, although many

42 CQ Researcher Indiana communities are concerned about for a “share” of its output and receive U.S. agriculture spending, alternative CAFO impacts, Republican Gov. Mitch weekly deliveries of whatever is in meat and dairy products will remain Daniels’ economic-growth initiatives season. The concept was introduced high-priced specialty goods available include doubling hog production in the in the United States in the 1980s and on a limited scale. state by 2025. had grown to more than 300 farms Public concern about antibiotics and “Some people from other states, in- by 2000. 70 hormones in food is also squeezing fac- cluding North Carolina, are proposing “People who think seriously about tory livestock farmers, who use such hog projects in Indiana. We think that food have come to realize that ‘local’ additives to increase their output at low is a good thing,” said state Environ- is at least as important a word as ‘or- cost. “A lot of farmers were reluctant to mental Management Commissioner ganic,’ The New York Times commented use rBST but did it to stay in business,” Thomas W. Easterly, who is expediting recently. 71 says Tufts University veterinary Profes- hog farm permits. 68 sor Saperstein. “Now they’re financially Categories can be misleading, how- exposed if their customers tell them to ever: Not all CAFOs are corporate- change. Eventually all of these products owned, and not all family businesses OUTLOOK are going to be banned or fall out of are small. “Just because you have to use because of consumer perceptions hire other people doesn’t mean it’s not that manufactured foods are unnatural. a family business,” says Missouri hog But it’s all economically driven, and the farmer Rehmeier. “Most hogs are still CAFOs Under Pressure FDA has approved these products for raised on family farms.” animal use, so market forces will have Michigan dairy farmer Conway AFOs produce large shares of many to change the regulatory field.” echoes this view. “There’s a miscon- Cmeat and dairy products, but they If more big purchasers like Mc- ception that because your operation are under stress from regulators, al- Donald’s require meat and dairy sup- is big, you’re a corporation,” says Con- ternative suppliers and residential de- pliers to use humane and environ- way. “There’s room in the market for velopments that put farms in close mentally friendly methods, farmers all different types of farming.” contact with exurban neighbors. In and large food companies will have Organic-food advocates don’t see it this environment, bad practices in the to adapt. But large-scale change is un- this way, especially when it comes to industry can have impacts far beyond likely as long as U.S. agricultural pol- what they view as industrial organic one farm. icy emphasizes the cheapest possible farms. The Organic Consumers Asso- “Large farms are more visible, so food supply. Unless advocates can ciation in Minnesota has organized a you’re always in the spotlight,” says persuade Congress and the USDA to boycott against Horizon organic dairy Michigan dairy farmer Conway. enforce food-quality standards more products, creating a public-relations Rehmeier, who has never had a vigorously and invest more money in headache for Horizon. 69 “Green- nuisance complaint filed against his alternative methods, CAFOs will re- minded consumers are starting to get hog farm near St. Louis but worries main part of the system. political,” says the group’s Cummins. about development spreading west Change could come with the Demo- “In the absence of a decent USDA, from the city, seconds this view. “Being cratic takeover of Congress. Democrats we have to rely on consumer power here first just doesn’t matter any more. are less supportive than Republicans of to enforce standards.” You have to do things right,” he says. proposals like exempting manure from On a positive note, many organiza- New air-emission limits and bans Superfund requirements and may be more tions are promoting goods raised local- on breeding crates could cut into pro- willing to spend money on alternative ly using small-scale methods. Examples ducers’ already-narrow profit margins, agriculture methods. include Slow Food, an international or- although large farms may be better- But changing the U.S. food industry ganization that works to protect “the her- positioned to adapt than small oper- is like turning around an ocean liner. itage of food, tradition and culture,” and ators who cannot afford major facili- And as long as most Americans eat a Chefs Collaborative, a national network ty upgrades. If Congress increases lot of mass-produced food from con- of professional chefs that promotes local support for organic farming and local ventional suppliers, there will be only and sustainable foods, including sus- markets in the 2007 farm bill, more limited demand for change. As writer tainably raised meat. farmers may seize the opportunity to Pollan observes, “Many people today Some consumers are joining Com- switch from conventional production. seem perfectly content eating at the end munity Supported Agriculture pro- Conversely, if support for alternative of an industrial-food chain, without a grams, in which they pay a local farm producers remains a tiny fraction of thought in the world.” 72

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Jan. 12, 2007 43 FACTORY FARMS

12 For background, see Adriel Bettelheim, 24 Testimony of Robert Lawrence before the Notes “Drug-Resistant Bacteria,” CQ Researcher, June Subcommittee on Environment and Hazardous 4, 1999, pp. 473-496. Materials, House Energy and Commerce 1 For background, see Brian Hansen, “Crisis 13 Katherine M. Shea, “Antibiotic Resistance: Committee, November 16, 2005. on the Plains,” CQ Researcher, May 9, 2003, What Is the Impact of Agricultural Uses of 25 Shawn G. Gibbs et al., “Isolation of Antibi- pp. 417-448. Antibiotics on Children’s Health?” Pediatrics, otic-Resistant Bacteria from the Air Plume Down- 2 Noel Gollehon, et al., Confined Animal Pro- July 2003, p. 254. wind of a Swine Confined or Concentrated An- duction and Manure Nutrients (Washington, 14 Christian L. Wright, “Many Little Piggies, imal Feeding Operation,” Environmental Health DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, June 2001), Handled With Care,” The New York Times, Perspectives, July 2006, pp. 1032-1037. p. 10. May 17, 2006, p. G10. 26 “Drinking Water: Nitrate and Methemo- 3 Don P. Blayney, “The Changing Landscape 15 Ibid. globinemia,” University of Nebraska, Nebraska of U.S. Milk Production,” U.S. Department of 16 World Health Organization, “The Medical Cooperative Extension G98-1369 (July 1995), Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Statis- Impact of Antimicrobial Use in Food Ani- www.p2pays.org/ref/20/19714.htm. tical Bulletin, June 2002, p. 2. mals,” October 1997. 27 Clifford G. Clark, et al., “Characterization of 4 Clement E. Ward, “Twenty-Five Year Meat 17 David L. Smith, Jonathan Dushoff and J. Waterborne Outbreak-associated Campylobacter Consumption and Price Trends,” Oklahoma Glenn Morris, Jr., “Agricultural Antibiotics and jejuni, Walkerton, Ontario,” Emerging Infectious Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma Human Health,” PLoS Medicine, August 2005, Diseases, Vol. 9, No. 10, October 2003, pp. 1232- State University, http://pods.dasnr.okstate.edu/ pp. 731-735. 1241. docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-2859/F-603 18 Elizabeth Weise, “ ‘Natural’ Chickens Take 28 Environmentally Concerned Citizens of web.pdf. Flight,” USA Today, Jan. 23, 2006. South Central Michigan, http://nocafos.org; 5 www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?iden- 19 “Consumer Concerns About Hormones in www.sierraclub.org/factoryfarms. tifier=3040349. Food,” Cornell University, Program on Breast 29 New York Department of Environmental 6 See Michael Brower and Warren Leon, The Cancer and Environmental Risks, June 2000, Conservation, “DEC Issues Violations for Ma- Consumer’s Guide to Effective Environmental http://envirocancer.cornell.edu/factsheet/diet/ nure Spill and Fish Kill,” Environment DEC, Choices (1999), pp. 58-64. fs37.hormones.pdf. September 2005. 7 Frances Moore Lappe, Diet For a Small 20 “WTO Hormone Case,” Foreign Agricul- 30 “Keep Animal Waste Out of Our Waters Planet (1982), pp. 66, 70. tural Service, U.S. Mission to the European — Stop Factory Farm Pollution,” www.sier- 8 Gidon Eshel and Pamela A. Martin, “Diet, En- Union, updated July 13, 2006, http://useu.us- raclub.org/factoryfarms/. ergy, and Global Warming,” Earth Interactions, mission.gov/agri/ban.html#Opinion. 31 www.sierraclub.org/cleanwater/that_stinks. April 2006, pp. 1-17. For background, see Mar- 21 Sabin Russell, “Spinach E. Coli Linked to 32 Waterkeeper Alliance et al., v. EPA, 399 F. cia Clemmitt, “Climate Change,” CQ Researcher, Cattle,” San Francisco Chronicle, Oct. 13, 3d 486, Feb. 28, 2005. Jan. 27, 2006, pp. 73-96. 2006, p. A1. See also “Feeding Beef Cattle,” 33 Natural Resources Defense Council, Sierra 9 Henning Steinfeld, et al., Livestock’s Long Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences, Club and Waterkeeper Alliance, “Comments on Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options, 2001, http://agalternatives.aers.psu.edu. the Revised NPDES Permit Regulation and Ef- United Nations Food and Agricultural Orga- 22 U.S. Centers for Disease Control, “Prelim- fluent Limitation Guidelines for CAFOs in Re- nization (2006), pp. xxi, 112-114. inary FoodNet Data on the Incidence of In- sponse to Waterkeeper Decision,” Docket No. 10 For background, see David Masci, “Fight- fection with Pathogens Transmitted Commonly EPA-HQ-OW-2005-0037, Aug. 29, 2006, p. 9. ing Over Animal Rights,” CQ Researcher, Aug. Through Food — 10 States, United States, 34 Lawrence, op. cit. 2, 1996, pp. 673-696. 2005,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 35 www.sierraclub.org/cleanwater/that_stinks. 11 D. J. Wagstaff, “Public Health and Food Safe- April 14, 2006, pp. 392-395. 36 National Research Council, Air Emissions ty: A Historical Association,” Public Health Re- 23 Margot Roosevelt, “The Grass-Fed Revolu- from Animal Feeding Operations: Current ports, November-December 1986, pp. 624-31. tion,” Time, June 11, 2006. Knowledge, Future Needs (2003), p. 6. 37 Tom Henry, “Ohio, Michigan Megafarms Spur Clashes Over Air, Water Pollution,” The Blade (Toledo), Aug. 13, 2006, p. 1. About the Author 38 National Research Council, Air Emissions Jennifer Weeks is a CQ Researcher contributing writer in from Animal Feeding Operations: Current Watertown, Mass., who specializes in energy and environ- Knowledge, Future Needs (2003), p. 6. 39 mental issues. She has written for The Washington Post, Food Marketing Institute, “Natural and Or- The Boston Globe Magazine and other publications, and ganic Foods,” www.fmi.org/media/bg/natur- al_organic_foods.pdf. has 15 years’ experience as a public-policy analyst, lob- 40 For background, see Kathy Koch, “Food byist and congressional staffer. She has an A.B. degree Safety Battle: Organic vs. Biotech,” CQ Re- from Williams College and master’s degrees from the Uni- searcher, Sept. 4, 1998, pp. 761-784. versity of North Carolina and Harvard 41 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, “U.S. Certified Organic

44 CQ Researcher Farmland Acreage, Livestock Numbers, and Farm Operations, 1992-2003,” www.ers.usda. gov/data/organic/. FOR MORE INFORMATION 42 Quoted in Michael Pollan, “Mass Natural,” Center for Rural Affairs, 145 Main St., P.O. Box 136, Lyons, NE 68038; (402) The New York Times, June 4, 2006. 43 687-2100; www.cfra.org. An advocacy group that works to strengthen rural com- For the texts of all three complaints, see munities and family farms and opposes measures that promote corporate concen- http://cornucopia.org/index.php/category/news/. tration in agriculture. 44 Stephen Foley, “‘Green’ Wal-Mart Stirs Or- ganic Protests,” Independent (London), Oc- Humane Farming Association, P.O. Box 3577, San Rafael, CA 94912; (415) 771- tober 1, 2006, p. 2. CALF; www.hfa.org. An advocacy group that publicizes the impacts of factory 45 John Mackey, posting to “John Mack- farming and opposes inhumane treatment of farm animals. ey’s Blog,” July 16, 2006, www.whole- Keep Antibiotics Working, P.O. Box 14590, Chicago, IL 60614; (773) 525-4952; foods.com/blogs/jm/archives/2006/06/de- www.keepantibioticsworking.com. An alliance of health, consumer, environmental, tailed_reply.html. agriculture and other organizations working to end overuse and misuse of antibi- 46 Melanie Warner, “A Milk War Over More otics in animal agriculture. Than Price,” The New York Times, Sept. 16, 2005, p. C1. National Agriculture Compliance Assistance Center, U.S. Environmental Protection 47 Paul Kaihla, “Marketing Designer Meat,” Agency, 901 North 5th St., Kansas City, KS 66101; (888) 663-2155; www.epa.gov/agri- Business 2.0, April 1, 2006. culture. Provides information about environmental laws and regulations that affect 48 Gary Huber, “Specialty Pork Marketing Op- farmers, including air and water pollution, pesticides and animal waste. portunities,” Iowa Pork Producers Associa- National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, 9110 E. Nichols Ave., Suite 300, Centen- tion, www.iowapork.org/newsroom/special- nial, CO 80112; (303) 694-0305; www.beef.org. A trade association for the beef tyi.html. cattle industry. 49 For background, see Hansen, op. cit. 50 U.S. National Park Service, “The Grant- National Pork Producers Council, 10664 Justin Dr., Urbandale, IA 50322; (515) Kohrs Ranch: History and Culture,” 278-8012; www.nppc.org. The trade association representing the U.S. pork industry. www.nps.gov/grko/historyculture/index.htm. 51 John Muir, The Mountains of California Organic Consumers Association, 6771 South Silver Hill Dr., Finland, MN 55603; (218) 226-4164; www.organicconsumers.org. Campaigns for strong organic-food (1894), www.yosemite.ca.us/johnmuirwritings. standards and increased federal support for organic farming. 52 Swift & Co. v. United States, 196 U.S. 375 (1905). Sierra Club, 85 Second St., Second Floor, San Francisco, CA 94105; (415) 977- 53 Henry A. Wallace, “Pigs and Pig Iron,” 5500; www.sierraclub.org/factoryfarms. A national environmental-advocacy group speech, Nov. 12, 1935, http://newdeal.feri.org/ that supports tighter environmental restrictions on CAFOs. wallace/haw10.htm. 54 James McDonald, et al., “Contracts, Mar- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, 1800 M St., N.W., kets, and Prices: Organizing the Production Washington, DC 20036; (202) 694-5050; www.ers.usda.gov. Collects data on U.S. agriculture, including production trends, farm practices and organic agriculture. and Use of Agricultural Commodities,” U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, November 2004, p. 15. partment of Agriculture, Economic Research Dec. 15, 2006. 55 For background, see Koch, op. cit. Service, January 2004, p. 4. 67 Joe Lambe, “Pork Producer Loses Lawsuit 56 Marian Burros, “Image of An Industry,” 62 Gary W. Brester, John M. Marsh and Joseph Over Stench,” Kansas City Star, Sept. 23, 2006. The Washington Post, May 11, 1978, p. E1. Atwood, “Who Will Bear the Costs of Country- 68 Joe Vansickle, “Hoosier State Embraces 57 For background, see Mary H. Cooper, “Mad of-Origin Labeling?” Choices, American Agricul- Hog Growth,” National Hog Farmer, May 15, Cow Disease,” CQ Researcher, March 2, 2001, tural Economics Association, 4th Quarter 2004, 2006, p. 44. pp. 161-184. pp. 7-10. 69 Steve Karnowski, “OCA Boycott of Bogus 58 For background, see Sarah Glazer, “Avian 63 USDA, Economic Research Service, “Agricul- Organic Milk Brands Putting Pressure on Na- Flu Threat,” CQ Researcher, Jan. 13, 2006, tural Baseline Projections: U.S.A Livestock, 2006- tion’s Largest Dairies & Retailers,” The Asso- pp. 25-48. 2015,” Feb. 10, 2006, www.ers.usda.gov/Brief- ciated Press, June 27, 2006. 59 Quoted in Jonathan Brown, “Bird Flu: Fac- ing/Baseline/livstk.htm. 70 Daniel Lass, et al., “CSA Across the Na- tory Farms in Asia Blamed For Pandemic,” 64 Hearings, House Committee on Agricul- tion: Findings from the 1999 CSA Survey,” The Independent, April 8, 2006, p. 4. ture, Review of Federal Farm Policy, Sept. Center for Integrated Agricultural Systems, 60 American Farmland Trust, “Healthy Farms, 13 and 20, 2006, p. 169. University of Wisconsin, October 2003, p. 2. Healthy Food, Healthy People: AFT’s 2007 Farm 65 Marlene Lucas, “Merger of Top Two Pork 71 “When Wal-Mart Goes Organic,” The New Policy Campaign,” May 8, 2006, pp. 15-16. Producers Draws Criticism,” The Gazette York Times, May 14, 2006, Sec. 4, p. 11. 61 Barry Krissof, et al., “Country-of-Origin (Cedar Rapids, Iowa), Sept. 20, 2006. 72 Michael Pollan, The Omnivore’s Dilemma: Labeling: Theory and Observation,” U.S. De- 66 “Strike Two,” editorial, Omaha World-Herald, A Natural History of Four Meals (2006), p. 11.

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Jan. 12, 2007 45 Bibliography Selected Sources

Books Major, Meg, “Natural Meat: Stampede!” Progressive Grocer, July 1, 2006. Fromartz, Samuel, Organic, Inc.: Natural Foods and How Demand is growing for naturally raised meats, but the flood They Grew, Harcourt, 2006. of labels and certifications could baffle consumers. Business writer and food lover Fromartz traces the devel- opment of organic foods from counterculture movement to Johnson, Nathanael, “Swine of the Times,” Harper’s, retail phenomenon and assesses splits among advocates over May 2006, p. 47. what organic food should be. Johnson takes a close-up look at the modern pork industry, including concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs). Pollan, Michael, The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals, Penguin, 2006. Ribaudo, Marc, and Marca Weinberg, “Improving Air and Nature writer Pollan traces the food chains that underlie Water Quality Can Be Two Sides of the Same Coin,” four types of meals — industrial food, large-scale organic, Amber Waves, July 2006, p. 39. locally grown and one in which he raises or shoots every- A coordinated approach to regulating agricultural air and thing himself. water emissions could produce better results at lower cost than controlling each medium separately, the authors write Torrey, E. Fuller, M.D., and Robert H. Yolken, M.D., Beasts in a Department of Agriculture publication. of the Earth: Animals, Humans, and Disease, Rutgers University Press, 2005. Severson, Kim, “Why Roots Matter More,” The New York Two physicians describe the history of animal-human inter- Times, Nov. 15, 2006, p. E1. actions and the spread of illnesses from animals to people. Consumers are buying more locally produced food because they like to know where it came from and connect with producers. Willett, Walter C., M.D., Eat, Drink and Be Healthy: The Harvard Medical School Guide to Healthy Eating, Simon Smith, David L., Jonathan Dushoff and J. Glenn Morris, & Schuster, 2001. Jr., “Agricultural Antibiotics and Human Health,” PLoS The chairman of the Department of Nutrition at Harvard’s Medicine, August 2005, p. e232. School of Public Health explains why the nation’s food guide- Although it’s hard to connect antibiotic use in farm animals lines are wrong (including an overemphasis on red meat), directly to increases in antibiotic resistance, the potential costs and lays out a balanced plan for healthy eating. and complexity of the issue justify limiting antibiotic use even without proof in hand, the authors write. Articles Reports and Studies Berton, Valerie, “A Model for the Future,” American Farmland, fall 2005, p. 8. The Future of Animal Agriculture in North America, Four case studies show how to raise crops and livestock Farm Foundation, 2006. sustainably. This survey of opportunities and challenges facing livestock producers in the United States, Canada and Mexico is based on Brady, Diane, “The Organic Myth,” Business Week, Oct. 16, discussions with industry, government and academic leaders. 2001, p. 51. As the organic-food industry grows, it risks leaving its alter- Becker, Geoffrey, “Humane Treatment of Farm Animals: native values behind. Overview and Issues,” CRS Report RS21978, Congres- sional Research Service, Nov. 18, 2005, http://ncseon- Cone, Marla, “Foul State of Affairs Found in Feedlots,” line.org/NLE/CRS/. Los Angeles Times, Nov. 17, 2006. An agricultural-policy specialist summarizes the few recent Large animal farms pose serious environmental and public legislative actions affecting farm-animal welfare. health threats in spite of existing regulations, according to new scientific studies. Nierenberg, Danielle, “Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry,” Worldwatch Paper 171, World- Gray, Steven, “Natural Competitor,” The Wall Street Journal, watch Institute, September 2005. Dec. 4, 2006, p. B1. Worldwatch researcher Nierenberg examines the health and Whole Foods Chair and CEO John Mackey discusses the environmental impacts of CAFOs around the world, especially future of natural and organic food. in developing countries where demand for meat is rising.

46 CQ Researcher The Next Step: Additional Articles from Current Periodicals

Animal Welfare Meyer, Ann, “A growing market for natural foods; Demand for organic goods creates room for some alternatives,” Goldberg, Marni, “ ‘Cage-free’ eggs take flight; Some Chicago Tribune, July 17, 2006, p. 3. shoppers like that birds can roam,” Chicago Tribune, Some old-world foods are cutting edge again, as consumers June 11, 2006, p. C3. clamor for organics and other natural products. Animal-welfare activists are pressuring grocery chains to stop selling eggs from caged hens. The campaign appears Organic Factory Farms to be having some success. In 2005, Whole Foods Market, Wild Oats Natural Marketplace, Earth Fare and Jimbo’s Nat- The Associated Press, “USDA Considers Grazing Mandate urally agreed to sell only cage-free eggs for Certified Organic Milk,” Los Angeles Times, July 2, 2006, p. C2. Stewart, Nikita, “Graham Wants Stores to Label Eggs From Small organic farms are feeling threatened by new, industrial- Caged Hens,” The Washington Post, Sept. 29, 2006, p. B4. size organic feedlot operations with thousands of cows that District of Columbia Councilman Jim Graham (D) proposed are fed organic grain but get little chance to graze. The small a law that would require stores to label eggs produced by farmers have organized a boycott against the country’s biggest caged hens. organic milk producer, Horizon.

York, Michelle, “Hen Activist Says the War On Cages Will Martin, Andrew, “Critics say dairy tests the boundaries Go On,” The New York Times, May 7, 2006, p. 40. and spirit of what ‘organic’ means,” Chicago Tribune, An animal-rights activist acquitted of burglary and other Aug. 20, 2006, p. C1. charges after sneaking onto the Wegmann’s commercial egg Critics say the new management at the Horizon organic farm in Wolcott, N.Y., to film conditions where 750,000 hens dairy company is so obsessed with increasing milk pro- are caged said his group would continue to pressure the duction it prevents its cows from grazing, in violation of popular regional supermarket chain to stop caging hens. Department of Agriculture requirements. Horizon denies the allegation. Environmental Dangers Warner, Melanie, “A Milk War Over More Than Price,” Eilperin, Juliet, “Pollution in the Water, Lawsuits in the The New York Times, Sept. 16, 2006, p. C1. Air; With Damage to Ecosystem Jeopardizing Tourist In- As Wal-Mart rolls out its own brand of organic milk, critics dustry, Oklahoma Fights Back,” The Washington Post, worry consumers will be getting less nutritious, “greenwashed” Aug. 28, 2006, p. A3. organic milk produced by mostly grain-fed cows that only Oklahoma is suing eight firms on the grounds that chicken spent two-to-three months a year grazing. waste applied to crops near the Illinois River contains hazardous chemicals that are damaging the ecosystem and jeopardizing the region’s tourist industry. CITING CQ RESEARCHER Jones, Tim, and Andrew Martin, “Hog Wars; Missouri- Sample formats for citing these reports in a bibliography ans raise stink over giant operations,” Chicago Tribune, March 12, 2006, p. C4. include the ones listed below. Preferred styles and formats Residents of sparsely populated northern Missouri counties vary, so please check with your instructor or professor. where hogs have been part of everyday life for generations say the odor from manure has become too much. Fourteen coun- MLA STYLE ties say they want no more operations with thousands of hogs, Jost, Kenneth. “Rethinking the Death Penalty.” CQ Researcher and at least nine more counties are exploring similar bans. 16 Nov. 2001: 945-68.

Health Issues APA STYLE Jost, K. (2001, November 16). Rethinking the death penalty. Deardorff, Julie, “All is not well with antibiotics in the food chain,” Chicago Tribune, Aug. 6, 2006, Sec. Q, p. 8. CQ Researcher, 11, 945-968. Three types of Asian vultures are teetering on extinction, pri- CHICAGO STYLE marily because of the use of antibiotics in cattle. The decline of South Asia’s vultures is the latest side effect of what medical Jost, Kenneth. “Rethinking the Death Penalty.” CQ Researcher, groups say is a growing global health threat: the unbridled use November 16, 2001, 945-968. of antibiotics in food animals.

Available online: www.cqresearcher.com Jan. 12, 2007 47 In-depth Reports on Issues in the News

Are you writing a paper? Need backup for a debate? Want to become an expert on an issue? For 80 years, students have turned to CQ Researcher? for in-depth reporting on issues in the news. Reports on a full range of political and social issues are now available. Following is a selection of recent reports:

Civil Liberties Education Health/Safety Social Trends Voting Controversies, 9/06 Academic Freedom, 10/05 Rising Health Costs, 4/06 Philanthropy in America, 12/06 Right to Die, 5/05 Intelligent Design, 7/05 Pension Crisis, 2/06 Privacy in Peril, 11/06 Immigration Reform, 4/05 No Child Left Behind, 5/05 Avian Flu Threat, 1/06 Video Games, 11/06 Domestic Violence, 1/06 Crime/Law Environment Terrorism/Defense Patent Disputes, 12/06 The New Environmentalism, 12/06 International Affairs/Politics Port Security, 4/06 Sex Offenders, 9/06 Biofuels Boom, 9/06 Understanding Islam, 11/06 Presidential Power, 2/06 Treatment of Detainees, 8/06 Nuclear Energy, 3/06 Change in Latin America, 7/06 Youth War on Drugs, 6/06 Climate Change, 1/06 Pork Barrel Politics, 6/06 Domestic Violence, 1/06 Saving the Oceans, 11/05 Future of European Union, 10/05 Drinking on Campus, 8/06 Death Penalty Controversies, 9/05 Endangered Species Act, 6/05 War in Iraq, 10/05 National Service, 6/06 Teen Spending, 5/06 Upcoming Reports The Catholic Church, 1/19/07 U.S. Foreign Policy, 2/2/07 Future of Television, 2/16/07 Slow Food, 1/26/07 Treating Addiction, 2/9/07

ACCESS CQ RESEARCHER PLUS ARCHIVE CQ Researcher is available in print and online. For access, visit your library or www.cqresearcher.com. Get Online Access to Vital Issues From 1923 to the Present STAY CURRENT To receive notice of upcoming CQ Researcher reports, or CQ Researcher Plus learn more about CQ Researcher products, subscribe to the Archive delivers fast, free e-mail newsletters, CQ Researcher Alert! and CQ Researcher online access to ev- News: www.cqpress.com/newsletters. ery CQ Researcher report from 1991 to the present, PURCHASE PLUS lets you ex- To purchase a CQ Researcher report in print or electronic New! plore the complete format (PDF), visit www.cqpress.com or call 866-427-7737. archive of Editorial Single reports start at $15. Bulk purchase discounts and Research Reports* electronic-rights licensing are also available. from 1923-1990. Search and browse over 3,600 in-depth reports. SUBSCRIBE Loaded with handy online features, CQ Researcher A full-service CQ Researcher print subscription—including Plus Archive provides the trustworthy reporting and 44 reports a year, monthly index updates, and a bound the advanced online functionality today’s research- volume—is $688 for academic and public libraries, $667 ers demand. The new “Issue Tracker” feature pro- vides quick links to past and present reports on the for high school libraries, and $827 for media libraries. specific topics you need. Add $25 for domestic postage. For a free trial, visit http://library.cqpress.com/trials. CQ Researcher Online offers a backfile from 1991 and a number of tools to simplify research. For pricing in- For pricing information, call 1-800-834-9020, ext. 1906 or e-mail [email protected]. formation, call 800-834-9020, ext. 1906, or e-mail *Editorial Research Reports, the predecessor to CQ Researcher, provides the same [email protected]. expert, nonpartisan reporting on the vital issues that have shaped our society.

CQ Press • 1255 22nd Street, NW, Suite 400 • Washington, DC 20037