A STUDY OF WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS,
WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR BUSINESS EDUCATION
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University
By
ELFREDA MAXINE RUSHER, B. Sc. , M. A.
******
The Ohio State University 1957
Approved by:
Adviser Department of Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The writer expresses her appreciation to
Dr. Charles B. Hicks, chairman of the committee under whose direction this dissertation has been written, for his guidance and encouragement in the development and completion of the study; to Dr. Earl W. Anderson and
Dr. Inez Ray Wells, members of the doctoral committee, for their reading and criticism of the manuscript; and to Mr. T. W. Kling, of the National Office Management
Association, for providing a mailing list and suggestions relative to the study.
Acknowledgment Is also made of the contributions of the women who provided Information used in the study.
E.M.R.
ii TABLE OP CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I THE PROBLEM AND THE PROCEDURES ...... 1
Statement of the Problem ...... 2
Justification for the Study ...... 2
Importance of the St u d y ...... 6
P r o c e d u r e s ...... ^ . 10
Contents of the Questionnaire ..... 13
Validity of the Sampling ...... 14
Limitations of the S t u d y ...... 20
Organization of the Study ...... 21
II REVIEW OP RELATED LITERATURE ...... 23
Research Dealing with Office Management In {General...... 23
Research Dealing with Women's Role In Office Management...... 27 Business Education's Role in Preparing Women for Office Management Positions . 32
Summary ...... 35
III CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGE MENT POSITIONS ...... 36
Age of Respondents ...... 36 Salaries Earned ...... 39
Marital Status ...... 43
Titles of Respondents...... '. . 43
Educational Background ...... 45
iii TABLE OP CONTENTS (Continued)
CHAPTER PAGE
E x p e r i e n c e ...... ' °
Route of P r o m o t i o n ...... 63
Span of Control ...... / 63
Titles of Superiors...... / 63
Opportunities for Advancement . . . . . 67
S u m m a r y ...... 69
IV DUTIES OP WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS ..... 71
Duties Performed Frequently ...... 71
Duties Performed Sometimes ...... 73
Duties Never Performed ...... 77
Duties Performed by Management Level » 79
Duties Performed by Size of Offices . . 83
Summary ...... 86
V PROBLEMS OP WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS...... 88
Review of L i t e r a t u r e ...... 88
Problems of 252 Respondents...... 91
.Summary » ...... 97
VI TRAITS REQUIRED BY WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGE MENT POSITIONS ...... 9'S"
Human Relations...... 98 Ethical Aspects of Personality .... 101
Intellectual Qualities ...... 101 Physical Elements of the Personality . 102
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
CHAPTER PAGE
miscellaneous Traits ...... 103
S u m m a r y ...... 103 VII FACTORS LEADING TO PROMOTION TO HIGnER- LEVSL POSITIONS ...... ; . . 104
Desirable Personal Qualities ...... 106
Good Human Relations ...... 107
Professional Activities ...... 107
Performance on the Job and Experience . . 108
Miscellaneous Factors ...... 109
Comments of Respondents...... 109
Summai^r...... 110
VIII EVALUATION OF EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS . . Ill
Courses Which Would Have Been Helpful . . Ill
Evaluation of Courses Studied ...... 115
Evaluation of High School Courses . . . 122
Evaluation of College or University C o u r s e s ...... 123 Evaluation of Business College Courses 124
Evaluation of Courses Studied in 'Other" S e n o o l s ...... 125 Courses Added tu Suge>osveu „ 126
Suggested Improvements of Education Programs for Women in Office Manage ment ...... 127
Summary ...... 135
v TABLE OP CONTENTS (Continued)
CHAPTER PAGE
IX SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 137
Sum m a r y ...... 137
The F i n d i n g s ...... 139
Characteristics of Women in Office Manage ment P o s i t i o n s ...... 139
Duties of Women in Higher-Level Positions 142
Problems of Women in Office Management Positions...... 14-3
Traits Essential in Attaining Success . . 14-3
Factors Leading to Promotion to Higher- Level Positions...... 144
Evaluation of Educational Program .... 144
Improvement, of Educational Program , . . 14-6
Conclusions...... 14-7
Recommendations ...... 154
Suggestions for Further Research ..... 159 APPENDIX ...... 161
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 168
vi LIST OP TABLES
TABLE PAGE
I Comparison of Types of Business Employing Clerical Workers and Respondents to the Questionnaire ...... , ...... 16
II Geographical Location of the Firms Employ ing the 26 u Women Respondents ...... 17
III Sizes of Firms Represented by 266 Respondents...... 18
IV Sizes of Offices Represented by 262 Women Who Responded to Questionnaire ..... 19
V Age Ranges of 265 Respondents in Of rice Management Positions ...... 37
VI Age Ranges of 107 Respondents with Title of Office Manager ...... 38
VII Salary Range of 255 Respondents in Office Management Positions ...... 39
VIII Median Salaries of 255 Women in Office Management Positions By Regions of the United S t a t e s ...... 40
IX Salaries of 139 Women in Office Management Positions Employed by Specified Types of Business ...... 4l
X Relationship of Age and Salary of 255 Women in Office Management Positions ..... 42
XI Marital Status of 266 Respondents in Office Management Positions ...... 43 XII Titles of 264 Respondents in Office Manage ment Positions ...... 44
XIII Highest Level of Education Attained by 263 Respondents in Office Management Positions 48
vii LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Relationship Between Salary and Educational Level of 25)2 Women in Office Management Positions ...... 48
Relationship Between Age and Educational Level of 262 Women in Office Management Positions...... 50
Schooling Other Than High School and College or University of 266 Women in Office Management Positions...... 51 Titles of 151 Women in Office Management Positions Who Had Attended Business College 53 Educational Background of 150 Respondents Who Had Attended Business College .... 54
Number of Months 138 Respondents Had Attended Business College ......
Educational Background of 39 Respondents Who Had Attended Company Training Schools . . 56 Number of Months 29 Respondents Had Attended Company Training Schools ...... 57 Major Field of Study of 64 Respondents Who Had Completed Four or More Years of College or University ...... 59 Number of Firms for Which 252 Women Had Worked ...... 6o
Number of Years of Experience with Present Firm of 252 Women in Office Management Positions ...... 61
Number of Years Employed on Present Position of 220 Women in Office Manage ment Positions ...... 62
Number of Employees Reporting Directly to 244 Women in Office Management Positions 64
viii LIST OP TABLES (Continued)
TABLE PAGE
XXVII Number of Employees Reporting Indirectly to 164 Women in Office Management Posi tions ...... 6*3
XX/III Title of Superior to Whom 103 Office Managers Reported ...... 66
XXIX Opportunities for Advancement of 21.9 Women in Office Management Positions .... 68
XXX Functions Performed Frequently by 266 Women In Office Management Positions . 72
XXXI Functions Performed Sometimes by 266 Women in Office Management Positions .... 76
XXXII Functions Performed Frequently and Some times by 266 Women in Office Management Positions...... 78
XXXIII Functions Never Performed by 266 Women in Office Management Positions ...... 80
XXXIV Functions Performed Frequently by 32 Top Management Executives, 107 Office Mana gers, and 19 Office Supervisors .... 8l
XXXV Comparison of Management Functions Between Small Offices and Large Offices .... 84
XXXVI Problems of Office Management Peculiar to Women as Cited by 252 Women in Office Management Positions ...... 92
XXXTII Traits Cited as Essential in Performance of Duties by 256 Women in Office Manage ment Positions ...... 99 XXXVIii Factors Which Had Contributed to Advance ment of 24-0 Women In Office Management Positions...... 105
XXXIX Courses Which 194 Women in Office Manage ment Positions Indicated Would Have Been Helpful ...... 112
ix LIST OP TABLES (Continued)
TABLE PAGE
XL Number of Women Who Had Taken Each Busi ness Course by Type of School Based on Responses of 149 ' W o m e n ...... llo
XLI Evaluation of Courses by 149 Women in Office Management Positions ...... 119 XLII Courses Added to Suggested List Which Had Been Very Helpful to Women in Office Management Positions ...... 126
x CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND THE PROCEDURES
Pew Investigations have been made of the role of women in management; therefore, few facts are available con cerning what women who hold leadership positions are doing, how they are performing, and what their background of educa tion and experience has been. According to Hottel: How they £ American women/ are faring, succeeding or failing, and what their obstacles may be are of~ vital concern to the educational institutions which aid in their development, to those who employ them, and to the American public whose fate is partially in their hands.i It is within the scope of this study to add to the available knowledge concerning the responsibilities of women in the field of office management and to offer suggestions concerning educational programs preparing them for their roles. In subsequent divisions of this chapter, the problem is discussed in detail, reasons for the research are indi cated, procedures used are presented, limitations of the problem are specified, and the over-all organization of the report is outlined.
•S-Althea K. Hottel, How Fare American Women? (Wash ington, D. C.: American Council on Education, l$5o)» p. 2.
1 3 were "more women with Jobs In 1955 than at any other time in the Nation's history."2 According to Kaplan, "women now [l9 5 0 _ 7 constitute 29 per cent of the entire labor force while In 1940 they constituted 25 per cent and back in 1900 around 20 per cent."3 The National Manpower Council, a private, nonpartisan body established at Columbia University under a Ford Founds* tlon Grant, issued a 400-page report on Its two-year study of w o m e n as a manpower resource. Kay facts In their report Indicate the following: IXirlng any month, one-third of all women 14 or o l d e r are in the labor force; over two-fifths— some 2 3 million— work during the course of a year. An average girl in school today will hold a pay i n g Job outside the home for about 25 years.
Working women account for one-fifth of the country's total wages and salaries . . . and for m o r e than one-fourth of the total man-hours worked. Woaen show up in almost every conceivable Job. B u t over one-third work in secretarial, clerical, a n d sales occupations.^ This evidence indicates that the participation of women In business is becoming increasingly significant. Some tyusLriessmen and women are confident in predicting that
-Janes P. Mitchell, "Employment of Women Reaches All- Time S i g h in 1955," Personnel ar.d Guidance Journal. XXXIV (February, 1956), p. 339. ^David L. Kaplan, "Women in Industry," American Vocational Journal, XXV (May, 1950), p. 3. ^"Vosan's Place In the Work Force." Business Week (Marcia l£, 1957), PP. Ib0-l6l. women will benefit fro* new developments In office, manage ment, one of which Is automation, and will earn recognition for their abilities and achievements. Mitchell stated the following: In this new and fast-developing world, women will havS* an opportunity to fill higher-level positions as well A^-joen. Styling and designing In electronics should appeal'to women with artistic ability, and those with me^th|@i^l. aptitudes can be specialists In other phases.5
Although as yet few women hav&»been able to attain the highest-level executive positions In most companies, never theless some are employed In positions of responsibility^ A writer for Fortune stated that "the number of women In the United States Census category labeled 'Managers, Officials, and Proprietors' more than doubled between 1 9 ^ 0 and January,
1956." 6 Of the 15,000 members of the National Office Manage ment Association in 1956, over 1,500 were women, some of whom maintained membership because of their interest In office management from an educational point of view but most of whom were interested in office management policies and practices because of their relationship to office management in their daily work. One may find women who are working In
SAgnes W. Mitchell, "Automation from a Woman's Stand point, " Journal of the American Association of University Women, XL (March, 1956), p. 177. ^Catharine Hamill, "Women as Bosses," Fortune, LIII (June, 1956), p. 105. 5 impressive Jobs in many areas; some have supervisory posi tions in department stores and others direct personnel policies in large offices. A writer for Fortune attributed this developing role of women in business to three forces: 1. An economy which has been expanding almost continuously for 1 5 years, creating millions of new jobs. . . . One out of every three (nonfarm) workers in the United States is now a woman. 2. More women are getting college degrees. 3. Women's wartime contributions to industry and business helped push back the limits and dispell some of the prejudices.' Most men and women in business agree that the factors suggested by this writer have been somewhat responsible for the progress of women in business. At the same time, most recognize that women have not advanced to the same level as men even when they possess equal ability, comparable experi ence, and similar training. Writers who have observed developments in office management, however, have stated that since World War II many of the higher-level positions, which women filled capably during the war, have been returned to men.®
*^Ibld., p. 1 0 6 . ^Women's Bureau, U. S. Department of Labor, Women in Higher-Level Positions (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office,.1950), p. 5, and Virginia Field Smith, . Women at Work, survey of the Colorado State Federation of the National Federation of Business and Professional Women's Club, Inc. (Denver, Colorado: Women at Work, 1955)* P- 6
The authors of a report entitled "Opportunities for Women at the Administrative Level" noted that executives are interested in knowing what progress women are making In assuming administrative positions. The writers list three factors which Justify a study of this role: 1. Women must be prepared for business responsi bilities which may fall on them unexpectedly. 2. The current unsettled international situation with its attendant production, managerial and labor problems, has awakened a number of American execu tives to the desirability of knowing something about women's present and potential capabilities. 3- Failure to find sufficient executive material among today's younger men. A bank executive mentioned that, if the present trend continued, women would soon comprise 65 per cent of all bank personnel.9
Importance of the Study Specifically, the findings, conclusions, and recom mendations of this study should be of importance to school guidance personnel, to teachers in colleges and universi ties, to businessmen, to the members of the Research Divi sion of the National Office Management Association, and to the Women's Bureau of the United States Department of Labor. 1. The results should be of importance to guidance directors in high schools and colleges in presenting the status of women in the office management area: their
^Frances M. Fuller and Mary B. Batchelder, "Oppor tunities for Women at the Administrative Level," Harvard Business Review, XXXI (January-February, 1953), p. 112. 7 characteristics, essential qualifications, educational back ground, problems, and duties. The current picture of women who work Is much different from that of a generation ago; s ' counselors need to guard against helping an individual pre pare for an unrealistic business world. On the basis of these findings, counselors should be able to acquaint students with the opportunities as well as some of the prob lems in the field of office management. Hottel wrote as follows: Guidance services are becoming increasingly significant and essential for women students faced with planning an educational program that will equip them for successfully and happily meeting the complexities of numerous and changing respon sibilities.10
Based on the results of a questionnaire study among 1,600 undergraduate women at The Ohio State University who attended a lecture series designed to make students aware of the diversity In their future roles and Its relation to their plans for college and the years beyond, Cronheim wrote the following: Although counselors are aware that women do not hold their proportionate share of the higher level jobs in most fields, most of the students were unaware of this fact.
10Hottel, 0 0 . clt., p. 3 5 . ■^■Dorothy Cronheim, "Focus on the Future for Women," Journal of the National Association of Deans of Women, XIX (June, 19r,o), p. 172. Counselors have an obligation to know facts concerning career possibilities or to be aware of available infonta- tional sources for such facts. 2. The findings should be useful to teachers In colleges and universities In setting up currlculums for the training of women for office management positions. At the present time, men and women in colleges and universities receive the same basic training for office management posi tions. Hottel indicates that little thought Las been given to women's education.*2 Programs which exist have grown out of programs established for men.
Business educators should be especially interested in the findings because studies have revealed that women often are promoted from secretarial and bookkeeping positions to higher-level positions. Tnis study indicates that girls interested in the office management area should acquire the secretarial skills. Many women have been critical of their educational background, however, declaring that they were not prepared for their long-range responsibilities.^-3 Tney had been prepared only for initial lower-level positions in business and when opportunities for advancement were pre sented, they considered themselves unqualified for greater responsibility.
12Hottel, £2 .. clt., p. 3 1 .
1 3 Ibld., Pi 1 6 . 9
Business educators should also be interested in the study because of the importance of a knowledge of office management to prospective high school and university teachers. In order that students may be prepared adequately for their roles in business, their instructors should know what factors are important for advancement and possess the required knowledges and skills to a degree required for effective instruction. 3. The findings should be of interest to businessmen in the employment of office management personnel. The shortage of men qualified to assume positions of leadership, as indicated by the Fortune report, presents opportunities for qualified women to assume more responsibility. Inasmuch as businessmen tend to overlook women when considering applicants for promotion to office management positions, they should be made aware of the fact that women are of ter as well prepared as men in educational background, personal qualities, and experience. 4. The conclusions should be of value to the Research Division of the National Office Management Association in providing information in the area of its interest. The co-operation of the National Office Management Association was indicated by a letter from Mr. T. W. Kling, Staff Director of the Educational Division, in which he stated 10
that he was delighted to be of assistance In connection with the study. Mr. Kllng provided a list of the names and addresses of women members of the Association to be used as the basic mailing for the study. I - f~. The findings should be of Importance to the Vomen's Division of the United States Department of Labor which Is constantly Investigating the employment status of women. The Division has published several bulletins related to various phases of the employment of women. The Information in this study relating as It does to the specific area of women In office management positions should contribute data of value to the Division. !, Procedures A thorough canvass of current literature as well as of doctoral dissertations and master's theses was made in order to review studies which dealt with the general field of office management and specifically to women in office manage ment positions. Dissertations and theses were secured from several colleges and universities throughout the United States. A detailed review of the pertinent literature Is included in Chapter II. Data for the study were obtained from a questionnaire sent to women members of the National Office Management Association. According to Smith, "questionnaires should be sent only to those who would have reason to be able to give 11
valid answers to the questions."1^ The mailing list
included the names and addresses of 1 ,5 5 8 women who were not
only interested in but also employed in the field of office
management.
A mail questionnaire was selected as the instrument
for obtaining the data because of the wide geographical
dispersion of the women who were members of the National
Office Management Association. According to Koos, a ques
tionnaire rightly used is a proper means of securing informa
tion.1^ Neither the use of interviews or observations was
feasible because of the geographical dispersion of the
respondents. As Smith has stated, “the purpose of the ques
tionnaire is -co obtain the responses and reactions of a large
number of individuals who could not possibly be interviewed
personally within as short a time as should be used.'"1^ The
survey was intended to include women from all areas of the
United States in an effort to secure data on a national basis.
The questionnaire was designed to obtain data from the women concerning Jsheir employment status, duties, problems, traits, factors in promotion, and educational background.
liJHenry Lester Smith, Educational Research. Principles and Practices (Bloomington, Indiana: Educational Publica- tions, 1944), p . 1 8 1 . ^Leonard V. Koos, The Questionnaire in Education (New York: Macmillan Company, 192b ), p. l¥9. loSmith, 0£. cit., p. 181. Items suggested by the Naticml Office Management Associa
tion were incorporated In the: instrument. The questionnaire was submitted to a member of the Department of Psychology of
The Ohio State University for criticism. After revision,
the questionnaire was submitted to the members of the writer's doctoral committee for criticism. Again, it was revised.
As a test for clarity and completeness, the question naire was mailed to twenty-fi've women. Responses were received from ten of this santipllrig group. On the basis of their responses, the questionnaire was again revised.
Replies from the pilot group are not included in the tabula tions as these responses wefe nots comparable to those of the women responding to the final questionnaire.
Women who were known to hold educational rather than office management positions were eliminated from the mailing list. The questionnaire was «iail_e Association. The total number? of* questionnaires mailed was 752. A letter explaining the pur*pose of the study and requesting co-operation was enclosed with the questionnaire. (Copies of the questionnaire »nd the accompanying letter are included In the Appendix. ) ftessponses were received from only about, one hundred women. One month, later, postal cards were sent to those who had not re&p*oncbecl, requesting that they return their questionnaires artd offering to send another if 13 the first had been mislaid. Several women requested a second questionnaire but others returned the first as a result of the postal card reminder. Responses were received from a total of 303 women, or 40 per cent. Some question naires had to be eliminated because of the nature of the duties the respondents performed or because the answers were not sufficiently complete to be usable. The total number of responses tabulated was 2 6 6, or 36 per cent of the question naires in the original mailing. The data were tabulated and charts were set up to indicate characteristics of the women, problems encountered, duties performed, traits and factors leading to promotion, and elements of an educational program to prepare women for leadership roles In office management. Contents of the Questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of five parts. In the first section an attempt was made to secure data concerning each respondent and the firm which employed her. The second section was set up to obtain a representation of the educational background of the women, including an evaluation of the courses the respondents had studied and the helpfulness of these courses in per forming their work. The third section dealt with the employment history of those responding In order to discover the route of promotion to higher-level positions. The fourth section consisted of a chart on which the women checked their duties according to a three-point scale — 14 performed frequently, sometimes, or never. The women were requested to add other duties which they performed. The fifth section of the questionnaire was an opinionnaire, con sisting of five thought-provoking questions relating to problems the women had encountered, traits they thought were essential for success, and suggestions for the improvement of educational programs preparing women for careers in office management. The questions in the fifth section were unstructured in an effort to get free responses from those answering. It was believed that when an answer is suggested, as with structured Items, the respondent checks the response which seems to be most appropriate. The item may have been given little thought. In attempting to avoid this type of response, the respondent was required to reflect upon the questions before writing an answer. Although this type of response reduces the total number of like replies to any one item, It is believed that any item suggested by several persons has greater significance than an accumulation from a structured choice. The writer recognized that some respond ents might hesitate to record their thoughts on an unstruc tured form, thus resulting in a fewer total number of answers. Validity of the Sampling. Tnis research consisted of a study of the office management responsibilities of 266 women who were members of the National Office Management 15 Association. It is believed that this group is representa tive of women in office management positions because the number of respondents to the questionnaire is sufficiently large, the types of business represented are varied, women from all sections of the United States are included, and both large and small firms are represented. The membership list of tne National Office Management Association included the names of 1,558 women. Question naires were mailed to 752 women, every second name on the list. The responses from 266 women were tabulated; this number represents 17 per cent of the women members of the National Office Management Association. In order to discover whether the sampling was representative of the types of business in the United States which employ women, a comparison of the returns with the Census report of women in clerical and kindred positions was made. Table I compares the number and per cent of women employed as clerical and kindred workers in various types of business in the United States to the respondents to the ques tionnaire. Although the percentages of women responding to the questionnaire in the various types of industry do not correspond exactly with the Census percentages, the majority of the responses were from types of business which employ the largest number of office workers. TABLE I COMPARISON OF TYPES OF BUSINESS EMPLOYING CLERICAL WORKERS AND RESPONDENTS TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE Female Clerical and Responses to Kindred Workers Questionnaire Number of Per Cent Number of Per Cent Workers in Business Responses of 266 Manufacturing ...... 864,480 2 0 .2 72 27.1 Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate ...... 591,870 13.9 43 1 6 .2 Professional and Related S e r v i c e s ...... 5 1 7 ,2 6 0 1 2 .1 41 15.4 Wholesale and Retail Trade .... 8 1 2 ,0 1 0 19.0 33 12.4 Business and Repair Services . . . 1 2 1 ,0 2 0 2 .8 31 11.7 Transportation, Communication, and Public Utilities...... 580,530 13.7 22 8.3 Public Administration ...... 492,930 11.5 12 4.5 Construction ...... 6 5 ,8 8 0 1.5 6 2.3 Personal Services ...... 97,980 2.3 4 1.5 Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries 12,750 0.3 1 0.4 Entertainment and Recreational Services ...... 54,900 1.3 1 0.4 Industry Not Reported ...... 44,970 1.5 0 0 .0 17 Table II indicates the geographical location of the firms represented according to the regions of the United States. TABLE II GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF THE FIRMS EMPLOYING THE 266 WOMEN RESPONDENTS Regions Number of Per Cent Women of 2 6 6 East North Central ...... 64 24 Middle Atlantic ...... 45 17 Pacific ...... 44 17 West North Central ...... 33 12 New England ...... 9 South Atlantic ...... 18 7 West South Central ...... 14 5 Mountain ...... 13 5 East South Central ...... 5 2 State Not Indicated ...... 6 2 Responses were received from 36 states and the Dis trict of Columbia. Six women did not indicate their loca tion. The greatest number of responses were received from the most populous states— New York, California, Illinois, and Michigan— and from regions where the population of the United States is centered. The majority of the responses were received from regions where the largest number of persons were ens)loyed. The East North Central States and the Middle Atlantic States account for 57 per cent of the total employed persons, 18 according to United States Census data. In the present study, 4l per cent of the returns are from these areas. Table III indicates the size of the firms by which the women respondents were employed based on the total num ber of employees of the firms. The sizes of the firms, including branches, ranged from those with fewer than one hundred workers to those employing over five thousand persons. TABLE III SIZES OF FIRMS REPRESENTED BY 266 RESPONDENTS (Based on total number of employees) Number of Per Cent Number of Employees Firms of 266 Under 100 ...... 43 100 - 299 ...... 55 21 300 - 499 ...... 12 500 - 999 ...... 25 9 1,000 - 2,999 ...... 6 3,000 - 4,999 ...... 4 5,000 er over ...... 5 Although 43 per cent of the firms employed fewer than 100 persons, firms of all sizes were represented. Thirty- three per cent of the firms employed between 100 and 500 workers; 9 per cent of the 266 women were employed by firms with over 3,000 total workers. Thus, it may be seen that women included in the study were occupying positions of lead ership in both small and large firms. 19 Knowing the total number of persons employed in office positions with a firm is more pertinent for an office management survey, however, than knowing the total number of employees. Table IV gives a breakdown of the number of office employees in the firms for which the respondents worked. Four persons did not specify the total number of office employees of their firms. TABLE IV SIZES OF OFFICES REPRESENTED BY 262 WOMEN WHO RESPONDED TO QUESTIONNAIRE Number of Office Employees Number of Per Cent Firms of 262 Under 2 5 ...... 45 25 - 4 9 ...... 45 17 50 - 99 ...... 25 10 100 - 199 ...... 11 £■; 2 0 0 - 2 9 9 ...... , 3 0 0 - 3 9 9 ...... 8 3 400 - 499 ...... 10 4 500 or More ...... , . 16 6 The majority of the respondents was employed in small offices; large offices, however, were also well represented. Approximately three-fourths of the responses came from women working with office staffs of fewer than one hundred women. Because both small and large offices are represented, it is believed that the conclusions and recommendations of this study will be of value to both. 20 Limitations of the Study This study was limited to data secured from 266 women members of the National Office Management Association who were employed in office management positions. No attempt was made to explore the duties of women who were working in clerical or related types of office positions. Although some women employed in office management positions had not affili ated with the National Office Management Association, the number of respondents from the National Office Management Association mailing list was sufficiently large, the loca tions sufficiently scattered geographically, and the types and sizes of firms represented sufficiently varied that a national picture could be detemined. Using the mailing list of the National Office Manage ment Association limited the study to a restricted group. This group nevertheless is considered representative as it is made up of women in supervisory positions, women who are professionally minded, and women who are on the level of work to which graduates aspire. The study was limited to Information which could be secured by means of a questionnaire. Although different responses might have been obtained had the interview tech nique been used or had observations been made of the women at work, an attempt was made to present questions which were sufficiently objective that the personal bias of the respond ents was reduced to a minimum. 21 An attempt was made in the first four sections of the questionnaire to present questions to which objective answers could be given. In the final section, the questions required the women to express opinions. Miller supported this type of data by stating the following: Attitudes themselves are an important part of the occupational climate in which women work and prop erly evaluated they provide useful supplementary background for an appraisal of women In the higher- level positions.1 * Organization of the Study This chapter has shown the importance of the present study of women in office management positions, the procedures used in collecting the data, and the limitations of the study. In Chapter II pertinent literature relating to women In office management positions is reviewed and the findings of research studies which contributed data relevant to this study are presented. The characteristics of 266 women occupying office management positions are indicated in Chapter III. The duties of women in office management posi tions are outlined in Chapter IV, In Chapter V the basic problems facing women in office management as reported by the women questioned are pointed out. Chapter VI deals with the traits the women believe are essential for advancement to higher-level positions. In Chapter VII the factors which ^Women's Bureau, on, cit., p. 5. 22 had helped the women to attain their positions are presented. An evaluation of the courses the women thought were most helpful to them is presented in Chapter VIII3 together with some suggestions for the Improvement of an educational pro gram for the preparation of women for office management posi tions. The final chapter of the study contains conclusions and recommendations based on the data obtained. CHAPTER II REVIEW OP RELATED LITERATURE The first section of this chapter presents a review of research dealing with the office management field in general; the second presents studies related to women's role in business; and the third deals with literature relating to the role of business education in preparing women for office management positions. Research Dealing with Office Management in General Most research in the office management area has dealt with the determination of curriculums for colleges and uni versities preparing students for office management positions. Dvorak1 made a comprehensive study of the duties, responsibilities, and characteristics of office management executives, both men and women, in selected business firms as a basis for the construction of curriculums at the collegiate level for the training of office management executives. He Interviewed 58 executives in medium.and large business firms in the North Central States and recorded the data he obtained on an interview observation guide. ^Earl A. Dvorak, "A Study of Technical and General Knowledges, Skills, and Abilities Needed by Office Management Executives," unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, 1951. 23 24 The following were among his recommendations: (a) the prospective office management executive should be prepared by trai— i—g uo perform duties in lower-level office positions in his ascendance to the position of office manage ment executive; (b) the person employed as office manage ment executive should prepare for office management as a career; (c) colleges and directors of placement should determine why women are not frequently employed as office management executives; (d) a requisite for a person to fill an office management position is that he be interested in people and be able to work with them and that he have leadership qualities and traits; (e) secondary schools should provide proper guidance for students interested in office training and management; (f) the training in office management courses should be broad enough in scope to include at least the major duties and responsibilities encountered by office management executives; (g) the devel opment of certain managerial and executive abilities should be integrated in the program of study in collegiate office management curriculums; and (h) the development of desirable personal traits, attitudes, and work habits should be inte grated in the program of study in a collegiate office manage ment curriculum. Terry^ sought to obtain data which might be useful to instructors in training prospective office managers and also to school administrators in their thinking and planning. The study involved the selection of problems with which office managers were confronted in carrying out their duties and the problems that expert juries recommended for content of a college course in office management. A check list of problems was sent to three different groups of people: edu cational directors of the National Office Management -Associa tion, office managers in the field, and instructors of office management courses. The conclusions and recommendations included a list of items which should become a part of a college course in office management. General recommendations were made for improving the course in office management. Schuster's^ purpose was to discover the types of rela tionships an office manager has within a business and within the area of his immediate supervision. He made the following recommendations for business education on the basis of three sets of figures from a national group of business firms, firms in Ohio, and firms in Virginia: (a) State and local ^Sherman William Terry, "Determining the Content of a College Course in Office Management," unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Southern California at Los Angeles, 19^9. 3lou1s Howard Schuster, "Organizational Relationships of the Office Manager," unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1996. 26 programs of adult education should be expanded in the field of management training. (b) Office management groups should co-operate with university and/or state departments of education in promoting adult education programs to up grade prospective office personnel. (c) The business education curriculums, on both the secondary and collegiate levels, should be revised wherever necessary to make ade quate provision for prospective office management executives to be prepared by training and work experience to perform duties on a clerical level, (d) College curriculums in office management training and in business education should be broadened to include instruction in more of the functions and activities commonly performed in offices supervised by office management executives. (e) The business education program should provide training for centralized office activities. Schuster's research has especial significance for this investigation in that most students in secondary schools selecting the business education currriculums are girls and also because most clerical duties in business offices are performed by women. His recommendations are of vital concern in that they refer specifically to programs of business education where many women who are in management positions are receiving their educational background. A specific recommendation was tnat a study should be made to determine why women seldom attain positions as office management executives. 27 2i Knapper analyzed positions leading to office manager and then recommended a college curriculum for preparing office managers. One of his purposes was to determine the future opportunities for men and women in the office manage - ment profession. He received responses to his questionnaire from 487 office managers, both men and women. On the basis of these replies, he indicated the relative opportunities for students in office management. His report showed that 94 per cent of his respondents considered the opportunities for men in the field either excellent or good, but only 37 per cent considered women's opportunities excellent or good. None of his respondents indicated that the opportuni ties for men were poor; approximately one-fifth, however, considered women's opportunities to be poor. About 45 per cent of the respondents believed that women's opportunities were only fair. Research Dealing with Woman's Role in Office Management Pew studies were found dealing specifically with the role of women in the field of office management. The Women's Bureau of the United States Department of Labor, however, made several investigations concerned with the ^Aron P. Knapper, "An Analysis of Positions Leading to Office Manager and A Recommended Curriculum for Students Majoring in Office Management," unpublished Master's thesis, State University of Iowa, 1950, p. 5 2. 28 status of women in business and published the findings in a series of bulletins. One of the bulletins, "Women in Higher- Level Positions," is reviewed in this chapter. Recknagel"' sought explanations for the rapid expansion of women workers in white collar jobs between 1910 and 1950. She used both statistical evidence and the rationale of other plausible evidence to test the hypotheses offered by writers as explanations for women’s movement into white collar jobs. She concluded that the rise of women in white collar jobs can be attributed to four major developments in the United States between 1910 and 1950: (l) the trend for the population to shift from rural communities centered around agriculture to urban communities centered around industry; (2) the trend for women to work for pay; (3) the trend for white collar (clerical and sales) jobs to expand in relation to other occupations; and (4) the trend for white collar jobs to attract fewer men proportionately than before because of the low real earnings and because of limited opportunities for promotion from such jobs,, Hyde sought to discover, through analysis of the training and experience of women in management or executive ^Helen J. Recknagel, "Women in White Collar Jobs," unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1954. ^Frances Christianna Hyde, "A Study of the Training and Experience of 150 Business Women Now Occupying Managerial Positions in Business,1® "unpublished doctoral dissertation, State University of Iowa, 1952. 29 positions, the factors which women believed were responsible for their success and which contributed to a woman’s advance ment to positions of responsibility. The emphasis of the study was on women holding top-level positions. The data were secured by means of questionnaire responses from 150 successful business women executives. Hyde limited her study to women who had achieved officer status and to those working for corporations employing more than one hundred individuals. According to Hyde, (a) a general education should be supplemented by some type of business or technical training; (b) a person with a college education tends to have a better chance for a higher salary; (c) letter writing is a valuable skill which is used to a great extent in positions of a managerial nature; (d) shorthand and typewriting are not only invaluable as a means of procuring a first position but they are valuable regardless of the position in the firm; (e) participation in community affairs is considered very helpful in the development of desirable character traits, which in turn are helpful in one’s rise to top-level posi tions; (f) personnel management, accounting, economics, and business law are recommended subjects for study; (g) desirable character traits are considered important in the business field; (h) success in business, in terms of tne assumption of responsibility, is a composite of many elements including training, experience, one's personal qualities, 30 environment, economic status, and other factors, many of which cannot be determined or measured. In the autumn of 1948 and the early months of 19^9* Miller? supervised a study dealing with the extent to which higher-level jobs are open to women, the qualification3 de manded, the relative success of men and women in obtaining such jobs, and the background and experience of the women who held higher-level positions. The data were based upon inter views with 646 women and a study of the management records of 860 women in selected large department stores, home offices of insurance companies, banks, and manufacturing . companies in the Bos ton-Hartford area, Philadelphia, and Chicago. Data were also secured from management representa tives of firms employing a large proportion of women to dis cover the types of work being done by women and possibilities for promotion. This study disclosed that, in all fields of work covered by the survey, many positions formerly considered "men's jobs" were being held by women. There was evidence that the attitudes or limitations of women themselves offered as many obstacles to advancement as the traditional attitudes of management. As women were successful in securing training and in demonstrating their ability by the quality of their job performance, their accomplishments and ^Women's Bureau, Women in Higher-Level Positions. work habits were encouraging a changing attitude on the part of management. A majority of the women interviewed believed that they owed their promotions to having done well on the job. A marked characteristic of most of the women inter viewed was a genuine enthusiasm for their work and a keen interest in the job. They accepted as a challenge the duties and responsibilities of their positions. Miller1s study indicated that management was increas ingly seeking the best person for the job without excluding women from consideration simply because they were women. The study included executive, administrative, technical, professional, and supervisory women in general, including nurses, statisticians, attorneys, and others with or with out administrative or supervisory responsibilities. A research project undertaken by the Division of O Research of the Harvard-Business School entitled "Oppor tunities for Women at the Administrative Level" was made at the request of a committee studying the Radcliffe Management Training Program for Women. Between December 1, 1951, and May 1, 1952, a research team interviewed approximately 175 persons representing 95 organizations in Boston, New York, Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Dallas, Nashville, Atlanta, and Greensboro. Of these 175 persons, 47 were women. The ^Fuller and Bafcchelder, "Opportunities for Women at the Administrative Level." 32 question was asked, "What kinds of jobs do women hold in the organization?" and then, instead of attempting to force the interview into a standard pattern, the interviewers let the questions follow the subjects on which the executives chose to comment. On the basis of all comments received, it was concluded that the way in which women behave on the job, rather than the way they perform the technical operations, is the chief determinant of their executive potential. Business Education's Role in Preparing Women for Office Management Positions According to the literature, business education in most colleges and universities has two major functions: preparing students for teaching in secondary schools and colleges and preparing students for careers in business. Most business educators attempt to meet the needs of both groups by providing curriculums designed to equip them for their responsibilities. This study is concerned with one of the areas of study common to both groups of students, namely, that of office management. The fact that business education teachers prepare students for positions in industry is justification for maintaining that the educational experiences required of teachers should be as specialized as the preparation given to those who go directly from school into business careers. The chairge has been made that teachers do not have sufficient knowledge of business concepts and practices. Kalsbary, in 33 discussing the competencies to be expected of those who teach, emphasized the importance of teachers' obtaining a knowledge of business organization. To expect the business teacher himself to have sought and secured employment and to have obtained experience in the business world does not appear to be unreasonable because he is charged with the responsibility of preparinggyoung people to enter and to succeed in business.y Hayden discovered that the majority of the business educators responding to a questionnaire concerned with the major issues in business education indicated that business education should provide students with specific skills as well as background information in such areas as management to facilitate adjustment to and advancement on the job.10 For a number of years, business education consisted chiefly of courses in shorthand, typewriting, and book keeping. Possession of the skills was deemed sufficient preparation for employment; little thought was given to programs that would assist in the development of leadership traits or contribute to greater efficiency in office opera tion. Both business educators and businessmen now recognize the importance of office management in a program designed to ^Dean R. Malsbary, "The Comprehensive Professional Curriculum," Curriculum Patterns in Business Education, The American Business Education Yearbook, Vol. XIII (New York: New York University Bookstore, 1 9 5 6), p. 2 6 3. lOcarlos K. Hayden, Major Issues in Business Educa tion, Monograph 75 (Cincinnati: The' SoutF-Western Publish- ing Company, 1951)* P- 34 educate office personnel. Sheldon, a business educator, wrote the following: A sound education course is more than bookkeep ing, shorthand, and typewriting, . . . To develop competent businessmen and women, consideration has to be given to a type of training that will produce competent business leadership. In speaking before a joint meeting of educators and office managers, Ploesser, a businessman, emphasized that his company was looking for people with potential— those who could advance to positions of responsibility. 1 P Tonne stated that in 1950 about 95 per cent of all stenographers were women and then pointed out that in that same year about 40 per cent of those engaged in business occupations were women. This review of the literature reveals that a back ground of office management knowledges constitutes a common element in the preparation of teachers for high schools and colleges and in the preparation of girls aspiring to posi tions of leadership in business. Being able to use short hand, typewriting, and bookkeeping skills is no longer suf ficient educational preparation for either group. ^■Hfilliam Shelden, "Curriculum Levels in Business Edu cation," Curriculum Patterns in Business Education, The American Business Education yearbook, Yoi. Xltl (‘Jew York: New York University Bookstore, 1956), p. 159. 12D. A. Ploesser, "Review of Successful Joint Meeting of Educators and Office Managers," Tne National Business Edu cation Quarterly, XIV (March, 1946), p."13." ^-^Herbert A. Tonne, Principles of Business Education (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1954), p. 131. Summary Studies in the field of office management have dealt primarily with the determination of a curriculum on the college level. Hyde, however, studied the background of t-roraen who had achieved officer status with large firms and upon the basis of her findings outlined elements to be included in the educational background of women who are aspiring to business careers. Miller, of the Women’s Bureau of the Department of Commerce, directed several studies dealing with the employment of women; in most cases she limited the studies to special types of business within a restricted area. Writers have indicated the importance of a study of office management to two groups of students enrolled in business education: those who are preparing to teach in high schools and those who are preparing for careers in busi ness. Such writers have emphasized that a background in office management should develop leadership qualities needed by both groups. CHAPTER III CHARACTERISTICS OP WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS This chapter deals with the characteristics of selected women who held office management and supervisory positions in 1956— their age, educational background, experience, and salary. It points out the route of promo tion to office management positions and the possibilities for advancement. Although no effort was made to evaluate the effectiveness with which the women were performing on their jobs, the assumption was made that promotion indicated performance satisfactory to the firms employing the women. Many women stated that it is necessary for a woman's per formance on a job to be superior in order to achieve promotions. The data presented in this chapter are based on replies from 266 women members of the National Office Manage ment Association who responded to the questionnaire used in this investigation. Age of Respondents. Table V presents the age range of 265 of the women who responded to the questionnaire. One woman did not specify her age. 36 37 TABLE V AGE RANGES OF 265 RESPONDENTS IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Age Range Number of Per Cent Women of 265 20 - 24 ...... 1 1 25 - 2 9 ...... 12 4 30 - 3 4 ...... 26 10 35 - 3 9 ...... 38 14 40 - 4 4 ...... 52 20 45 - 49 ...... 58 22 50 - 5 4 ...... 50 19 55 - 5 9 ...... 17 6 60 - 64 ...... 8 3 65 or over ...... 3 1 The median age of the 265 women was 45 years. Only one woman was under 25 years of age; three were 65 years or over. Twenty-nine per cent of the respondents were 50 years of age or over. Smith indicated that in 1870 the median age for working women was 20 years; in 1954 it had jumped to 38 1 years. This study reveals that the median age of women in office management positions was 45 years, based on the replies of the respondents of this study. The reasons for this higher age level of women in supervisory positions may be any one of several: the women may have acquired maturity at lower-level jobs before their promotion to supervisory positions; the women may have stopped working for a few years for marriage and have resumed working ^■Smith, Women at Work, p. 1 3. later; or the women may have been promoted because of their seniority. Table VI presents the ages of 107 women whose specif! title was office manager. Although all respondents were in office management positions, it was thought desirable to present data about those women whose specific title was that of office manager. TABLE VI AGE RANGES OP 107 RESPONDENTS WITH TITLE OP OPFICE MANAGER Par* Age Range Number of f v a. w a v Women of 107 20 - 24 ...... 1 1 25 - 29 ...... 6 6 30 - 34 ...... 9 35 - 39 ...... 15 14 4o - 44 ...... 23 22 45 - 49 ...... 22 50 - 54 ...... 16 15 55 - 59 ...... 7 6 6o - 64 ...... c; R The median age of the 107 respondents was 44 years. Only 7 pei* cent were under 30 years of age; 26 per cent were 30 years of age or over. The median age of the office managers was only one year younger than the median age of all in higher-level office management positions. 39 Salaries Earned. Table VII presents the yearly salary range of 255 respondents. Eleven women did not spec ify the range within which their salary fell. TABLE VII SALARY RANGE OP 255 RESPONDENTS IN OPPIGE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number of Per Cent Salary Range Women of 255 Under $3,000 ...... 2 1 $ 3*000 - $ 4,999 ...... 21 5*000 - 6,999 ...... 92 37 7*000 - . 3,999 ...... 67 26 9*000 - 9*999 ...... 12 5 10,000 - 12,499 .... 13 5 12,500 - 14,999 ...... 6 2 15,000 - 19*999 ...... 6 2 20,000 or over ...... 3 1 The median salary of 255 women who indicated their earnings was $6,553-50 with considerable skewness to the higher incomes. Ten per cent of the women earned a yearly salary of $10,000 or more. Only two women indicated that they earned less than $3*000 a year. One of these was employed at a resort hotel; she may not have included an allowance for room and meals in quoting her salary or she may have been employed for only a part of each year. Sixty- three per cent of the women earned between $5*000 and $9*000 a year. 40 Table VIII shows the median salary by regions of the United States. States included in each region follow the name of the region. TABLE VIII MEDIAN SALARIES OF 255 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS BY REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES Regions Median Salary East North Central States (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin) $ 7,157.30 West North Central States (Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas 6,666.10 West South Central States (Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas) 6,666.10 New England States (Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut) 6,544.90 South Atlantic States (Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida) 6.499.50 Middle Atlantic States (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania) 6,399*50 Pacific States (Washington, Oregon, California) 6,293.70 East South Central States (Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi) 5.499.50 Mountain States (Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada) 5,-332.90 The median salary of the East North Central States was approximately $500 higher than in any of the other regions of the United States. However, the median salary for six regions ranged from $6,666.10 to $6,293-70, a difference of approximately $375. The difference between 41 the highest median salary and the lowest was $1,824.40. The women earning the higher salaries were located in the sec tions of the United States where business is concentrated. Table IX indicates the yearly salaries of women In office management positions employed by Insurance companies, manufacturing firms, and service types of business. TABLE IX SALARIES OF 139 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS EMPLOYED BY SPECIFIED TYPES OF BUSINESS Insurance Manufacturing Service Type Companies Firms of Business Salary Range Number Per Number Per Number Per of Cent of Cent of Cent Women of Women of Women of 27 68 44 Under $3*000 0 n 0 0 1. 2 7 $ 3*000 - $ 4,999 f 26 10 15 15 34 5,000 - 6,999 5 18 27 40 15 34 7*000 - 8,999 11 41 20 29 7 16 9,000 - 9,999 0 0 5 7 1 2 1 0 ,0 0 0 - 1 2 ,4 9 9 1 4 3 4 3 7 12,500 - 14,999 0 0 2 3 0 0 15,000 - 19,999 1 4 1 1 2 5 20,000 or more -; 2 7 0 0 0 0 The median yearly salary of women working for insur ance companies was highest at $7,272.30, The women asso- ~ dated with manufacturing firms were earning a median salary of $6,777.30 and those with service types of business, $5*799.50. The large number of office workers required to carry on the functions of insurance firms may result in 42 office management's being given greater status in those firms than it has been given in other types of business and in higher salaries being paid to office managers. Table X presents a frequency distribution of yearly salaries and ages of 235 women. Eleven women did not indi cate their salaries on the questionnaire. TABLE X RELATIONSHIP OF AGE AND SALARY OF 255 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Salary Range 20 - 29 30 - 39 40-49 50 - 59 6 0 - 6 9 Under $3,000 1 0 0 1 0 $ 3,000 - $ 4,999 4 18 20 11 1 5,000 - 6,999 4 24 42 18 4 7,000 - 8,999 1 13 32 18 3 9,000 - 9,999 0 2 5 5 0 10.000 - 12,499 1 3 4 4 1 12,500 - 14,999 0 0 2 3 1 15,000 - 19,999 0 2 2 2 0 20,000 or over 1 0 0 1 1 The use of the product-moment correlation coefficient formula computed from a frequency distribution reveals a correlation between age and salary of .1699, which is sig nificantly different from zero at the 1 per cent level. Thirteen women 50 years of age or over were earning less than $5*000, yet one woman under 30 years was earning at least $20,000. The median salary of those in the 30 to 39 age group was $5,618.50; of those in the 40 to 49 age 43 group, $6,0 8 0.1 0; and of those In the 50 to 59 age group, $7,0 6 1.9 0. The frequencies of the 20 to 29 year group and the 60 to 69 year group were too small to justify deter mining medians. The women between 50 and 59 years of age were earning the highest salaries. Marital Status. Table XI indicates that more than half of the women supervisors were or had been married. TABLE XI MARITAL STATUS OF 266 RESPONDENTS IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number of Per Cent Marital Status Women of 266 Single ...... 46 M a r r i e d ...... , 34 Divorced or Widowed . . . 20 Although the traditional attitude that girls are not interested in careers and plan to work only until they marry persists, the responses from these women indicate that both married and single women were occupying leadership positions with their firms. Titles of Respondents. Table XII presents the titles of 264 of the respondents. Two women did not specify their titles. In some cases, the respondents had combination titles, such as Vice President and Office Manager, Vice President and Treasurer, or Business Manager and Personnel 44 Manager. In such cases, In the classification, the title used was the one which the respondent had placed first in replying to the questionnaire. TABLE XII TITLES OP 264 RESPONDENTS IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number of Per Cent Titles Women of 264 Top Management President ...... 2 Vice President ...... 5 Secretary and/or Treasurer ...... 27 Total ...... 34 13 Middle Management Office M a n a g e r ...... 107 Assistant Office Manager ...... 5 Personnel Director ...... 24 Assistant Personnel Director ...... 11 General and/or Other Manager ...... 23 Assistant General and/or Other Manager 3 Administrative Assistant ...... 23 Total . . 196 74 First-Line Supervision Supervisor ...... 19 7 Other C o n s u l t a n t ...... 4 Auditor ...... 1 Purchasing Agent ...... JL Owners of Business (Proprietorship or Partnership) ...... Total ...... 15 w The results of this study verify Terry's statement that the one in charge of managing the office is not always given the title of Office Manager. He may have no title at all, but nevertheless the one in charge of managing the work of the office is the office manager.2 Thirteen per cent of the respondents were among the executive or top management group, 74 per cent were on the middle management level, and 7 PC3? cent were in supervisory positions if titles are indicative of level in organizational structure. Inasmuch as those who were consultants, pur chasing agent, and auditor performed office management functions, the data they submitted were included. Although the titles in all instances did not clearly reflect the responsibilities of their positions, writers have pointed out that every executive, of whatever type or level, is to some degree an office manager.3 Thus, although the titles of the women were varied, their duties indicated that they occupied office management positions. Educational Background. The educational background of the women revealed that the majority had not received college degrees. Table XIII shows the highest level of education, 2George R. Terry, Office Management and Control (Homewood, Illinois: RichardB. Irwin, Inc., 1054}, P* 17. 3C . L. Littlefield and R. L. Peterson, Modern Office Management (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hail, Inc., 1956), p. 64. 46 beyond the eighth grade, completed by 263 women. Three women did not specify the highest grade they had completed. TABLE XIII HIGHEST LEVEL OF EDUCATION ATTAINED BY 263 RESPONDENTS IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number of Per Cent Educational Level Attained Women of 266 High School 1 ...... 3 1 2 ...... 8 3 3 ...... 5 2 4 ...... , 114 43 College or University 1 ...... 15 6 2 ...... 37 14 3 ...... IT 6 4 ...... 47 18 5 ...... • 15 6 6 ...... 1 Fifty-one per cent of 263 women had completed one or more years of college or university work. Twenty-five per cent had attended a college or university four or more years. The fact that so few of the women had completed four years of college may have been because little emphasis was placed upon a college education for women twenty-five years ago, the time when most of these women whose median age was 45 years would have attended a college or university. The median number of years spent in school beyond the first eight grades by all the respondents was 4.6 years. The 34 management executives, however, had spent a median of 1.8 years in college; 21 of them had spent one or more years in college. The median number of years spent in school beyond grade school by the 107 office managers was 4.4. Thus, it appears that the level attained in the organiza tional structure is related to the amount of education acquired, those who had advanced to the higher levels of office management having had 1.4 years more education than those employed at the middle management level. Table XIV (page 48) presents a frequency distribution showing the relationship between salary and educational level. Eleven women did not Indicate their salary and three did not specify the highest grade of school they had completed. The use of the product moment correlation coefficient formula indicates that the correlation between salary and educational level attained by women in office management positions is . 1233., which is significantly different from zero at the 5 per cent level. The median salary of those who were graduated from high school was $5 *8 9 3 .5 0and of those ;who had completed four years of college was $3,939.50, a difference of only $66. As indicated in Table X1/ (page 50), however, the median age of those who were graduated from college was lower than of those who had only a high school education; thus they may not have attained the salaries which their positions .justify. TABLE XIV RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SALARY AND EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF 252 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Educational Level Salary Range High School College or University 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 Under $3,000 . . . t t • • • 2 •m ... _ $ 3,000 - $ 4,999 . • • * • 6 1 2 2 24 4 8 3 10 — - 5,000 - , 6,999 . • • • 2 1 2 40 6 12 6 14 7 1 7,000 - 8,999 . • • « - 4 - 27 3 10 6 11 4 - 9,000 - 9,999 . * • • - - - 9 - 2 - 1 - - 10,000 - 12,499 . • • • - 1 1 3 -- - 4 3 1 12,500 - 14,999 . • • • -- - 3 1 1 1 -- 15,000 - 19,999 . • • • - - - 2 - 1 - 2 1 - 20,000 or over • • • •* •* 1 «N» 1 1 •— 4=- CD 49 Table XV (page 50) shows a frequency distribution to indicate the relationship between age and the educational level of 262 women, une person aid not indicate her age and three did not specify their educational background. A comparison of the age of the respondents and the educational level attained reveals that all of the women under 40 years of age serving in an office management or supervisory capacity had completed four years of high school. Twenty-nine per cent fell In the under-40 age group. Seventeen per cent had completed one or more years of college or university work. Thirty-two per cent of the under-4o age group had completed four or more years of college or university work. These data seem to indicate that the trend is toward more education for those who are achieving the higher-level positions in office management; similarly, those with a greater amount of education achieve office management posi tions at a younger age. The median age of the respondents with a high school education was 45; the median age of those with four years of college was 40 years. Table XVI shows the type of schooling other than high school or college which the women in office management posi tions had acquired. Much duplication exists as many women not only attended business college but also enrolled In adult education classes, took correspondence school courses, and attended other supplementary educational programs. TABLE XV RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGE AND EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OP 262 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Educational Level Age Range High School College or University 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 _..__ 20 - 2 4 ...... 1 mm 25 - 2 9 ...... - - _ 3 1 1 — 7 — - 30 - 3 4 ...... -- 13 1 3 1 6 2 - 35 - 3 9 ...... - - - 15 3 7 3 7 2 1 4o - 4 4 ...... - - 2 20 1 8 2 1 15r* 3 4*3 - 4 9 ...... 2 1 2 29 3 0 4 8 3 - 50 - 5 4 ...... 1 4 1 18 2 3 5 8 6 - 55 - 5 9 ...... - 2 8 2 2 1 2 - - 60 - 6 4 ...... - 1 - 5 1 - - 1 -- 65 or over ...... • • • ♦ — 2 *"• 1 «• *" — oo i 51 TABLE XVI SCHOOLING OTHER THAN HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE OR UNIVERSITY OF 266 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number of Per Cent Type of Schooling Women of 266 Business C o l l e g e ...... 153 58 Adult Education C l a s s e s 112 42 Correspondence School ...... 34 20 Company Training School ...... 39 15 Night School at Colleges or Universities 33 14- Special Types of Schooling, including office machines school, nursing school, dramatics school, secretarial school, fine arts academy, seminary, conserva tory of music, law school, normal s c h o o l ...... 12 5 Seminars and C l i n i c s 11 4 Special Courses ...... 8 3 The type of supplementary education the women had acquired was varied. Over half had attended a business college in order to supplement their high school or college background. Night school courses offered by colleges and universities had served the needs of 14 per cent of the 266 women. Four per cent of the women had attended seminars and clinics offered by various professional groups, such as the American Management Association, the American Institute of Banking, and by associations and companies, such as the American Savings and Loan Association, Standard Register Company, and International Business Machines Corporation. The educational background of nine of the women was seemingly unrelated to the office management area. Two had 52 attended nursing school, two dramatics school, one a fine arts academy, one a seminary, one a conservatory of music, one a law school, and one a normal school. This evidence indicates that the women who are in leadership positions have taken advantage of opportunities to acquire additional education, mainly by attending busi ness college and adult education classes. The possibilities of offering office management courses in community and junior colleges should be investigated to see if this type of program might serve the needs of women in office manage ment effectively. Table XVII (page 53) indicates the titles of 151 of the women who had attended business college. Two women who had attended business college did not specify their titles. Fifty-eight per cent of the 266 respondents had attended business college for varying periods of time. Of the total number of women serving in top management positions, 38 per cent had attended business college; in middle manage ment positions, 59 per cent; as supervisors, 53 per cent; in "other5* management positions, 67 per cent. Sixty-two per cent of the office managers took courses at a business college. Business colleges have served as supplementary education, perhaps providing in a short period of time the skills and abilities required on a job. 33 TABLE XVII TITLES OP 131 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS WHO HAD ATTENDED BUSINESS COLLEGE Number of Per Cent Women of 151 Top Management President ...... 1 Vice President ...... 5 Secretary auid/or Treasurer ... 13 T o t a l ...... T§ 13 Middle Management Office M a n a g e r ...... 66 Assistant Office Manager ...... 3 Personnel Director...... 14 Assistant Personnel Director ..... 3 General and/or Other Manager ..... 14 Assistant General and/or Other Manager 1 Administrative Assistant ...... 14 Total 115 76 First-Line Supervision S u p e r v i s o r ...... 10 7 Other Consultant ...... 2 Purchasing Agent ...... 1 Owner of F i r m ...... 4 Total ...... ”f 4 Table XVIII indicates the highest educational level attained by those who attended business college. Three of the 153 women who attended business college did not indicate their educational background. 54 TABLE XVIII EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF 150 RESPONDENTS WHO HAD ATTENDED BUSINESS COLLEGE Number of Per Cent Educational Level Attained Women of 150 High School 1 ...... 3 2 2 ...... 8 5 3 ...... 4 3 4 ...... 63 42 College or University 1 ...... 12 8 2 ...... 25 17 3 ...... 7 5 4 ...... 21 14 5 ...... 6 4 6 ...... 1 All but one, 15 out of 16, of the women who had not completed four years of high school took additional work at a business college. Fifty-five per cent of those who had been graduated from high school had attended business college. Forty-four per cent of the college women had attended a business college. Thus, business colleges had served the needs of women of all educational levels; high school graduates as well as college women had attended a business college at some time. Table XIX indicates the number of months the respond ents had attended business college. Fifteen women did not specify the number of months they had attended. 55 TABLE XIX NUMBER OF MONTHS 133 RESPONDENTS HAD ATTENDED BUSINESS COLLEGE Per Cent Number Number of of Months Women of 138 1 - 3 ...... 15 4 - 6 ...... 28 CXJ 7 - 9 ...... 32 23 10 - 12 ...... 36 26 13 - 15 ...... 3 2 16 - 18 ...... O 19 - 21 ...... 3 2 22 -24 ...... 9 7 25 - 27 ...... 0 28 - 30 ...... 0 30 or over ...... 3 2 The period of time in attendance at a business college was a median of 8 .5 months, the equivalent of approximately one school year. Two per cent of the women, however, had attended more than 30 months and 15 per cent between 1 and 3 months only. Some had attended business college to acquire Initial skills requiring several months of study but others had attended to "brush up" or extend the skills they had acquired elsewhere. One- and two-year terminal voca tional courses as offered in community and junior colleges should serve the needs of such persons. Table XX indicates the highest educational level attained by 39 women who had attended company training schools. 56 TABLE XX EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF 39 RESPONDENTS WHO HAD ATTENDED COMPANY TRAINING SCHOOLS Number of Per Cent Educational Level Attained Women of 39 High School 1 ...... 0 2 ...... 0 0 3 ...... 2 5 4 ...... 19 49 College or University 1 ...... 3 8 2 ...... 7 18 3 ...... 3 8 4 ...... 4 10 5 ...... 2 6 ...... 0 The median number of years of school attendance beyond the eighth grade for those who had attended company training schools was 4.4. Again, however, the educational level of the attendants was widespread and not confined exclusively to those from one level. Although two women had not been graduated from high school, five had com pleted as many as four years of college or university study. Thus, it appears that company training schools provide information on company policy and procedure which some other types of institutions do not supply. Table XXI presents a distribution of the number of months 2 9 women in office management positions had attended 57 company training schools. Although ten additional women had this type of training, they did not specify the length of time they had attended. TABLE XXI iiUMBER OF MONTHS 29 RESPONDENTS HAD ATTENDED COMPANY TRAINING SCHOOLS Number of Months Number of Per Cent Women of 29 x - 2 ...... 27 3 - 4 ...... 21 - 6 ...... 8 27 7 - 8 ...... 0 0 9 - 10 ...... 4 11 - 12 ...... 5 17 13 - 14 ...... 0 15 - 16 ...... 0 17 - 18 ...... , 1 4 The median length of time in attendance at company training schools was 4.o months. Eight women, however, attended no more than 2 months and one person between 17 and 18 months. Writers indicate that the objectives of training schools are to get job-content information to each employee, to teaen each employee the best methods of doing his jbb, to give up-to-date Knowledge of operating policies and procedures, to inform, employees concerning personnel practices, and to give eacn employee an ample opportunity for increased earnings when ability is demonstrated.^ Thus, the length of time any employee is in attendance at a training school may depend upon his background and ambitions so far as promotions are concerned. The company training school deals with infor mation relative to specific procedures and policies of the company offering the training. In most cases, it would seem that the median of 4.6 months would be ample to supply this company background. Table XXII (page 59) lists the major fields of study of 64 women who had completed four or more years of college or university study. Thirteen women had either a double major or a major in one field and a Master's degree in a second field. Some of the major fields of study indicate that a few women who were serving in office management positions had not prepared for such positions or for any positions in business. The recency of office management as an integral part of the organizational structure of firms and the short age of men and women prepared specifically for this type of position may account for the fact that women with varied and seemingly unrelated backgrounds were serving in office management positions. TABLE XXIX MAJOR FIELD OF STUDY OF 64 RESPONDENTS WHO HAD COMPLETED FOUR OR MORE YEARS OF COLLEGE OR UNIVERSITY Major Field of Study Number of Business Administration 13 20 Accounting . . 9 14 English 8 13 Psychology 7 11 Personnel Management 5 8 History 3 *3 Home Economics 3 3 Principles of M a n a g e m e n t 3 5 Education ..... 2 3 English Education 2 3 J o u r n a l i s m ...... 2 3 M u s i c 2 3 Political Science , 2 3 Administration 1 2 Biology 1 2 Business Education 1 2 Child Welfare 1 2 Commerce 1 2 Economics 1 2 English Literature 1 2 Fine Arts 1 2 Law 1 2 Liberal Arts . . 1 2 Physical Education ...... 1 2 Physics 1 2 Secretarial 1 2 Sociology 1 2 Spanish . . 1 2 No Major Indicated »■ 1 2 Experience. Table XXIII (page 60) shows the number of companies for which the women had worked, including the com pany with which they were associated when responding to the questionnaire. Fourteen women did not indicate how many positions they had held before their employment with their present firms. TABLE XXIII NUMBER OF FIRMS FOR WHICH 252 WOMEN HAD WORKED Number of Firms Number of Per Cent Women of 252 1 ...... 35 14 2 ...... 41 16 3 ...... 56 22 4 ...... 52 21 5 ...... 42 16 6 ...... 13 F 7 ...... 7 3 8 ...... 2 1 9 ...... 1 1 10 ...... 1 1 11 ...... 0 0 12 ...... 0 0 13 ...... 1 I 14 ...... 0 0 15 ...... 1 1 The women had been employed by a median of 3.4 corn- panies. Fifty per cent of the 252 women had been employed by no more than three companies. One woman wrote that she felt obtaining experience by working for several companies was desirable and that promotions were faster as a resuit. The woman who had worked for ten firms commented that each change had been a promotion. Another woman who had worked for only one firm responded that this had been a factor 61 favoring her advancement. The data do not indicate that women in office management positions tend to change posi tions frequently. A median of only 3.4 different companies based on the experience of 252 women indicates a fairly permanent employee. Table XXIV presents a distribution of the number of years 242 women had been employed by their then present firms. Twenty-four women did not specify the length of time of such employment. TABLE XXIV NUMBER OF YEARS OF EXPERIENCE WITH PRESENT FIRM OF 242 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number of Years Number of Per Cent Women of 242 Less than 1 • • • • . . . 5 3 1 - 5 • • * • . . . 44 18 6-10 ... 50 21 11-15 ... 62 26 1 6 - 2 0 ... 20 8 21-25 ... 22 9 26-30 ... 18 7 31-35 ... 10 • 4 36-40 ... 7 3 Over 40 . . . 4 2 The median number of years that the women had worked for the present company was 11. Twenty-one per cent had worked five years or less; 16 per cent, however, had worked for twenty-five years or more. 62 These data indicate that the women had not changed positions frequently but apparently had been satisfied with the policies of the firm and their progress. Table XXV Indicates the number of years 220 of the women had held their present positions with the company by which they were then employed. Forty-six women did not specify the number of years they had held their present positions with the firm. TABLE XXV NUMBER OF YEARS EMPLOYED ON PRESENT POSITION OF 220 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number of Years Number of Per Cent Women of 220 Less than 1 ..... 4 1 - 5 ...... TO 32 6 - 10 ...... 30 11 - 15 ...... 48 22 16 - 20 ...... 7 3 21 - 25 ...... 5 26 - 30 ...... 1 31 -35 ...... 2 1 36 -4o ...... 1 Over 40 ...... 1 The median time the women had been employed on their present positions was 6.4 years. Although the majority of the women, 84 per cent, had held their positions between one and fifteen years, 12 per cent had been employed in an office management capacity for longer than fifteen years. If holding a job is an Indication that they are fulfilling 63 cheir responsibilities efficiently, one may conclude that the women were performing the leadership function in a capable manner. Route of Promotion. An analysis of the responses to the questionnaire revealed that of all the women in higher- level positions, 44 per cent had served as secretaries, 2 3 per cent as bookkeepers, and 9 per cent as teachers. Fifty-one per cent of the 107 women employed as office managers had served in secretarial positions and 34 per cent in bookkeeping positions. Seven women had been teachers before becoming office managers. These data indicate that possession of the secretarial skills was an important element in the background of the women who were serving in office management positions and that some promotions were in part based upon capable performance in lower-level positions where the skills were used. Span of Control. In an effort to determine the span of control of women in office management positions, the women were asked to indicate the number of office employees wn© reported directly to them and the number who reported indirectly. Table XXVI (page 64) shows the number of employees who reported directly to the office management executives. 64 TABLE XXVI NUMBER OP EMPLOYEES REPORTING DIRECTLY TO 244 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number of Employees Number of Per Cent Women of 244 0 ...... 8 3 1 - 2 ...... 29 12 3 - 4 ...... 37 15 5 - t> ...... 39 16 7 - 8 ...... ^4 14 9-10 ...... 20 8 11-12 ...... 15 6 13-14 ...... 9 4 15-16 . . . . 5 17-18 ...... 4 1 19-20 . . . . 3 Over 20 . . . . 13 Although the range was from no employees to over 20, the median number reporting directly to the women in office management positions was 7 employees. Table XXVII (page 6 5) indicates the number of employees who reported indirectly to 164 women in office management positions. One hundred two women did not specify the number. Again, the range was very wide, from none to over 25 employees, with 10 as the median number. In comparing the range of the number of employees who reported both directly and Indirectly to women in office management positions with the ranges which authorities TABLE XXVII NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES REPORTING INDIRECTLY TO 164 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number of Per Cent Number 0 . , . 10 1 2 . . . . . • 15 9 3 - 4 . . . , . . 17 10 5 _ 6 . . . , . . 17 10 7 - 8 . . , 4 9 - 10 . . . 9 11 — 12 . . . . . 6 4 13 — 14 . . . . . 4 2 15 - 16 . . . . . 9 6 17 - 18 . . . I 19 - 20 . . . . . 6 4 21 - 22 . . . 0 23 - 24 . . . 1 25 or over . . . . . 49 30 advocate, one discovers that both Terry5 and Longenecker^ justify wide or narrow spans of control since the proper span depends upon many considerations, including the organizational level at which the woric is performed, the type of work being performed, and the size and importance of the subunits. Titles of Superiors. Each respondent to the questionnaire was asked to indicate the title of the per son to whom she reported. Table XVIII (page 6 6) indicates -Terry, oo. cit., p. 5 7. 6 Justin G. Longenecker, “Communications Within the Management Team," The Baylor Bulletin, XXX (December, 1956;, p. 31. 66 the titles of those to whom 106 office managers reported. Two women did not indicate the title of their superior. TABLE XXVIII TITLE OF SUPERIOR TO WHOM 105 OFFICE MANAGERS REPORTED Title of Superior Number of Per Cent Women of 105 President ...... 3o 3^ Vice President...... 15 14 Secretary and/or Treasurer . 12 11 General Manager ...... 10 10 Owner of Business ...... 8 8 Executive Director . . . . 7 7 Other Administrative Officer 3 3 Board of Directors ...... 1 1 Other Manager ...... 13 12 Writers have indicated that each company must find the most logical place for the office manager within its organization. This may mean placing him in various places, reporting to different individuals in different firms. The results of this investigation reveal that 34 per cent of the women office managers reported to the president and that 11 per cent reported to the secretary and/or treasurer. This evidence indicates that the status of the office mana ger is recognized as an important aspect of the organiza tional structure. 67 Opportunities for Advancement. The opportunities for advancement for the women serving in office management positions seemed to be scarce and indefinite. Table XXIX (page 68) indicates the responses of the women to the question: "‘What is the logical 'next step u p 1 from your present position?:s Forty-seven women did not respond to this question. In responding to the question regarding opportuni ties for advancement, 35 per cent of the women %/rote "None.5' Eight per cent indicated that they were at the top position for women. Fifteen per cent of the women did not know what opportunities existed with their firms. Approximately 14 per cent of the women stated that their opportunities for promotion were in terms of more responsi bility, more money, or more specialized duties. No change in title was indicated. Only 20 women (9 per cent) indicated tnat their present positions snould logically lead to positions In top management— '2 to the presidency of the firm, 8 to the vice presidency, and 10 to secretary and/or treasurer. Several women added statements indicating that their firms would not consider appointing women to the higher levels of management. TABLE XXIX. OPPORTUNITIES FOR ADVANCEMENT OF 219 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS n v,+.„v,4+.4«c Number of Per Cent Opportunities Women of 219 None ...... 82 37 U n k n o w n ...... 33 is Now at the top for women ...... 18 8 More responsibility ...... 10 More money ...... 3 1 To specific positions ...... 73 34 Office manager ...... 9 Vice president of company ...... 8 Comptroller ...... 8 Executive assistant ...... 8 Personnel director ...... 6 Business manager ...... 5 Officer of company ...... 3 Regional manager ...... 3 Assistant manager ...... 2 Assistant office manager...... 2 Assistant secretary of company . . . 2 Manager ...... 2 President of company ...... 2 Administrative consultant ...... 1 Assistant to chief of branch for management ...... 1 Assistant plant manager ...... 1 Assistant treasurer ...... 1 Fund raiser ...... 1 General accounting manager ...... 1 Management engineer ...... 1 Marketing department manager .... 1 Office supervisor ...... 1 Sales department manager ...... 1 Secretary of company ...... 1 Traveling supervisor ...... 1 T r e a s u r e r ...... 1 69 Some of the factors which may limit the opportuni ties for promotion of the women are their educational back ground, the size of the firms, indefinite lines of promo tion, or their sex. The responses on the questionnaire did not indicate directly the limiting factor which existed. Summary An attempt was made in this chapter to indicate some of the characteristics of women who were serving in office management positions and to show the possibilities for promotion which existed. The data indicated that the median age of those serving in higher-level positions was 45 years; that the number was about equally divided among those who were married or had been married and those who were single; that the titles of the women were varied, some having two titles and some having a title not indicative of their functions; that the majority of the women were serving at the middle management level; that the majority of the women did not have college degrees but had attended night schools, business colleges, university extension courses, and other types of schools to supplement their education; that the median number of companies for which the women had worked was 3.4; that the women had been employed by the same firm a median of 11 years; that the majority of the women had acquired promotions to higher-level positions via the 70 secretarial or bookkeeping route; that the median salary earned was $6,5 5 3.5 0; that the women had a median of 7 employees reporting directly to them and 10 employees reporting indirectly; that the division within which the women worked was varied, some reporting to top management and others to a person on their organizational level; and that the possibilities for promotion were unknown or indefinite. CHAPTER IV DUTIES OP WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS The purpose of this chapter is to indicate the duties which the women performed as office management per sonnel. The list of duties was derived from current text books in the field. The respondents were asked to indicate the frequency of the performance of the suggested list of responsibilities according to a three-point scale (func tions frequently performed, functions sometimes performed, and functions never performed), and to add any other responsibilities not included on the list. Duties Performed Frequently. Table XXX (page 72) presents the activities which were performed frequently. According to this analysis, six of the most fre quently performed duties could be grouped under the classi fication of maintaining satisfactory employer-employee relationships. The most frequent single activity was that of supervising office employees (88 per cent). Over 60 per cent of the women Indicated that they supervised office employees, recruited, selected, and placed office employees, approved vacation schedules and leaves of absence, promoted, 71 72 TABLE XXX FUNCTIONS PERFORMED FREQUENTLY BY 266 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number Per Cent Functions of of Women 266 Supervise office employees 234 88 Recruit* select* and place office e m p l o y e e s ...... 212 80 Plan and schedule office w o r k ...... 211 79 Approve vacation schedules and leaves of absence...... 205 77 Promote* demote* transfer* and discharge office employees 185 69 Handle attendance problems ...... 183 69 Determine flow of office work...... 182 68 Determine office salaries 166 62 Dictate written communications...... 165 62 Perform some accounting functions .... l6l 62 Select, purchase* and maintain office equipment . 155 59 Select, purchase, store, and distribute supplies...... 146 55 Control filing activities 146 55 Develop and analyze office systems, procedures* and m e t h o d s ...... 133 50 Develop training p r o g r a m s ...... 122 46 Develop office standards 119 45 Design and simplify office forms 115 43 Prepare and analyze budget figures .... 95 36 Prepare office m a n u als...... 88 33 Conduct departmental and professional meetings...... 62 23 Administer recreational and suggestion systems 4l 15 Prepare layout d r a w i n g s . 3 2 12 Design office equipment 21 8 demoted, transferred, and discharged office employees, handled attendance problems, and determined office salaries. Sixty-eight per cent of the respondents indicated that they helped to provide an effective office organization by determining the flow of office work. The efficiency with which the office staff is organized to execute its func tions determines the degree of effectiveness with which the service aspects of office management aids the entire organ ization in achieving its objectives. The selection, purchase, and maintenance of both equipment and supplies are important functions of the office manager. However, only 8 per cent of the women indicated that they were responsible for the designing of office equipment. This is understandable inasmuch as this is a task which requires engineering skill; it is one which is often handled by specialists in office equipment design or by the engineering division of a firm. Those who use the equipment sometimes offer suggestions which are incorporated in the final plan for the design. Maintaining adequate service facilities is usually under the direct supervision of the office manager. The effectiveness of such communication within a business determines to a great extent the efficiency of managerial operations. The dictation of written communications, performance of some accounting functions, and control of 74 filing activities were checked by more than 50 per cent of the respondents as frequently performed duties. That both written and spoken communications are integral aspects of the work of the office manager were emphasized by the number of responses to these items on the questionnaire. Developing and analyzing office systems* procedures* and methods* developing office standards* and designing and simplifying office forms were among the frequently performed duties of over 40 per cent of the respondents. The extent of the development of procedures* methods* and office standards depends to a great extent upon the ability and training of the office manager. The functions performed the most frequently by over 75 per cent of the respondents included: Supervising office employees Recruiting* selecting* and placing office employees Planning and scheduling office work Approving vacation schedules and leaves of absence The functions performed the most frequently by between 50 and 75 per cent of the respondents included: Promoting* demoting, transferring* and discharging office employees Handling attendance problems Determining flow of office work Determining office salaries Dictating written communications Performing some accounting functions Selecting, purchasing* and maintaining office equipment Selecting* purchasing* storing* and distributing supplies Controlling filing activities Developing and analyzing office systems* procedures, and methods 1' The women were asked to add any duties to the list for which they were responsible. The following functions, which they performed frequently, were added: Maintain personnel records and provide payroll Information Co-ordinate all activities of she firm in the absence of the president Administer job evaluation and merit salary system Write staff bulletin monthly Assist in direct-mail program planning Assume responsibility for ail financial problems Pass on all credit applications Administer miscellaneous office services Administer buildings and grounds Although the women did not indicate an extensive list of functions which had not been suggested on the questionnaire, those which were added are among the impor tant activities of a firm. Duties Performed Sometimes. Table XXXI (page 76) indicates the functions which 266 women in office manage ment positions performed sometimes. An analysis of these functions reveals that some activities were performed on an irregular basis but to the degree of regularity that occasion reveals a need for them. At least 39 per cent of the women were responsible for conducting departmental and professional meetings and for designing and simplifying office forms. Thirty-five per cent prepared office manuals, which are the written instructions describing the operations of the firm. How ever, once a manual has been written, the responsibility of 76 TABLE XXXI FUNCTIONS PERFORMED SOMETIMES BY 266 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number Per Cent Functions of of Women 266 Conduct departmental and professional meetings ...... 104 39 Design and simplify office forms .... 103 39 Prepare office manuals ...... 92 35 Develop and analyze office systems, procedures, and m e t h o d s ...... 86 32 Develop training programs...... 80 30 Prepare layout drawings 79 30 Develop office standards...... 75 28 Dictate written communications 73 27 Administer recreation and suggestion s y s t e m s ...... 70 27 Control filing activities...... 66 25 Prepare and analyze budget figures . . . 59 22 Promote, demote, transfer, and discharge office employees ...... 58 22 Determine office salaries...... 57 21 Handle attendance problems ...... 56 21 Select, purchase, and maintain office e q u i p m e n t ...... 55 21 Select, purchase, store, and distribute supplies...... 55 21 Design office e q u i p m e n t ...... 54 20 Perform some accounting functions . „ . 50 18 Recruit, select, and place office e m p l o y e e s ...... 45 17 Determine flow of office w o r k ..... 45 17 Approve vacation schedules and leaves of a b s e n c e ...... 36 14 Plan and schedule office w o r k ..... 34 13 Supervise office employees...... 21 8 77 the office manager extends to keeping it up to date and distributed to those who have a need for knowing its contents. Table XXXII (page 73) presents a summary of the functions performed frequently and sometimes witn tnose performed with the highest frequency first. An analysis of this summary table indicates that of the six functions performed by at least 90 per cent of the women, five functions dealt with employer-employee relation ships. At least 75 per cent performed sixteen of the functions listed; at least 40 per cent were responsible for all but one of the functions--the designing of office equip ment. One may conclude that units dealing with the functions listed should be included in the educational experiences of girls who desire careers in office manage ment. The human relations elements of leadership training should be stressed as office management personnel perform duties involving such relationships more frequently than other duties. Duties Never Performed. For every activity there were some respondents who never performed it. Some of the respondents failed to indicate how frequently the duty was performed and, in these cases, for the purpose of this TABLE XXXII FUNCTIONS PERFORMED FREQUENTLY AND SOMETIMES BY 266 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Responses Per Cent Functions of Frequently Sometimes Total 2o6 HeomUfc, aaloafc, and plane office employees . , 212 267 97 Supervise office employees ...... ♦ 234 21 28') 96 Plan and schedule office work ...... 211 34 245 92 Approve vacation schedules and leaves of absence 205 36 241 91 Promote, demote, transfer, and discharge office employees ...... 18'3 58 2 4 3 91 Handle attendance problems ...... 183 56 239 90 Dictate written communications ...... 165 73 238 89 Determine flow of office work ...... 182 45 227 85 Determine office salaries ...... 166 57 223 83 Develop and analyze office systems, procedures, and methods ...... 133 86 219 82 Design and simplify office forms ...... 115 103 218 82 Select, purchase, and maintain office equipment 158 55 213 80 Control filing activities ...... 146 66 212 80 Perform some accounting functions ...... 161 50 211 79 Develop training training programs ...... 122 80 202 76 Select, purchase, store, and distribute office supplies ...... 146 55 201 76 Develop office standards ...... 119 76 194 73 Prepare office manuals ...... 88 92 180 68 Conduct departmental and professional meetings 62 104 166 62 Prepare and analyze budget figures ...... 96 164 58 32 59 Prepare layout drawings ...... 79 111 42 Administer recreation and suggestion systems 4l 70 111 41 Design office equipment ...... 21 54 75 28 79 analysis, the item was counted as one which the respondent never performed. Table XXXIII (page 80) indicates the v functions cited as never performed. Seventy-two per cent of the women indicated that they never designed office equipment and p8 per cent that they never prepared layout drawings or administered recreational and suggestion systems. All of the remaining activities were marked as responsibilities performed frequently or sometimes by at least 58 per cent of the respondents. Functions Performed by Management Level. Table XXXIV (page 8l) indicates the office management functions per formed frequently by 32 top management executives (two top management executives indicated that they were responsible for these duties through department heads), 107 office managers, and 19 office supervisors. An analysis of this table indicates that all of the office managers had direct supervision over office employees and all but one of the office supervisors performed this duty. In contrast, only 82 per cent of the top management executives supervised office employees; yet this was the second most frequently performed responsibility indicated. The determination of office salaries was a function of the top management executives (79 per cent) more often than of either the office managers (59 per cent) or the office supervisors (52 per cent). Eighty-eight per cent of the 80 TABLE XXXIII FUNCTIONS NEVER PERFORMED BY 266 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number Per Cent Functions . of of Women 266 Design office equipment ...... 191 72 Administer recreational and suggestion s y s t e m s ...... 155 58 Prepare layout drawings ...... 155 58 Prepare and analyze budget figures . . . 112 42 Conduct departmental and professional meetings ...... 100 38 Prepare office manuals 86 32 Develop office standards 72 27 Select, purchase, store, and distribute supplies 65 24 Develop training programs 64 24 Perform some accounting functions . . . 55 21 Control filing activities ...... 54 20 Select, purchase, and maintain office equipment 53 20 Design and simplify office forms .... 48 18 Develop and analyze office standards, procedures, and methods ...... 47 18 Determine office s a l a r i e s ...... 43 16 Determine flow of office w o r k ..... 39 15 Dictate written communications..... 28 11 Handle attendance problems ...... 27 10 Approve vacation schedules and leaves of absence 25 9 Promote, demote, transfer, and discharge office employees...... 22 9 Plan and schedule office w o r k ..... 21 8 Supervise office employees 11 4 Recruit, select, and place office e m p l o y e e s ...... 9 3 TABLE XXIV FUNCTIONS PERFORMED FREQUENTLY BY 32 TOP MANAGEMENT EXECUTIVES, 107 OFFICE MANAGERS , AND 19 OFFICE SUPERVISORS Top Office Office Management Managers Supervisors Functions Num Per Num Per Num Per ber Cent ber Cent ber Cent Plan and schedule office work ...... 27 84 97 91 14 74 Supervise office employees ...... 26 82 107 100 18 95 Determine office salaries ...... 25 79 63 59 10 62 Dictate written communications ...... 24 75 62 58 9 47 Perform some accounting functions ...... 24 75 77 72 8 42 Approve vacation schedules and leaves of absence 23 72 93 87 13 68 Determine flow of office w o r k ...... 21 66 88 82 15 79 Promote, demote, transfer, and discharge office employees...... 20 62 85 80 13 68 Prepare and analyze budget figures ...... 20 62 39 36 5 26 Develop and analyse office systems, procedures, methods ...... 20 62 64 60 7 37 Recruit, select, and place office employees . . 18 56 94 88 14 74 Handle attendance problems ...... 17 53 89 83 7 37 Select, purchase, and maintain equipment . . . 17 53 88 82 8 42 Develop office standards ...... 17 53 57 52 3 16 Design and simplify office forms ...... 15 47 54 50 5 26 Select, purchase, store, and distribute supplies 14 44 80 75 8 42 Develop training programs for office employees 13 4l 57 52 9 47 Control materials to be filed ...... 13 41 79 74 8 42 Prepare office manuals ...... 11 34 32 30 4 21 Conduct departmental and professional meetings 9 28 19 18 5 26 Administer recreational and suggestion systems 4 12 17 16 2 10 Prepare layout drawings ...... 3 9 16 15 1 5 Design office equipment ...... 0 0 14 13 2 10 82 office managers were responsible for recruiting, selecting, and placing office employees and 74 per cent of the office supervisors performed this function. Only. 56 per cent of the top management executives, however, were concerned with this function. Although none of the top management execu tives designed office equipment, 13 per cent of the office managers and 10 per cent of the office supervisors performed this duty, thus indicating that this function is performed at the lower management levels. The duties suggested were major responsibilities of office managers much more frequently than of either top management executives or of office supervisors. Eleven of the functions were performed frequently by at least 70 per cent of the office managers, while only six functions were performed by JO per cent or more of the top management executives, and only four functions were performed by 70 per cent or more of the office supervisors. Of the five most frequently performed functions for each group, two functions were common to all levels: supervising office employees and planning and scheduling office work. Determining office salaries, dictating written communications, and performing or accepting responsibility for some accounting functions were among the five most frequently performed activities of the top management execu tives; approving vacation schedules and leaves of absence were among the five most frequently performed activities of the office managers. Promoting, demoting, transferring, and discharging office employees were among the five most frequently performed activities of the office supervisors. The functions performed with the least frequency by the top management executives, office managers, and office supervisors included administering recreational and sugges tion systems, preparing layout drawings, and designing office equipment. Duties Performed by Size of Offices. Table XXXV (page 84) indicates the functions performed by 117 women in firms employing fewer than 25 office employees and 15 women in firms employing more than 500 office employees. This type of analysis was made in order to determine whether size had any relationship to functions performed. One woman employed by a large firm reported that she performed the functions suggested indirectly through department heads. An analysis of Table XXXV indicates that the super vision of office employees was the function performed with the highest frequency by the women respondents serving in office management positions in both large and small firms. The functions performed by the women in large firms were more specialized than those of the women employed by small firms; fifteen of the functions suggested were performed by 50 per cent or more of the women employed by small firms while only seven functions were performed by fo per cent or more of those employed by large firms, thus indicating the TABLE XXXV COMPARISON OP MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS BETWEEN SMALL OFFICES AND LARGE OFFICES Small Offices Large Offices Functions Per Cent Per Cent Number of 117 Number of 15 Supervise office employees ...... 108 93 11 73 Plan and schedule office w o r k ...... 104 89 8 63 Determine flow of office w o r k ...... 92 78 u 33 Recruit, select, and place office employees...... 69 76 11 73 Approve vacation schedules and leaves of absence , . . 89 7b 10 67 Control materials to be filed ...... 87 74 4 27 Perform or accept responsibility for some accounting functions ...... 86 73 4 27 Select, purchase, and maintain office equipment .... 85 73 7 47 Handle attendance problems ...... 80 68 7 47 Select, purchase, store, and distribute supplies . . . 80 68 5 33 Promote, demote, transfer, and discharge office employees 73 62 11 73 Dictate written communications ...... 73 62 9 60 Develop and analyze office systems, procedures, methods 70 60 4 27 Determine office salaries ...... 69 59 10 67 Develop training programs for office employees .... 61 52 6 46 Design and simplify office forms ...... 58 49 1 7 Develop office standards ...... 56 48 5 33 Prepare and analyze budget figures ...... 50 43 6 40 Prepare office manuals ...... 35 30 4 27 Conduct departmental or professional meetings ...... 23 20 5 33 Prepare layout drawings ...... IS 13 6 0 Administer recreational and suggestion systems .... 13 11 2 13 Design office equipment ...... 10 9 0 0 85 greater diversity of functions performed by supervisors in small offices. None of the women associated with large firms designed office equipment or prepared layout drawings, but these functions were performed by 9 per cent and 13 per cent respectively of the women working in small offices. The only activities performed more frequently by women office supervisors in large offices than supervisors in small offices were (l) promoting, demoting, transferring, and discharging office employees, (2) determining office salaries, (3) conducting departmental or professional meetings, and (4) administering recreational and suggestion systems. At least 40 per cent of difference existed in the frequency with which respondents in small offices surpassed those in large offices in performing the following functions: (1) determining the flow of office work, (2) controlling materials to be filed, (3) performing or accepting responsi bility for some accounting functions, and (4) designing and simplifying office forms. This, too, indicates the specialization of functions of large offices. 86 Summary In an attempt to identify the functions which are performed by women in office management positions, a list of suggested functions was drawn from current literature and presented to the respondents. Responses were checked as to the frequency of their performance. The maintenance of satisfactory employer-employee relationships was cited as the most important responsibility of women office managers. Specifically, at least 90 per cent of the respondents indicated that they performed the following functions frequently or sometimes. Recruit, select, and place office employees Supervise office employees Plan and schedule office work Approve vacation schedules and leaves of absence Promote, demote, transfer, and discharge office employees Handle attendance problems Seventy-two per cent of the women indicated that they never designed office equipment. Only two other functions— preparing layout drawings and administering recreational and suggestion systems— were marked by over 50 per cent of the respondents as never beigg performed. An analysis of the functions performed by women employed at three management levels (top management, middle management, and supervisory) Indicated that two of the five most frequently performed functions were performed by at least j4 per cent of the respondents at all levels: supervis ing office employees and planning and scheduling work. 87 An analysis of the functions performed by women employed by firms employing fewer than 2.5 office employees and firms employing more than 500 office employees indicated that three of the five most frequently performed functions were common to firms of both sizes: (l) supervising office employees, (2) recruiting, selecting, and placing office employees, and (3) approving vacation schedules and leaves of absence, CHAPTER V PROBLEMS OF WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS The purpose of this chapter is to indicate basic problems which women have had to face in their positions or in their ascendance to office management positions based on a review of literature and on the replies of 252 women mem bers of the National Office Management Association. The first section of the chapter presents a review of pertinent literature dealing with problems of women in business. The second section presents problems as Indicated by 252 women who responded to the questionnaire. Fourteen women did not respond to the question. Review of Literature. A survey of literature re vealed that women who are employed in business have been confronted with basic problems with which men have not been faced. In general, these problems are of two types: those which have been caused by management*s attitude toward women in business and those which are caused by a lack of profes sional interest on the part of women themselves. Woelfe, aware of the fact that women have had diffi culty in securing recognition and promotion to leadership positions, stated that men control most of the appointments 88 39 and promotions and usually prefer to employ other men for positions which lead to advancement.^ Women with ability and Initiative are often overlooked simply because they are women. Statistics from a study made by the Women's Bureau confirm a belief that most employees prefer supervision by men rather than by women. Of 646 women interviewed, two- thirds stated that they had no preference; of those who expressed a preference, however, 206 stated that they preferred men and only 36 that they preferred women. These data reveal that a resistance to supervision by women exists 2 not only on the part of men but also on the part of women. Smith*s study confirms this conclusion. She made the following statement: Bn5>loyers that promote on several factors and Include the sex factor as one have given such reasons as: "most clients prefer to work with a man“; and "in any job requiring physical strength, long experience or general high level supervision and mechanical aptitude, we require men." In jobs requiring relatively little experience and skill, little physical strength, and no high level manage ment, we have women. Other men have more respect for men supervisors, and women usually have more respect for men supervisors.3 ^Bael Woelfe, America's Resources of Specialized Talent (Hew York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), p. 232. -Women' s Bureau, Women in Higher-Level Positions, p. 30. 3Smith, Women at Work, p. 48. 90 Norris, in writing on the role of women in American economic life, pointed out that professional growth remains restricted because the professional association of men in clubs, where much business is accomplished, will probably never be completely open to women. ^ He is pessimistic concerning the possibilities for women's acceptance on an equal basis with men for higher-level positions. The Women's Bureau study revealed that the salary base for men and women performing the same type of work was unequal. The writers wrote as follows: Despite the steady gain through the years in women’s participation as "proprietors, managers, add officials," statistics on income give evidence that women are still far from having achieved the same success as men in reaching the better-paid positions in business and industry. In 1948 with the exception of those under 20 years, women's incomes averaged considerably less than men's In every age group, occupation group, and major industry.^ Writers have indicated that women not particularly interested in careers have sometimes determined management's attitude toward all women. Smith listed such factors as "lack of interest toward advancement; unwillingness to accept and assume responsibility; desire 'to have cake and eat it too'; personality traits; lack of physical strength; ^L-ouis W. Norris, "The Role of Women in American Economic Life," Association of American Colleges Bulletin, XLII (March, 1956}, p." 54. Women's Bureau, op. clt., p. 3. 91 fT lack of ambition; and family distractions' as contributors to unfavorable impressions of women by management. Confirming this point of view, the authors of a study sponsored by Fortune stated the following: Some women are reluctant to seek promotion, fear ful of responsibility, inclined to lean back on a secure job with adequate pay and let someone else strive for the top. ' Those who are not career-minded may determine the attitudes of management toward all women and make advance ment difficult for those who desire to be rewarded for successful performance by promotion. Problems of 252 Respondents. Table XXXfl (page 92) indicates the responses of 252 women serving in office management positions to the question asking for a statement of the basic problems, not petty annoyances, with which they had been faced. The responses as tabulated were paraphrased and grouped into categories reflecting the views presented. It is significant that 13 per cent of the women replied that they had confronted no problems a man would not have. One woman implied that women imagine that differ ences exist because of their sex, but actually when there is a difference, it Is due to a lack of training or some other cSmith, og. cit., p. 13. ^Basill, “Women as Bosses," p. 2 1 6. TABLE XXXVI PROBLEMS OP OFFICE MANAGEMENT PECULIAR TO WOMEN AS CITED BY 232 RESPONDENTS Pr,ohl(3mct Number of Per Cent Problems Women of 25S Management executives lack confidence in the ability of women ...... 50 20 Industry is reluctant to accept women on an equal basis with men in delegating responsibility and authority .... 48 19 Salary base is not equal to that of men 39 15 Men and women resist women as bosses; they prefer male supervision .... 36 14 Men consider women too emotional . . . 30 12 Women must work harder than men to earn promotions ...... 26 10 Traditional attitude that women should not hold top positions hampers progress 21 8 Management and professional meetings and conferences generally do not provide for the presence of w o m e n ...... 14 6 Men are jealous of women professionally 13 Women find it difficult to maintain status as a woman and yet be "one of the boys" 10 4 Women are unwilling to accept responsi bility ...... 10 4 Many believe that women are temporary workers ...... 9 3 Many believe it is difficult for women to develop a background of the techni cal side of industry ...... 7 3 Many believe that- women are not likely to think objectively ...... 6 2 Men believe that women can handle only detailed w o r k ...... 5 2 Women in management positions are ex pected to perform clerical duties as well as administrative functions . . 5 93 factor which would be detrimental to the advancement of either men or women. Another woman stated that managerial problems have been exaggerated and that they are essentially the same for both sexes--problems dealing with general management methods and techniques. Of the problems listed, lack of confidence in the ability of women was.marked the most frequently--by 20 per cent of the women. However, other problems listed were related to the fact that men and women do not feel that women have the ability to meet situations requiring making decisions. For instance, 19 per cent indicated that industry is reluctant to accept women on an equal basis with men when delegating responsibility and authority. An office manager stated that her company treated men and women alike jobwise and salarywise but that some men in her firm were unwilling to treat women as equals in the exchange of ideas. This reluctance may be because management executives feel that it is difficult for women to acquire an adequate background concerning the technical side of industry. Many of those who are promoted to supervisory positions and eventually to more responsible positions have advanced from factory positions or departments of the business where it would not be feasible for women to work. Three per cent of tne women indicated this as one of their major problems. Eight women stated that they were not given the authority to make decisions commensurate with the responsi bilities of their posioio^s. Five maintained that they had confronted difficulty in convincing men that women can per form in a leadership capacity. Five persons asserted that ; there is a widespread belief that women can handle only detailed work. Although women were given titles which imply office management duties, often they were expected to perform some routine clerical duties which they had performed before promotion to a higher-level position. One woman stated that her superiors still expected her to take dicta tion as well as to carry out her administrative duties. Five per cent of the women stated that men fail to trust women to render decisions on broad company policy so they will not appoint them to positions of responsibility. Some men feel that women are too conscious of detail and unable to think beyond the present. Fifteen per cent of the women indicated that they had found the salary base for men and women unequal. The median salary of Sc,553.50, as revealed by this study, is con siderably less than the median of $8,928, reported by Schuster, based on the responses of men.^ %chuster, "Organizational Relationships of the Office Manager,” p. 8 9 . Many problems which women pointed out as basic are caused by a lack of ambition on the part of some women. One woman mentioned that one of her major problems was the reluctance of women to trust their own judgment in making decisions that come within their jurisdiction. Another stated that women lack interest in preparing themselves for the job ahead. Some of the factors of this type which deter advancement as indicated by the women were as follows: Women are unwilling to accept responsibility Women lack interest in further study Women are more interested in money than advancement Women are poorly groomed Women have too many outside interests Women are reluctant to leave security for opportunity for advancement Women tend to mix personal and business lives Women use female wiles and tricks Women do not take their work seriously Women employees take advantage of a woman supervisor Women are often too dominating Although these are interesting comments, it should be remem bered that the frequency of comment is very low. A desirable follow-up would be to submit items such as the above on a structured form. The women were asked how they would change their posi tions if they were free to do so. Several women would prefer having less responsibility. Most, however, preferred having freedom from detail work to provide more time to work on a policy-making level. Six per cent of the women stated that professional meetings and conferences generally do not provide for the 96 presence of women. Their attendance at such meetings created awkward situations. One woman indicated that the men in the executive positions in her firm work together very closely, but as the only woman in an executive capacity, she is often excluded from this intimate group. Other women have found problems arising when entertaining and attempting to pay for the expenses of the entertainment. For men, "picking up the check" presents no difficulty and creates no embarrassment. Several miscellaneous factors were listed by the women as basic problems: men are jealous of women professionally and resent their authority, 5 per cent; belief that women are not likely to think objectively, 2 per cent; and an inability on the part of some men to discuss business problems with women, 1 per cent. The traditional attitude that women should not hold top positions was emphasized by 8 per cent of the women. Some typical statements from women who have achieved top positions indicate that they have had to work hard in order to earn their promotions: Management does not take a woman as seriously as a man; a woman, therefore, has to put twice as much effort as a man into a comparable project for recognition. 97 In many Instances, it does not even occur to management to consider a woman for a particular job even though her abilities warrant it. She must in some way plant these thoughts or be forgotten. I have to back up all my statements and decisions with facts and figures and make an extra effort to avoid being accused of "holding a woman's point of view," hence illogical and emotional. A woman has to be twice as good as a man in the same job to receive recognition. In order to achieve success when competing In a man’s world, a woman must be superior and a top- notch performer. She must perform in a manner that is efficient but yet not too aggressive. Briefly, a woman must perform better than a man yet retain a woman's personality. Summary In this chapter basic problems whieh women in office management positions had faced either on their jobs or in their ascendance to higher-level positions have been Identified. Of the 94 per cent of the women who answered this question, 1 3 per cent replied that they had confronted no problems peculiar to women. They Implied that their problems had been basically the same type as would confront men. The problems mentioned most frequently included a lack of confidence in the ability of women by management, a re luctance to accept women on an equal basis with men in regard to responsibility and authority, unequal salary base for men and women, resistance to women as bosses, and asn consider women too emotional. CHAPTER VI TRAITS REQUIRED BY WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS This chapter deals with traits which the respondents indicated are necessary for advancemenu uo office manage ment positions. Enumeration of these traits is especially valuable to educators. Unstructured responses were received from 256 women to the question: "As a result of your ex perience in an office management position, what traits do you feel are essential in the performance of your duties?" Only ten women failed to suggest traits which they considered essential. The traits suggested by the women can be categorized into five groups: those dealing with human relations, those dealing with ethical aspects of personality, those dealing with intellectual qualities, those dealing with physical elements of the personality, and miscellaneous traits. Although much overlapping exists among the categories, these seem to be logical and understandable groupings. Table XXX7 (page 99) presents the traits suggested. Only those men tioned by five or more women are presented in the table. Human Relations. The ability to deal with people effectively is essential for success whenever it is necessary 99 TABLE XXXVII TRAITS CITED AS ESSENTIAL IN PERFORMANCE OF DUTIES BY 256 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Traits Number of Per Cent Women of 256 miman Relations Ability to get along with people • • 84 33 Understanding for others . * . . 09 27 Patience , ...... 53 21 Control of emotions ...... 45 18 Co-operation ...... 42 lo Tactfulness ...... 31 12 Consideration for subordinates • • 22 9 Seed a thy ...... 17 8 Pleasing personality ...... 12 5 Ability to forget prejudices . . 10 4 Willingness to accept criticism . • • 9 4 Friendliness ...... 6 S 8 3 C o u r t e s y ...... 8 3 Ethical Aspects of Personality Fairness, objectivity, honesty • * 119 47 Common s e n s e ...... 19 8 Courage of one1s convictions . . • * 18 8 Openmindedness and broadmindedness • 16 7 Good judgment ...... 14 5 intellectual Qualities Ability to organize work and make deci sions ...... 75 29 Knowledge of the business . . . 63 25 Ability to accept responsibility * • 41 16 Language facility...... 23 9 Ab~* 11 ty to l ist en...... 20 8 Desire and ability to learn . . . 15 6 Good memory for details...... 10 4 Interest in self-improvement . . 9 4 Creativeness ...... 7 3 Physical Elements of Personality Good grooming ...... 13 5 Good physical health ...... 9 4 Miscellaneous Traits Sense of h u m o r ...... 32 13 Loyalty ...... 20 8 C a l m n e s s ...... 14 5 e, Dependability...... 13 y Flexibility ...... 13 5 100 that two people co-operate in any type of endeavor. Although only 33 per cent of the women pointed out specifically that the ability to get along with people as essential,, they also mentioned traits such as understanding for others, patience, control of emotions, co-operation, tactfulness, and considera tion for subordinates, which contribute to congenial relations among employees. Women have been accused of carrying grudges, being prejudiced, and making judgments on the basis of personality likes or dislikes rather than on capable performance. Re sponses from the women on this study reveal that women are aware of these criticisms of their behavior and suggest that being able to forget individual bias is especially Important for one who is in a leadership position. The possession of empathy, the projection of one’s own personality into the personality of another In order to under stand him better, was suggested by 8 per cent of the women. Inasmuch as this is a psychological term which is not commonly used by layman, it is possible that in-service educational programs had been effective in making women aware of the Importance of trying to understand why people are motivated as they are rather than being overcritical of their behavior due to a lack of understanding. An executive replied as follows concerning the Importance of being able to work together harmoniously: 101 Probably the most Important trait you must have is the ability to get along with people. Recognizing and employing the abilities of the personnel to the mutual benefit'of all concerned are important. Ethical Aspects of Personality, Forty-seven per cent of the women agreed that one In a leadership position should be honest, objective, and fair. Possession of these qualities was rated higher than any other mentioned. Morale among employees is affected positively or negatively if a supervisor possesses or ignores these traits. Employees may overlook some other undesirable features of their jobs If they feel that their leaders are being fair and honest with them. Women feel that, although leaders should be broad minded and openminded, at the same time they should have the courage of their convictions. After having made a decision based on good judgment and common sense, they should be able to defend it even in the facecf opposition. Intellectual Qualities, Over 25 per cent of the women indicated that the ability to organize work and make quick decisions and the possession of an over-all knowledge of the business are very important traits for one in a higher-level position. The value of communication skills was indicated by 9 per cent of the women who pointed out that language facility, referring to the ability to write and speak clearly and concisely, is essential. Eight per cent 102 of the women mentioned; separately the importance of being able to listen in order to develop and maintain optimum working conditions. Interest in continued study and self-improvement- was mentioned by at least 4 per cent of the respondents. Tne data reveal that the majority of the respondents in leader ship positions have attended various types of schools and enrolled in special courses which they believed would help them to perform better on the job. The abilities to anticipate problems, to work under pressure, and to be accurate were each mentioned by at least 3 persons. Physical Elements of the Personality. Although only 5 per cent of the women pointed out specifically that women working in higher-level positions should be well groomed, this may have been overlooked by many as it is so much a part of those who have risen to the office management rank that they assume those in business realize its importance. Pour per cent of the women stated that good physical health is one of the most essential traits. Pour women noted that it is important tnat women re tain their womanliness and not attempt to act like men. The statements of two women emphasize this point: Women in management should never forget that they are women. Do not lose your femininity in manner or dress. Do not take on masculine habits or dress. Conduct yourself as a lady at all times. 103 It is imperative that a woman never forget that she is a woman, but she must never use her sex as a basis for what she is doing or in getting her advancement or special consideration. Miscellaneous Traits. The miscellaneous traits men tioned indicate that women in office management positions should be stable, mature, and not easily discouraged. Thirteen per cent of the women mentioned the importance of having a sense of humor; another five women listed optimism as an essential trait. Summary Unstructured responses were solicited to the ques tion as to traits considered essential in the performance of office management duties. At least 20 per cent of the respondents cited specific traits in the following order: fairness, objectivity, and honesty, ability to get along with people, ability to organize work and make quick deci sions, understanding for others, knowledge of the business, and patience. CHAPTER VII FACTORS LEADING TO PROMOTION TO HIGHER-LEVEL POSITIONS An effort to determine what factors contribute to the promotion of women to office management positions was an important section of the questionnaire. On the basis of data which she secured from women in executive positions, Hyde concluded that six factors had contributed to their advancement: Ability to do the job Willingness to work hard Ability to get along with others Shortage of manpower Neat appearance Interest in job1 Fuller and Batchelder summarized the factors which contribute to women1s advancement in the following way: It may be concluded that the way in which women behave on the job rather than the way they perform tne technical operations thereof is the chief determinant of their executive potential in the thinking of most superiors. Table XXXVI (page 105) shows factors which women in office management positions indicated had contributed to their advancement. The factors seemed to fall Into natural Hyde, "A Study of the Training and Experience of 150 Business Women Now Occupying Managerial Positions in Business," p. 104. ^Fuller and Batchelder, "Opportunities for Women at the Administrative Level," p. 1 2 8. 104 105 TABLE XXXVIII FACTORS WHICH HAD CONTRIBUTED TO ADVANCEMENT OF 240 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Farfn-pq Number of Per Cent Factors Women of 240 Desirable Personal Qualities Acceptance of responsibility ...... 57 24 Interest In work ...... 36 15 Loyalty ...... 12 Dependability ...... 9 4 Good health ...... 8 3 Adaptability ...... 5 2 Good Human Relations Interest in people ...... 66 28 Ce-operative attitude ...... 11 4 Professional Activities Membership in professional organizations 17 7 Participation in community activities . 7 3 Educational Background Educational background and continued s t u d y ...... 90 38 Intellectual curiosity ...... 19 8 Ability to use communication skills . . 10 4 Possession of secretarial skills . . . 5 2 Being prepared for opportunities when presented...... 5 2 Performance on the Job and Experience Hard work and ambition ...... 72 30 Experience with the coup an y ...... 42 18 Knowledge of business (policies and procedures) ...... 37 15 Job achievement ...... 27 11 Growth with the company ...... 22 9 Ability to plan* organize, and delegate w o r k ...... 19 8 Miscellaneous Factors L u c k ...... 6 15 r; Native executive ability ...... 13 Desire for a career ...... 10 4 Objective attitude toward women in management ...... 10 4 Recommendations of a superior ..... 7 3 10 6 groups: desirable personal qualities, good human relations, professional activities, qualities developed from educa tional background, satisfactory performance on the job, and miscellaneous factors. There is mucn duplication among factors leading to success and traits essential in achieving success. In fact, some women indicated that factors which had led to their advancement were possession of the traits they had mentioned. Many responses were written in a con versational tone reflecting the sincere thinking of the women in regard to these items. Desirable Personal Qualities. Many women who had achieved higher-level office .management positions pointed out that possession of desirable personal qualities had been important factors in their promotion to positions of responsibility. The person who desires a career and advancement with its attendant rewards must be willing to accept responsibility. Twenty-four per cent indicated that this had been a factor in their ascendance to office manage ment positions. The fact that several women indicated women1s reluctance to accept additional responsibility as a basic problem and again pointed out that the willingness to do so had been a factor contributing to their success indicates the major significance of this quality. Other significant personal factors indicated were interest In work, loyalty, dependability, adaptability, even disposition, perseverance, and sense of humor. 107 Good Human Relations. Thirty-two per cent of the responses indicated that good human relations had been factors contributing to their advancement. Specifically, possessing an interest in people and the ability to get along with them were cited as elements in effective job performance. Pour per cent stated that one must be co-operative in order to gain co-operation from subordinates. Professional Activities. Ten per cent of the women poihted out that membership in professional organizations and participation in community activities had contributed to their advancement. Both of these factors indicate the importance of having an interest in people and a desire to share professional interests with others. The fact that the women of this study are members of the National Office Management Association, a professional organization devoted to the promotion of office management activities, is an indication of the importance these women attach to this quality. Educational Background. Thirty-eight per cent of the women responded that their educational background and interest in continued study had been factors in their advancement. The ability to use the communication skills (listen, write, speak) and the possession of secretarial skills are specific characteristics which may be developed from proper educational e,xperiences. 108 Three women mentioned that their cultural background had been a factor in their promotion to higher-level posi tions. One woman stated that a liberal education is an important aspect of a student's Intellectual experiences. The women pointed out that their intellectual curi osity and their being prepared for the opportunities for advancement when these opportunities were presented had been factors in their success. Performance on the Job and Experience. Thirty per cent of the women indicated that their hard work and ambition had been recognized, and as a result they had been promoted to positions of greater responsibility. A knowledge of the business, its policies and procedures, is of importance when one wishes to serve the firm in a leadership capacity and to aid in the accomplishment of its objectives. Various types of experience were mentioned: experi ence with the company, experience as a teacher, and military experience. In other words, those who valued their experience with the company believed that successful per formance on the higher levels of business requires the acquisition of background knowledges which can be learned best by having served in the lower-level positions. Those who had professional education courses and worked with pupils in a classroom found that this type of experience was of value in dealing with employees. 109 Miscellaneous Factors. Six per cent of the women stated that their advancement had been a matter of luck, their having been at the right place at the right time. The women who pointed this out, however, as the major factor mentioned the possession of other qualities indicative of leadership ability. Four per cent of them stated that they had developed skills and abilities requisite for effective leadership as a result of their preparing seriously for a career. Ten women stated that those responsible for their rise in the management field had an objective attitude toward the role of women in business. One woman mentioned that office management is such a new field that it has not yet been labeled as "man's work." She indicated that the traditions which surround many lines of work had not yet become attached to office management. Recommendations of a superior, desire for financial independence, and freedom from home responsibilities were listed as factors contributing to the advancement of women in the field of office management. One woman stated that "being an old maid‘; had been a factor in her progress, implying that she could devote her full energies to her job. Consents of Respondents. The remarks of some women emphasize factors which they considered of importance in their ascendance to office management and supervisory positions: 110 I started In the firm by which I am now employed when it was very small and have advanced as the com pany grew. About every five years I enroll in an extension course to keep in touch with latest methods and equipment. Knowledge of program, policies, and procedures gained on lower-level jobs has been a factor in my progress. Being prepared through study and training for the next responsibility when the occasion came. You have to be ready to grasp the opportunity when it comes. It might be a long time before another chance to advance is presented. B e a m all you can about the business you are in and take outside training whenever possible. Organizational ability, conversational ability, and the ability to express ideas clearly and con cisely fob others helped me to win promotions. Unquestionably being at the right place at the right time during the manpower shortages in the World War II period contributed to my advancement. Continuous self-study programs, training courses, and attendance at seminars have enabled me to make contributions to our organization which have warranted my continuing to advance. Summary This chapter has indicated those factors which 240 women office managers believe contributed to their advance ment. The factors which were listed with the highest frequency include educational background and continued study, hard work and ambition, Interest in people and ability to get along with them, acceptance of responsibility, ex perience with the company, Interest In work, and knowledge of the business. CHAPTER VIII EVALUATION OP EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND BY WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS The purpose of this chapter is to evaluate the educa tional background the respondents serving in office manage ment positions had had. The first section of the chapter presents an analysis of the courses which the women indi cated they wished they had taken in school; the second section indicates the courses which had been very helpful, somewhat helpful, or of no value to them; and the third section is devoted to a survey of the suggestions which the women made for the improvement of educational programs available to women. Courses Which Would Have Been Helpful Table XXXIX (pages 112 and 113) presents the titles of the courses which 194 of the 266 women indicated would have been useful to them; 72 women did not respond. Four women indicated that no additional courses were needed; 3 suggested all courses; and 4 women replied that the complete business course would have been helpful to them. Several persons suggested more than one -course; thus the total num ber of suggested courses is larger than the total number of respondents. Ill 112 TABLE XXXIX COURSES WHICH 194 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS INDICATED WOULD HAVE BEEN HELPFUL Courses Number of Per Cent Women of 194 Business Administration Accounting ...... 13 Corporation Finance ...... 12 6 Business Law ...... 10 5 Business Organization ...... 8 4 Business Writing ...... » • • » • Or*- 4 Principles ...... 8 4 Statistics ...... 8 4 Insurance ...... 6 3 Advertising ...... q 3 Marketing ...... 3 Salesmanship ...... 4 2 Merchandising ...... 1 Business Problems ...... Less than T Commercial Art ...... 1 Less than 1 Purchasing ...... Less than 1 Real Estate ...... 1 Less than 1 Management Personnel , 44 23 Office . , 16 8 Principles 9 5 Psychology Principles ...... 31 16 Human Relations ...... 10 5 Leadership Training and Supervision 10 5 T e s t i n g ...... 1 Self-Improvement and Development 1 Economics Principles ...... 17 9 Money and Banking ...... 5 3 Investments ...... 4 2 113 TABLE XXXIX - Continued Number of Per Cent Courses Women of 194 Secretarial Shorthand ...... 0 Business Machines ...... 5 3 Bookkeeping ...... 3 1 Typewriting ...... O 1 Languages English ...... 7 4 French ...... 4 2 Spanish ...... 3 1 Latin ...... 2 1 Industrial Engineering Methods and Procedures ...... 6 3 Time and Motion Study ...... 2 1 Work Simplification . , ...... 2 1 General Public Speaking . . . . 11 Mathematics ...... 13 7 Sociology ...... 3 Philosonhv ...... 2 i Debate ...... 1 A r t ...... 1 Literature ...... Less than 1 Creative Writing . , Less than 1 Journalism ...... 2 Dale Carnegie Course Less than 1 1X4 Courses in the management area were suggested 69 times; almost one-fourth of the respondents wished that they had had a course in personal management. It is apparent that women holding management positions who have not had these specific courses recognize a need for the type of informa tion provided through these courses., Inasmuch as 114 women had no formal training beyond high school, where courses in management ordinarily do not appear In the curriculum, it Is logical that courses in this area would be suggested. Sixteen different business administration courses were suggested 106 times. Accounting, with the highest frequency, was mentioned by 13 per cent of the respondents. Courses in corporation finance, business law, business organization, business writing, and statistics were men tioned by at least 4 per cent of the women. The need for the courses mentioned would be particularly helpful if the office manager were included in the comptroller's division, as is often the case. Secretarial courses were proposed only 17 times. The number m ay be small because most of the women had developed the secretarial skills if they were important to them in their work. The fact that courses in psychology were suggested 56 times indicates that the women presumed that information from this area would be helpful to those in office management. 11: A course In principles of psychology was suggested by 16 per cent of the women and courses in human relations and in leadership training and supervision were mentioned by 5 per cent of the respondents. That women in office management are alert to the value of a liberal arts background is obvious by the fact that they suggested general education courses 47 times. Public speaking and mathematics were proposed with the greatest frequency. Those who are involved in the application of the tools of mechanization realize the importance of mathema tics as it affects and will increasingly affect the functions of management. Ifo one suggested that courses in the science area would have been of value. They had either had a sufficient amount of science, in their opinions, or they did not recognize any values from science to them in their work. The courses which were mentioned by at least 10 per cent of the respondents included personnel management, principles of psychology, accounting, and public speaking. Evaluation of Courses Studied Table XL (page 116) Indicates the types of schools wnere the women respondents specified that they had taken courses suggested on a list included on the questionnaire. TABLE XL NUMBER OP WOMEN WHO HAD TAKEN EACH BUSINESS COURSE BY TYPE OP SCHOOL BASED ON RESPONSES OF 149 WOMEN High Univer Business Adult Other School sity College Classes Schools Courses Total Num Per Num■ Per Num Per Num Per Num Per ber Cent ber Cent ber Cent ber Cent ber Cent Typewriting 136 71 52 16 12 46 34 1 1 2 1 Shorthand 111 50 45 12 11 45 41 1 1 3 2 Business Correspondence 103 34 33 21 20 37 36 8 8 3 Accounting 78 15 19 34 44 17 22 7 9 4 6 Economics 68 16 24 38 56 8 12 3 4 0— % 4 Office Machines 67 23 34 9 13 30 45 0 0 5 8 Business Mathematics 63 28 44 16 25 14 22 3 5 2 4 Office Practice 60 24 40 11 18 22 37 2 3 1 2 Business Law 59 10 17 29 49 13 22 3 5 4 7 Office Management 54 3 6 24 44 6 11 17 31 4 8 Personnel Management 52 1 2 28 54 1 2 17 33 5 9 Business Organization 51 8 16 23 4p 9 18 5 10 6 11 Principles of Management 47 0 0 23 49 4 9 15 32 5 10 Money and Banking 4o 3 8 19 47 12 30 3 8 3 8 Business Statistics 27 2 7 19 70 3 12 1 4 2 7 Insurance 27 2 7 16 60 2 7 3 12 4 14 Advertising 25 2. 8 12 48 4 16 6 2.4 1 4 Corporation Finance 25 1 4 14 56 4 16 4 16 2 8 Salesmanship 21 2 10 8 38 5 24 3 14 3 14 Marketing 18 1 6 14 76 1 6 1 6 1 6 Merchandising 17 2 12 9 53 1 6 0 0 5 29 Public Finance 14 0 0 8 57 1 7 3 22 2 14 911 117 The tabulations were based on 149 questionnaire responses. One hundred seventeen responses were eliminated because of duplications in markings and because some re spondents had not interpreted the instructions properly. The percentages are based on the number of women who evaluated each course. Percentages in tables later in this chapter are based on the frequencies given in this table. Although the majority of the courses suggested were those one commonly finds among the business offerings of a college or university, some of the courses were studied with a higher frequency on the high school level. The courses which over 30 per cent of the respondents had studied on the high school level included typewriting, shorthand, business correspondence, office machines, busi ness mathematics, and office practice. Over 35 per cent of the respondents had studied the following courses on the college or university level: accounting, economics, business law, office management, personnel management, business organization, -principles of management, money and banking, business statistics, insurance, advertising, corporation finance, salesmanship, marketing, merchandising, and public finance. Over 30 per cent of the respondents had studied type writing, shorthand, business correspondence, office machines, 118 office practice, and money and banking in a business college. These, too, except for money and banking, are among the traditional offerings of a business college to extend skills developed in a high school or to develop secretarial skills for those who did not take the business courses in high school. Over 30 per cent of the respondents had taken prin ciples of management, personnel management, and office manage ment through the offerings of adult education classes. These courses had served as an in-service program to up grade the employment level of women who aspired to higher- level positions. Inasmuch as management is a relatively new area for study, many of these women, who had attended college as many as twenty years ago, would not have had an opportunity to study the management courses at that time. Their enrolling in adult classes indicates their profes sional interest in the field of management and also their desire to keep up to date by continued study. Table XLI presents the courses which the women had found helpful to them in their work. The table presents data on the value of courses regardless of level. The list of courses suggested was evaluated according to a three- point scale: very helpful, somewhat helpful, or of no value. TABLE XLI EVALUATION OP COURSES BY 149 WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Tiii'iiiffBftii'j"1 'i.t.sssn1,1," WxtsKnirnrsssazs' .'"lr.mrtt Very Helpful Somewhat Helpful Of No Value Total Course0 Responses Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Typewriting 136 124 91 10 7 2 2 Shorthand 111 95 86 13 12 3 2 Business Correspondence 103 .8 7 84 14 14 2 2 Accounting 78 61 78 16 21 1 1 Economics 68 34 50 29 43 5 7 Office Machines 67 54 81 11 16 2 3 Business Mathematics 63 50 79 11 17 2 4 Office Practice 60 50 83 8 13 2 4 Business Law 59 28 47 27 46 4 7 Office Management 54 47 87 5 9 2 4 Personnel Management 52 46 88 6 12 0 0 Business Organization 51 42 82 8 16 1 2 Principles of Management 47 40 85 6 13 1 2 Money and Banking 40 19 *1 17 43 4 10 Business Statistics 27 15 56 9 33 3 11 Insurance 27 13 48 12 44 2 8 Advertising 25 12 48 8 32 5 20 Corporation Finance 25 15 60 8 32 2 8 Salesmanship 21 14 67 5 24 2 9 Marketing 18 5 28 11 61 2 11 Merchandising 17 7 4l 8 47 2 12 Public Fimmce 14 5 36 3 21 6 43 120 An analysis of the courses studied reveals that only typewriting was rated very helpful by at least 90 per cent of the respondents who had taken various courses. An addi tional 7 per cent had found typewriting somewhat helpful while only 2 women checked that it had been of no value, to them. One may conclude that typewriting is an integral part of the educational preparation of women for office manage ment positions, regardless of the size and type of firm and regardless of the management level attained. Eight courses were rated very helpful by at least 80 per cent of the respondents who had studied them: per sonnel management, office management, shorthand, principles of management, business correspondence, office practice, business organization, and office machines. These data indicate that four elements of educational background are very important for women who aspire to office management positions: acquisition of technical skills (typewriting, shorthand, office machines, and office practice), back ground of management (principles, office, and personnel), an over-all knowledge of business operations (business organi zation), and communication ability (business correspondence). Two additional courses were rated as very helpful by at least 78 per cent of the women who had taken the courses: accounting and business mathematics. These courses were rated as somewhat helpful by an additional 21 per cent and 121 17 per cent. Indicating that they are among the most helpful courses. Inasmuch as the office management function is often placed in the comptroller's division, information from these courses would be especially valuable. The ratings of some courses were about equally divided between very helpful and somewhat helpful. For instance, 47 per cent of the women rated money and banking very helpful while 43 per cent rated the course as somewhat helpful. Merchandising was considered very helpful by 4l per cent of the women and somewhat helpful by 47 per cent. Both Insurance and business law were rated very helpful by 48 per cent and somewhat helpful by about 45 per cent. Public finance was the only course considered of no value by as many as 40 per cent of the respondents. Inasmuch as the course was rated by only fourteen women, this rating may not be significant. No more than one woman found the courses in personnel management, business organization, accounting, and principles of management of no value, again attesting to the value of such information in the prepara tion of women for office management positions. An analysis of the courses cited as having been very helpful to the women revealed that certain ones were studied by the majority on the high school or business college level, others on the college level, and still others in special types of educational programs. 122 Evaluation of High School Courses. The following courses studied on the high school level were rated very- helpful by the respondents. The percentages are based upon the total number who rated the courses on the high school level. Per Cent Accounting (Bookkeeping)...... 9^ Typewriting...... 92 Shorthand ...... * ...... 88 Business Correspondence ...... 88 Office Machines ...... 87 Office P r a c t i c e...... 83 Business Mathematics ...... 82 Very few women marked any of these courses of no value to them in their work; one woman, however, indicated that business correspondence had been of no value and two checked that business mathematics had been of no value. Those who had not rated the courses very helpful rated them as somewhat helpful in most cases. One would expect these courses to be among those marked with the greatest frequency on the high school level as they are found most often among the business offerings of the typical secondary school. One sometimes hears the criticism of high school busi ness education programs that shorthand and typewriting are given too much emphasis. This survey presenting the opinions of women in the higher-level positions vouches for the im portance of acquiring both the ability to take dictation and the ability to type. The fact that promotion to the higher- level positions is often from lower-level positions where the i23 secretarial skills are required emphasizes the importance of perfecting these skills to be used in obtaining initial employment. Evaluation of College or University Courses. The following courses studied most frequently by the respondents on a college or university level were rated as very helpful. Again., percentages are based upon the total number who rated the course on that level. Per Cent Office Management...... 92 Personnel M a n a g e m e n t ...... 89 Principles of M a n a g e m e n t ...... 7 8 Business Organization ...... 78 Accounting ...... 71 Business Statistics ...... 53 Corporation Finance ...... 50 The following courses were rated as somewhat helpful with a higher frequency than very helpful. Per Cent Merchandising ...... 67 Marketing ...... 64 Insurance ...... 56 Business L a w ...... 55 Although some courses were studied by a majority of the respondents on the high school level (see page 1 1 6 ), the following courses, when taken on the college or university level, were rated very helpful. Percentages are based on the number who studied the courses on the college or univer sity level. 124 Per Cent Typewriting...... 94 Office P r a ctice...... 91 Business Correspondence ...... 8l Business Mathematics ...... 75 Office Machines ...... 67 Shorthand...... 67 Public finance was the only course cited as of no value by more than 25 per cent of the respondents. Seventy- five per cent of those who had studied the course on the college or university level evaluated the course of no value. Evaluation of Business College Courses. Most of the courses suggested had been studied by some women in a busi ness college; a few courses, however, were taken with greater frequency than others in business colleges. More than 29 per cent of the respondents had taken the following courses in business college and found them very helpful. Percentages are based on the number who rated the courses oh the business college level. Per Cent Typewriting...... 89 Shorthand...... 89 Office P r a ctice...... 82 Business Correspondence ...... 8l Office Machines ...... 77 Accounting, studied in a business college, by 22 per cent of the respondents who rated the course, was marked very helpful by 82 per cent of those who had taken it. Only one person, rated the course of no value. 12 ‘j Very few respondents considered any business college course of no value to them on their jobs. Two out of 8, however, so rated economics. The results of this survey indicate that the business college played an important role as a supplement to high school or college or university educational background. The courses marked with a high frequency for business colleges were those rated frequently on the high school level. Thus, business colleges may serve two purposes: to extend skills originally developed in high school or to develop new skills for those who did not take business courses in high school. Evaluation of Courses Studied in "Other" Schools. A wide variety of courses were studied in company training schools, correspondence schools, and adult education classes. The management courses, however, were the only ones which over 25 per cent of the women had found very helpful. Fifteen women (32 per cent) who evaluated principles of management had taken the course in an adult education class. All of them had found the course very helpful. Fifteen women (28 per cent) had taken office management through adult classes, 88 per cent of whom found the course very helpful. Fourteen women (26 per cent) took personnel management in adult classes, 82 per cent of whom found this coui'Se very neipx'ui. 125 Adult education classes are established in communi ties to serve the needs of its residents. The women in office management positions were taking advantage of such offerings to upgrade their employment level. Courses Added to Suggested List. The respondents were requested to add any courses taken in school which had been very helpful to them in their v/ork. Table XLII presents the names and frequency of courses added. TABLE XLII COURSES ADDED TO SUGGESTED LIST WHICH HAD BEEN VERY HELPFUL TO WOMEN IN OFFICE MANAGEMENT POSITIONS Number of Courses Women High School Courses English Composition ...... 1 Foreign Language ...... 1 Human Relations ...... 1 College or University Courses Psychology ...... 8 English Composition ...... 2 J o u r n a l i s m ...... 2 Sociology ...... 2 A u d i t i n g ...... Income Tax Procedure ...... Philosophy ...... Public Speaking ...... Adult Education Courses Psychology ...... Public Speaking ...... 3 127 Psychology was added to the list of very helpful courses by 11 women, 8 of whom had studied the course in a college or university and 3 in an adult education class. This emphasizes the importance the women attach to under standing people and their motivations in promoting harmony in working situations. A course in human relations was added to the list also. The values of both oral and written, communication were indicated by the fact that 4 women had found pilblic speaking very helpful and 3 had found English composition especially helpful. Two women commented that their courses in journal ism had been especially helpful in writing company bulletins and in other publications. Ten different courses were suggested as additions. If these courses had been suggested on the questionnaire, it is believed that they would have besn marked with a higher frequency than Table XLII indicates. Suggested Improvements of Educational Programs for Women in Office Management Inasmuch as this study was designed to suggest ways in which education for women who aspire to positions in office management might be improved, the women holding these posi tions were asked to suggest improvements. The comments were paraphrased and grouped into categories as follows: 128 Responses More emphasis on specific courses Psychology ...... 26 Spelling and d iction...... 16 Secretarial skills ...... 14 Business organization ...... 10 Accounting and budgeting ...... 8 Business methods and procedures . . . . 8 Mathematics ...... 8 Typewriting ...... 8 Management ...... 6 'Three R ' s ...... 6 Office machines ...... 4 Penmanship...... 4 Management (high school) ...... 3 Business ethics ...... 2 Economics ...... 2 Finance ...... 2 Home economics ...... 2 Sociology ...... 2 Bible ...... 1 Bookkeeping ...... 1 Latin ...... 1 Principles of education ...... 1 Salesmanship ...... 1 Stress on development of specific behaviors Develop sense of responsibility .... 30 Teach personnel and human relations . . 29 Emphasize personality development . . . 17 Emphasize value of courtesy, dependability, pleasantness, and understanding . . . 10 Cultivate curiosity and interest in work 3 Emphasize respect for authority .... 1 Instill the idea that graduation is the beginning, not the end, of learning . 1 Stress that working is a privilege . . . 1 Emphasis on abilities needed on job Ability to use communication skills - write, speak, listen ...... 29 Leadership training and supervisory techniques ...... 4 129 Responses Emphasis on guidance function of the school Emphasize role of women in business . „ . 10 Give training in line with type of work and fit qualifications to posirioji . . . 4 Administer psychological tests for aptitudes 3 Provide more counseling with students . . 3 Teach value of long-range plans for women 3 Place less emphasis on extra-curricular activities ...... 2 Stress extra-curricular activities .... 1 Emphasize opportunities in government s e r v i c e ...... 1 Co-operation with industry Part-time work experience for students . 7 Co-operation with professional organiza tions ...... 6 On-the-job training ...... 6 Co-operative work experience...... 3 Workshops giving on the job training . . 1 Revision of teaching methods Decrease emphasis on theory and make courses more practical ...... 7 Use up-to-date equipment for office machines training ...... 4 Establish special classes for women . . 2 Use more effective teaching methods in the classroom, both in high school and in college...... 2 Combine management classes for men and w o m e n ...... 2 Require that teachers have practical job experience ...... 1 Use a numerical grading system to en courage competition ...... 1 Miscellaneous suggestions concerning school program Stress value of liberal arts education . 6 Stress importance of college courses in business administration ...... 9 Emphasize humanities...... 4 Emphasize more specialized business education ...... 4 130 Responses Develop good technical skills ...... 4 Require more business courses in high school 1 Offer fewer technical business courses . . 1 Offer fewer academic subjects ...... 1 Combine college preparatory and business curricula ...... 1 Offer refresher management courses for executives ...... » 1 Although the women had been asked as a part of the first part of the questionnaire to suggest specific courses which would have helped them, they again suggested courses when commenting on possible improvements in education provided women in office management. Twenty-six women suggested a course in psychology. Fourteen suggested that the secretarial skills were an important part of the educa tional background for office management positions. Other women thought of the improvement of the program in terms of specific behaviors and traits which ehuld be developed and should be emphasized. Thirty women were especially interested in the development of a sense of responsibility and ten in stressing the value of courtesy, dependability, pleasantness, and understanding. The impor tance of being able to get along with people was brought out by 29 women who suggested that personnel and human relations should be taught as a part of the school program. One of the important responsibilities of the modern school program is the guidance function, helping students in 1,31 their choice of careers. Ten women suggested that schools should emphasise the role of women in business and three staged specifically that the school should teach the value of long-range plans for women who desire business as a career. Four women stated that a student's education sherald be in line with the type of work he desires and for which he seems to be best qualified. Three women suggested that the school administer psychological tests and provide time and personnel for more counseling with students. There was some disagreement among the women concerning the role of extra-curricular activities in the school. Two women would place less emphasis on extra-curricular activities and another would place more emphasis on them. The point of view taken may have resulted from unfortunate experiences in schools where there was not a balance between the two aspects of the school program: the curricular and the extra-curricular. Twenty-nine women pointed out that the school should attempt to teach students the proper use of the tools of communication— writing, speaking, and listening. The fact tha.t so many women indicated how valuable their training in business correspondence had been and many others stated that they wished they had taken such a course emphasizes the importance of being able to write effectively. One who is in office management positions needs to develop the ability to speak properly and effectively not only before groups of people but also with individuals with whom he is in contact because of his position. Knowing when and how to listen, however, is also an ability, and failure to use it at an appropriate moment may result in bringing about failure in human relations in some situations. Pour women pointed out that leadership training is important and can be developed. The values of co-operation between school and industry were expressed by many women. Three types of work experience were suggested: part-time work experience, on- the-job training, and co-operative work experience. Six women suggested that a greater degree of co-operation with professional organizations would be desirable. Improved methods of teaching in both high school and college was suggested. Two women would establish special classes for women in an effort to give them more poise and confidence and two others would combine the management classes for men and women so that each could learn the other’s point of view. Several women stressed the value of education ac quired outside the field of business. Six stated that the school should stress the value of a liberal arts education and four would place greater emphasis upon the humanities. Others took the opposite point of view, however, and stated that more business courses should be required, more 133 specialized business education should be emphasized,, and good technical skills should be developed. One woman stated that the school should accept the responsibility for offering refresher management courses for executives. The fact that many of the women responding had taken courses by extension, attended special classes at night, and participated in in-service programs offered by professional organizations in management indicates that women realize the importance of keeping up to date and know how quickly changes in the field of management can occur. Some comments of the women have been selected to bring out the more prevalent views and the variety of the ideas presented. Much repetition occurred, making possible a representation of many of the remarks by only a few. The following remarks are from those who would stress the role of the guidance counselor in a school: Most young college graduates enter the business world with the idea of stepping into a managerial position right after graduation. Many are dis appointed. If counselors and teachers would place some emphasis on the value of experience as a qualification for a managerial position, women graduates would enter the business world with a more realistic approach. I think the real emphasis should be placed on the importance of fitting one's qualifications to the right position, and then entering into the posi tion with interest, enthusiasm and seriousness, even though this beginning position does not offer the challenge hoped for. 13^ I favor even greater emphasis on career guidance in high schools. Those who were interested in developing more co operation between the school and business made the follow ing remarks: 1 would encourage summer or part-time employment to gain an understanding of business operations. 1 would like to see more school-and-job programs developed where practical experience is related to theory. Greater use of industrial leaders as guest lecturers in business programs would be helpful. Closer ties between actual work situations and curriculums must be developed. Close co-operation between business and school. Schools need to keep up with radical changes in business, such as those currently brought about by the electronic aata-processing machines. Schools should arrange to spend some time in business organizations and actually see how things are handled. Some women emphasized that acquiring skills and taking courses is not sufficient, that the students must be taught to think. One woman who feels that this is important would place the responsibility on liberal arts. She wrote the following: I would place more emphasis on liberal arts and less on commerce. Probably the greatest responsibility with which a management person is charged is the necessity to think and I sub scribe to the theory that the best possible training for thinking is an academic,schooling where the emphasis has been on abstract ideas. Another woman had three suggestions: 13'.* Creative writing as background for writing bulletins, job summaries, etc. Simple psychology for better understanding of people as an aid in personnel selection, training, and placement. Creative thinking as an aid in solving problems such as new procedures, furniture arrangement, etc. More practical ideas along with the theory was the plea of some women: I have found that about 95 per cent of the courses and the information I learned in school has no practical use in the business world. There is too much theory in school, and there are not enough practical courses. Teach working skills first, such as typewriting, shorthand, and bookkeeping. I firmly believe that an instructor, supervisor, or office manager should know the tasks and requirements of the positions he assigns and supervises. Place more emphasis on practice rather than theory. Development and training of the mind are important. On-the-job training would simplify many problems. Summary The purpose of this chapter was to indicate the courses the women in office management positions believe would have been helpful to them, courses they had found most helpful in their work, and suggestions for the im provement of the educational program of schools. The most frequently mentioned courses which the women suggested would have been helpful to them included personnel management, principles of psychology, accounting, and public speaking. 136 The courses which had been the most helpful on the job included typewriting, personnel management, office management, shorthand, principles of management, business correspondence, office practice, office machines, and business organisation. Some of the suggestions for the improvement of an educational program for women Included the development of a sense of responsibility, teaching personnel and human relations, increased emphasis on the communication skills, development of personality traits, and more emphasis on psychology and spelling and diction. CHAPTER IX SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The major purpose of this study was to determine elements for the improvement of educational programs pre paring women for office management positions. The informa tion was secured by means of a questionnaire sent to approximately half of the women members of the National Office Management Association; conclusions and recommenda tions were based on responses from 266 women, 36 per cent of those to whom questionnaires were mailed. T o accomplish this major purpose, it was necessary (l) to ascertain characteristics of women who are employed in office management positions; (2) to investigate the duties ien.ch women in office management positions perform; (3) to identify basic problems and obstacles with which women is office management positions have been confronted; (4) to discover traits which women should possess In order to advance to office management positions and factors which contribute to their progress; (3) to discover opportunities for promotion of women into office management and supervisory positions; and {6} to evaluate the educational background of the women employed in office management positions. 137 The study should be of importance to guidance direc tors in high schools and colleges in presenting a view of the role of women in office management; to business educa tors in setting up curriculums for the training of women for administrative positions; to businessmen in considering the employment of women for the higher-level positions with their firms; to the National Office Management Association in providing information in conjunction with its research projects; and to the Women's Division of the United States Department of Labor which studies data and makes recommenda tions concerning the employment of women. The study was limited to an intensive study of 266 women members of the National Office Management Association who were employed in office management positions. Members of this organization were selected because of their interest in the field of office management. The number of respondents was sufficiently large * the locations were sufficiently scattered geographically, and the businesses were suffi ciently varied so that a national picture could be obtained. These women were on the level of work to which graduates aspire. The study was further limited to inforiuation whxc.. could be secured by means of a questionnaire. Neither interviews with the women nor direct observations of them at work were feasible because of the geographical dispersion 139 of those who were included in the study. Furthermore, a personal interview technique might not have elicited valid responses to some of the personal questions. The major findings of this study were as follows: Characteristics of Women in Office Management Positions 1. The median age of women who held office manage ment and supervisory positions was 45 years. Sixty-one per cent of the respondents were from 40 to 55 years of age. The median age of those whose title was office manager.' was 44 years. Seventy-three per cent ranged in age from 35 to 55. Only 16 per cent were under 35 years of age. 2. The median salary of the women in office manage ment positions was $6,5 5 3.5 0.' gighty-five per cent of the respondents earned no more than $9,000. The median salary of those employed in the East North Central States was highest at $ 7 , 1 5 7 . 3 0 . The median salary of the manage ment executives was $7,735.30 and of the office managers $6,178.90. The median salary of women employed by insurance firms was $7, 272.30 , the highest of the types of business represented. 3. For many of those employed in positions in office management, a career did not cease with marriage. Although 46 per cent were single, 34 per cent were married and 21 per cent were divorced or widowed. 4. The job titles were varied; many had dual titles, such as Vice President and Office Manager or Business Mana ger and Personnel Manager. Of the 266 women, 13 per cent were among the executive or top management group, 74 per cent were among the middle management, and 7 per cent held supervisory positions. The remaining 6 per cent were con sultants, purchasing agents, auditors, or owners of their own businesses. The titles did not in all cases reflect the duties of the positions. 5. The median number of years spent in school beyond the eighth grade was 4.6. The 34 management executives, 10 of whom had been graduated from a college or university, spent a median of 1.8 years in college. The median number of years spent in school beyond the first eight grades by the 107 office managers was 4.4. 6. The type of schooling acquired by the women other than high school or college or university was varied; 58 per cent had attended business college; 42 per cent, adult edu cation classes; 20 per cent, correspondence schools; 15 per cent, company training schools; and 26 per cent, night school at various colleges and universities; seminars and clinics offered by various organizations; special courses offered by companies; and other special types of schooling. 7. The major fields of study of those completing four or more years of college were varied. Twenty per cent of the women had majors in business administration; 14 per l4l cent, in accounting; 13 per cent, in English; 11 per cent, in psychology; 3 per cent, in personnel management; and 5 per cent, in home economics, in history, and in principles of management. Twenty per cent of the women had either a double major or a major with a Master's degree in a second field. 8. The median number of companies for which the women had worked was 3.4. Fourteen per cent of the women were still working for the company of their first employ ment; 16 per cent had been employed by two firms, and 22 per cent by three firms. 9. The median number of years that the women had worked for the firm by which they were employed at the end of the survey was 11 years. Although 21 per cent had worked for the firm five years or less, 16 per cent had remained with the firm for over twenty-five years. 10. The women had been employed in an office manage ment capacity with the firms a median of 6.4 years. Four per cent of the women had been employed in their present capacity for less than one year, 32 per cent between one and five yea r s , 30 per cent between five and ten years, and 34 per cent for over ten years. 11. Forty-four per cent of the women had been employed in secretarial positions before acquiring their office management positions and 23 per cent in bookkeeping positions. Mine per cent had been teachers. 12. The median number of employees who reported directly to the women in higher-level positions was 7. The median number who reported indirectly was 10 employees. 13. Seventy-eight per cent of the office managers reported to top management executives, 10 per cent to a general manager, and 12 per cent to another manager on their same organizational level. 14. Forty-five per cent of the women indicated that they either had no opportunities for advancement or that they were at the top for women in their organization. An additional 15 per cent did not know what opportunities existed. Duties of Women in Higher-Level Positions 15. Over 75 per cent of the women indicated that their most frequently performed duties included supervising office employees; recruiting, selecting, and placing office employees; planning and scheduling office work; and approving vacation schedules and leaves of absence. 16. Fewer than 20 per cent of the women administer recreational and suggestion systems, prepare layout draw ings, and design office equipment frequently. 17. Over 30 per cent of the women sometimes conduct departmental or professional meetings, prepare layout drawings, develop training programs, develop and analyze office systems, procedures, and methods, design and simplify office forms, and prepare office manuals. 143 18. Seventy-two per cent of the women never design office equipment and 58 per cent never administer recreation al and suggestion systems or prepare layout drawings. 19. The duties performed by top management executives t and by women employed with large firms were more specialized than the duties performed by those in middle management or supervisory positions and by those employed by small firms. Problems of Women in Office Management Positions 20. Thirteen per cent of the women indicated that they had confronted no problems that man would not have confronted. 21. The five basic problems, which were indicated by at least 12 per cent of the women, included the following: Lack of confidence in the ability of women Reluctance to delegate responsibility and authority to women Unequal salary base Resistance to women as bosses Belief that women are too emotional Traits Essential in Attaining Success 22. Traits required for success in office management positions as indicated by at least 25 per cent of the respondents were as follows: Fairness, objectivity, and honesty Ability to get along with others Ability to organize work and make quick decisions Understanding for others Knowledge of the business 144 Factors Leading to Promotion to Higher-Level Positions 23. Factors contributing to women's advancement to higher-level positions indicated by at least 15 per cent of the respondents Included: Educational background and continued study Hard work, ambition, aggressiveness, diligence interest in people and ability to get along with them Willingness to accept responsibility and make decisions Background of experience Knowledge of the business Interest in work and In the company Evaluation of Educational Program 24. A wide variety of courses in the following areas were listed in response to a question asking what courses the women believed would have been helpful to them if they had studied them: Business administration Management Psychology Secretarial Languages Industrial engineering Journalism General, Including public speaking, mathematics, sociology, philosophy, debate, art, literature, and creative writing 24. At least 80 per cent of the respondents who had studied the following courses found them very helpful: Typewriting Personnel Management Office Management Shorthand Principles of Management Business Correspondence 145 Office Practice Business Organization Office Machines 26. At least 30 per cent of the respondents found the following high school business courses very helpful: Accounting (Bookkeeping) Typewriting Shorthand Business Correspondence Office Machines Office Practice Business Mathematics 2 7. At least 80 per cent of the respondents found the following college or university business courses very helpful Typewriting Office Management Office Practice Personnel Management Business Correspondence 28. At least 80 per cent of the respondents found the following business college courses very helpful: Typewriting Shorthand Office Practice Business Correspondence 29. At least 80 per cent of the respondents who took principles of management, personnel management, and office management in adult education classes found these courses very helpful. 30. The following courses were added to the suggested list as having been very helpful: Psychology Public Speaking 146 Improvement of Educational Program 31. Women in office management positions stated that greater emphasis should be placed on the following courses: Psychology Spelling and diction Secretarial Skills Business Organization Mathematics Accounting and Budgeting Typewriting Business Methods and Procedures 32. Women In office management positions emphasized that stress should be placed on the development of the following specific behaviors: Develop a sense of responsibility Teach, personnel and human relations Emphasize personality development Emphasize value of courtesy, dependability, pleasantness, and understanding Cultivate curiosity and interest in work 33* Greater emphasis on the guidance function of the school was suggested as a possible improvement of educational programs for women, with special emphasis upon- the role of women In business, 34. Particular emphasis should be given to the ability to use the communication skills— writing, speaking, and listening--as well as the development of leadership training. 35* Various ways of co-operating with industry were suggested as follows: 147 Part-time work experience for students Co-operation with professional organizations On-the-job training Co-operative work experience 3 6. The suggestion that teaching methods on both the high school and the college level should be revised was emphasized: Decrease emphasis on theory; make courses more practical Use up-to-date equipment in office machines classes Establish special classes for women Use more effective teaching methods in the class room Combine management classes for men and women 37. Various miscellsineous recommendations con cerning the school program were suggested: Stress the value of liberal arts education Stress the importance of a college course in business administration Emphasize the humanities Emphasize more specialized business education Develop good technical skills Conclusions 1. There are opportunities for women in the field of office management in both large and small firms and in a variety of industries. Table III indicates the size of the firms with which the women serving in office management positions were associated. The firms ranged from the very small, employing fewer than one hundred persons, to large firms employing over five thousand persons. Table IV shows that the size of the offices represented also was very small and quite large. 148 Although 45 per cent of the firms were those employing fewer than twenty-five office employees,, this follows the national pattern in that the majority of the businesses of the United States are small. According to authorities, the demand for paper work in business is increasing, thus requiring a greater number of office workers. As the majority of office workers are women, there is reason to believe that they will be promoted to the supervisory positions in the area of their speciali zation. A shortage of men qualified to occupy these posi tions should encourage management to consider women for the positions. In view of Census reports indicating the increasing number of clerical workers and the Increasing percentage of women in clerical occupations, one may conclude that the trend is toward more women office managers. 2. Women are promoted to office management positions after having served in lower-level positions with a firm. The fact that the median age of the women who held office management positions was 45 years, that 67 per cent had served as secretaries or bookkeepers, that the women had worked for their present firm for a median of 11 years but had served in their present positions with the firm for a median of only 6.4 years indicates that they had acquired a background knowledge of the business and its procedures by working in lower-level positions for a few years. 3. Although a few women serving as office managers are promoted to top-level executive positions, the majority work at the middle management level. The titles reported by the women were many and varied the titles of 74- per cent, however, indicated that their major duties were those of middle management personnel. Seventy-eight per cent stated that they were responsible to top management executives. The median salary paid to the women, $6,5 5 3.50, indicates that they were on the middle management level. 4. Their educational background and interest in self-improvement are factors which contribute to women’s advancement to office management positions. The data revealed that there was a slight relation ship between the organizational level attained and the amount of education acquired. Those who had advanced to executive positions had 1.4 years more schooling than those in the middle management group. However, the group as a whole was not predominately college educated. In an effort to compensate for this lack of educational background, the women had attended business colleges, adult education classes, correspondence schools, and company training schools to supplement their high school education. An analysis of the courses revealed that those in the manage ment area were found among the most helpful courses studied 150 The respondents indicated that their educational background and their interest in continued study had con tributed to their advancement to the higher-level positions. 5. Women employed in higher-level office management positions consider their positions as permanent careers, not temporary positions. Several factors verify this statement. The median number of firms with which the women had been associated was 3.4, and the median number of years the women had worked for the same firm was 11 years. The women did not change positions frequently. The median number of years the women had been employed in their office management positions was 6.4 years. The women had apparently been satisfied with their progress in the firms in which they worked. A further indication of the permanent nature of the positions is borne out by the fact that the women continued to add to their knowledge by enrolling in night school and adult education classes, by taking courses by correspondence, and by supplementing their knowledge of management procedure by attending other types of educational institutions. The majority of the women had continued to work after their marriage or had resumed working after a period of time following their marriage. Fife per cent were married, divorced, or widowed. 151 6. Although the functions performed by women in office management positions are varied, the major duties deal with employer-employee relationships and with planning and scheduling office work. Table XXXII reveals une major functions performed by women employed in office management positions. Five of the six duties performed by at least 90 per cent of the women dealt with relationships with subordinates. The only functions which were never performed by as many as 50 per cent of the respondents included designing of office equipment, preparing layout drawings, and administering recreational and suggestion systems. 7. Women who occupy office management positions have basic problems which do not confront men in the same positions. This survey reveals that, although a majority of the problems of women in office management positions stemmed from the fact that men do not have confidence in women’s ability to perform the duties and carry out the responsi bilities required of those who are among the top management level, some arose because of the indifference of some women toward promotion and their failure to accept women on an equal basis with men, both in regard to salary and promo tional opportunities, and a resistance to women as bosses. 152 The fact that 7^ per cent of the women were occupy ing positions in middle management and only 13 per cent had advanced to the top-level positions indicates that women are not promoted to higher-level positions as frequently as men even when they have background and experience. 8. In order to be successful in the higher-level positions, women must possess leadership qualities. The leadership traits mentioned include being fair, objective, impartial., and honest. The ability to get along with people was emphasized as one of the traits leading to promotion and one of the factors which had contributed to the success of those in office management positions. The human relations aspect of office management positions is borne out by the fact that the most frequently performed functions dealt with employer-employee relationships. 9. Business administration and general education courses supplemented by secretarial skills are Integral elements of the educational preparation of women for office management positions. Table X U indicates that business administration courses in accounting, business mathematics, business organi zation, office management, personnel management, and principles of management had been very helpful to at least 79 per cent of the respondents. 1‘33 Table XLII shows that general education courses in psychology and public speaking were suggested with the greatest frequency as courses which had been helpful to them. The importance of secretarial courses is borne out by the fact that the majority of the women advanced to office management positions after having worked in a secretarial or bookkeeping capacity. According to Table XLI, courses in shorthand, typewriting, business correspondence, and office practice were among the secre tarial courses which had proved to be the most helpful to the women on the job. Those who had not taken the secretarial courses suggested that those courses would have been of value to them. 10. The development of behaviors, such as a sense of responsibility, ability to work with others, and interest in work, are important aspects of an educational program available to women who aspire to office management positions. The suggestions that an educational program should stress the development of a sense of responsibility, teach personnel and human relations, cultivate curiosity and an interest in work, and emphasize the importance of courtesy, dependability, pleasantness, and understanding indicate the importance of a business-like attitude and ef desirable work habits for those aspiring to leadership positions. 1 ^ The emphasis which the women suggested be placed on co-operation with industry indicates that the ability to perform the skills is not sufficient for effective service in an office management position. The acquisition of leadership traits and behaviors through contacts with business was emphasized. Recommendations The following recommendations are Jmsed on the . findings and conclusions of this study: 1. In order to perform effectively the functions required of one In an office management position and to compete on an equal basis with men for higher-level posi tions, women who aspire for positions in office management snould acquire a college education consisting of general education, business administration, and technical skill courses in business education. The entire tone of vocational endeavors at the present time is toward more education for those who desire leader ship positions. Increasing numbers of persons who are Interested in business careers are finding it necessary to acquire a college education. Schools of business and de partments of business education are enrolling larger numbers of students than in previous years. Because of this trend, it is especially important that women acquire an educational 1:3 background in order to qualify for positions in office management as they are available. Data from this study, as well as from other research in the area of office management, reveal tnat persons with a college education make faster progress, have more opportunities for demonstrating leadership ability, and earn higher salaries than those who have nad only a high school education. The frequency with which the college - educated women indicated that their college courses had been very helpful to them attests to the value of securing a college education. Very few women stated that courses they had studied on the college level were of no value. A. The college education for women should consist of general education courses, such as psychology, English, mathematics, public speaking, science, and sociology, taught from the liberal arts point of view in order that women may develop a well rounded background for more effective participation in life's activities as cultivated, wiser citizens. These are the courses oasic to all areas. B. Business administration courses, such as acoo*ait- ing, business correspondence, business organization, economics, principles of management, personnel and office management, should be included in the educational program for women preparing for office management positions in order to develop the understandings and principles required for carrying out leadership functions in business. 13a C. A third facet of the preparation of women for office management positions should consist of business edu cation courses, including typewriting, shorthand, office machines, and office practice. These courses serve to develop the technical secretarial skills required of women in securing initial employment, which often require the ability to take dictation, to type, or to operate office machines. D s In order that women may be prepared adequately for their responsibilities in office management positions, special curriculums should be established by colleges and universities presenting a recommended sequency of courses. Special courses need not be established for women, but the sequence suggested for the preparation df women for their positions may be different from the sequence suggested for men. It is believed that women more often than men are required to serve in lower-level positions where secretarial and clerical skills are required. A college curriculum should prepare women for such responsibilities. 2. Information should be made available to guidance counselors in high schools and colleges concerning the opportunities and some of the problems confronting women who hold office management positions. A. Women should be made aware of the importance of capable performance and willingness to accept responsibility in achieving higher-level positions. They should know (l) that women face certain obstacles in advancing to higher- level positions and, therefore, must work harder to achieve promotion to supervisory positions; (2) that the majority work on the middle management level; (3) that educational background and willingness to continue to study are factors contributing to advancement; and (4) that possessing business like attitudes and mature behavior are essential for achiev ing top level positions. B. Brochures, leaflets, and articles presenting the facts concerning opportunities and. difficulties, salaries, dutie S y 2>iiu responsibilities, and educational requirements should be available to those who do career counseling. Business and professional organisations, such as the National Office Management Association, should co-operate with schools in providing information regarding the qualifications required for successful careers in office management. 3. More opportunities should be provided by schools and colleges for women to develop leadership traits and effective business behaviors. It must be recognized that management has not com pletely accepted the role of women in management positions. Part of this is due to management1s philosophy of women in business and part is due to lack of ability and interest on the part of the women themselves. It Is believed that schools and colleges could do a great deal in modifying their courses in order to develop leadership abilities among women. One method of providing the experiences needed for the development of leadership traits and behaviors Is through a special course required of both men and women. Opportuni ties to solve problems through the case study approach should be an effective method of instruction. Although instruction Is provided through a specific course, instructors of all business courses should strive to provide experiences requiring students to co-operate, to develop efficient work habits, and to promote proper busi ness conduct. 4. Educational institutions on both the high school and college level should provide instruction through adult classes, extension courses, seminars, clinics, and workshops in order that women may acquire knowledges and abilities required for advancement to higher-level positions and to maintain an up-to-date approach to the constantly changing area of office management. The results of this investigation reveal that women who are In office management positions are definitely interested in continuing their education and have supplemented their background by taking advantage of courses of this > type. The adult programs offered by community colleges or junior colleges say provide supplementary educational If 9 experiences. Courses such as these should serve to up grade the management status within the area served. 5. Instructors of business courses should Incor porate in their courses the major duties performed by office managers. The data from this study concerning management functions performed by worsen, in addition to information from other studies In the area of office management,, should indicate major topics In which instruction should be provided. An analysis of the functions should reveal major principles and concepts which should be provided through course instruction. A. The major functions which should be given emphasis in the course instruction include methods of attaining effective employer-employee relationships, of planning and scheduling office work, of determining office salaries, of developing office systems, procedures, and methods, of selecting, purchasing, storing, and distributing equipment and supplies, and of determining office standards. Suggestions for Farther Research Areas in which further research is needed, as suggested by this investigation, Include the following: 1. A study to determine the attitudes of employers, both male and female, concerning problems of women in office management, barriers to their advancement, some elements of loO educational programs In office management for women should contribute pertinent information concerning women's role in office management. Data could be secured by means of a questionnaire in order to determine a national picture. 2. An intensive case study of some of the top women in the field of office management should reveal some factors which had been influential in their rise in the business world. A knowledge of the training and the personality traits which had contributed to their success would indi cate special emphases for educational programs. 3. A study comparing the duties, responsibilities, f authority, training, and experience of men and women in office management positions would assist in determining specific elements to be included In the educational back ground provided to women. A time-study analysis should indicate differences In the responsibilities assigned to men and women. 4. A study to determine the effects of automation on women's role in office management should reveal the future opportunities for women in the field. Most statements from writers have been based on opinion but no known research has been conducted to determine how automation and mechaniza tion will affect women's future in this area. This study would necessarily be confined to a limited group of large firms which have the mechanical installations. APPENDIX THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY 162 Novice G. Fawcett, President COLUMBUS 10 COLLEGE OI> EDUCATION Dr.f ARI M I N T OF Ea 'al \V\ A n d lsso nC , km rw a 223 Journalism Building November 29, 1956 Dear NOMA Member: In order to prepare women educationally to be more effective in their roles in business, it is important chat additional infor mation be available concerning women in office management and supervisory positions. The attached questionnaire is an attempt to obtain this data for a research study in connection with a graduate program at The Ohio State University. The National Office Management Association has indicated an interest in this project. Your membership in NOMA is evidence of your professional support of the field of office management. I hope you will feel that this study is one which will aid in women's progress in business and will return the questionnaire. All information will be kept in confidence and used only to prepare tabulations of data, which will be grouped by firms. Will you please give serious thought to answering the questions, especially those asking for your opinion? 1 shall appreciate your co-operation and shall furnish you with a summary of the findings if you indicate an interest in receiving it. If possible, please complete the questionnaire and return it to me by December 15. Cordially yours, Elfreda Rusher, Instructor Department of Education Enclosure This survey is an attempt to discover the background, duties, and responsibilities of women who occupy managerial and supervisory posi tions. If possible, please return the questionnaire by December 15. Type of business (Check one) Banking Manufacturing Finance Public Utilities Government Real Estate Insurance Transportation Total number of employees of the company (Check one) Under 100 1 ,000 - 2,999 100 - 299 3,000 - 4,999 300 - 499 5,000 or over; state 500 - 999 number Total number of office employees (Check one) Under 25 200 - 299 25 - 49 300 - 399 50 - 99 400 - 499 100 - 199 500 or over; state number Your official title Department Number of office employees reporting directly to you Indirectly Title of person to whom you report Your age (Check one) 20 - 24 45 - 49 25 - 29 50 - 54 30 - 34 55 - 59 35 - 39 60 - 64 40 - 44 Over 65 Your marital status (Check one) Single Married Divorced Range within which your present yearly salary falls (Answer optional) Under $3,000 $10,000 - $12,499 S3,000 - $4,999 12,500 - 14,999 5,000 - 6,999 15,000 - 19,999 7,000 - 8,999 20,000 or over; state 9,CM)0 - 9,999 salary $ ■ - Logical "next step up" from your present position YOUR EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND Highest grade of school which you completed (Circle one) High School 1 2 3 4 College or University 1 2 3 4 5 Major ______Check other schools attended and indicate the number of months you attended each: Business College months _____ Company Training School ______months _____ Correspondence School months _____ A.dult Education Classes ______months Other Schooling ______months This form is an attempt to estimate which courses have helped you to be more effective on your job. Place the number of your estimate of each course in the appropriate column where you received the knowledge according to the following scale. Add other courses which are not listed. Use 1 to indicate courses which have been VERY HELPFUL. " 2 " " " " " " SOMEWHAT HELPFUL. " 3 " " M " " " OF NO VALUE. University School Experience High High School College College or Correspondence Adult Adult Education Other Other Schools Learned Learned from 1 1 School ! Classes | Business Business College | TrainingCompany 1 Economics Business Organization Money and Banking Corporation Finance Public Finance Marketing Merchandising Insurance Business Law " Mathematics .. | " Statistics Salesmanship Accounting Principles of Management Office Management Personnel Management Typewriting Shorthand Office Machines i Business Correspondence i 1 i ' —i— .. J What courses not taken in school do you feel would have been help ful to you on your job" . YOUR EMPLOYMENT HISTORY Starting with your FIRST full-time position, will you please indi cate the successive positions you have held and your official job title Job Title Name of Company Length of Time Job 1 ______Years______Months Job' 2 ______Years______Months Job 3 ______'______Years______Months Job 4 ______• ______Years__Months Use the back of this sheet if necessary to list additional positions. YOUR PRESENT JOB DUTIES Check the following duties which you perform FREQUENTLY, SOMETIMES or NEVER, Add others not listed. F S N Recruit, select, and place office employees Develop training programs for office employees Supervise office employees Promote, demote, transfer, discharge office employees Approve vacation schedules and leaves of absence Handle attendance problems Determine office salaries Conduct departmental or professional meetings Administer recreational and suggestion systems Select, purchase, store, and distribute supplies Select, purchase, and maintain office equipment Design office equipment Prepare layout drawings Design and simplify office forms Plan and schedule office work Prepare and analyze budget figures Develop and analyze office systems, procedures, methods Develop office standards Determine flow of office work Control materials to be filed Dictate, written communications Perform or a c c e p t responsibility for seme accounting functions Prepare office manuals 1.66 Your answers to the following questions are very important. Will you please give them serious thought. Use the back of the sheet if more space is necessary. 1. The problems of women in management are different from the problems of men occupying the same positions. We are concerned with the basic problems peculiar to women and not to petty annoyances. Will you please explain what problems of this type have confronted you in your position? 2. As a result of your experience in a managerial position, what traits do you feel are ESSENTIAL in the performance of your duties? 3. How would you change your present position if you were free to do so? 167 4. What factors have helped you advance to your present position? 5. How would you change the educational program of the school to prepare women better for their responsibilities in managerial positions? Where would you place additional emphasis or decrease the present emphasis? If they are available, will you please enclose copies of any job descriptions you may have? Would you like to have a summary of the results of this questionnaire? Yes No ____ NAME ' ______ Company^ Address 163 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Davis, Ralph Currier. Industrial Organization and Manage - ment. New York: Harper and Brothers, 194b. Hicks, Charles B., and Place, Irene. Office Management. New York: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 19565 Jucius, Michael J. Personnel Management. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1955. Koos, Leonard V. The Questionnaire in Education. Hew York: The Macmillan Comp any, 192b. Littlefield, C. L . , and Peterson, R. L. Modern Office Management. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice - Hall, Inc., 1 9 5 6. Smith, Henry Lester. Educational Research, Principles and Practices. Bloomington, Indiana: Educational Publications, 1944. Terry, George R. Office Management and Control. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1954. Tonne, Herbert A. Principles of Business Education. New York: McGraw-Hill iBook Company, 19545 Walters, R. G., and Nolan, C. A. Principles and Problems in Business Education. Cincinnati, Ohio: South- Western Publishing Company, 1950. Woefle, Dael. America*s Resources of Specialized Talent. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954. B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES Arnold, Edward R. "Supervisors Must Be Specialists," Office Executi ve, XXIX (May, 1954), pp. 59-60. Brown, Courtney C. "Business in Cap and Gown," Saturday Review, XL (January, 1957)> PP. 16-18. 169 170 Cronheim, Dorothy. "Focus on the Future for Women," Jour nal of the American Association of Deans of Women, XI5T TTune, 1936), pp. 172-3. Fuller, Prances M., and Batchelder, Mary B. "Opportunities for Women at the Administrative Level," Harvard Business Review, XXXI (January - February, 1953), pp. 111-1287 Hamill, Katharine. "Women as Bosses," Fortune, LIII (June, 1976), pp. 105-8, 214-20. Kaplan, David L. "Women in Industry," American Vocational Journal, XXV (May, 1930), pp. 3-4. Longenecker, Justin G. "Communications Within the Manage ment Team," The Baylor Bulletin, XXX (December, 1956), pp. 28D333- McMahon, Ottis K. "Executives are Grown, Not Made," Office Executive, XXIX (August, 1954), pp. 7-10. Mitchell, Agnes W . "Automation from a Woman's Standpoint," Journal of The American Association of University Women, XLXX~(March, 1956),-pp7 1?2, 176-77/ l8l. Mitchell, James P. "Employment of Women Reaches All-Time High in 1955,,u Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXIV (February,“193577_P. 339. Norris, Louis W. "The Role of Women in American Economic Life," Association of American Colleges Bulletin, XLII (March, 1956), pp."51-607 ” Patterson, W. L. "Business: Our Newest Profession," Saturday Review, XL (January, 1957)* P. 28. Place, Irene. "E for Educational Effort," Office Executive, XXVTxI (November, 1953), p. 26. Sartaxn, Aaron Q. "Human Relations: Building a New Attitude, " Office Executive, XXIX. (February, 1954), pp, 17-19- Stout, Edward M, "University Training for Business." Collegiate Hews and Views, X (December, 1956), pp. 9-1 2. ' ' 171 Velhausen, C. C. "Evaluate ' ’ ' >v/elopment Program," The Bay]- ' '* ”^iber, 1946), PP. 34-39.---- Williamson, C. D. "Leadcrr :j1” ' ' “ Manage ment Development/' ' * - • (December, 1956), pi "Woman’s Place in the Work 7 * ' A *1ZTJL (March 16, 1957), pp. C. IPI, ;r 5 Dvorak, Earl A. "A Study of rf - • . 8 - -'e -r-al Knowl edges, Skills, and A: *: . - 4 * .-ffice Manage ment Executives," *< J! ssertation, Indiana University, i * » , Hyde, Prances Christianna. '* 5 Gaining and Experience of 150 Bu* - -*-*• * — ** — s p y i n g Managerial Positions »,,* - - ^ ^ x i s h e d doctoral dissertation •*«..»» .*r of Iowa, 1952. Knapper, Aron F. "An Analyse* * g- b a l i n g to Office Manager and A Recoin*;* h* & - ** — f * r Students Majoring in Office H r ‘ '^'.afted Master's . thesis, State Universe - ^ 4 ... «*s*. Recknagel, Helen J. "Women ;- , '■* - * - *-* - s-*1 Unpub lished doctoral dissr- . *< ** ' ** • .iversity, 1954. Schuster, Louis Howard. "Oiv a* ' * * * ships of the Office Manager." ^ ‘ disserta tion, The Ohio State u* *< Terry, Sherman William, "jx?* r - -• - - v a College Course in Off, * ; ablished doctoral dissertation^ ■* s ^ Southern California at Los Ang« „ t * D. SKiy*i*t?T5 Hayden, Carlos K. Major iss- , * . %.,»• ■Monograph 75. CincIrK'^f Publishing Co., 1951, Hot tel, Althea K. How Fare American Woj£yh-; , , ^ D. C.: American Council on EcTucat^> VA-ir Opportunity National Association of Manufacturers. _-^f^'^cTaiTon of in Management. New York: Nationa* Manufacturers, 19^-8. , , c.„r/ev of the Colorado Smith, Virginia Field. W omen at. Work. ^ df^ ‘ati on of Busi- State Federation ojf the National ic- 19.^ Denver ness and Professional Women1 s Cino, 3 Colorado: Women at Work, 1955. VIomen in Women's Bureau, U. S„ Department of Labor. y o Higher-Level Positions. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1910 * E. YEARBOOKS Malsbary, Dean R. "The Comprehensive P ^ ^ ^ s ^ E d u c a t i o ^ " lum," in Curriculum Patterns in §H|i^leirHooE— Thirteenth American Business SSucatio Tersev* Edited by John L. Rowe. Somerville, Hew Jersey. Somerset Press, 1956. pp. 259-270. Selden, William. "Curriculum Levels in ^ ucation-r in Curriculum Patterns in Busine^ ok Thirteenth American Business Eduaakio.- T * Edited by John L. Rowe. Somerville, Hew Jersey. Somerset Press, 1956. pp. X55~l°5* F. OTHER U. S. Bureau of the Census, U. S. Department of Commerce, Occupation by Industry. Special n m V p ' i n-A WasHlngton, D. b.; ~ Government Printxng Oli-ioe, 1 9,0. World Almanac and Book of Pacts for W U j Han sen. New York: New York World iii-a------Sun, 1953. AUTOB]0GRA.PHY I, Elfreda Maxine Rusher , was b o m in Bluffton. Ohio, June 10, 1916. I received ray secondary school education in the public schools of Ada, Ohio, an? undergraduate training at Ohio Northern University, which granted me the Bachelor of Science in Education degree in 1938. Fro® The Ohio State University, f received the Master of Arts degree in 1949. From 1938' to 1944, I taught in the public schools of Payne, Ohio, and from 1944 to 1950, in the Van Vert City Schools. In September, 1950, I was appointed Instructor in Business Education at the Bowling Green State University, where I taught for five years. ■•In May, 1955, I was granted a' leave of absence from the Bowling Green State University to complete the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy. In September, 1955, I was appointed Part-time Instructor in the Department of Education of The Ohio State Univtrssi t>*. I held this position 'for two years while completing the requirements for the degree.