National Action Plan for the Conservation of Marine Mammals in the Egyptian – 2012 to 2016

Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara [email protected]

in cooperation with Mahmoud Fouad, Nature Conservation Section, EEAA

30 August 2011

National Action Plan for the Conservation of Marine Mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea – 2012 to 2016

Study required and financed by: Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas Boulevard du Leader Yasser Arafat BP 337 1080 Tunis Cedex – Tunisie

Responsible of the study: Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara, Tethys Research Institute, Milano, Italy

With the participation of : Mahmoud Fouad, Nature Conservation Sector, Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency,

Cover illustration: Sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus, photographed in the Mediterranean Sea (photo credit: Alessia Scuderi/Tethys Research Institute).

______This report should be quoted as:

Notarbartolo di Sciara G., Fouad M. 2011. National Action Plan for the conservation of marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea – 2012 to 2016. Contract RAC/SPA 2011, 54 p.

2

Contents

Foreword ...... 4

List of acronyms and abbreviations ...... 5

1. Introduction ...... 6

2. Conservation strategy for marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean (2012-2016) ...... 9 2.1. Goal ...... 9 2.2. Objectives ...... 9

3. Rationale and framework for protecting marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean ...... 11 3.1. Rationale for protecting marine mammals in ...... 11 3.2. Legislative framework relevant to marine mammal protection in Egypt ...... 12

4. Threats ...... 14 4.1. Main anthropogenic threats and their known or suspected impacts on marine mammals ...... 14 4.2. Possible impacts of anthropogenic threats on Egyptian Mediterranean marine mammals ...... 15

5. Areas of special conservation importance ...... 17 5.1. Benefits and constraints of Marine Protected Areas for marine mammals ...... 17 5.2. Possible important areas for marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean ...... 17

6. Capacity building ...... 19

7. The Action Plan ...... 20 7.1. Actions needed to reach Objective 1 ...... 20 7.2. Actions needed to reach Objective 2 ...... 23 7.3. Actions needed to reach Objective 3 ...... 24 7.4. Implementation of the Action Plan ...... 26

8. Revision of the Action Plan ...... 35

9. Acknowledgments ...... 35

10. Literature cited ...... 36

Appendix 1. Report of a field trip to the Mediterranean coast of Egypt ...... 37 Appendix 2. List of marine mammal species found, or likely to be found, in Egyptian Mediterranean waters ...... 39 Appendix 3. Case study: protection of spinner dolphins in Samadai, Egyptian Red Sea ...... 41

3

Foreword

The first time I came in contact with marine mammals was in 1965, during summer holiday at , near Domietta, along the coast of the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea. In that occasion I saw many dolphins swimming around us, and we were so excited with their performance and friendly way toward us. At that time I wanted to know everything about dolphins. The second time was in 1981 when I was in a field trip with my marine biology students in the Red Sea, where I was told a whale was killed by some military personnel, and the staff of the National Institute of Oceanography and Fishery, Branch, brought it to the shore and left it there without studying it. I took a picture of the dead whale, and show it to my late Professor Hamed Gohar, who was so surprised and spent more than 30 minutes examining the picture, and he told me it was a new record for the Red Sea. He also told me that there are more than 20 species of marine mammals in the Red Sea either resident or migratory. I was so pleased that the Egyptian waters are rich with marine mammals; however, nothing was published about them except Dugong dugon. The third time was in 1985 when I attended a conference in Cochin, India, on endangered marine mammals, where I was met with a very interesting group of experts on marine mammals, mostly from Cambridge, U.K and some from the USA. I was told many interesting stories on these creatures. So, I decided to make the first article on marine mammals in Egypt which was published in .

When I took over the Directorship of the Nature Conservation Sector/ Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, I decided to give marine mammals a priority. The opportunity was there during 2003 when I attended IUCN meeting in Durban, South Africa, and met with my dear friends Marie-Christine Grillo and Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara, of ACCOBAMS . They have provided their expertise to make the first dolphin sanctuary in the Red Sea, at Samadai, which has proven to be an excellent model for transforming dolphins from a non resource to a very valuable resource where everyone benefited from this initiative. That was not the case for the Mediterranean Sea as we did not have both resources and expertise. However, ACCOBAMS and RAC/SPA have generously provided training to our staff, and facilities where we were able to join ACCOBAMS in 2010 and start our conservation work on marine mammals.

The first step for biodiversity conservation is to know what are the species, their distribution, abundance, and threats facing them. You also need to know who are involved in conservation, research, public awareness and other stakeholders such as NGOs and local communities. These issues are included in the First National Action Plan for the Conservation of Marine Mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean Sea - 2012 to 2016. We shall provide all the support needed to implement this plan. Finally, we thank both ACCOBAMS and RAC/SPA for their continuous efforts and support.

Professor Moustafa M. Fouda Minister Advisor on Biodiversity EEAA/NCS

4

List of acronyms and abbreviations

ACCOBAMS Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Contiguous Atlantic Zone CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CITES Convention on the International Trade of Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna CMS Convention on Migratory Species EEAA Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency EMW Egyptian Mediterranean Waters ER encounter rate MAP Mediterranean Action Plan MPA marine protected area NCS Nature Conservation Sector NGO non-governmental organisation RAC/SPA Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas UNCLOS United Nations Convention for the Law of the Sea UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

5 1. Introduction

Marine mammals are represented in Egyptian Mediterranean Waters (EMW) by two major taxonomic groups: the Order Cetacea (whales, dolphins and porpoises) and the Order Carnivora, Superfamily Pinnipedia, Family Phocidae.

There is no certainty about what species of Cetacea occur in Mediterranean Egypt (Fig. 1). Of the 11 cetacean species represented by populations regularly occurring in the Mediterranean Sea, only eight can be presumed to be regularly occurring in the coastal and pelagic waters adjacent to the Egyptian Mediterranean coasts (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Birkun 2010). These include one Mysticete species, the fin whale Balaenoptera physalus, and seven Odontocetes: the sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus, the Cuvier’s beaked whale Ziphius cavirostris, the Risso’s dolphin Grampus griseus, the common bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus, the rough-toothed dolphin Steno bredanensis, the striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba, and the short-beaked common dolphin Delphinus delphis. The three remaining species which regularly occur in parts of the Mediterranean (the killer whale Orcinus orca, the long-finned pilot whale Globicephala meals, and the harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena) are unlikely to be regularly found in EMW, the first being limited to Gibraltar Strait waters, the second to the western basin, and the third to the Northern Aegean Sea. The regular presence in EMW of most of the eight cetacean species mentioned above, however, as well as the extent of their occurrence, perhaps with the exception of common bottlenose dolphins, must be still considered hypothetical due to lack of sufficient original knowledge.

Fig. 1. The Egyptian Mediterranean coast.

The monk seal Monachus monachus, the only pinniped found in the Mediterranean Sea, once regular throughout most of the region’s coasts, until very recently was considered extinct in Egypt (Aguilar and Lowry 2008), at least since the 20th century (Anon. 2006). It was only in early 2011 that proof of its occurrence in Egypt, in the vicinity of the city of Marsa Matrouh, was collected (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Fouad 2011).

Information on the presence of marine mammals in EMW is very scarce in the scientific literature. Flower (1932) reported that monk seals occurred “in some numbers” along the coast to the west of in the XIX century, and that several were said to have been killed during . Amongst cetaceans, the same author reports a large balaenopterid “39 feet in length”, most likely a fin whale, stranded in May 1922 near Marsa Matrouh, and a sperm whale said to have “stranded on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt”. Common dolphins and bottlenose dolphins were frequently reported in the harbour and adjacent waters

6 (Flower 1932, Mözer Bruyns 1971). A fragment of the skull of a false killer whale Pseudorca crassidens was found on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt north of , in the Nile Delta (Wassif 1956). False killer whales are considered visitors to the Mediterranean Sea (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Birkun 2010). Cetacean sighting and acoustic surveys conducted in the Eastern Mediterranean by the International Fund for Animal Welfare between 2003 and 2007 to provide scientific information needed for the implementation of conservation measures, on behalf of ACCOBAMS, could not occur within the Egyptian EEZ because Egyptian authorities denied research permission (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Birkun 2010).

Whatever the level of marine mammal diversity in EMW, the highest concern is warranted that such natural richness might be at risk because of the rapidly growing degradation of the marine environment everywhere in the Mediterranean, and in the EMW in particular. Unfortunately, in spite of the many legal requirements to devise and adopt a strategy to counteract threats to marine mammal survival in Egypt – e.g., within the framework of the Barcelona Convention commitments, and more recently within that of ACCOBAMS – no special conservation efforts have been implemented yet at this time.

This Action Plan identifies measures intended to halt and reverse such likely decline in the years to come. The formulation of the Action Plan, promoted by the Nature Conservation Sector (NCS) of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) in cooperation with the Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas (RAC/SPA) of UNEP’s Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), is offered here as a key policy tool to base future actions towards improving the marine mammals conservation status in Egypt.

Many of the recommended measures should be grounded in an increasing appreciation by civil society of the range of goods and services provided by healthy and well-conserved marine ecosystems, and their associated biodiversity. Such process will succeed if marine conservation is incorporated into the system of values of the general public in Egypt. An effective conservation strategy should therefore become a nation-wide effort, through which people are made aware of the links between their individual behaviour and the state of their country’s environment. Conserving nature, and therefore conserving the sea, should be grounded in this new understanding, and encompass behavioural changes that involve all sectors of society in a country that is vigorously rediscovering its sense of place, ownership and stewardship.

While many of the measures recommended in this Action Plan specifically pertain to marine mammal conservation, such measures make little sense if marine degradation is not halted through the proper management of fishing pressure, coastal development, proliferation of shipping and boating, chemical and noise pollution, and climate change. All these pressures are already addressed by several regulations, enshrined in international and national commitments that Egypt has subscribed to, and these must be heeded while specific problems affecting marine mammals are addressed. Such effort can work in both directions. Addressing marine mammal conservation problems may be a very good opportunity for awakening the country to the worsening conditions of the marine environment, and for stimulating people into acting to change this condition. Whales and dolphins are quite popular amongst the general public, and as charismatic animals they can provide impetus for conveying the right message concerning marine conservation.

The proposed Action Plan identifies three objectives to reach the ultimate goal of ensuring the recovery and long-term viability of marine mammals in Egyptian waters: 1) collect and expand knowledge on the status of marine mammal populations and of their environment in the Egyptian Mediterranean, necessary to the implementation of a conservation strategy, 2) identify and involve national stakeholders in the process of conserving marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean, and enable them to contribute through targeted capacity building actions, and 3) increase national awareness on the conservation of marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean through targeted campaigns.

In order to establish initial contacts with stakeholders in the area of marine mammal conservation in Egypt, and explore possibilities for partnership concerning the attainment of one or more of the objectives mentioned above, a short field trip was organised in Spring 2011 (5-9 April), with the participation of three experts from the NCS (Mahmoud Fouad, Wissam Farag and

7 Mohamed Said, one from the RAC/SPA Yassine Ramzi Sghaier, and the author of this document. A report of that trip is provided in Appendix 1.

The effectiveness of the Action Plan actions will be assessed through deliverables and indicators, as appropriate. It is envisaged that at the end of the quinquennium a general assessment of the Action Plan’s accomplishments will be conducted, and that a second Action Plan for the following quinquennium will be generated on such bases.

8 2. Conservation strategy for marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean (2012-2016)

2.1. Goal

“Achieving and maintaining the favourable conservation status of marine mammals living in the Egyptian Mediterranean waters”.

2.2. Objectives

In order to attain the strategic goal, three objectives are identified, to be reached by 2016. The objectives are briefly described below. The almost complete lack of information on the species of marine mammals present in the Egyptian Mediterranean waters, as well as on their population ecology (distribution, abundance and structure) and existing anthropogenic pressures, makes it very difficult to envisage conservation actions that would address such pressures and contribute to these mammals’ favourable conservation status. For this reason the activities proposed during this first quinquennium will be largely limited to: a) the acquisition of the necessary knowledge; b) the identification, involvement and capacity building of stakeholders; and c) the promotion of national awareness. No hierarchy of priority is intended amongst the objectives: all are equally important, and should be pursued in parallel; each objective is conceived to work in synergy with the others.

1) Collect and expand knowledge on the status of marine mammal populations and of their environment in the Egyptian Mediterranean, necessary to the implementation of a conservation strategy

The fundamental importance of science to inform the management process is so evident that it does not need to be reiterated. Indeed, insufficient knowledge may prevent the adoption of meaningful conservation measures, while research will provide data that are essential to design and implement successful actions. The role of science in the conservation of marine mammals and their ecosystems is crucial because it provides information to decision makers, facilitating more informed decisions, policies, regulations and laws. However, the risks of simply perpetuating calls for more research must also be considered. While inaction may be often justified by lack of sufficient information, in many cases waiting for more and better data delays the conservation process indefinitely, diminishing the capability of producing timely results. In Egypt, where baseline information is largely missing and conservation problems are likely acute, it is particularly important to assign priorities to research and obtain information in a timely manner, while ensuring that the management process is implemented, on the basis of the precautionary principle, without delay. Common sense must be combined with the available scientific evidence in developing reasonable and timely action, as long as conclusive scientific data are unavailable (Reynolds et al. 2009).

However, considering that in some cases information is still too scant to allow the implementation of effective conservation measures, there is an urgency of collecting at least baseline ecological data on populations and threats. Accordingly, actions to reach this Objective will involve: a) an effort to raise the needed funds and organise actions to collect basic information about the population ecology (abundance, distribution and structure) of marine mammal species present in the EMW through dedicated

9 surveys and longitudinal studies in selected areas; b) laying the bases for the establishment of a National Marine Mammal Stranding Network along the entire coastline of the EM; c) the collection of information on existing anthropogenic pressures in the EMW having a potential impact on marine mammal populations: fishing, pollution, noise, shipping, coastal construction, tourism, disturbance, direct killing, etc.; and d) a first inventory of marine and coastal localities thought to (or proved to) contain marine mammal critical habitat that appear to be of special conservation interest where specific management actions targeting well- identified threats to marine mammals should be taken.

2) Identify and involve national stakeholders in the process of conserving marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean, and enable them to contribute through targeted capacity building actions

While the primary responsibility for the success of this Action Plan will be of the Nature Conservation Sector of the EEAA, a national marine mammal conservation strategy cannot be carried out within a vacuum. To the contrary, results can be obtained only through a widely shared effort, which should see the multifaceted contribution from a diverse array of stakeholders. For instance: a) central (e.g., Environment, Agriculture & Fisheries, Science, Defence Ministries) and peripheral government agencies (Governorates); b) enforcement agencies (Coast Guard, Navy); c) Marine Protected Area managers (e.g., , Ashtum El Gamil, Zaranic, Uhmaiet); d) the scientific community, and academic and cultural organisations; e) artisanal fishermen and their fishing syndicates; f) representatives of the industry (e.g., transport, oil & gas, fishing, tourism), and all the concerned NGOs. Objective 2 will consist of a thorough identification of the stakeholders, of joint actions with each stakeholder category to support marine mammal conservation, and of the capacity building actions needed to empower such stakeholders to fully contribute to the success of the Action Plan.

3) Increase national awareness on the conservation of marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean through targeted campaigns

Since all threats to marine mammals derive from human actions, conservation ultimately depends on political decisions affecting human behaviour. The fate of marine mammals living in Egyptian waters depends on the political will to take responsible and precautionary action to mitigate the known anthropogenic threats. While in principle society has already accepted the need to change human behaviour in order to conserve marine mammals in Egypt – as attested by the laws and regulations protecting these animals - ensuring that civil society at the national level is aware of the existence in Egyptian waters of charismatic, yet highly vulnerable fauna, which is legally protected but at the same time under threat of disappearing if management and conservation action is not taken, will be essential to reach the strategic goal. Therefore, public awareness and education represent an essential part of this Action Plan. People must become aware that marine mammals are an important component of their natural world, that the animals’ existence is threatened, and that there are good reasons to protect them. Awareness will favour the process whereby people will start to care for the nation’s marine mammals. The Action Plan highlights the need to conduct public campaigns following well-defined, science-based public awareness strategies, and identifies a series of awareness and education actions targeting relevant stakeholders, managers, teachers, school children and the general public.

10 3. Rationale and framework for protecting marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean

3.1. Rationale for protecting marine mammals in Egypt

The world’s oceans are populated by millions of species, and one may wonder what is the point of investing special attention, effort and resources to conserve a single group of animals - whales, dolphins and porpoises. It can be argued, however, that for a number of reasons protecting marine mammals may have important cascading effects which transcend the strict conservation value of these charismatic species.

A. The first reason is that marine mammals are important components of marine biodiversity. Biodiversity allows for the proper functioning of ecological systems, and the importance of preserving it cannot be underestimated (Worm et al. 2006). The need for conserving biodiversity is a widely accepted principle globally, sanctioned by a large number of international conventions and treaties, most notably the Convention on Biological Diversity, in force since 1993 and signed by 168 nations (Egypt included of course). On the basis of such widely accepted principles, endeavouring to conserve marine biodiversity and in particular marine mammals, in Egypt like elsewhere, should be advocated. The fact that current national, regional and international legislation unambiguously provides for the protection of marine mammals demonstrates that society has embraced the concept, at least in theory. Marine mammals are essential components of marine biodiversity and losing them weakens and damages the ecosystems they are part of, by virtue of their important role of apex predators in marine food webs.

B. The second reason for protecting marine mammals is that these charismatic species may serve the function of sustaining the protection of marine biota at the regional and national scales, by virtue of their quality of flagship and umbrella species (Caro and O’Doherty 1999, Roberge and Angelstam 2004). Marine mammals may serve well the function of umbrella species because they range widely, can be relatively easily monitored, and share their ecosystem with other species that may not be readily surveyed. Given their charismatic status, like other marine vertebrates, marine mammals also fulfil well the function of flagship species because they exert a strong fascination on the wide public and are thus more amenable to be used to raise public awareness and financial support to promote broad conservation action.

C. Finally, the goal of preserving marine mammals in Egypt is fully consistent with the protection of natural resources that are amongst the country’s most important heritage and appeal, with relevant economic consequences (e.g., in tourism). A rich and diverse natural environment is a treasure to be preserved for the benefit of present and future generations. Marine environments containing healthy marine mammal populations have an aesthetic and cultural value and may attract visitors who want to enjoy a place where whales, dolphins and seals are still thriving.

11 3.2. Legislative framework relevant to marine mammal protection in Egypt

National legislation

Marine mammals in principle benefit from clear legal protection in Egypt. By ratifying international conventions and introducing over the years national legislation, the clear intent of the Egyptian Legislator was to protect not only these species themselves, but their habitat as well. The following legislation instruments are of particular relevance, direct and indirect, to marine mammal conservation in Egypt:

• Law 102 of 1983 for Nature Protectorates, providing the legislative framework in and managing protected areas in Egypt which are defined as, "any area of land r coastal or inland water characterized by special flora, fauna and natural features having cultural, scientific, tourism or aesthetic value". With growing awareness of importance of managing resource use to sustain development, as well as awareness of rapid environmental degradation, increased attention was given to environmental protection. • Law 4 of 1994 for the Protection of the Environment which is amended by Law 9/2009. became the primary legislation for environmental management, creating the Nature Conservation Sector for management of Egypt's protected areas. • Law 124 of 1983 regulating fisheries, forced by General Authority for Fish Resources Development.

International agreements

Marine mammal conservation is very high on the agenda of a large number of international environmental agreements, ratified by Egypt.

These include, most notably:

♦ The Convention for the protection of the marine environment and the coastal region of the Mediterranean (Barcelona, 1976 and 1995), also known as the Barcelona Convention, ratified by Egypt in August 1978. The Convention is complemented by a number of specific Protocols, including the “Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean”, which has relevance to the protection of marine mammals. A Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas (RAC/SPA) was established in Tunis with the mandate of supporting Parties to the Convention in the implementation of the Protocol’s provisions. In particular, the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention adopted in 1987 and “Action Plan for the management of the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus)” (UNEP/MAP 2003), and in 1991 an “Action Plan for the conservation of Mediterranean cetaceans” (UNEP/MAP 1991), setting up conservation priorities (prohibition of deliberate taking; prevention and elimination of pollution; elimination of incidental catches in fishing gear; prevention of over- exploitation of fishery resources; protection of feeding, breeding and calving grounds including through the establishment of a network of marine reserves; monitoring, research and data collection and dissemination with regard to biology, behaviour, range and habitats of marine mammals; and educational activities aimed at the public at large and fishermen) and obligations for the Parties. The Mediterranean Action Plan of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP MAP), with headquarters based in Athens, acts as the Secretariat of the Convention.

♦ The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, also known as CMS or Bonn Convention (Bonn, 1979), ratified by Egypt in February 1982. The Mediterranean monk seal, the fin whale, the sperm whale and the short-beaked common dolphin are listed in the Convention’s Appendix I (strictly protected migratory species that have been categorized as being in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of their range); the same species and striped dolphins

12 are also listed in Appendix II (migratory species which have an unfavourable conservation status and which require international agreements for their conservation and management, as well as those which have a conservation status which would significantly benefit from the international cooperation that could be achieved by an international agreement).

♦ The Agreement on the Conservation of Marine mammals of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Contiguous Atlantic Area, also known as ACCOBAMS (Monaco, 1996), a special agreement established under the framework of CMS, its “parent convention”, aimed at the protection of all marine mammal species found in the Agreement area. Ratified by Egypt in June 2010.

♦ The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as CITES or Washington Convention (Washington, 1973), forbidding trade in endangered species listed in its Appendix I (including, as far as marine mammals regularly found in Egyptian waters are concerned, monk seals, fin whales and sperm whales), and regulating trade in other species, listed in Appendix II (all other marine mammal species). Ratified by Egypt in April 1978.

♦ The Convention on Biological Diversity, also known as CBD (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), although not explicitly referring to marine mammals, urges Contracting Parties to develop national programmes that will safeguard their natural heritage and biological diversity. Ratified by Egypt in June 1994.

♦ The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, also known as UNCLOS (Montego Bay, 1982), has special provisions for marine mammals (Art. 65: “States shall cooperate with a view to the conservation of marine mammals...”). Ratified by Egypt in December 1982.

13 4. Threats

4.1. Main anthropogenic threats and their known or suspected impacts on marine mammals

Marine mammals are threatened by a variety of human factors, which jeopardizes their long-term conservation. Such threats can be particularly severe in the Mediterranean, where human pressures having a very high intensity in a reduced space negatively affect marine mammal populations (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Birkun 2010). Most of these threats can reasonably be expected to increase in the foreseeable future (Reynolds et al. 2009), unless mitigation measures are promptly adopted and implemented.

The main anthropogenic pressures that globally threaten the survival of marine mammal populations include:

Accidental captures in fishery activities (bycatch). Mortality or injury inflicted through the accidental entanglement in fishing gear of all types (including passive and active nets, longlines, traps, discarded or lost nets and lines, gear accessories, etc.) and illegal fishing practices (e.g., use of dynamite).

Intentional captures. Killing or capture of marine mammals for use of products for human consumption or other, live capture, hostile acts provoked by actual or perceived damage to fishing activities, sport, and no apparent reason.

Contamination by xenobiotic compounds. Accumulation in the body tissues (mostly through the food web) of xenobiotics (including POPs and trace elements) known to adversely affect mammalian functions and health.

Oil pollution. Mortality or health problems deriving from contamination, contact or ingestion of hydrocarbons deriving from oil spills and oil derivates at sea.

Prey depletion. Depletion of food resources caused by the direct and indirect effects of fishing activities, illegal fishing and overfishing.

Collisions with vessels. Mortality or injury inflicted through collisions with a vessel or its part.

Disturbance. Behavioural disruption through intentional or non-intentional approaches, likely or proven to induce long-term effects in the population.

Acoustic pollution. Mortality, injury or disturbance deriving from exposure to impulsive or prolonged man-made sound reaching noxious intensity and/or frequency levels.

Ingestion of solid debris. Mortality or injury deriving from the ingestion of foreign objects and materials, such as plastic, wood, textiles, etc. (in general obstructing part of the digestive tract).

Climate and ecosystem change. Habitat degradation caused by coastal development and other direct or indirect changes in the ecosystem resulting from human activities, including climate change (e.g. eutrophication, harmful algal blooms, prey depletion resulting from habitat degradation, alien species invasion, changes in the physical and chemical properties of the environment).

Considering that the impact of the various anthropogenic threats varies according to species, habitat, and geographic area, it is extremely difficult to assess their relative importance for marine mammals generally. Indeed, some threats may be important for some species or local populations and less relevant for others. The scarcity of scientific information on cause-effect relationships makes it even harder to draw general conclusions. However, it is important to realise that the impact of human activities on marine

14 mammals is certainly much more pervasive than what can be seen through the narrow lens of obvious direct impact. While some threats may appear more dramatic, and may be easier to document (especially direct threats such as intentional killing of marine mammals, mortality in fishing gear or collision events) threats that are indirect and less visible may have an equal or even greater negative impact at the population level, eventually resulting in population decline or local extinction. In addition, when threats act cumulatively on the same population, end results may be greater than the simple algebraic sum of the impacts (Halpern et al. 2008). It is therefore important that effective management measures are not based exclusively on anecdotal evidence or ease of documenting a given threat, but also on a thorough understanding of human impacts on the marine environment on which whales and dolphins ultimately depend.

As pointed out by Lotze and Worm (2009), current trends in marine ecosystems need to be interpreted against a solid understanding of the magnitude and drivers of past changes. Many populations of large marine animals worldwide have declined by 90% or more from historical abundance as a consequence of overharvesting, climate variation and other factors (Myers and Worm 2003, Ferretti et al. 2008, Lotze and Worm 2009). It is therefore mandatory to consider both the immediate and the long- term impacts, and to evaluate the various anthropogenic threats to marine mammals and marine biodiversity in the appropriate historical context.

4.2. Possible impacts of anthropogenic threats on Egyptian Mediterranean marine mammals

No published information is available on impacts of human activities on marine mammals in EMW, and in fact the collection of such information is part of one of the Objectives of this Action Plan. However, it is safe to assume that the many pressures that are exerted by such activities on the marine environment are likely to impact on the conservation status of the marine mammals frequenting EMW. These include:

Accidental captures in fishery activities (bycatch). Although in large part fisheries in EMW use gears – such as bottom trawling nets and small pelagic purse seines - that are not known to cause massive bycatch of marine mammals, accidental captures may be important in trammel nets deployed by small-scale artisanal fisheries, particularly as far as bottlenose dolphins and juvenile monk seals are concerned.

Intentional captures. Fishermen animosity may derive to marine mammals when these engage in operative interactions with their activities resulting in damage to the catch and/or gear. This may be a conservation problem particularly as far as small scale artisanal fisheries are concerned, which are more vulnerable to depredation by marine mammals. Rumours of a monk seal having been killed in Marsa Matrouh in 2011, within 10 days from the first reappearance of the species in Egypt in several decades (Notarbartolo di Sciara and Fouad 2011) lend credit to the hypothesis that intentional killing of marine mammals might be a significant conservation problem in Egypt.

Oil pollution and contamination by xenobiotic compounds. Ingestion of solid debris. Considering the high level of pollution of the coastal Mediterranean waters of Egypt, particularly in the eastern part (Nile Delta and Alexandria), including urban, agricultural and industrial waste and large amounts of solid debris it seems quite unlikely that marine mammals, especially coastal cetaceans, are unaffected. Water quality conditions are likely to be better along the western portion of the Egyptian Mediterranean coast. A first knowledge base on the magnitude of the phenomenon should be collected through analyses of stranded cetaceans.

Prey depletion. This pressure could occur where fishing pressure is most intense, such as off the Nile Delta. However a more in- depth analysis is needed to assess the seriousness of this threat, taking into account the species involved, the population sizes, and their trophic position in the ecosystem where fisheries are also operating.

15 Collisions with vessels. Even if intense, traffic of traditional fishing vessels is unlikely to be seriously affecting coastal dolphins. Large ships may affect greater-size cetaceans (such as fin and sperm whales) in the offshore waters, however no information is available about the presence there of such species.

Disturbance. This source of pressure is unlikely to be significant in EMW, given the dearth of pleasure boating in the area and the absence of whale watching operations.

Acoustic pollution. Potentially serious is seismic surveys and military exercises are conducted in the area, although the presence in Egyptian deep waters of Cuvier’s beaked whales, the species most vulnerable to noise disturbance, remains to be ascertained.

Climate and ecosystem change. Likely to be quite significant in Egyptian Mediterranean waters, due to the major hydrological changes in the Levantine Sea caused by the Dam, the increasing presence of Lessepsian migrants, and the possible effects of climate change on the Mediterranean marine environment (Anon. 2010).

16 5. Areas of special conservation importance

5.1. Benefits and constraints of Marine Protected Areas for marine mammals

Marine protected areas (MPAs) can contribute to marine mammal conservation, providing they are appropriately managed, by preserving their habitat and prey, by reducing the risks of mortality in fishing gear, by providing ‘refuge’ from acoustic pollution and other types of disturbance; in addition, MPAs can contribute to raising awareness, promoting the collection of scientific knowledge and facilitating exchange of information (Notarbartolo di Sciara 2007). In a marine environment such as the Mediterranean, where human impact is highly pervasive, well-managed MPAs can create oases of protection for the animals, thus alleviating human encroachment. Furthermore, MPAs may restore ecosystem functioning and benefit marine food webs by providing shelter to threatened marine species, thereby contributing to the recovery of depleted marine mammal prey (Agardy 1997, Roberts et al. 2001). MPAs provide an ideal framework to conduct robust scientific investigations and ecosystem studies, and to combine them with socio-economic analyses and other management-oriented assessments. MPAs are also amenable to the promotion of respectful nature-watching, which may allow ex-fishermen or part-time fishermen to increase their income and begin to involve them, as well as other stakeholders, in the conservation process.

However, there also are constraints to MPA effectiveness, particularly as far as marine mammals are concerned, unless some concerns are addressed. Several marine mammal species are known to make long-range movements, and their presence may vary on a seasonal or annual basis. In these cases, MPA designation based on insufficient knowledge may not be the most effective conservation strategy. Nevertheless, MPAs can certainly help to protect ecologically important portions of these mammals’ range. The success of MPAs as tools for marine mammal conservation will depend on our ability to match the species’ critical habitat and/or resources with the boundaries of the areas to be protected. Therefore, to be effective for marine mammal conservation, the design of MPAs should be based on a good understanding of the movements, habits and spatial needs of both the animals and their prey. Another problem with MPAs is that their designation is often cumbersome, and it may take decades to make them a reality. Even when they are established, the challenge of managing them until they are fully functional remains (Togridou et al. 2006, Guidetti et al. 2008). Therefore, formally designated MPAs may not be always the most appropriate tool to ensure the solution of particular anthropogenic threats, as the lengthy process involved in their effective establishment may delay bringing about the timely mitigation that will prevent marine mammal population from declining beyond recovery.

For the above reasons, this Action Plan suggests that while the creation of a functional network of MPAs is extremely important, and in some cases the creation of an MPA represents the most appropriate management tool, it is also necessary to envisage ways for applying specific management measures in the short term to solve urgent conservation problems as soon as they are identified. Targeted management measures must be applied immediately to areas identified through research as having special conservation importance for marine mammals, whenever particular anthropogenic pressures may jeopardise the survival of marine mammal population and threaten marine biodiversity, also compromising provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting ecosystem services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005).

5.2. Possible important areas for marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean

Many MPAs of different types, sizes and purposes have been established in several Mediterranean countries (Abdulla et al. 2008), including Egypt; most of these include marine mammal habitat within their boundaries. Unfortunately, specific measures for marine mammal conservation are rarely included in these areas’ management plans. The Sallum MPA in Egypt has the potential of contributing to the conservation of marine mammals in the country, particularly as far as monk seals and coastal dolphins are concerned.

17 Other protected areas along the Egyptian Mediterranean coast (Zaranik Protected Area in North of Sinai, Omayed Protected Area in the Northern coast and Ashtum El Gameel Protected Area in Port Said) do not seem to contain suitable marine mammal habitat.

However, after more thorough investigations are completed about the ecology (abundance and distribution) of marine mammals in EMW, it is possible that other sites will be identified, currently without the benefit of any designation, that deserve to be specially protected. The main challenge for such areas of potentially high conservation importance is that scarce information exists about the dynamics and exact distribution of local marine mammal populations and the threats that may be affecting them. It is therefore difficult at present to propose specific management actions that may ensure conservation benefits. Such information will hopefully emerge from the accomplishment of Objective 1. Sighting and stranding reports from the EMW are likely to provide useful preliminary insight, which is likely to orient in the identification of critical habitat and to identify the management actions that are more likely to provide conservation benefits.

18 6. Capacity building

Developing research and monitoring abilities throughout the region is a timely challenge and a high priority as far as marine mammal conservation in Egypt is concerned. Such challenge involves: 1) transmitting knowledge through effective and long-lasting training procedures, and 2) ensuring that such hard-gained knowledge is put to long-term use once the trainees endeavour to apply it. Opportunities to get professional training in marine mammal research techniques and learn about marine mammal conservation and management strategies have increased in recent years. However, only a few local scientists can rely on appropriate training for their professional growth. This prevents the development of sound research programmes and conservation campaigns.

Poor access to information is another problem faced by many. Much of the specialized marine mammal literature can be hard to access, as marine mammal libraries are rare or privately held. Also, opportunities for learning are scarce, due for instance to scattered local expertise, limited contacts with other researchers, and the fact that professional marine mammal conferences have never been held in Egypt. Facilities where professional work on marine mammals can be conducted are also scarce, thus weakening the potential of local students and young researchers interested in marine mammals.

This Action Plan recognises the need to address two aspects of this issue: a) Institutional capacity can be built in several ways. Creating institutional capacity ensures that the resources invested in individuals are not wasted, by providing them with actual working opportunities, access to information, and a favourable environment in which they can grow professionally. These would involve such things as creating University courses, managing literature collections, opening laboratories and other infrastructure, facilitating access to information, and providing logistic and other support to institutions that may offer positions to deserving individuals. Institutional capacity building concerns inter alia the provision of professional training to public administrators in central or local authorities, bodies in charge of the management of MPAs, research and teaching organisations, and advocacy NGOs. b) Individual capacity building requires a different approach. A formal approach to theoretical education would include seminars, workshops, short-term training courses and university courses on marine mammals. A different, more practical approach may include direct involvement of the trainee through volunteering, assistantships and internships. A combination of the theoretical and practical approaches is probably optimal. An example would be intensive training courses in the field, where lectures involving theory are combined with direct experience at sea collecting data. However, the main problem with individual capacity building is ensuring that once trained, personnel will have the possibility of implementing training-related activities in Egypt. Therefore, there is a strong link between institutional and individual capacity building. There is little point investing in people until the national institutions are able to incorporate and bring to full fruition newly acquired individual abilities.

Both aspects involving capacity building action will be targeted within the framework of Objectives 2 and 3.

19

7. The Action Plan

The three objectives will be met through the implementation of a number of actions to be conducted between 2012 and 2016, listed below.

Although this Action Plan is presented as a series of separate actions, these will need to be integrated into comprehensive national management frameworks and programmes. An appropriate body for integrating the actions of this plan into a comprehensive programme could be the Advisory Committee, proposed to be established in Section 7.2, 2.C.

The actions are listed in a tabular form in Section 7.5, which also provides greater operational detail and a set of indicators necessary for evaluating the achievements of the Action Plan. In the case of more complex actions, these are subdivided into different components.

7.1. Actions needed to reach Objective 1

Collect and expand knowledge on the status of marine mammal populations and of their environment in the Egyptian Mediterranean, necessary to the implementation of a conservation strategy.

There is an acute need for conducting systematic observations to inventory marine mammal populations and identify their habitat along the Egyptian Mediterranean Exclusive Economic Zone, because needed conservation measures to be proposed need to rest on scientific evidence.

However, the collection of even minimal data on marine mammal ecology requires significant human and financial resources. While the former can be secured through activities geared to build capacity of salaried personnel (see Objective 2), which may be conducted within the framework of existing international programmes and activities, securing funds for field programmes may be more difficult. With this in mind, only essential research actions are proposed in this Action Plan, which will nevertheless require minimal funding for their implementation. It is hard to envisage the implementation of an Action Plan to conserve a natural entity – marine mammal populations – without at least a basic knowledge of their distribution, abundance, and main threats.

1A Basic studies of marine mammal ecology

Collect basic information about population ecology (abundance, distribution and structure) of marine mammal species present in the EMW through:

1A.1 Line-transect aerial or surface surveys (the latter possibly combining visual and acoustic means of detection) to collect absolute density data and generate cetacean population sizes, habitat prediction based on spatial modelling, and to identify hotspots of cetacean occurrence within the EMW, that deserve the future implementation of conservation

20 measures (see Fig. 2 for an example of equal-spaced survey design in EMW). Note: should the funds needed to perform the above surveys be impossible to secure, it could be advisable to organise at least a set of cruises on board of platform of opportunity, as homogenously distributed as possible across the EMW, to collect data on cetacean encounter rates (ER). Nevertheless, the much greater heuristic value provided by campaigns targeting the collection of absolute (as opposed to relative) density data (in addition to the added benefits deriving from capacity building and communication opportunities) fully justifies, in the writer’s opinion, the greater organisational and financial commitment implied in such cruises; therefore the highest effort to secure the needed funds for such campaigns is recommended. Considering the high mobility of the species to protect, a commitment should be made to harmonize and coordinate nation-based survey efforts with a wider effort, which can be undertaken within the ACCOBAMS framework across the entire Mediterranean basin.

Fig. 2 – Example of equal-space survey transect design across the EMW.

1A.2 Longitudinal studies based on photo-ID of selected cetacean populations in restricted locations (e.g., bottlenose dolphins in the Nile Delta). The action envisages initiating studies of population abundance, trends and structure as well as habitat use and movement patterns of marine mammal population units of particular importance, on the basis of the results of Action 1A.1.

1A.3 Establishment of a National Marine Mammal Stranding Network along the entire coastline of the EM. The action involves the regular monitoring of strandings of marine mammals across the area, to detect and investigate the occurrence of the different species, their locations, relative frequency of stranding, and causes of mortality (e.g., from fishing, ship strikes, direct killings). At the moment no information is available on the number of strandings that may occur along the EM coast in one year. If the rate were comparable to that experienced in central and western Mediterranean countries (e.g., Italy), it could be hypothesized that the yearly number of strandings in Egypt might range between 20 and 30, however figures might be significantly lower because cetacean densities in the Levantine Seas may be smaller than in the western Mediterranean due to the lower productivity of the sub-region. This action must be integrated with the involvement of personnel from the veterinary departments of local Universities, to promote investigations of stranding causes, and to provide research material and specimens useful for conservation purposes, to be deposited in appropriate, centralised tissue banks (national or ACCOBAMS).

21 1A.4 Monk seal population assessment and monitoring: mapping critical habitat and surveying for potential presence of the species, with particular emphasis on the western portion of the EM coast.

1B Studies of marine mammal threats

Collect basic information on existing anthropogenic pressures in the EMW known to potentially impact on marine mammal populations:

1B.1 Fisheries: operational and ecological interactions. Investigate:

• The occurrence of incidental mortality of marine mammals in fishing gear, through the involvement and cooperation of the fishing communities;

• The occurrence of fishing gear damage and/or depredation (either real or perceived), possibly triggering intentional kills or harm to marine mammals;

• The occurrence of intentional killings of marine mammals by fishermen;

• marine mammal – fisheries ecological interactions.

Ensure that illegal fishing practices, especially those having a direct negative impact on marine mammals or on marine mammal critical habitat (e.g., the use of dynamite fishing) are prosecuted and the relative legislation is fully enforced.

1B.2 Habitat degradation and loss due to human activities at sea, such as coastal construction, chemical and nutrient pollution, etc. Determine overlap between marine mammal critical habitat identified through actions defined under Action 1A (above), and areas where development (tourism, coastal construction, aquaculture, maritime traffic, etc.) is degrading the conditions of the marine environment with potential or observed effect on marine mammals. Through a recent effort by Dr. Fiorenza Micheli (Stanford University), a model was generated whereby the cumulative impacts are mapped of various pressure factors in the Mediterranean (see http://globalmarine.nceas.ucsb.edu/mediterranean/). The modelled cumulative impact along the shores of the EM is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 – Modelled cumulative impacts of anthropogenic pressures along the Egyptian Mediterranean coast (Micheli 2011).

22

The distribution of impacts described through the above model can be made to overlap with the distribution of marine mammals in the area, thus allowing inference about the potential threatening effects of such pressures on the animals.

A special emphasis to be placed on overlap between marine mammal critical habitat and the presence of human activities involving the production of underwater noise (e.g., naval exercises, seismic surveys, maritime traffic).

1B.3 Based on the results of Action 1A, combined with knowledge developed by the scientific community on the effects of climate change and alien species invasions on the biota of the EMW, prepare by the end of the Action Plan period an assessment of the possible effects of climate change and alien species invasions on the marine mammal populations living in EMW.

7.2. Actions needed to reach Objective 2

Identify and involve national stakeholders in the process of conserving marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean, and enable them to contribute through targeted capacity building actions.

2A Identification of Stakeholders. Compile a list of organisations and names concerned with marine mammal conservation in Egypt, on the basis of respective statutory mandates and concerns:

• Central Government: Ministries of Environment (Marine mammal conservation efforts as described in this Action Plan are integrated within wider marine conservation and management actions and measures), Agriculture, Science, Defence, Foreign Affairs. Including enforcement agencies (e.g., Coast Guard, Navy) depending from the above administrations. • Local Governments: Governorates of North Sinai, Port Said, Kafr El Shiekh, , Alexandria and Matrouh. • Management bodies of MPAs and coastal PAs in the area (e.g., Sallum, Ashtum, Zaranic, Uhmaiet). • Universities, cultural institutions (e.g., Library of Alexandria) and the scientific community (for example: involvement of veterinary and pathology research institutions in the analyses of strandings to study mortality causes of marine mammals along the EMW). • NGOs concerned with marine conservation in Egypt. • Fishing communities (at the various scale, from local artisanal to industrial) and syndicates at various levels (local, national). • Representatives of the industry (tourism sector, shipping sector, energy sector, etc.).

2B Involvement of Stakeholders. Identify for each of the stakeholders listed under 2A the most appropriate ways in which these are concerned with marine mammal conservation in Egypt and can be stimulated into supporting the process, on the basis of respective statutory mandates and concerns. Approach the stakeholders and engage them into cooperating with the NCS in the implementation of this Action Plan.

23 2C Strengthen the national institutional framework. Development of specific institutional capacity within governmental agencies (central and peripheral) to increase effectiveness of marine mammal conservation policy and measures in Egypt. This will involve addressing in detail the problem of implementation and enforcement of legal provisions relevant to marine mammal conservation in Egypt.

2D Strengthen marine mammal conservation capacity of the national scientific community. Develop agreements with selected academic and knowledge institutions to facilitate the inclusion in curricula of course topics relevant to the progress of marine environmental conservation capacity in Egypt, with a special reference to marine mammals.

2E Create an Advisory Committee to support the Action Plan implementation process

As the actions outlined in this Action Plan are numerous and diverse, it is important to accomplish them in a coordinated and expeditious manner. Proper implementation by the appropriate institutional actors will require advisory support from a selected group of experts having extensive scientific training in marine ecology and zoology, as well as a deep understanding of the management and organisational constraints of marine conservation in Egypt. Such Advisory Committee will contribute with advice and recommendations to ensuring that the Action Plan is turned into a detailed and practical reality (including organising workshops, delivering educational materials, liaising with other organisations, ministries, universities etc.), and appropriately frame Egypt’s marine mammal conservation actions within the nation’s international commitments (e.g., ACCOBAMS, Barcelona Convention). Part of this action will include preparing the Terms of Reference for the Advisory Committee once its creation by the relevant authorities is deliberated.

7.3. Actions needed to reach Objective 3

Increase national awareness on the conservation of marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean through targeted campaigns.

Aim of the Objective is to raise the profile of marine mammals in Egypt and their conservation problems, ultimately to increase a sense of stewardship in Egyptian nationals towards the marine environment.

3A Design, organise and conduct a nation-wide awareness campaign

In cooperation with cultural and knowledge institutions (e.g., the Library of Alexandria), formulate, fundraise for and implement a comprehensive awareness campaign throughout the Egyptian Mediterranean coastal communities and in Cairo, designed to inform and convey to the general public the need for conserving marine mammal species and their environment at the national level.

3A.1 Define targets, and justify relevance of the different sectors of the target audience (in large part coinciding with the Stakeholders listed in 2A):

24 a. Key officials from the central government authorities; b. Key officials from the regional and local governing, enforcement and judiciary authorities; c. Policy makers, politicians and decision makers; d. Fishing communities at all organisational levels; e. Relevant local communities, including teachers, schools and local media; f. Management bodies of MPAs g. Relevant NGOs; h. Scientific community; i. Shipping and tourism sectors; j. National media; k. General public.

3A.2 Define a communication rationale (i.e., why protect marine mammals) and include in the communication strategy information, tailored to the different target groups, on the conservation problems affecting marine mammals in Egyptian waters to be addressed by the campaigns.

3A.3 Define the actions (necessary and specific to both the need of conserving marine mammals in Egypt and to the target audience identified) that will enable increasing awareness, promoting effective advocacy by NGOs, improving education programmes, implementing capacity building (see 3B), and engaging civil society at large in marine stewardship. This may include (but not be limited to) scientific conferences and seminars; production of communication material (leaflets, handbooks, web-sites, newsletters); production or translation of documentaries; identification of marine mammal “ambassadors” and connected PR actions (e.g., interviews); implementation of advertising campaigns (TV, radio, interviews and advertorials); organisation of school environmental education programmes; photography and other exhibitions; events (concerts, theatre plays, etc.); organisation of a marine mammal “road-show”; involvement of the public in a “marine mammal observatory” (e.g. sighting and stranding network); use of less conventional tools such as viral campaigns, social networks, blogs; public opinion survey and research.

3A.4 Define what is to be achieved at the end of the campaign(s) in terms of progress towards solving the marine mammal conservation problems identified (i.e. the message of the information and communication campaign will coincide with the structure – goal and objectives – of this Action Plan).

3A.5 Implement the awareness campaign based on elements acquired under Sub-actions 3A.1 to 3A.4.

3B Capacity building in the field of communication, education and awareness:

3B.1 Ensure that marine mammal conservation is appropriately addressed at the local level wherever appropriate, e.g., by developing local communication skills and activities targeting the public in areas containing marine mammal critical habitat, and that local actions are coordinated and in accordance with the Action Plan.

3B.2 Promote the establishment and coordination of NGOs relevant to marine mammal conservation, and ensure that actions by advocacy organisations are based on accurate, objective background information grounded on solid science.

3B.3 Support and promote academic and educational institutions to build capacity relevant to the communication and teaching of marine mammal conservation issues.

25 7.4. Implementation of the Action Plan

The guiding principle for the formulation of the actions listed below can be summarised by the ‘SMART’ concept1 which provides five characteristics that actions must have:

S “Specific: The system captures the essence of the desired result by clearly and directly relating to achieving an objective, and only that objective.

M “Measurable: The monitoring system and its indicators are unambiguously specified so that all parties agree on what the system covers and there are practical ways to measure the indicators and results.

A “Achievable and Attributable: The system identifies what changes are anticipated as a result of the intervention and whether the result(s) are realistic. Attribution requires that changes in the targeted developmental issue can be linked to the intervention.

R “Relevant and Realistic: The system establishes levels of performance that are likely to be achieved in a practical manner, and that reflect the expectations of stakeholders.

T “Time-bound, Timely, Traceable, and Targeted: The system allows progress to be tracked in a cost-effective manner at desired frequency for a set period, with clear identification of the particular stakeholder group to be impacted by the project or program.”

Implementation schedule

Objective 1. Collect and expand knowledge on the status of marine mammal populations and of their environment in the Egyptian Mediterranean, necessary to the implementation of a conservation strategy.

Action Sub-action Actors Indicators of achievement Approximate cost (EGP)(salaries excluded)

1A. Collect basic information about 1A.1. Line-transect surface surveys to International consultants Two sets of surveys conducted, 2,240,000 (note: if international vessel already population ecology (abundance, distribution collect absolute density data and generate providing vessel, staff and one in summer and one in in the region for other projects, costs of and structure) of marine mammal species cetacean population sizes, habitat researchers to manage, plan winter, each covering 3,000 nm transfer to the Mediterranean can be defrayed present in the EMW. prediction based on spatial modelling, and coordinate and run the surveys, of track length (approx. 20 days from the quoted figure). to identify hotspots of cetacean all field equipment, of survey time).

1 E.g., as described in http://www.oma.ku.edu/soar/smartgoals.pdf

26 occurrence within the EMW, that deserve hydrophones, CTD, computers, Cetacean species distribution the future implementation of conservation cameras etc., analysis of visual and abundance data generated. measures. and acoustic survey data including write up and If data density allows, predictive publication, 2 x port stops for habitat maps of the main species education, media and outreach generated, and possible events. hotspots identified.

1A.2. Longitudinal studies based on photo- National consultants possessing At least one study started during 340,000 (first year) ID of selected coastal cetacean populations the required expertise. the triennium. in restricted locations. 170,000 (subsequent years) Photo-ID catalogue constructed. Data on abundance, distribution, movements, behaviour and threats collected.

1A.3. Establishment of a National Marine NCS personnel, Coast Guard, A minimum of 10 stranding 40,000 Mammal Stranding Network along the Army, Navy, other local control events reported/year along the entire coastline of the EM. authorities. EM coast.

Involvement of personnel from the Veterinary personnel from local National stranding database veterinary departments of local Universities. created, data also contributed to Universities, to promote investigations of MEDACES. stranding causes, and to provide research material and specimens useful for conservation purposes. Stranded specimens inspected, National and local museums. Storage of specimens in museums and identified, measured (TL), sexed, ACCOBAMS Tissue Bank. and if possible necropsied.

1A.4. Monk seal population assessment and Sallum MPA management body Regular surveys for monk seal 0 monitoring: mapping critical habitat and presence conducted within surveying for potential presence of the Sallum MPA. species, with particular emphasis on the western portion of the EM coast. Information network with fishermen from the west coast (from Libyan border to Matrouh) established and maintained.

27 1B. Collect basic information on existing 1B.1a. Fisheries: operational and ecological NCS personnel in cooperation Database of bycaught cetaceans 0 anthropogenic pressures in the EMW known interactions. Investigate: with GAFR and fishing syndicates. established by NCS, combined to potentially impact on marine mammal with National Stranding populations. • The occurrence of incidental mortality of Database (Action 1A.3). marine mammals in fishing gear, through

the involvement and cooperation of the Bycaught cetaceans submitted fishing communities; to same process as stranded cetaceans: necropsy, museum • The occurrence of fishing gear damage specimen collection, tissue and/or depredation (either real or collection for Tissue Bank. perceived), possibly triggering intentional kills or harm to marine mammals;

• The occurrence of intentional killings of marine mammals by fishermen;

• marine mammal – fisheries ecological interactions.

1B.1b. Fisheries: operational and ecological Coast Guard in cooperation with No reported illegal fishing 0 interactions. Ensure that illegal fishing NCS personnel practice is left unprosecuted. practices, especially those having a direct negative impact on marine mammals or on marine mammal critical habitat (e.g., the use of dynamite fishing) are prosecuted and the relative legislation is fully enforced.

1B.2. Habitat degradation and loss. NCS personnel and cooperating Cumulative maps generated of 0 Determine overlap between marine national and international human impacts on the EMW, and mammal critical habitat identified through scientists overlap between marine actions defined under Action 1A (above), mammal critical habitat and and areas where development (tourism, significant impacts outlined and coastal construction, aquaculture, maritime analysed. traffic, etc.) is degrading the conditions of the marine environment with potential or A special emphasis to be placed observed effect on marine mammals. on overlap between marine mammal critical habitat and the presence of human activities involving the production of underwater noise (e.g., naval exercises, seismic surveys, maritime traffic).

28 1B.3 Assessment of the possible effects of NCS personnel and cooperating Study published. 0 climate change and alien species invasions national and international on the marine mammal populations living in scientists EMW.

29 Objective 2. Identify and involve national stakeholders in the process of conserving marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean, and enable them to contribute through targeted capacity building actions.

Action Sub-action Actors Indicators of achievement Approximate cost (EGP)(salaries excluded)

2A. Compile a list of organisations and • Central Government: Ministries of Environment NCS List compiled (possibly in the format of 0 names concerned with marine mammal (Marine mammal conservation efforts as a database) and maintained current. conservation in Egypt, on the basis of described in this Action Plan are integrated respective statutory mandates and concerns within wider marine conservation and management actions and measures), Agriculture, Science, Defence, Foreign Affairs. Including enforcement agencies (e.g., Coast Guard, Navy) depending from the above administrations.

• Local Governments: Governorates of North Sinai, Port Said, Kafr El Shiekh, Damietta, Alexandria and Matrouh.

• Management bodies of MPAs and coastal PAs in the area (e.g., Sallum, Ashtum, Zaranic, Uhmaiet).

• Universities, cultural institutions (e.g., Library of Alexandria) and the scientific community (for example: involvement of veterinary and pathology research institutions in the analyses of strandings to study mortality causes of marine mammals along the EMW).

• NGOs concerned with marine conservation in Egypt.

• Fishing communities (at the various scale, from local artisanal to industrial) and syndicates at various levels (local, national).

• Representatives of the industry (tourism sector, energy sector, etc.).

30 2B. Involvement of Stakeholders. Identify NCS Stakeholders listed under 2A actively 0 for each of the stakeholders listed under 2A involved: at least one stakeholder in the most appropriate ways in which these each of the stakeholder categories are concerned with marine mammal listed formally involved in one or conservation in Egypt and can be stimulated more actions listed in this Action Plan. into supporting the process, on the basis of respective statutory mandates and concerns. Approach the stakeholders and engage them into cooperating with the NCS in the implementation of this Action Plan.

2C. Strengthen the national institutional 2C.1 Development of specific institutional capacity NCS 0 framework. Development of specific within relevant Ministries (mostly: Environment and institutional capacity within governmental Fisheries). agencies to increase effectiveness of marine mammal conservation policy and measures in Egypt. This will involve addressing in detail the problem of implementation and 2C.2 Development of specific institutional capacity NCS 0 enforcement of legal provisions relevant to within relevant Governorates (North Sinai, Port Said, marine mammal conservation in Egypt. Kafr El Shiekh, Damietta, Alexandria and Matrouh).

2D. Strengthen marine mammal NCS Agreements with selected knowledge 0 conservation capacity of the national institutions identified and listed under scientific community. Develop agreements 2A established. Agreements will with selected academic and knowledge concern specifically the inclusion of institutions to facilitate the inclusion in curricula or course topics relevant to curricula of course topics relevant to the marine mammal conservation. progress of marine environmental conservation capacity in Egypt, with a Eight researchers/students trained in special reference to marine mammals. cetacean survey techniques (visual and acoustic) during survey cruises conducted under action 1.A1.

2E. Create an Advisory Committee to Lobby to ensure that the political decision of NCS AC established by the concerned 0 support the Action Plan’s implementation establishing AC is adopted, on the basis of TOR authority/ies and functioning (a process. having at their core the Action Plan implementation minimum of one meeting/year). process.

31 Objective 3. Increase national awareness on the conservation of marine mammals in the Egyptian Mediterranean through targeted campaigns.

Action Sub-action Actors Indicators of achievement Approximate cost (EGP)(salaries excluded)

3A. Design, organise and conduct a 3A.1 Define targets, and justify relevance of the • NCS • Targets defined and justified 40,000 (consultant fees) nation-wide awareness campaign. different sectors of the target audience (in large part • Library of Alexandria • Mailing list (email) created coinciding with the Stakeholders listed in 2A): • Selected NGOs (see 3B.2) • Consultants • Key officials from the central government authorities; • Key officials from the regional and local governing, enforcement and judiciary authorities; • Policy makers, politicians and decision makers; • Fishing communities at all organisational levels; • Relevant local communities, including teachers, schools and local media; • Management bodies of MPAs • Relevant NGOs; • Scientific community; • Shipping and tourism sectors; • National media; • General public.

3A.2 Define a communication rationale (i.e., why • NCS Communication rationale defined, and 0 protect marine mammals) and include in the • Library of Alexandria tailored to marine mammal conservation communication strategy information, tailored to the • Selected NGOs (see 3B.2) different target groups, on the conservation • Consultants problems affecting marine mammals in Egyptian waters to be addressed by the campaigns.

3A.3 Define the actions (necessary and specific to • NCS Actions defined: 50,000 both the need of conserving marine mammals in • Library of Alexandria • Conferences to be conducted in Cairo Egypt and to the target audience identified) that will • Selected NGOs (see 3B.2)

32 enable increasing awareness, promoting effective • Consultants and Alexandria advocacy by NGOs, improving education • Leaflet to be produced and distributed programmes, implementing capacity building (see • Website to be produced (with e- 3B), and engaging civil society at large in marine newsletter downloadable) and stewardship. This may include (but not be limited to) advertised via email scientific conferences and seminars; production of • Blog to be maintained communication material (leaflets, handbooks, web- • Facebook page to be created and sites, newsletters); production or translation of maintained documentaries; identification of marine mammal • Marine mammal ambassador to be “ambassadors” and connected PR actions (e.g., identified and involved interviews); implementation of advertising • Environmental education programme in campaigns (TV, radio, interviews and advertorials); an Alexandria and in a Marsa Matrouh organisation of school environmental education school to be implemented programmes; photography and other exhibitions; events (concerts, theatre plays, etc.); organisation of a marine mammal “road-show”; involvement of the public in a “marine mammal observatory” (e.g. sighting and stranding network); use of less conventional tools such as viral campaigns, social networks, blogs; public opinion survey and research.

3A.4 Define what is to be achieved at the end of the • NCS Awareness campaign targets defined 0 campaign(s) in terms of progress towards solving the • Library of Alexandria marine mammal conservation problems identified • Selected NGOs (see 3B.2) (i.e. the message of the information and • Consultants communication campaign will coincide with the structure – goal and objectives – of this Action Plan).

3A.5 Implement the awareness campaign based on • NCS Awareness campaign organised and 250,000 elements acquired under Sub-actions 3A.1 to 3A.4. • Library of Alexandria conducted on the basis of the results of

• Selected NGOs (see 3B.2) Actions 3A.1-4 • Selected media

Local events organised in 6 ports during 30,000 the survey cruises conducted under Action 1A.1 organised

33 3B. Build capacity in the field of 3B.1 Conduct seminars, training sessions for national • NCS • Media training package developed 40,000 communication, education and and local media practitioners to ensure that marine • Library of Alexandria • One seminar/training session conducted awareness. mammal conservation is appropriately addressed at • Selected NGOs (see 3B.2) in Cairo the local level wherever appropriate (e.g., by • Consultants • One seminar/training session conducted developing local communication skills and activities in Alexandria, Marsa Matrouh, … targeting the public in areas containing marine mammal critical habitat), and that local actions are coordinated and in accordance with the Action Plan.

3B.2 Promote the establishment and coordination of • NCS • NGO training package developed 20,000 NGOs relevant to marine mammal conservation, and • Library of Alexandria • Select appropriate NGOs at national and ensure that actions by advocacy organisations are • Consultants local levels based on accurate, objective background • NGO training conducted on an ad hoc information grounded on solid science. basis

3B.3 Support and promote academic and educational • NCS • Science/education capacity building 20,000 institutions to build capacity relevant to the • Library of Alexandria package developed communication and teaching of marine mammal • Consultants • Appropriate academic and educational conservation issues. institutions at national and local levels identified and enrolled in programme; • At least one major institution offering a specialised marine mammal conservation curriculum.

34 8. Revision of the Action Plan

A mid-term assessment of the implementation of the Action Plan should be performed in 2014, to assess up-to-date attainment of objectives within the Plan’s timeframe and to identify, if needed, moderate adjustments. A comprehensive review of the Action Plan’s accomplishments and failures will be conducted in 2016, based on the indicators presented in the Implementation Table, with a consideration for potential actions to be taken beyond 2016.

9. Acknowledgments

The Nature Conservation Sector of the Ministry of State for Environment in Egypt offered hospitality for this mission in Egypt. Egyptian experts and authorities have demonstrated great interest and support towards the development of cetacean research and conservation in Egypt. My deepest gratitude goes to them and to the fishermen who participated in meetings and interviews. Deep thanks to Prof. Dr. Moustafa Fouda for his encouragement and suggestions. Thanks also to: RAC SPA for funding the establishment of the action plan, and in particular to Lobna Ben Nakla for her invaluable assistance and advice.

10. Literature cited

Anonymous. 2006. Mediterranean monk seal Monachus monachus: distribution and abundance. Monk seal fact files. http://www.monachus- guardian.org/factfiles/medit15.htm Anonymous. 2010. Report of the workshop on small cetaceans and climate change. Unpublished Document, IWC. Vienna, 28 Nov-1 Dec 2010. 29 p.

Abdulla A., Gomei M., Maison E., Piante C. 2008. Status of marine protected areas in the Mediterranean Sea. IUCN, Malaga and WWF, France. 152 pp. Agardy T. 1997. Marine protected areas and ocean conservation. Academic Press and R.G. Landes Company, Austin. 244 pp.

Aguilar A., Lowry, L. 2008. Monachus monachus. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. . Caro T.M., O'Doherty G. 1999. On the use of surrogate species in conservation biology. Conservation Biology 13(4):805-814.

Ferretti F., Myers R.A., Serena F., Lotze H.K. 2008. Loss of large predatory sharks from the Mediterranean Sea. Conservation Biology 22(4):952-964. Flower S.S. 1932. Notes on the recent mammals of Egypt with a list of species recorded from that kingdom. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 102(2):369-450. DOI: 10.1111/j.1096-3642.1932.tb01081.x Guidetti P., Milazzo M., Bussotti S., Molinari A., Murenu M., Pais A., Spanò N., Balzano R., Agardy T., Boero F., Carrada G., Cattaneo-Vietti R., Cau A., Chemello R., Greco S., Manganaro A., Notarbartolo di Sciara G., Russo G.F., Tunesi L. 2008. Italian marine protected area effectiveness: does enforcement matter? Biological Conservation 141:699-709. Halpern B.S., Walbridge S., Selkoe K.A., Kappel C.V., Micheli F., D’Agrosa C., Bruno J.F., Casey K.S., Ebert C., Fox H.E., Fujita R., Heinemann D., Lenihan H.S., Madin E.M.P., Perry M.T., Selig E.R., Spalding M., Steneck R., Watson R. 2008. A global map of human impact on marine ecosystems. Science (Washington D.C.) 319:948-952. Lotze H.K., Worm B. 21009. Historical baselines for large marine animals. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24(5):254-262. Micheli F. 2011. A map of cumulative human impacts on Mediterranean marine ecosystems. NCEAs, http://globalmarine.nceas.ucsb.edu/mediterranean/ Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Synthesis Report. Pre-publication final draft approved by MA Board on March 23, 2005. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 219 p. Mözer Bruyns W.F.J. 1971. Field guide of whales and dolphins. Uitgeverij Tor/N.V. Uitgeverij V.H. C.A. Mees, Zieseniskade 14, Amsterdam. 258 p. Myers R.A., Worm B. 2003. Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities. Nature 423:280-283. Notarbartolo di Sciara G. 2007. Guidelines for the establishment and management of marine protected areas for marine mammals. Regional Activity Centre, Specially Protected Areas, Tunis. N° 03/2007:1-29. Notarbartolo di Sciara G., Birkun A., Jr. 2010. Conserving whales, dolphins and porpoises in the Mediterranean and Black Seas: an ACCOBAMS status report, 2010. ACCOBAMS and Department of External Relations, Principality of Monaco. 212 p. Notarbartolo di Sciara G., Fouad M. 2011. Monk seal sighting in Egypt. Monk Seal Latest News. http://www.monachus-guardian.org/ wordpress/2011/04/29/monk-seal-sightings-in-egypt/ Orr D.W. 2004. Earth in mind: on education, environment, and the human prospect. Island Press, Washington (first edition: 1994). 221 pp. Reynolds J.E., Marsh H., Ragen T.J. 2009. Marine mammal conservation. Endangered Species Research 7:23-28. Roberge J.-M., Angelstam P. 2004. Usefulness of the umbrella species concept as a conservation tool. Conservation Biology 18:76-85. Roberts C.M., Bohnsack J.A., Gell F., Hawkins J.P., Goodridge R. 2001. Effects of marine reserves on adjacent fisheries. Science 294:1920-1923. Togridou A., Hovardas T., Pantis J. 2006. Factors shaping implementation of protected area management decisions: a case study of the Zakynthos National Marine Park. Environmental Conservation 33:233-243. doi:10.1017/S0376892906003171 Wassif K. 1956. Pseudorca crassidens Owen from Mediterranean shores of Egypt. Journal of Mammalogy 37(3):456.

Worm B., Barbier E.B., Beaumont N., Duffy J.E., Folke C., Halpern B.S., Jackson J.B.C., Lotze H.K., Micheli F., Palumbi S.R., Sala E., Selkoe K.A., Stachowicz J.J., Watson R. 2006. Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science 314:787-790.

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Appendix 1. Report of a field trip to the Mediterranean coast of Egypt

5 – 9 April 2011

Mahmoud Fouad Environmental Researcher Nature Conservation Sector Ministry of State For Environmental Affairs - EGYPT

We tried to meet with the stakeholders as much as we can to listen and discuss our preparation for the NAP where these stakeholders should have role in implementing some actions. Of course we couldn’t meet with all stakeholders such as petroleum companies and universities because of the time.

The schedule was condensed, we met with different categories to be represented such as governmental, local communities, scientists and NGOs with visiting 3 spots of the coast; Alexandria, Matrouh in west and Dumyat in east with Nile delta.

05 – 04 – 2011

- The meeting held in Cairo including; NCS staff, NIOF and Nature Conservation in Egypt (NGO) which was stressing on the important of focusing on the capacity building and public awareness through the coming five years of the AP.

- Also discussed the lack of data about cetacean in Mediterranean in Egypt, although presence of some records and indicators which tell the presence of different species of cetacean in the Egyptian waters. These records vary from Zaranik PA in North of Sinai, the North Coast and Alexandria.

- Plan for dealing with stranded animals is extremely neded, and the coast guard can help in this.

- It is very important for the proposed actions to be provided with strong justifications to help marketing these actions for funding.

06 – 04 – 2011 (Alexandria)

- Two meetings were held; the first, with the head of the environmental sector of the library of Alexandria whom welcomed and offered to carryout activities for public awareness.

- The 2nd meeting, with Dr. Alaa Al Haweet who is working at the Arab Academy for Science and Technology and teaching the fishing gears and techniques. The AASTMT offered to use the their boat during the surveys in Abu Quir area and involve one or two of the young scientists in the national team

07 – 04 – 2011 (Matrouh)

- Meeting was held in the governorate building with the manager of the environment office, local fishermen, GAFRD representative and the head of fishermen organization. Due to the appearance of Monk Seal in the area, they were excited to talk about it not on cetacean. But it was very clear that a quick action should be taken in this area to protect the Monk Seal and raise the awareness if local community about the marine mammals especially that they are facing many problems which should have solutions such as; Buffer fish, Fishing from Foreign fishermen, regulations by GAFRD and support from governorate. 37

- Visit the place of appearance of Monk Seal.

08 – 04 – 2011 (Dumyat)

- Visit to the Harbour which is considered to have about 50% of total fishing fleet of the country in Nile's Eastern branch. This area from few years ago was common by watching dolphins which were too easy to see from the land. During the visit, the fishermen showed their kinds of fish and amounts.

- Meeting with GAFRD headquarter representative and the manager of Dumyat area which shown that GAFRD should play a role more effective in cetacean conservation and implement some actions of the proposed AP. They offered to help in coordination with military, coast guard, shining boats and different orgnisations to facilitate permissions for surveys.

09 – 04 – 2011 (Cairo)

- Meeting with Dr. Fouda and summarizing the field trip.

- Overall the meetings were met by special interests from different stakeholders to implement the AP.

- Importance of composing a national team to be well trained for monitoring cetacean.

- Awareness about cetacean was very week on all levels which is very important to have a priority.

- Shifting the AP to be for marine mammals instead of cetacean.

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Appendix 2. List of marine mammal species found, or likely to be found, in Egyptian Mediterranean waters

The species of Cetacea found in the ACCOBAMS area are listed in the following tables 1-4. Table 1 lists the 11 species that are represented by populations which are regularly2 present in the Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic. Table 2 lists three cetacean species regular in the Black Sea. Visitor3, vagrant4 and alien5 species are listed, respectively, in Tables 3, 4 and 5. Only species listed in Tables 1 and 2 deserve status assessment, given that the others are represented by populations living outside of the region. So far, populations that were formally assessed in the Red List include the Mediterranean short-beaked common dolphin and all three Black Sea cetaceans. For all the others, proposals have been finalised although their formal inclusion in the Red List is still pending.

common name scientific name mostly found in conservation Presence in EMW status Fin whale Balaenoptera throughout the Mediterranean and Vulnerable Recorded in Egypt physalus Contiguous Atlantic Area Sperm whale Physeter throughout the Mediterranean and Endangered Recorded in Egypt macrocephalus Contiguous Atlantic Area Cuvier’s beaked Ziphius cavirostris throughout the Mediterranean and Proposed as Likely to be found in whale Contiguous Atlantic Area Vulnerable Egypt Killer whale Orcinus orca Strait of Gibraltar and Contiguous Critically Recorded in Egypt, Atlantic Area Endangered considered Vagrant in the Eastern Mediterranean Long-finned pilot Globicephala melas throughout the western Mediterranean Data Deficient Vagrant in the Eastern whale and Contiguous Atlantic Area Mediterranean Risso’s dolphin Grampus griseus throughout the Mediterranean and Data Deficient Likely to be found in Contiguous Atlantic Area Egypt Rough-toothed Steno bredanensis Levantine Sea and possibly in the Not assessed Likely to be found in dolphin Contiguous Atlantic Area Egypt Common bottlenose Tursiops truncatus throughout the Mediterranean and Vulnerable Recorded in Egypt dolphin Contiguous Atlantic Area Striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba throughout the Mediterranean and Vulnerable Likely to be found in Contiguous Atlantic Area Egypt Short beaked Delphinus delphis throughout the Mediterranean and Endangered Likely to be found in common dolphin Contiguous Atlantic Area Egypt Harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena Northern Aegean Sea Endangered Unlikely to be found relicta in Egypt Phocoena phocoena Contiguous Atlantic Area Least Concern Unlikely to be found phocoena in Egypt Table 1 – Cetacean species represented by populations regularly present in the Mediterranean Sea.

2 Regular: a species represented by a population having within the region its native distributional range. 3 Visitor: a species represented by individuals found outside their native distributional range, which repeatedly, albeit irregularly, appear in a given region. 4 Vagrant: a species represented by individuals found outside their native distributional range, appearing in a given region with extreme rarity. 5 Alien: a species living outside its native distributional range, which has arrived in the region as a consequence of human activities, either deliberate or accidental.

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common name scientific name where occurred notes Common minke Balaenoptera Spain, Morocco, France, Italy, Tunisia, at least 30 certain occurrences in the whale acutorostrata Greece, Israel last two centuries. May occasionally occur in EMW. Humpback whale Megaptera Spain, France, Italy, Tunisia, Slovenia, at least 15 certain occurrences in the novaeangliae Greece, Syria last 120 years. May occasionally occur in EMW. False killer whale Pseudorca crassidens Spain, France, Italy, Malta, Croatia, at least 30 certain occurrences in the Greece, Turkey, Egypt, Syria, Israel last 150 years. May occasionally occur in EMW. Table 2 – Cetacean species considered visitors to the Mediterranean Sea.

common name scientific name where notes occurred Sei whale Balaenoptera borealis Spain, France Two strandings and three likely sightings in the Mediterranean since 1921 North Atlantic right Eubalaena glacialis Algeria, Italy Two certain occurrences in the Mediterranean since 1877 whale Grey whale Eschrichtius robustus Israel, Spain One individual repeatedly sighted in the Mediterranean in 2010 Dwarf sperm whale Kogia sima Italy Two certain occurrences in the Mediterranean since 1988 Northern bottlenose Hyperoodon Spain, France Two certain occurrences in the Mediterranean since 1880 whale ampullatus Blainville’s beaked Mesoplodon Spain One certain occurrence in the Mediterranean (1980) whale6 densirostris Gervais’ beaked whale Mesoplodon europaeus Italy One certain occurrence in the Mediterranean (2001). Species identification of a specimen live-stranded in Turkey (2008), likely M. europaeus, could not be confirmed. Table 3 – Cetacean species considered vagrant in the Mediterranean Sea.

common name scientific name where occurred notes Indo-Pacific Sousa chinensis Mediterranean coast A species not uncommon in the Gulf of (Red Sea). One humpback dolphin of Israel individual repeatedly sighted in the Mediterranean, where it could travel thanks to the artificial Suez Canal. May occasionally occur in EMW. Table 4 – Cetacean species considered alien to the Mediterranean Sea.

6 Some Mesoplodon specimens, found in the past in the Mediterranean (in France and Italy), had been identified as M. bidens (e.g., Brunelli & Fasella 1928, Frantzis et al. 2003), however insufficient evidence was provided to support species identification; as a consequence, the presence of the species in the region remains unconfirmed.

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Appendix 3. Case study: protection of spinner dolphins in Samadai, Egyptian Red Sea

(article published in 2009 in the Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 89(1):211-216. doi:10.1017/S0025315408002221)

Spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris) resting habitat in Samadai Reef (Egypt, Red Sea) protected through tourism management

Giuseppe Notarbartolo-di-Sciara1 Mahmoud H. Hanafy2 Moustafa M. Fouda3 Ayman Afifi3 Marina Costa1

1Tethys Research Institute, viale G.B. Gadio 2, 20121 Milano, Italy 2Department of Marine Science, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt 3Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, 30 Misr Helwan El-Zyrae Road, Maadi , Cairo, Egypt

ABSTRACT

The daily presence of spinner dolphins, Stenella longirostris, inside a small reef offshore the Red Sea coast of Southern Egypt was monitored from January 2004 to January 2006. Observations indicated marked seasonal and daily variations in the use of the reef as a resting and socialising area by the dolphins, consistent during the two years of monitoring. Overall, the mean number of dolphins present in the reef at any day was 39.2 (SD = 39.34, range 0-210), with the lowest presence in Feb. to Apr. and the highest in June. Similar to other populations of this species in other oceans, dolphins entered the reef between daybreak and mid-morning, and started exiting during the afternoon hours. Although calves were seen in all seasons, a sharp peak was observed in June. Monitoring data provided indications relevant to governmental management efforts, which were implemented in 2003 to ensure that the dolphins could continue using the reef for their resting needs while a sustainable, respectful tourist activity is allowed in a designated zone of the reef adjacent to the dolphins’ core habitat.

INTRODUCTION

This paper describes the presence of spinner dolphins, Stenella longirostris (Gray, 1828), in the coastal Red Sea area off southern Egypt, and their diurnal resting behaviour within a coral reef located six km offshore, near the town of . Spinner dolphins are among the most common cetaceans in the Red Sea (Notarbartolo di Sciara et al., 2007). In several tropical locations of the world’s oceans, such as Hawai’i (Norris et al., 1994), Midway (Karczmarsky et al., 2005), Polynesia (Gannier & Petiau, 2006) and Fernando de Noronha, Brazil (Silva et al., 2005), spinner dolphins are known to move inside the protected and shallow waters of particular reefs during the daylight hours, probably to reduce the chances of deepwater shark predation (Norris & Dohl, 1980), after having foraged cooperatively at night over the shelf waters on the mesopelagic boundary micronekton community (Perrin, 1998; Benoit-Bird & Au, 2003). Such behaviour is also known to occur in the Red Sea (e.g., in coral reefs off the Sudanese coast: G. Notarbartolo di Sciara, unpublished observations), including off the coast of southern Egypt.

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In our study area one of the reefs in particular, locally known as Samadai, has been known for years as a reef regularly visited by spinner dolphins. The predictable presence of dolphins in a locality easy to reach has attracted, in recent years, a considerable number of visitors to Samadai (Sarhan et al., 2004). Tourism in the area of Marsa Alam is rapidly developing, with a large number of new hotels and resorts being built along the coast. The predominant attraction for tourists in Marsa Alam is the tropical marine environment, with its impressive coral reefs and associated marine fauna. However, diving locations are not very numerous along this stretch of coastline, and Samadai is one of the most attractive. When inside the reef, spinner dolphins are found in very shallow water (most of the time < 20 m), and are best seen when snorkelling as opposed to during dives. Until approximately 2000, spinner dolphins in Samadai were mostly a side attraction for divers, who would watch them while snorkelling between dives. In the early 2000s, however, a number of new factors dramatically changed the situation: (1) the word spread across the tourist community at large and specialised Red Sea tour operators, that the presence of dolphins in a conveniently reachable and scenic situation afforded a rare opportunity for close encounters with charismatic marine fauna; (2) the increased volume of tourists in the Marsa Alam area brought there a large number of visitors with little or no diving expertise but with sufficient snorkelling capabilities; (3) the fame of the Samadai dolphins attracted day-trip tourists from as far as Hurghada (260 km to the north), with several buses bringing to the reef hundreds of people per day, in addition to the Marsa Alam- based tourists. Due to these circumstances, human pressure within Samadai reef and on the dolphins grew rapidly, sharply peaking in summer 2003, reportedly with > 800 swimmers being present in the small lagoon on a single day (Sarhan et al., 2004). Hordes of tourists are said to have come into close contact with the resting dolphins, with little or no concern for safety aspects, for the ecological fragility of the situation, and for the need of respectful behaviour in the presence of the resting wild mammals. Excessive numbers of swimmers and documented objectionable behaviour of some visitors within the reef was said to be causing noticeable distress to the dolphins, and there was general agreement that the situation had to be brought under strict control without delay if the continued presence of the dolphins in Samadai was to be ensured. As a consequence, in December 2003 a decision was adopted by the local governing authorities to suspend all visits to Samadai reef until a management scheme was in place. A provisional management scheme was thus implemented starting in January 2004, based on the scant knowledge available at the time and on a precautionary approach (Notarbartolo di Sciara, 2003). Measures included: the subdivision of the reef into three zones (Fig. 1); a daily ceiling of 100 snorkellers and 100 divers visiting the reef aboard a maximum of 10 large boats; time limits for visits (from 10 AM to 2 PM); limiting admission of swimming visitors to a restricted zone adjacent to what was considered critical dolphin habitat, under the guidance of certified guides; the adoption of a code of conduct; and the payment of an entrance fee. Meanwhile, the collection of data on dolphins and swimmers’ presence in Samadai was seen as a much needed action to provide knowledge to inform future management. Rangers from the Red Sea Protectorates (RSP, Nature Conservation Sector of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency) were trained on data collection techniques and protocols by one of us (GNS), and the collection of the data started on 15 Jan 2004. This paper provides a summary of the data collected during a two-year period, from 15 Jan 2004 to 14 Jan 2006.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samadai Reef is located at 24° 59’ N, 034° 59’ E, approx. six km from the Egyptian coast at its nearest point, and 12 km southeast of Marsa Alam. This horseshoe-shaped reef, 1.4 km long and 1 km wide, is oriented E-W forming a natural lagoon open to the south, well-sheltered from the prevailing northerly winds. A provisional management plan in force since January 2004 subdivided the lagoon waters into three zones (Fig. 1): Zone A (a no-entry zone approx. 90,000 m2 wide, containing the lagoon area preferred by the dolphins when resting; Zone B (a 44.000 m2 wide zone where swimmer visits are conducted and no boats are allowed); and Zone C (the remainder of the lagoon, 693.000 m2 wide, containing the moorings of the large boats, where small inflatables are allowed and snorkelling and diving may occur freely). Monitoring of the dolphins’ use of the various reef zones and of the snorkellers’ presence was conducted by trained RSP rangers since January 2004. This paper presents monitoring data for the first two years, until 14 January 2006 (Tab. 1 and 2). Observations, conducted on a daily basis from a small vessel (a 5 m RIB) anchored in the centre of the reef (Fig. 1, open circle), started between 7.30 and 10.00 and lasted until 15.00-16.00 (depending on length of day). Mean daily observation time over the two years was slightly below six hours (Tab. 1). Sighting conditions were always excellent

42 given that when inside the reef the waters were relatively calm even on windy days and the distance of the dolphins from the boat was never >400 m, and usually much less. Data collected included: the dolphins’ presence or absence in the reef and its various zones, the presence and numbers of swimmers in Zone B, and the presence and numbers of small vessels in Zone C. At the 0 and 30 minutes of each hour, the number of dolphins in each zone (including a fourth zone, outside the reef) was recorded, as well as the number of the swimmers in zone B, of small boats and of large vessels anchored in the pre-set mooring sites in Zone C. Relevant events and environmental conditions were also recorded and reported in chronological order on a separate form. Events included: time of the dolphins’ entering or leaving the lagoon, noticeable reactions of the dolphins to the swimmers and possible interactions, and other relevant occurrences. Wind speed, cloud cover and SST were also collected on a regular basis. Dolphin group size was estimated from above-water only, by averaging minimum and maximum estimates. Observations of the same dolphin group over periods of hours improved such estimates during the course of the day. Occasional underwater counts provided by swim guides allowed ground-truthing of above-water counts; however only the above-water estimates were retained in the data. Dolphins were considered calves when their size was estimated at less than 75% of the average adult length and swam in close association with an adult. No distinction was made between calves and newborn animals.

RESULTS

Mean daily dolphin presence in Samadai was 39.2 (SD = 39.34, range 0-210), with no significant differences between 2004 and 2005 (Table 3). The mean presence of dolphins in the reef showed a seasonal pattern roughly consistent in both years, with low numbers between February and April, a sharp peak in May – July with numbers increasing 6- to 8-fold compared to the winter minimum, and a progressive decrease during autumn ending the cycle in the following winter (Fig. 2). The daily pattern of dolphin presence in the reef showed a numerical increase during the morning hours from 7.30 until 9.30; numbers remained high until 12.30, and then progressively declined until the end of the day’s observations (Fig. 3). Local knowledge indicated that dolphins are absent from the reef during the night. Mean dolphin presence in zones B and C was much lower than in Zone A, indicating a greater presence of the animals within the latter, which obviously offered to the animals choice habitat for resting and socialising (Table 3 and Fig. 4A). Zones B and C appeared to serve as a corridor between the open sea and Zone A. A changing pattern of reef use with time of day was consistent with observations made during the monitoring process. In the afternoon hours, dolphins increased their activity patterns, frequency of aerial behaviours and unpredictability of swimming direction with respect to their stereotyped behaviour in the morning, and were more inclined to frequently trespass from zone A into the remainder of the reef area, including zone B, where they would be swimming among snorkellers (Fig. 4A). Considering that swimmers were allowed in the water in Zone B between 10 AM and 2 PM, a temporal mismatch occurred between the peak presence of swimmers in zone B (Fig. 4 B) and the increasing presence of dolphins outside of zone A (Fig. 4 A). This lack of synchronisation between the timing of swimmers’ visits and dolphin behavioural changes was not conducive to the optimisation of dolphin encounters by tourists, particularly considering that during the afternoon hours dolphins are more alert, curious and available to interact with swimmers. Although calves were observed year-round, a marked seasonality of the presence of calves within the groups in the lagoon was observed, with a distinct peak in June (Fig. 5).

DISCUSSION

Ecological aspects. While the monitoring activities described in this paper provide a first description of the behavioural ecology of spinner dolphins in the Red Sea, and show remarkable similarities with other S. longirostris populations in other oceans, a number of questions about the species’ ecology in the region remain still open and will need to be addressed through further research. The main unknown aspects concern the seasonal variability of the dolphins’ use of Samadai, and whether such variability affects the entire population or only part of it. In turn, these aspects raise questions about the social structure of S. longirostris in the Red Sea. Spinner dolphins are thought to seek refuge in sheltered reefs to rest in locations where they can more easily protect themselves from the dangers of shark predation (Norris & Dohl, 1980). However, the seasonal variability of their presence in Samadai may mean that: (a) when not in Samadai, dolphins rest in other reefs; (b) the dolphins’ ability to

43 use the reef may be curtailed during part of the year, e.g., by their prey’s ecology; or (c) the dolphins’ need for protection from predators is seasonally variable. This last option may be due either to a possible (although undemonstrated) seasonal variability of predation pressure in the area, or to seasonal changes in the degree of vulnerability to predation by the dolphins themselves (e.g., due to a well-marked calving season). This seems to be corroborated by the coincidence between the month of highest presence of dolphins in Samadai and the month of highest number of calves counted within the dolphin groups. The seasonal variability of the dolphin presence in Samadai may more easily be supported by a fusion-fission social pattern, similar to that observed along the Kona coast in Hawai’i (Norris & Dohl, 1980; Norris et al., 1994; Lammers, 2004), and Polynesia (Gannier & Petiau, 2006), than by a stable bisexually bonded society of long-term associates, with strong geographic fidelity, no obvious fission-fusion, and limited contacts with other populations, such as that observed in Midway Atoll (Karczmarski et al., 2005).

Management aspects. Although not formally established as a protected area to protect the dolphins, Samadai Reef is in practice a specially managed marine area. At the onset of the monitoring programme described in this paper, a provisional management plan was implemented in Samadai Reef by the RSP, having two objectives: “(a) to constrain the extent of human presence in the reef within limits that are clearly acceptable to the dolphins, and will not cause the quality of their habitat to degrade, and the dolphins’ abandonment of the reef; and (b) to allow the continuation of a tourist activity involving a respectful interaction with the dolphins which is important for the local economy and which has, if properly conducted, a high educational value potentially enhancing human attention, attraction and care for the marine environment at large” (Notarbartolo di Sciara, 2003). Whale watching tourism is fast expanding throughout the world (Hoyt, 2001), and programmes in which tourists are brought in the water to interact with free- ranging cetaceans (also known as “swim-with” activities) are increasing in popularity in many different locations. However, whether these encounters constitute a threat to the animals involved, and whether swim-with activities can be sustainable, is a matter of considerable controversy (Samuels & Bejder, 2004). Mammals exposed to frequent contact with tourists (e.g., chimpanzees Pan troglodytes and grey whales Eschrichtius robustus) are known to habituate and become tolerant of benign human presence (Constantine et al., 2004); however, instances are known in which animals (e.g., common bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus, killer whales Orcinus orca, and mountain gorillas Gorilla gorilla beringei) have become particularly sensitive to human presence in situations which they perceived as threatening (Constantine, 2001). Constantine et al. (2004) found that the effects of dolphin-watching boats on common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) resting behaviour in the Bay of Islands, New Zealand, were substantial, and suggested that the current national legislation was not affording this isolated population protection from human disturbance. Neumann & Orams (2006) investigated interactions between short- beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) and snorkelling tourists off the eastern coast of New Zealand over a three-year period, and found that the dolphins’ initial attraction by swimmers was typically followed by neutral behaviour and eventually replaced by boat avoidance; those authors concluded that the animals were likely to be negatively affected by tourism. Among cetaceans, spinner dolphins have been a tourist attraction in a growing number of sites in the Pacific Ocean (Courbis, 2007), and while Delfour (2007) was unable to detect human effects on the dolphins in Hawai’i, Danil et al. (2005) and Gannier & Petiau (2006) did provide evidence of possible effects, respectively, in Hawai’i and Polynesia. Therefore, allowing the continuation of a swim-with programme in Samadai raises considerable concern for the sustainability of this activity, also considering that even dolphin-human interactions that may at first glance appear “positive” can ultimately have negative impacts on dolphin fitness (Janik & Thompson, 1996). However, “swim-with” activities with cetaceans occur in a variety of situations involving different habitats, species and life history phases, some of which are amenable to be more effectively and sustainably managed than others (Barradell & Ritter, 2007). For example, “swim-with” operations based on dwarf minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) in the Great Barrier Reef, an increasingly popular tourist activity in northern Queensland, Australia (Valentine et al., 2004), are carefully managed and monitored and, being based on voluntary approaches by the whales, appear to be having a minimal (if any) impact on the whales themselves (Arnold & Birtles, 1999). The spatial configuration of Samadai Reef, with a well-defined, easily identifiable and predictable core area used by the dolphins for their resting needs, allows for unambiguous zoning of the site and effective enforcement of the management measures. Although no significant variation in dolphin numbers was detected between the two years of this study, an impact assessment should be conducted through the longitudinal monitoring of the dolphins’ presence in the reef across several years (Constantine, 2001).

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Anecdotal evidence exists that spinner dolphins are clearly easier to approach in Samadai than in other reefs along the southern coast of Egypt, suggesting that in Samadai dolphins are more used to being in the vicinity of people than elsewhere. Samuels & Bejder (2004), studying the effects of “swim-with” activities on the behaviour of common bottlenose dolphins (T. truncatus) in waters near Panama City Beach, Florida, found that a particular subset of the dolphins studied permitted people to swim near them, suggesting individual habituation. The fact that no obvious signs of avoidance were displayed by the dolphins in Samadai during the study period cannot, however, be considered proof that no impact exists (Gill et al., 2001). While the knowledge produced by two years of monitoring showed that the management provisions implemented in January 2004 appeared to be sound, the data indicated a mismatch between the timing of the presence of swimmers in Zone B and the availability of dolphins to trespass from Zone A to Zone B and interact with them (Fig. 4). These data would suggest that the entry time in Zone B for swimmers seeking to be in the vicinity of the dolphins could be delayed from 10 am to 12 pm, and prolonged throughout the afternoon, to facilitate the staggering of human presence in the water across time (thus decreasing the number of people simultaneously in the water), and to encourage visitors to be in the water in a time of day in which the dolphins are awake, alert and amenable to swim near the people out of curiosity. In conclusion, the preliminary information collected through the RSP monitoring programme indicates that the management measures implemented in Samadai have gone in the right direction, by devoting a large core area of the reef to the exclusive use by the dolphins, while allowing tourists to experience a controlled contact with the animals in a less important area. We suggest the next steps to be undertaken to further improve management should involve ensuring:

(a) continued compliance of the management prescriptions supported by the constant presence of enforcement officers in Samadai. When assessing the extent to which tourism affects cetaceans, investigators should consider whether tourist operations comply with existing regulations or guidelines (Scarpaci et al., 2003). (b) that guides leading the swimming tours in Zone B are well-trained in the task through a regular training and certification programme (Samuels & Spradlin, 1995); and (c) the implementation of educational interpretation and outreach education to nearby communities. Results from a study conducted in swim-with-dolphin tours at three locations in New Zealand support the demand for structured interpretation programmes on marine mammal tours, with clear indications from the interviewed tourists that they would have liked to receive more information, in particular about the wider marine environment (Lück, 2003).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank Red Sea rangers Ahmed Shawky, Beshoy Morise, Amgaad El-Shafaay, Ahmed Abd El-Khalik, Mohamed Abd El-Ghany, Sayed Khodary, Mohammed Bessar, Hamed Fathy, Sameh El-Masry, and Mukhtar Beher for their enduring effort in the collection of the data and for enforcing the law protecting the dolphins in Samadai. Logistic support and the friendly encouragement by Diving Ocean, and in particular by Pierpaolo Campanini, Angela Donati, and Vittoria Giannattasio, are also gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Arnold, P.W. & Birtles, R.A., 1999. Towards sustainable management of the developing dwarf minke whale tourism industry in northern Queensland. CRC Reef Research Centre Technical Report No. 27. Townsville; CRC Reef Research Centre, 30 pp. Barradell, M.G. & Ritter, F., 2007. Swim-With-Dolphin activities in the Azores – steps towards sustainability. International Whaling Commission Scientific Committee Document SC/59/WW12, 7 pp. Baldwin, R., Gallagher, M. & Van Waerebeek, K., 1998. A review of cetaceans from waters off the Arabian peninsula. In: The natural history of Oman: a Festschrift for Michael Gallagher (ed. M. Fisher, S.A. Ghazanfar and A. Spalton), pp. 161-189. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden. Benoit-Bird, K.J. & Au, W.W.L., 2003. Prey dynamics affect foraging by a pelagic predator (Stenella longirostris) over a range of spatial and temporal scales. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 53, 364–373. Constantine, R., 2001. Increased avoidance of swimmers by wild bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) due to long-term exposure to swim-with-dolphin tourism. Marine Mammal Science, 17(4), 689-702.

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Constantine, R., Brunton, D.H. & Dennis, T., 2004. Dolphin-watching tour boats change bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) behaviour. Biological Conservation, 117(3), 299-307. Courbis, S., 2007. Effect of spinner dolphin presence on level of swimmer and vessel activity in Hawai'ian bays. Tourism in Marine Environments, 4(1), 1-14. Danil, K., Maldini, D. & Marten, K., 2005. Patterns of use of Maku’a Beach, O’ahu, Hawai’i, by spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) and potential effects of swimmers on their behavior. Aquatic Mammals, 31(4), 403-412 Gannier, A. & Petiau, E., 2006. Environmental variables affecting the residence of spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) in a bay of Tahiti (French Polynesia). Aquatic Mammals, 32(2), 202-211. Gill, J.A., Norris, K. & Sutherland, W.J., 2001. Why behavioural responses may not reflect the population consequences of human disturbance. Biological Conservation, 97, 265-268. Hoyt, E. 2001. Whale watching 2001. Worldwide tourism numbers, expenditures and expanding socioeconomic benefits. A special report from the International Fund for Animal Welfare, 165 pp. Karczmarski, L., Würsig, B., Gailey, G., Larson, K.W. & Vanderlip, C., 2005. Spinner dolphins in a remote Hawaiian atoll: social grouping and population structure. Behavioral Ecology, 16, 675-685. Lammers, M.O., 2004. Occurrence and behavior of Hawaiian spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) along Oahu's leeward and south shores. Aquatic Mammals, 30(2), 237-250. Lück, M., 2003. Education on marine mammal tours as agent for conservation—but do tourists want to be educated? Ocean & Coastal Management, 46, 943–956. Neumann, D.R. & Orams, M.B., 2006. Impacts of ecotourism on short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) in Mercury Bay, New Zealand. Aquatic Mammals, 32(1), 1-9. Norris, K.S. & Dohl, T.P., 1980. Behavior of the Hawaiian spinner dolphin, Stenella longirostris. Fishery Bulletin, 77, 821–849. Norris, K. S., Würsig, B., Wells, R. S. & Würsig, M., 1994. The Hawaiian spinner dolphin. Berkeley: University of California Press. Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., 2003. Samadai Dolphin House: considerations on a tourist impact mitigation plan. Report to the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, Nature Conservation Sector, Cairo, 13 pp. Perrin, W.F., 1998. Stenella longirostris. Mammalian Species, 599, 1-7. Samuels, A. & Bejder, L., 2004. Chronic interaction between humans and free-ranging bottlenose dolphins near Panama City Beach, Florida, USA. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management, 6(1), 69-77. Samuels, A. & Spradlin, T.R., 1995. Quantitative behavioral study of bottlenose dolphins in Swim-With-Dolphin programs in the United States. Marine Mammal Science, 11(4), 520-544. Sarhan, M.I., Hanafy, M.H. & Fouda, M.M., 2004. Economics and sustainable use of Samadai Reef “Dolphin House “, Marsa Alam, Red Sea, Egypt. Sixth International Bioecon Conference on Economics and the Analysis of Biology & Biodiversity. King College, Cambridge, 2-3 Sept. 2004, 13 pp. Scarpaci, C., Dayanthi, N. & Corkeron, P.J., 2003. Compliance with regulations by "Swim-with-dolphins" operations in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, Australia. Environmental Management, 31(3), 342–347. Silva Jr., J.M., Silva, F.J.L. & Sazima, I., 2005. Rest, nurture, sex, release, and play: diurnal underwater behaviour of the spinner dolphin at Fernando de Noronha Archipelago, SW Atlantic. Journal of Ichthyology and Aquatic Biology, 9, 161–176. Valentine, P.S., Birtles, A., Curnock, M., Arnold, P. & Dunstan, A., 2004. Getting closer to whales: passenger expectations and experiences, and the management of swim with dwarf minke whale interactions in the Great Barrier Reef. Tourism Management, 25, 647-655.

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TABLES

Table 1. Monitoring effort in Samadai between 15 January 2004 and 14 January 2006.

2004 2005 2006 Total months 11.5 12 0.5 24 days 318 297 9 624 hours 2068 1598 42 3708 mean hrs/day 6.5 5.4 4.7 5.9

Table 2. Number of days spent each month in Samadai between 15 January 2004 and 14 January 2006.

Month days of monitoring

2004 2005 2006

Jan 11* 24 9**

Feb 26 23

Mar 25 21

Apr 29 22

May 28 29

Jun 30 24

Jul 31 30

Aug 30 31

Sep 28 24

Oct 29 24

Nov 26 23

Dec 25 22

* = data collection began on 15 Jan. 2004; ** = data collection ended on 14 Jan. 2006.

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Table 3. Descriptive statistics of the daily presence of dolphins in Samadai in the different zones in different years. Differences between years were insignificant (Mann-Whitney U-Test, p=0.583).

Zone A Zones B and C All zones combined mean SD range mean SD range mean SD range 2004 34.5 34.35 0-200 24.2 33.86 0-180 38.3 38.99 0-210 2005 37.4 37.52 0-150 23.0 34.69 0-160 40.2 39.75 0.160 Total 35.9 39.34 0-200 23.6 34.24 0-180 39.2 39.34 0-210

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FIGURE LEGENDS

Figure 1. Samadai Reef: GPS-derived map with zones A, B and C. White dots indicate the locations of buoys separating zone A from zone B; black dots indicate buoys separating B from C; the black triangle indicates the location where the observers’ vessel was moored.

Fig. 2. Seasonal changes in mean daily dolphin presence in Samadai (all zones combined) from January 2004 to January 2006 (included). n = mean daily number of dolphins present per month; box = standard error; bar = standard deviation.

Fig. 3. Variation of dolphin presence in Samadai ( both years and all zones combined). n = mean number of dolphins present in the reef during each half hour; box = standard error; bar = standard deviation.

Fig. 4. Variation of dolphin and swimmer presence in the reef with time of day. A: n = mean number of dolphins present during each half hour in zones B and C combined, all years. B: n = mean number of swimmers present during each half hour in zone B, all years. Box = standard error; bar = standard deviation.

Fig. 5. Seasonality of presence of calves within the dolphin groups in Samadai (all years and zones combined). n = monthly mean of the numbers of calves observed; box = standard error; bar = standard deviation.

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Fig. 1

50

Fig. 2

51

Fig. 3

52

A

Fig. 4

53

Fig. 5

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