CENS·US OF INDIA 1961

VOLUME IX

MADRAS

PAR T VI

VILLAGE SURVEY MONOGRAPHS 15. KADAMBANGUDI

P. K. NAMBIAR

of the Indian Administrative Servire Superintendent of Census Operations, Madras

1965

CENSUS OF INDIA 1961

(Census Report--Vol. No. IX will relate to Madras only. Under this series will be issued the following publications)

Part I---A General Report (2 Volumes) I-B Demography and Vital Statistics * I-C Subsidiary Tables * Part ll-A General Population Tables * II-B (I) General Economic Tables B-1 to B-IV I1-B (II) B-V to B-IX * " ... II--C (I) Cultural Tables * II-C II (i) Migration Tables II-C-II (ii) " * Part III Household Economic Tables ... Part IV-A Report on Housing and Establishments ... IV-B Housing and Establishment Tables * Part V-A (i) Scheduled Castes and Tribes (Report & Tables SCT I and SCT II) V-A (ii) •• (Tables SCT III to SCT IX " and Special Tables) * V-B Ethnographic Notes on Scheduled Tribes V-C Todas V-D Ethnographic Notes on Scheduled Castes V-E Ethnographic Notes on Denotified and Nomadic Tribes * Part VI Village Survey Monographs (40 Nos.) * Part VII-A Crafts and Artisans (9 Nos.) VIl-B Fairs and Festivals * Part VIII-A Administration Report-EnumeratiOn} * VIII-B Administration Report-Tabulation For official use only * Part IX Atlas of the Madras State Part X Madras City (2 Volumes) DistriCt Census HaJidbooks on twelve districts Part XI Reports on Special Studies ... A Handlooms in Madras State * B Food Habits in Madras State C Slums of Madras City D Temples of Madras State (5 Volumes) * E Physically Handicapped of Madras State F Family Planning Attitudes: A Survey Part XII Languages of Madras State

ALREADY PUBLISHED LIST OF VILLAGES SELECTED FOR THE SURVEY

1. Ayyangarkulam* Chingleput District 2. Sunnambukulam " 3. Lakkinayakkanpatti South Arcot District- 4. Thadagal11* " 5. Arkavadi " 6. Hasanamapettai North Arcot District 7. Paravakkal 8. Arkasanahalli* Salem District 9. Kanakagiri* " 10. Pappanaickenpatti " 11. AI"dipatti " 12. Iswaram 00 rthi pabyam 13. KUl11balam " 14. Nellithurai Coimba tore District 15. HalIil110yar NiIgiris District 16. Kinnakorai 17. Vilpatti* Madurai District 18. Sirumalai 19. Periyur " " 20. Thiruvalavayanallur 21. Thenbaranadu * Tiruchirapalli District 22. Thiruvellarai* 23. Ariyur 24. Kadambangudi** Thanjavur District 25. Vilangulal11 26. Kunnalur* " 27. Kodiakkarai 28. Golwarpatti Ramanathapuram District 29. Visavanoor* 30. A thangarai * " 31. Ravanasamudram* Tirunelveli District 32. Pudukulam* 33. Alwarkarkulal11 " 34. Kilakottai " 35. Odaimarichan " 36. Kuvalaikanni " " 37. Koottumangalam * Kanyakumari District 38. Kadathucheri 39. Koottuthalazhamkulam " 40. Kadukkara* " "

---_-_ -- -- ~------~------~------_ ------~~--- ;-Already Published * * The present volume (No. 15 of the series) FOREWORD

Apart from laying the foundations of demography in this sub-continent, a hundred years of the Indian Census has also produced" elaborate and scholarly accounts of the variegated phenomena of Indian life-sometimes with no statistics attached, but usually with just enough statistics to give empirical underpinning to their conclusiom". In a country, largely illiterate, where statistical or numerical comprehension of even such a simple thing as age was liable to be inaccurate, an understanding of the social structure was essential. It was more necessary to attain a broad understanding of what was happening around oneself than to wrap oneself up in "statistical ingenuity" or' mathematical manipulation '. This explains why the Indian Census came to be interested in' many by-paths' and 'nearly every branch of scholarship, from anthropology and sociology to geography and religion.'

In the last few decades, the Census has increasingly turned its efforts to the presentation of village statistics. This suits the temper of the times as well as our political and economic structure. For even as we have a great deal of centralization on the one hand and decentraliza­ tion on the other, my colleagues thought it would be a welcome continuation of the Census tradition to try to invest the dry bones of village statistics with flesh-and-blood accounts of social structure and social change. It was accordingly decided to select a few villages in every State for special study, where personal observation would be brought to bear on the interpreta­ tion of statistics to find out how much of a village was static and yet changing and how fast the winds of change were blowing and from where.

Randomness of selection was, therefore, eschewed. There was no intention to -build up a picture for the whole State in quantitative terms on the basis of villages selected statistically at random. The selection was avowedly purposive: the object being as much to find out what was happening and how fast to those villages which had fewer reasons to choose change and more to remain lodged in the past as to discover how the more' normal' types of villages were changing. They were to be primarily type-studies which, by virtue of their number and distribution, would also give the reader a ' feel' of what was going on and some kind of a map of the country.

A brief account of the tests of selection will help to explain. A minimum of thirty-five villages was to be chosen with great care to represent adequately geographical, occupational and even ethnic diversity. Of this minimum of thirty-five, the distribution was to be as follows:

(a) At least eight villages were to be so selected that each of them would contain one dominant community with one predominating occupation, e.g. fishermen, forest workers, jhum cultivators, potters, weavers, salt-makers, quarry workers, etc. A village should have a minimum population of 400, the optimum being between 500 and 700.

(b) At least seven vilI,ages were to be of numerically prominent Scheduled Tribes of the State. Each village could represent a particular tribe. The minimum population should be 400, the optimum being between SOO and 700. VI

(c) The third group of villages should each be of fair size, of an old and settled character and contain variegated occupations and be, if possible, multi-ethnic in compo&ition. By fair size was meant a population of 500-700 persons or more. The village should mainly depend on agriculture and be sufficiently away from the major sources of modern communication, such as the district administrative headquarters and business centres. It should be roughly a day's journey from the above places. The villages were to be selected with an eye to variation in terms of size, proximity to city and other means of modern communication, nearness to hills, jungles and major rivers. Thus, there was to be a regional distribution throughout the State of this category of villages. If, however, a particular district contained significant ecological variations within its area, more than one village in the district might be selected to study the special adjustments to them.

It is a unique feature of these village surveys that they rapidly outgrew their original terms of reference, as my colleagues warmed up to their work. This proved for them an absorbing voyage of discovery and their infectious enthusiasm compelled me to enlarge the inquiry's scope again and again. It was just ill) well cautiously to feel one's way about at first and then venture further afield; and although it accounts to some extent for a certain uneven­ ness in the quality and coverage of the monographs, it served to compensate the purely honorary and extra-mural rigours of the task. For, the Survey, along with its many ancillaries like the survey of fairs and festivals, of small and rural industry and others, was an 'extra', over and above the crushing load of the 1961 Census.

It might be of interest to recount briefly the stages by which the Survey enlarged its scope. At the first Census Conference in September 1959 the Survey set itself the task of what might be called a record in situ of material traits, like settlement patterns of the village; house types; diet; dress; ornaments and footwear; furniture and sto;ing vessels; common means of transport of goods and passengers; domestication of animals and birds; markets attended; worship of deities; festivals and fairs. There were to be recordings, of course, of cultural and social traits and occupational mobility. This was followed up in March, 1960 by two specimen schedules, one for each household, the other for the village as a whole, which, apart from spelling out the mode of inquiry suggested in the September, 1959 conference, introduced groups of questions aimed at sensing changes in attitude and behaviour in such fields as marriage, inheritance, movable and immovable property, industry, indebtedness, education, community life and collective activity, social disabilities, forums of appeal over disputes, village leadership and organisation of cultural life. It was now plainly the intention to provide adequate statistical support to empirical 'feel', to approach qualitative change through statistical quantities. It had been difficult to give thought to the importance of ' just enough statistics to give empirical underpinning to conclusion', at a time when my colleagues were straining themselves to the utmost for the success of the main Census operations, but once the Census count itself was left behind in March, 1961, a series of three regional seminars in Trivandrum [May 1961], Darjeeling and Sri nagar [June 1961], restored their attention to this field and the importance of tracing social change through a number of well-devised statistical tables was once again recognised. This itself presupposed a fresh survey of villages'already done; but it was worth the trouble in view of the possibilities that a close analysis of statistics offered and also because the 'Consanguinity' Schedule remained to be canvassed. By November 1961, however, more was expected of these surveys than ever before. There was dissatisfaction on the one hand with too many general statements and a growing desire on the other to draw conclusions from statistics, to regard social and economic data as inter-related processes, and finally to examine the social and economic processes, set in motion through land-reforms and other laws, legislative and administrative measures, technological and cultural change. Finally_ a study camp was organised in the last week of DeceJ1}ber, 1961 when the whole field was carefully gone through over again and a programme worked,out closely knitting the various aims of the Survey together. The Social Studies Section of the Census VII

Commission rendered assistance to State Superintendents by way of scrutiny and technical comment on the frame of Survey and presentation of results.

This gradual unfolding of the aims of the Survey prevented my colleagues from adopting as many villages as they had originally intended to. But I believe that what may have been lost in quantity has been more than made up for in quality. This is, perhaps. for the first time that such a survey has been conducted in any country, and that purely as a labour of love. It has succeeded in attaining what it set out to achieve; to construct a map of village India's social structure. One hopes that the volumes of this Survey will help to retain for the Indian Census its title to 'the most fruitful single source of information about the country'. Apart from other features, it wiil perhaps be conceded that the Survey has set up a new Census standard in pictorial and graphic documentation. The schedules finally adopted for this monograph have been printed in an appendix.

New Delhi, 1 ASOK MITRA. July 30, 1964. ) Registrar General, India

PREFACE

An interesting feature of the 1961 Census is the preparation of monographs on selected villages in Madras. Sri A Mitra, Registrar.General, India has, in his foreword, given the reader a background of the survey, its scope and its aim.

This is the fifteenth of the series relating to Madras State. It relates to Kadambangudi, an interior village in the Thanjavur district. It is inhabited by different scheduled castes, and the mainstay of the village population is cultivation.

The field study has been conducted by Sri D. Sunder Singh and Miss. Olive Joseph, Research Assistants who drafted a preliminary report. It has been suitably edited and presented to the reader.

Madras, 24-2-'65 P. K. NAMBIAR

VILLAGE SURVEY REPORT ON KADAMBANGUDI

FIELD STUDY D. SUNDER SINGH, M.A., AND & REPORT: MISS. OLIVE JOSEPH, D.SC., Research Assistants

MAPS: A. RAJAMANI, Cartographer

PHOTOGRAPHS : N. D. RAJAN, Research Assistant

SKETCHES : A. RAMADOSS, Upper Division Clerk

CONTENTS

Page

Foreword v-vii

Preface ix CHAPTER

I INTRODUCTION 1-8 II PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE 9-25 11I POPULATION 26-37 IV VILLAGE ECONOMY 38-95

V SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 96-114

VI CONCLUSJON 115

APPENDICES

Household schedule used for the survey 116w 130

II Village schedule 131-137

III Glossary of local terms 138-139

MAPS AND CHARTS

1. Location Map of Kadambangudi Frontispiece

2. Map of Kadambangudi ... Facing page No 4

18 3. Distribution of castes (Chart) " 4. Level of literacy 30 " " 5. Occup~tional pattern of households " 50 6. Working force •• 52 16 7. Monthly income of occupational groups " xiv PHOTOGRAPHS Facing Page 1. A view of the grand Anicut Canal " } 2 2. Another view of the grand Anicut Canal " 3. A view of the Vennar river " 3 4. A scene in Thandampatti hamlet ., }

6 5. Bullock Carts, the native means of transport " 10 6. An Udayar family of the village " 11 7. A typical Kallar of the village " 12 8. A young Muthiriyar woman " 9. A young Parayar woman 13 " 10. Muthiriyars of Valayapatti hamlet 14 " 1l. A typical Chettiar (Padmasaliyar) family 16 " 12. A Reddiar family 17 " 13. An old Christian Parayar couple 18 " 14. An old Christian Sakkilian couple 19 " 15. Some household utensils in an Udayar household 22 " 16. A well in the village I " 23 17. Bathing in the Pudar r " J 18. An elementary school in the village . " 32 19. A close view of one of the streets in the village ~ " J 20. A street scene in Valayapatti hamlet " 33 21. An Udayar street in the village } " 22. A typical mud hut in the Paracheri " 36 23. A tiled house of a Kallar family } " 24. An Udayar's house " 37 25. An agricultural labourer " 26. Ploughing } 58 " 27. Threshing of grain " 28. Collecting straw after the harvest ~ 59 " J 29. A harvest of paddy II 62 xv

Facing Page 30. A special type of granary 63 31. Weaver's Cooperative Society in Kadambangudi } 32. A traditional weaver weaving cotton sarees ") " 68 33. A village Carpenter in his traditional occupation J 34. The Village Munsiff 69 35. The Dhoby in his traditional occupation 70 36. The village barber 71 37. A street vendor 72 38. A petty shop in the village 73 39. Cattle grazing on the harvested fields 74 40. Sheep grazing on the banks of river 1) 41. Buffaloes owned by the Udayars 75 42. The Multi-purpose Co-operative Society ., ~I _) 43. Lord Subramania's temple in the village I ?- 112 44. ViDayagar temple in Kadambangudi J 45. Roman Chatholic church in Paracheri ., 113

SKETCHES Page 1. A typical bullock cart 6 2. Another type of bullock cart 1 " ~ 7 3. A typical water cart " J 4. Orthodox hairdo and modern hairdo 9-10 5. Necklaces worn by women 10-11 6· Thali worn by women 12-13 7. Bangles and ear ornaments 14 " 8. Domestic utensils 0' 19 9. Do 22 10. Elementary school 30 11. Typical huts 32-33 Another type of hut 35 12. " Plan of a pucca house 37 13. " 14. Granaries 58-59 " Agricultural implements 15. " 62-63 16. Weaving instruments 67-68 " 17. Instruments used by Blacksmith 69 71 18. Tools used by village Capenter " 19. village goldsmith 72 " " ',:rr71-- ,A.I-J--- . MADRAS STATE

LOCATION MAP Madril ' "Chinc1eput OF , " } KADAMBANGUDI XYSORJ THANJAVUR TALUK SCALE S.uth;A".'~(Chet~ 2 0 ' 2 4 6 Miles I!!M~~~C4~~' A~~' ~I C.lmb,w, " ", :,.. ri, o:u:.. ,I ..." ••,

Kilometres 2 0 2 4 6 ',', Ti':"chlnPllh .' tI' - 'k r . . ' . ""rill cJ .. :':', : ' ~ . rha"Jwur ,: . ' , ' , , M.d,,,, DJlALA " "(C:': . P.(" Stf'aH ~'~I~ &thIPu rtm

" ~

"T: ... o',,1; ~ ....

Kan),.k, ~mlri : Indl. D 0 .. ,,-,,

UDAIYARPALAYAM TALUK ,.,.,

LALGUDI T ALUK TIRUCHIRAPALLI DISTRICT

\­ 'If I ,.J r

KULATHUR TALUK ORATHANAD TALUK TlRUCHIRAPALLI DISTRICT

District Boundary Foot Path, Cart Track

Taluk Boundary Railway Line (M. G.)

State Highways Railway Line (B, G.)

National Highways River with Stream Other Roads Tank

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

General mountains and bifurcates about 9 miles west of Tiru­ chirapalli into two branches of which the northern The district of Thanjavur is the granary of Madras takes the name of Coleroon and southern retains the State. It is watered by the chief irrigation source of name Cauvery. The Cauvery which turns to the Madras State namely Cauvery. The irrigation was south splits up into numerous branches and covers the restricted to the lowlands ofThanjavur district until whole of the delta with a vast network of _irrigation the construction of Mettur Dam in 1934 and the exca­ channels. One of the principal branches of the vation of Grand Anicut Canal which could feed the Cauvery is the Vennar. Thus the village Kadamban­ upper reaches of the district. The impact of this irri­ gudi is actually situated south of the Cauvery, in bet­ gation scheme on the economy of the village will be ween the Vennar river and the Grand Anicut Canal. highlighted by the socio·economic survey report on The Vennar river which branches off from the Cauvery Kadambangudi, a small village in Tanjore Taluk located runs about two furlongs to the north of the main at a distance of 16 miles to the north-west of Tanjore village. The Grand Anicut Canal which is about 70 town. miles long takes off at the right of the Grand Anieut The location of the village is idyllic as it is sorround­ from the right bank of the Cauvery river. The Ananda . ed by green paddy fields. The Grand Anicut Canal Cauvery, a branch of the Vennar river runs through with other sources of irrigation have altered the phase the northern portion of the village and helps to irri­ of rural Kadambangudi. It has extended the area gate a small extent of land. The villages lying adja­ under irrigation. At a distance of one mile from the cent to Kadambangudi are Indalur in the north-west, village a visitor can see the tall terraced houses set Kachchamangalam in the north, Mekalathur in the amidst the green bamboos and palm trees together with north-east, Marneri in the east and Solagampatti in golden haystacks forming a perfect setting. At night the south. No hills are found in Kadambangudi or the glare of the electric light from Kadambangudi and its neighbourhood except for Tiruverumbur hillock Marneri, an adjacent village could be seen from the which is located about six miles to the south of the elevated place near Solagampatti Railway Station which village in Tiruchirapalli taluk of TiruchirapaIli district. is on the Trichy-Tanjore line and about 3 miles away And in the distance for about 40 miles to the north, from the south-west of Kadambangudi. The village the hazy outlines of the Pachaimalai hills of Tiruchira­ is an interior one. It has been chosen for socio-eco­ palli district are seen. There are no forests in the nomic survey because it is inhabited by different castes neighbourhood of Kadambangudi. and the mainstay of the village population is cultiva­ tion. After the construction of the Grand Anicut Temperature Canal, the cultivation has become more extensive and Tiruchirapalli is the nearest temperature recording profitable than before. As a result of this, Muthiriyars station which is about 14 miles away from the village. who were mere agricultural labourers about two The temperature figures of the years 1951-60 are given decades ago are now engaged in the cultivation of land in the table. As recorded in this station the maximum belonging to the Government. temperature was 34.44° C. in the year 1953. For the last four years, the mean maximum temperature Topography and General Description recorded during this period was 33.10 C in the year Kadambangudi village is situated on the north­ 1957. For a closer study we take the temperature western part of Thanjavur taluk of Thanjavur district figures for the year 1960. March to June are the hot and covers an area of 1.11 sq. miles. The area of summer months, May and June being the hottest. The the village site (Natham) is 456 acres and is inhabited temperature recorded in summer varies from 34.9° C by 163 households. The village lies about 16 miles to to 37.40 C. From July the rainy weather begins and the north-west of Thanjavur Town and about 14 miles the rivers tend to become full and the occasional to the North-east of Tiruchirapalli. The Cauvery, showers of the S. W. Monson tend to cool the the principal river in the district, rises in the Coorg lltmosphere; and the thermometer drops gradually till

1 2 KADAMBANGUDl Table sbowing tbe mean (Maximum and Minimum) Higbest and Lowest Temperature recorded duriog 1951-60

District & Station: Tircuhirapalli 19S1 1952 19S3

8 8 8 :s :s :s 8 .§ 8 :I .§ .~ 8 Month .: CI 01 01 '8 ~ :i ...., ~ ~ ;: CI) CI Q c c ~ 01 ..c ~ ~ co I !o 8 01) ~ ~ it ] ~ ~ ::z: ... ~ ~ :E ] (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) January 86.9 76.1 90 63 87.4 69.7 90 64 84.7 69.7 90 63 February 90,4 66.8 84 60 91.1 71.4 94 66 90.0 69.1 94 63 March 96.7 73,9 103 62 96.0 73.6 10 I 68 97.6 75.2 104 71 April 96.0 78.1 100 7S 99.1 79.9 103 74 96.0 77.6 100 68 May 99.0 79.2 103 70 101.2 81.5 IDS 76 102.9 80.5 106 12 June 95.8 79.6 100 77 100.5 81.3 103 79 98.3 79.3 103 71 July 95.6 77.6 10 I 71 95. r 79.0 102 73 95.5 73.6 10 I 72 August 96.9 78.3 100 73 96.2 79.1 100 75 96.2 78.3 100 71 September 95.2 78.0 99 71 96.4 78.0 101 76 92.7 75.6 98 70 October 92·5 76.0 97 74 92.1 75.7 98 72 88.2 75.0 93 72 November 87.1 7U 94 71 89.1 74.1 93 69 86.3 72.1 91 ~5 December 86.3 69.7 90 66 84.8 71.5 87 67 8'1.9 69.5 88 65

Annual 103 105 64 106 63 Mean 92.7 73.2 930 75.6 93.8 75.2 33.72 °C 22.88°C 33.88°C 24.22'C 34.33'C 24.00°C

1954 1955 Month Mean Mean Mean Mean H' h t Lowest Maximum Minimum Highest Lowest Maximum Minimum 19 es (14) (IS) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) January 85.8 68.0 89 61 86.6 69.8 89 65 February 92.3 68.9 91 61 90,9 69.1 94 63 March 94.3 73.6 100 65 95.9 73.2 100 65 April 98.6 78.6 105 73 97.3 77.S lOS 72 May 98.0 78.7 102 69 95.6 77.1 102 67 June 98.2 79.7 101 76 96.2 79.0 100 77 July 95.1 78.3 100 73 95.3 77.6 99 72 August 93.5 76.4 98 70 93.4 77.1 100 73 September 93.0 76.4 96 71 92.4 75.9 97 73 October 88.6 74.0 96 71 91.2 74.8 '95 72 November 86.6 71.1 90 65 86.0 72.0 90 68 December 84.8 70.5 89 62 Bl.B 68.3 86 64

Annual IDS 61 IDS 64 Mean 91.7 73.9 90.1 73.7 33.16°C 23,27°C ,,, 32.27oC 23.16'C A view of the Grand Anicut Canal. This canal is the harbinger of an era of prosperity for Kadambangudi. It irrigates the fields of the village which results in an abundant yield of a variety of crops.

Another view of the Grand Anicut Canal, as it flows through the village. Note the vegetation on the banks of the canal. This is the Vennar River which branches off from the Cauvery and runs two furlongs to the north of the main village Kadambangudi.

A scene in Thondampatti hamlet. Note the nature of house types - thatched houses which form a majority in the hamlet and also the bullock cart which is the only means of transport available to go from one hamlet to another. INTRODUCTION 3

I~S6 1957 1~58 1959 1960

8 e ::I ::> Month 8 8 ~ 'a "" S1 ...... '" ~ CI ~ .g ..CI ~ OIl ~ l:E- l:E l:E (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) (33) (34) (35) (36) (37) (38) (39) (40) (41) (42) (43) (44)

January £15.3 67.2 ~O 62 30.2 19.9 31.6 17.4 30.6 20.8 336 18.1 31.1 21.0 33.8 18,4 31.0 21.4 33.0 19.2 February 89.6 67.0 93 63 32.5 210 34.8 17.8 335 21.8 35.9 IB.I 33.8 21.3 36.7 18.3 32.5 21.0 34.6 16.7 March 95.9 72.5 100 66 34.1 22.1 36,4 18.9 35.6 24.1 37.9 21.1 36.2 21.9 38.7 18.6 34.9 23.4 362 21.8 April 100.3 78.3 105 73 36.0 25.3 37.2 22.1 36.9 25.8 39.1 23.6 36.9 25.7 38.4 2z'4 36.1 25.7 39.3 21.6 May 100.0 79.5 105 H 36.0 26.6 39.S 23.9 35.6 25.7 37.4 23.8 37.0 26.4 38.7 23.7 36.2 26.0 38.3 22.6 June 97.1 78.9 102 73 35.2 23.4 38.5 25.3 37.5 26.8 39.2 24.9 35.6 25.9 38.7 23.6 37.4 27.0 39.1 25.3 July 94.7 75.8 99 74 35.S 26.1 37.5 23.2 36.5 26.3 38.0 24.4 35.5 26. J 37.7 24.7 33.7 25.1 37.5 22.5 August ~5.7 77.6 100 72 354 25.8 37.4 23.9 34.2 24.7 37.2 21.9 35.9 25.9 37.6 22.7 35.8 25.9 37.3 23.1 September 94.S 76.2 98 73 35.5 24.8 37.8 22.7 35.6 24.9 37.6 21.7 35.8 25.3 36.9 22.5 34.3 25.0 36.5 21.6 October 88.2 74.3 91 71 31.9 23.9 34.8 21.9 32.7 24.4 35.5 22,4 33.0 24.3 36.5 21.0 33.5 24.3 36.4 22.8 November 84.9 73.4 90 70 29.8 23.0 323 21.3 31.2 23.6 33.3 21.1 29.2 21.4 32.0 21.3 27.9 22.4 31.7 202 December 81.4 69.3 86 64 29.0 21.9 30.8 20.5 30.1 21.7 31.9 18.9 30.9 18,8 30.1 21.5 31.1 18.8

Annual 105 62 39.5 17.4 3B.7 18.3 39.3 167 Mean 92.4 73.3 32.5 23.3 33.B 23.8 33.1 23.7 32.7 24·0 33.55'C 22.94'C

November. The.temperature during the rainy season Rainfall varies from 33.70° C in July to 27.9° e in November. The atmosphere continues to be cool during the mon­ The nearest rainfall recording station is located at soon weather. During the winter months of Decem­ the Grand Anicut at a distance of 8 miles, and a ber to February, the temperature declines and the height of 194' above mean sea level, latitude 10°50" and weather remains cool both during the day as well as night. The mean maximum temperature recorded in longitude 78°40'. The rainfall figures recorded in mms. December 1960 was 30.1 ae. In the latter part of at the Grand Anicut P.W.D. Section Office are February and early March, the hot weather sets in. given below:

1961 1962 1963 Name of month Rainy days Rainfall Rainy days Rainfall Rainy days Rainfall (in MMs.) (in MMs.) (in MMs). (lJ (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

January 6 61.20 7 165.70 February 2 15.00 March I 2.00 2 33.60 April 9.00 3 16,02 2 6.40 May 4 13.00 4 25.70 4 50.80 Juae 8 58.30 2 14.00 2 64.40 July 1 4.20 2 5.00 2 76.20 Aug~t 6 56.00 7 72.50 3 32.30 September 12 409.10 5 238.SO 10 122.60 October 13 252.10 18 296.80 II 218.SO November 8 206.65 6 45.40 15 151.50 December 5 73.90 2 19.00 R 170.80 Total 64 1073.45 52 750.22 67 109310 4 kAbAMBANGlJDi

The maximum rainfall is found in the year When two crops are cultivated, the first crop is from 1963 with 1093. 10 mms. of rain and a maximum of 67 Ani to Purattasi (June to October) and the second crop rainy days. It is found to be comparatively low but from Aippasi to Thai (November to January). the village is not affected much because the fields are irrigated by the rivers. Flora Trees of different varieties are found in considera­ Soil ble numbers especially on the patta lands, which are Fertile soil is found all over Kadambangudi which shown below: helps in the cultivation of a variety of crops. The 1. Palmyra-Borassus Flabellifer different types of soil that are found in the village are 2. alluvial, regar and red soil. Cocoanut-Cocos nucifera 3. Mango-Mangifera indica Water Resources 4. Poovarasu-Thespesia populnea The important irrigation sources are the Marneri 5. Tazhai-Pandanus Canal from Vennar under the old system and Grand 6. Vathamadakki Anicut Canal from the Cauvery under the new system. 7. Korai-Ochlandra travancorica They pass through the village. Grand Anicut Canal 8. Karuvelam-Acacia arabica irrigates an extent of 288.80 acres and Vennar 67.74 9. Vembu-Melia azadirachta acres. Ananda Cauvery, a tributary of Vennar irrigates an extent of 16 acres 64 cts. Before the 10. Bamboo-Bambusa arundinaceae execution of the New Mettur Scheme, the tanks formed 11. Thoongumoonchi-Enterolobium samars an important source of irrigation in the village. 12. Nellikoy-Emblica Officianalis Today the area covered by tanks is limited to 77 13. Tamarind-Tamarindus indica acres 68 cts. This is because of the disuse of tanks as 14. Narthai-Citrus medica a source of irrigation in the village. Tondaman Eri was one of the important tanks with a total extent of These trees are found scattered everywhere in the 82 acres 60 cts. Out of this an extent of 38 acres 23 village except for Tazhai (Pandanus) which is found in cts. has been cultivated unauthorisedly by the ryots. large numbers on the Southern banks of the Ananda The rest is treated still as waterspread area. The aya­ Cauvery. cut of Tondaman Eri was formerly a rainfed tank having water during the months of September to Fauna December only. Actually it is today fed by the Grand The fauna of the village include domestic animals Anicut Canal with the result that water rates have been like cows, bulls, buffaloes, sheep and poultry. Crows increased with effect from 1368 Fasli. Kadamban and squirrels are the other familiar animals found in Eri was another important tank which was formerly the village. Fish is found in abundance in the Vennar, a source of irrigation in the village, but later it was Ananda Cauvery, the Grand Anicut Canal and the abandoned and converted into cultivable lands which tanks. A variety of fish is found in these waters, the have been assigned to the villagers. It covers nearly chief among them being: 20 acres 30 cts. and is under single crop. The area was Kendai-Mullet originally reserved for raising fodder crops but then converted into assessed dry waste (patta lands) and Viral-Murrel sola by auction to the people of the village and its Kuruvai neighbourhood. All the three hamlets which compose Erattu-Prawns the village are situated in a fertile plain properly water­ When the fields are flooded with water, cranes are also ed by the canals originating from Cauvery System. found. Crops Other Features A variety of crops are cultivated as the village is Thanjavur is the district and taluk head-quarters for well irrigated and the soil is fertile. These crops are village Kadambangudi. The revenue number of the chiefly paddy, varagu, Kuthivarali, red gram etc. Two village is 10 and belongs to Tirukattupalli firka. In crops are cultivated in the village during the year in Budalur, a village about 5 miles to the east of Kadam­ some areas. In other areas only one crop is cultivated bangudi is the Panchayat Union headquarters and the during the year from Adi to Thai (July to January). Police Station. This Police Station was only an + + + (I + + 1<1 11 U :2; ~ ~ 1<1 !<4 w j PI ; g r}l 1 CQ ~ .tl ., fl ...co 0 c.. ... '*'.. .>I '3 "" t:: .: S co ~ 1:i :> U J at ~ (Q

c:c C!J < I:: CQ d ::ill ...... :') ...iii ::> ...J < Qj' ~ ...... t- -rJ ...I I/) § Q: :') ...0 ~ z~ ~..., ... < z ~...... ~ < ~ ::I: < I- <~ ~ tNTROOUCTION 5 outpost prior to 18-1-61 and later converted into a Legends Police Station. Before 18-1-61 Tirukattupalli was the There is no legend current in Kadambangudi on Police Station for the village. the origin of the village, except that all the communities Tiruchirapalli is another town which is about 14 miles feel that their ancestors had come from Tiruchirapalli to the south-west of Kadambangudi. The people in district and settled down in Kadambangudi. Alegend Kadambangudi generally go to the market at Tiruchira­ is current in the village regarding the name of the palli to purchase most of their requirements although village. That is Kadamban is another name for Lord there are market places at Tirukattupalli and Thanjavur. Subramanya, the son of Lord Shiva and there is a The nearest market for the villagers is at Tirukattupalli. temple of Lord Subramanya in Kadambangudi. There is no post office in this village. The villagers of Probably due to this reason the village is named after Kadambangudi use the post office in the neighbouring Him. village, Megalathur which is situated on the Vennar, about half a mile to the north of Kadambangudi. The Transport and Communications people of the other two hamlets, viz., Valayapatti and Thondampatti use the post office at Indalur. Both the The village is not directly accessible by any modern post offices deal with the clearance and delivery of means of transport. One can travel by train as far as letters and they accept money orders. Other facilities Solagampatti or Ayyanapuram railway station which like Savings Bank Deposits, Telephone, registration of are on the Tiruchirapalli - Thanjavur line. The dis­ letters and parcels can only be had at Tirukkattupalli tance frolp Solagampatti railway station to the main Post Office which is about 5 miles on the northern bank village is about 3 miles. The road is fairly good upto of the Vennar and only very rarely at Budalur. the banks of Grand Anicut Canal in Poonvelanga­ patti village. This road is only a cart track - a mud Brief Description of the Hamlets road and cannot be easily negotiated by a car. During the summer season a jeep can go only as far as the The village Kadambangudi with a total of 163 Grand Anicut Canal. The only other means of households consists of 3 hamlets, viz.. the main touching the village is by walking on bunds of fields village Kadambangudi, Valayapatti and Thondampatti. across the Ponvelancharpatti Eri and the Pudar. The main village Kadambangudi has 91 households. Solagampatti is the nearest Railway station to the This hamlet is predominantly inhabited by the Udayars village. Ayyanapuram railway station, is at a distance with a total of 35 housebolds. They generally live in of 4 miles from the village. This distance could be spacious terraced houses when compared to other covered by means of bullock carts. There are two communities whose houses have thatched or straw cart-tracks from Ayyanapuram railway station-one by roofs and a few have Mangalore tiles. The streets in the bank of the Grand Anicut Canal and the other by this hamlet are straight and unpaved. the bank of Ananda Cauvery. Even during the dry season it is difficult to get a cart on hire and so arrange­ The hamlet Thondampatti predominantly inhabited ments have to be made with the local residents for by the Kallar community has 37 households. Of some means of conveyance. The road from Budalur to these 32 households are situated on the northern this village via the Grand Anicut Canal banks is fairly bank of the Grand Anieut Canal and the rest on good and can be covered by jeep or cart. The Dhanush­ the southern bank of it. Out of a total of 37 kodi - Madras Boat Mail and Trivandrum Fast houses only 4 houses are tiled and the rest are thatched. Passenger pass both Solagampatti and Ayyanapuram Besides the Grand Anicut Canal passes through the railway stations, but they do not stop at these stations. village and hence the villagers have to cross this canal Apart from this, there is a road leading from Solagam­ to go from north to south or vice versa, patti railway station to Indalur, a neighbouring village. Valayapatti is the smallest hamlet of Kadamban­ This road passes through the hamlet of Valayapatti. gudi village comprising 35 households and is solely The distance from Solagampatti is about 2.5 miles. inhabited by the Muthiriyar commuity. From the Bullock carts can traverse this distance. During the south, Valayapatti hamlet is more easily accessible than monsoon months all the village roads that lead to the other hamlets viz. , Kadambangudi and Thondampatti. Kadambangudi are full of mire and deep pits. Buses There is a village road from Solagampatti Railway ply from Thogur to Tirukattupalli via Kachcha-' Station which passes through Valayapatti to Indalur, a mangalam in the northern bank of the Vennar. From neighbouring village to Kadambangudi. This hamlet Kachchamangalam the river has to be crossed to consists of thatched and mud-walled houses. reach Kadambangudi. 6 KAOAMbANGUoi Some of the houses that are electrified in Kadamban­ covering on top, and are used by the villagers to go gudi village have radio sets. Electricity was introduced from one hamlet to another or to neighbouring villages. in the village about nine years ago. From Kachcha­ Water from the Vennar river is taken for drinking mangalam electricity is supplied to Marneri and it is purposes in a cart. This water cart is just like any then extended to Kadambangudi. Only 15 Udayar other cart except for the fact it is smaller in size and houses in Kadambangudi main village are electrified drawn by a single bull. It has a barrel made of teak but there is a proposal to extend it further. Only rich wood and provided with a tap at one end and an open­ and influential people are capable of paying the depo­ ing on top, attached to the centre of the cart. There sit and tapping electricity. The nearest telegraph are three such carts in the village and they are owned office is at Tirukattupalli. Newspapers like Dina by rich Udayar families. Yet another type of cart is Thanthi, Dina Mani, Malai Murasu and Viduthalai used by the villagers for transporting sand and farm­ are purchased in the village. yard manure to the fields. It is known as a box cart being closed on three sides. It is worked on a hinge, The people go to the Headquarters hospitals both and has two chains fixed on either side of the cart, at Tiruchirapalli and Thanjavur. The hospital at which when released tilt~ the cart to one side. This Tirukattupalli is the nearest. Another hospital is locat­ cart is drawn by two bulls and is very useful to the ed at Budalur. The nearest Veterinary hospital is at agriculturists. Carrying loads on heads is commonly Thanjavur. Transport of goods is done by bullock found in Kadambangudi. carts only. These carts are fairly big and are drawn by two bulls. They are provided with bamboo railings Important Landmarks and Institutions in the Village on both sides to prevent the goods from falling. These carts are owned by the economically well-oft' commu­ There are no ancient monuments in Kadambangudi. nities, and can be taken on hire by paying Re. 1/­ The important landmarks are five temples and a church. per bag of p\lddy to Trichy and As. 8/- per bag to The two temples are in Thondampatti hamlet and Budalur. The villagers generally prefer the shandies Padaithalicha Amman and Ganesan are the principal at Manaparai and Samayapuram to buy cattle as there deities. The other three are Kamakshi Amman temple, is greater scope for selection even though they have Sangili Karuppa temple and Subramania temple which a nearer shandy at Thanjavur. There are 10 spring­ are located in the main village. The third hamlet ed double bullock carts in the village owned mostly Valayapatti has no temple. The Paracheri in the by the Udayars. These carts are provided with a main village bas a Roman Catholic church.

A typical bullock cart used by the people of Kadambangudi - a common mode of transport. Bullock carts are the native means of transport in Kadambangudi. INTRODUCTION

A typical water cart drawn by bulls.

Another type of bullock cart used by the villagers to transport goods from o~ hamlet to another and to neighbouring villages, 8 KADAMBANGUDI Padaithalicha Amman temple in Thondampatti cost of constructing this church was approximately hamlet is an important temple in the village. Commu­ Rs. 60/-. Inside this Church there are images of nities like the Konars, Kallars and Muthiriyars worship Saints Antony and Xavier and Jesus Christ. There in this temple, where Pujas are performed regularly. is also a bronze bell. Steps are being taken to renovate this temple for which There are three important institutions viz., the Ele­ a sum of Rs. 1,500 has been spent and the Kumba­ mentary School, the Weavers's Co-operative Society bhisekam was conducted in 1962. and Multi-purpose Co-operative Society, all located The Udayars, the majority community in the village in Kadambangudi main village. The Elementary worship in 3 temples viz., Sangilikaruppan, Kamakshi School was started on 19-10-1961 under the auspices and Subramanian. Two temples, viz., Sangilikaruppan of the Budalur Panchayat Union and is housed in a and Kamakshi are situated on the southern bank of mud-walled thatched building. The Weavers' Co­ the Ananda Cauvery whereas Subramanian temple is operative Society was started on 25-2-63 with a total of in the heart of the main village. 36 members, 97 shares and Rs. 970 as share capital. The multi-purpose Co-operative Society on the other In the Paracheri of Kadambangudi main village hand is housed in a brick-walled tiled building. It there is a Roman Catholic Church dedicated to was inaugurated on 27-9-59. The Panchayat has no st. Xavier. It was constructed by the local people in separate building and its office is now held in the 1939-40. It is mud-walled and Mangalore-tiled. The President's house itself. CHAPTER Ii PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE

Communities tanned body. The men of all the communities have their hair cropped, but not regularly. On the other 'Sixteen communities live in the village, of whom two hand, there are still a few old orthodox men in the are Christians and others Hindus. The village has 163 village who have only the front portion of their head households. The prominent communities are Kallars shaved and the rest grown long and tied into a tuft 37, Udayars 35, Muthiriyars 36, Padmasaliar 13, and at ihe back. As regards the dress, men mostly wear Kammalar and Konar households 7. Other communities dhoties with no upper garment. They wear have less than 4. The Christian Parayars have 12 some upper garment when they go out of the village households. The village has a population of 717 of whereas among Udayars men usually wear shirts or which 50 are Christians. The most populous commu· jippas even while they remain in the village. nity is Udayars {193), followed by Kallars (157), and Muthiriyars 125. The Udayars thus form the most Sarees and blouses are usual items of dress worn by important community in the village. women. Old women rarely wear a blouse. The Udayar women dress neatly when compared to women in other The men of all the communities except the Chettiars communities. Generally, women grow their hair and (Padma Saliars) who are weavers are engaged in manual tie it into a 'Kondai' whereas the young girls spin their labour. The Chettiars are generally sturdy with sun· hair into plaits. Children wear only the lower garment

Still seen in the village are a few orthodox men. Note the hairdo. 10 KADAMBANGUDI a few Kallars, wear ear studs known as 'Kadukkan'. It is quite small and is made of gold but without any stones. They also wear gold bracelets commonly called 'Kappu' of different designs and gold rings on their fingers. A few Udayars wear a gold chain. Among the women a variety of ornaments are worn mostly by Udayar women and a few Kallar women though they do not have as many as the Udayars. The ornaments worn by women are usually made of gold or silver. Apart from 'thali' the women wear gold chains and necklaces like Kasumalai and Attigai around theii: necks. Different types of thali are worn by different communities. As for instance among Muthiriyars, the thali, worn by the married woman, is tied on a turmeric-stained string. On either side of the thali are found two hexagon-like beads made of gold and separated from each other by means of knots. The thali used by the Hindu Parayans is similar to those used by other Hindu communities except for the fact that in addition we find on either side a flat disc made of gold which has the image of Goddess Saraswathi. The Sakkiliars on the other hand use a very simple thaJi i. e. a cup like pendant tied on a yellow string. Among Christian Parayars the women wear the thali with a cross-a symbol of Christianity. The Saivites and Vaishnavites have separate thali bearing their own symbol. The Kasumalai is a gold necklace worn mostly by the Udayars and a few Kallar A modern young man. His hairdo is in striking contrast with the orthodox sflye. when only a few years old but when they grow older they wear shorts and skirts. But the school children wear the full dress, boys in shorts and shirts and girls in skirts and blouses. Both men and women wear ornaments in the village. Among men, a large number of Udayars and

Necklace worn generally by the rich A kind of necklace worn by women Udayar women (Attigai). This is an Udayar family in the main village. He is an homoeopathic doctor. See the living room in which they stand-clothes hanging on a rope and vessels placed on a wooden shelf. A typical Kallar of Kadambangudi main village. The men generally do not wear any shirt. PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE 11

Another view ornaments the 'thodu' or kammal is the most common. It is made of gold and sometimes studded with stones of different colours. 'Thongattan' is of two types-the N6te the necklace worn by the young woman first type is an ordinary ear stud with stones to which women which consists of 34-40 gold coins in the size of is attached a gold chain with a small designed cup-like a quarter-rupee which are strung together in a gold ornament turned downwards, with small stones dangling chain. The Attigai is another type of gold necklace from the rim. The other type consists of a big stone worn generally by the rich Udayar women. The tied in gold with a small hook. The c1aver, another pendant is rather large and studded with big and ear-ornament, like other ear-studs is made of gold. It colourful stones. Apart from these, the women also is rather small but in the shape of a shamrock leaf. wear other types of necklaces made of gold of intricate Gold rings on fingers, bangles made of gold with designs and studded with stones. Among ear exquisite designs, and nose-screws with stones are also

Kasumalai - another kind of necklace worn by women 12 KADAMBANGUDI

DIFFERENT TYPES OF THALl only at Trichy. These ornaments are made in secret and that too only by Udayars who are economically better off than the other communities. Udayar According to Thurston "Probably Udaiyar is a title rather than a caste, and is the usual agnomen of the Nattamars. Nattamar means a man of the plains." The Udayars of Kadambangudi have settled in the village from p1aces in Tiruchirapalli district like Pulambadi, Malvai and Muravathur. Birth Customs Thali used by an Hindu Parayar woman For the first birth the girl goes to her parents' house. The pollution varies from 10-16 days. Generally on the 11 th day, after a child is born, the mother who is supposed to be polluted has to undergo a purificatory ceremony. This ceremony is called "Puniyathanam" and is done by a Brahmin priest who performs 'Omam'. After a year the child is taken to Kaniyachi temple, namely to their native place, where the child's head is shaved and it is named. Ear-boring is also done here Thali used by a Saivite in tbis temple or it may be done by a village worn by them. Besides, silver ornaments are also worn goldsmith. by women of some communities. Silver rings on toes are Puberty Rites called 'metti'. The 'Kolusu' which is worn around the When a girl attains puberty she is kept in a thatched anklet is made of silver. Nose-screws made of silver shed made of palmyra leaves, which is constructed by are also used. The jewels worn by the women of the different communities are generally made at Tiruchira­ palli and at times by the village goldsmith, but after the Gold Control Order was enforced they are made

A typical Muthiriyar woman. Note the thali worn by her. Thali worn by a Sakkiliyar woman A young Muthiriyar woman in modern dress. Note the ornaments she is wearing - a chain, a necklet, nose screws and also ear-rings. Note the ornaments worn by this young Parayar woman. The Thali which is tied on a yellow string, nose screws, mattil and also ear-rings PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE 13

A young Hindu woman decked with ornaments. Note the ThaN worn by Vaishnavites,' 14 KADAMBANGUDI

Ear ornaments worn by the people of the vii/age.

hut is then burned. The girl is given new clothes and bedecked with jewellery. Marriage Customs In the Udayar community, marriages are settled by elders. Only the bride-groom gives bride-price in cash and jewels. In addition to this they also meet the marriage expenses. This is the general rule, but exceptions are also found. For a marriage to take place, the consent of both parties is absolutely essential Different types of bangles, worn by the vil/agers and this formality takes place with the exchange of betel leaves, nuts and cocoanuts. This is done with the maternal uncle either within the house; that is on the consent of the maternal uncle. The marriage day the pial or outside. On the 16th day, a ceremony is then settled and fixed. Three days before the called 'Pupuniraduthal' or 'theetu suthruthal' is marriage ceremony could take place, a pandal is performed by a Brahmin priest on that girl, and the constructed and the milk-post is generally 'othiyam' These are the Muthiriyars of Valayapatti hamlet. See the thatched houses of the Muthiriyars in the background. The boys are seen holding the special rat traps which are used by them to catch rats in the fields. PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE

(Odina wodier) which is three-branched. On the Puberty Rites marriage day, before commencing the marriage The puberty ceremony for a girl is similar to that of ceremony, another ceremony called 'Adi Suthruthal' the Udayar Community, except for the fact that a for 'Thovi nivarthi' is perfomed. For this ceremony they Brahmin priest mayor may not be requisitioned by the chant mantrams and cakes of rice and other flour and Kallars. This depends upon the economic status and chillies are cooked and after showing it thrice to the unorthodox ideas which prevail among some of the bride and the groom are given away to the dhoby and members of the Kallar community, Besides on the 30th barber. The maternal uncle, who is the sole custodian, day, after attaining puberty, the girl has to undergo a accompanies the bride to the groom's house for the ceremony called 'Pupu Niraduthal'. She is bathed ceremony. It is only after this ceremony that the and then wears washed or new clothes. This is fol­ marriage ceremony is commenced by the Brahmin lowed by a feast. priest, and amidst the beating of drums the groom ties the thali on the neck of the bride. The first knot is Marriage Customs tied by the groom and the other two by the groom's As in the Udayar community a formal engagement is sister. The bride and groom are then taken in customary even among the Kallars. The groom then procession preceded by drums. The nuptials are gives the bride price to the bride and has to meet all performed on the same day, but more often it is the marriage expenses. The marriage ceremony is the only after 3 months when an auspicious day is chosen same as for Muthiriyars. A Brahmin priest mayor may for the ceremony and it is only after that the bride's not be requisitioned to perform the ceremony. Besides mother gives the groom permission to establish contact this, marriage is a common feature among the Kallars with her daughter. Till then the bride stays in her of Kadambangudi for it is not only less costly and mother's house. unorthodox but is also devoid of tedious religious rites. Death Customs The marriage is usually celebrated in the bride's house and consists of a simple ceremony, when the bride and When a person dies, all his relatives are informed, bridegroom exchange garlands in the presence of and their attendance at the funeral ceremony is elders. compUlsory. Usually those who are not married are buried and the rest are cremated. If the dead person Death Customs happens to be a mother then the funeral pyre is Small children and unmarried people are buried, kindled by the eldest son whose head is shaved, whereas married people, widows and widowers may be whereas in the case of father, it is the duty of the cr.emated or buried. This depends entirely on the youngest son to perform the last ceremony. On the desire of the people concerned. Kallars feel that 16th day the 'Karumathi' ceremony is performed and a burial is cheaper than cremation, as only 10 annas are Brahmin priest is called for the purpose. paid to the grave digger, whereas in the case of crema­ KaIJars tion Rs. 1.25 has to be paid to the Parayar apart from I Next, we shall deal with the Kallar community. The the costs to be incurred on logs of wood, cowdung cakes Kallars of Kadambangudi village claim to have settled and kerosene oil. The death ceremonies are the same as for the Muthiriyar community. in the village from Tiruchirapalli district and their ancestors had come to Kadambangudi generations ago Among Kallars, we find various suffixes to their from Kolathur and Tirumayam taluks in order to earn names, the significance of which is not known to a livelihood. These Kallars are an ex-criminal tribe the Kallars themselves. They are probably family who have given up their ignoble profession of theft and surnames being passed down from father to son. The marauding and have taken to agriculture whereas the suffixes found are as follows: Kallars of Tiruverambur and the neighbourhood are said to have come from Kongu Nadu. The customs and 1. Sundayar 2. Malavar, Malarar or Malava- manners of the Kallar community are as follows :--- sayar 3. Uthamundar 4. Kadavarayan 5. Mattayar 6. Kolandirar 7. Nattar 8. Kattarar 9. Pichadiar Birth Customs 10. Sholagar Normally within a month, the child is named; when the child is a little older, the child's head is shaved and Muthiriyars ear boring is also done either at Samayapuram temple The Muthiriyars are a Tamil speaking community or by the village goldsmith. For this ceremony guests found largely in Tiruchirapalli and Thanjavur are invited even from the neighbouring villages. districts. They are treated as a sub-sect of Ambalaga- 16 KADAMBANGubi rars who again are allied to Kallars. Muthiriyars are economic status of the people. The marriage is also called Muthurajas and here in Kadambangudi celebrated either in the bridegroom's or the bride's village they also go by the name of Valayars, but house. commonly they are known as Poosaris in this village. Among Muthiriyars a Brahmin priest is absolutely essential to perform the marriage rites. For this The Muthiriyars are the third largest community in purpose a Brahmin priest is brought from the Kadambangudi and Valayapatti hamlet is exclusively neighbouring villages of either Koviladi or Marneri. inhabited by them. The members of this community 'Omam' is kindled; then the groom ties the tali around claim to have immigrated from Pudukkottai in the neck of the bride with three knots, after which Tiruchirapalli district. At first, the Muthiriyars there is an exchange of garlands by them. The bride's inhabited the eastern side of the present dry Thonda­ maternal uncle presents her with gold and sovereign, man Eri, but about forty years ago they have shifted so does her sister-in-law (husband's sister). The over to the western side of the Bri. married couple is then taken in procession to Pillayar temple to worship Lord Ganesha, after which The Customs and manners of the Muthiriyar a bridal feast, a vegetarian one, is arranged. The community are as follows: nuptials are performed on the day of marriage. The first child in a family is known as "Thalaichan" and is Birth Customs presented with a jewel by its parents and other kith and Generally when a male child is born 'Aval' or beaten kin. rice, grain and sugar are distributed among relatives and neighbours. The child may be named a few days Death Customs after birth or after the ear-boring ceremony. Ear In the Muthiriyar community, the dead are buried boring is done only after the child attains four or five and not cremated unlike the Udayar and Kallar years of age. At first the child's head is shaved, then any communities where only children and old people are member of the household bores the ear with a thorn. buried and the rest cremated. The custom among At times, the children in this hamlet are taken to Muthiriyars is that the corpse is bathed with turmeric, Srirangam and Samayapuram temples where the ear­ oil and soapnut powder and covered with a new cloth. A boring and shaving the head is done. bier is constructed with green bamboos or even with branches of trees and decorated with flowers. The pit is Rites attending on Puberty dug by Parayar from Indalur. Another custom among When a girl attains puberty a 'Kuchchu' is construc­ Muthiriyars is that before the corpse leaves the house, ted by her maternal uncle, and in this she is made to the woman receives washed clothes from the dhoby and live isolated from other members of the household, for then her tali is removed by a barber. After the burial sixteen days till the pollution lasts. On the 16th day, ceremony, the relatives of the bereaved family supply new clothes are given to the girl by her maternal uncle, food to all the people after their bath. This food is called and the 'Kuchchu' is burnt. Sandal paste and money 'Thucka chor'. Then on the third day the bereaved are given to her by her relatives, depending on the family eat rice with agathi leaves boiled with water to economic status of the people concerned. A Brahmin remove the sadness caused by death. This type of food priest may be called, who gives the 'Panchagavyam' is called Thuckamkalithal. to all the relatives followed by a vegetarian dinner. Apart from the above customs relating to the dead, This ceremony is called "Theettu Suttruthal". there are still others which have to be performed by the bereaved family. On the 16th day, a Brahmin priest Marriage Customs is called for. The bereaved members of the household The customs relating to marriage" are somewhat after having a dip in the river, offer rice to the Brahmin similar to those of the Kallar community. As among priest and fall prostrate before him. The Brahmin Kallars, Nichayathamboolam, a formal engagement priest in turn offers Prasadam to all the members, and precedes marriage, duriJlg which the relatives of the then all the relatives are entertained to a vegetarian groom visit the bride's house, and there is a formal feast. Another ceremony is performed on the 17th exchange of betel leaves and cocoanuts. Dowry and day by all the relatives and this is called Thuckam other formalities are discussed by the two parties Thirvu. For this ceremony the relatives give the concerned. The 'bride-price' is given by the groom to bereaved an oil bath and then feed them on non­ the bride and the amount varies according to the vegetarian food. A typical Chettiar (Padmasaliar) family whose main occupation is weaving. A Reddiar family in Kadambangudi main hamlet. PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE 17

Cbettiars of 9 or 10 it receives the Sacraments of Penance and Holy Communion, a priest being brought from the Next we pass on to the Chettiar community. The neighbouring village for the purpose. The First Chettiars Padmasaliars of Kadambangudi village ~r Communion Day is generally celebrated with a feast claim to have come some generations ago from for the relatives. Puthanampatti and Samayapuram of Tiruchirapalli district. The members of this community are all Puberty Rites weavers and possess handlooms. As regards their appearance they are mostly fair in complexion. They When a girl attains puberty, she is kept in a separate speak Tamil fluently although their mother-tongue is place i.e., an enclosure made of cocoanut or palmyra Telugu. They worship Maikkandayar. Almost all leaves either on the pial or outside the hut. No the customs and ceremonies of the Chettiars are religious ceremonies are observed except that she is similar to those of other communities. A feature among given a bath every day. On the 16th day the pollution Chettiars is that the men wear the sacred thread or is removed and she is allowed to move freely with 'Poonool' which goes over the left shoulder and wear the other members of the household. it even after their marriage unlike the Brahmin community. Marriage Ceremonies Konars The ceremonies connected with marriage among Parayars depend largely on the economic status of the Among the Konars, we find that most of the customs parties concerned. When a marriage is arranged and manners are similar to those of the Muthiriyar between the two parties and the day fixed, a priest is community except for a few. The naming ceremony brought from one of the neighbouring villages to is only after a year after the child is born and christened. Ear-boring ceremony is done only when a conduct the service. The priest proclaims them as man and wife in the presence of witnesses. The Thali is blessed child has attained 10 or 15 years. There is another by the priest and given to the groom who in turn custom which is performed by the Konars-when a ties the Thali around the bride's neck. The person dies and the corpse is being placed in the marriage expenses are borne either by the bride's or the pit, the head of the corpse must face the South and the A legs north-the face must see "Sam Moolai". bridegroom's party. non-vegetarian feast is arranged only if presents are forth-coming. No dowry The Parayars of Kadambangudi are mostly is given but they demand ornaments for the bride. Christians. There is only one Hindu Parayar family. Nuptials are performed either on the same day or on The Christian and Hindu Parayars and Sakkilyans live any other day. There is only one Hindu Parayan in a cheri, which is isolated from the main Udayar household, others being Christians. caste locality. The customs and manners of the Parayars are similar to the Muthiriyar community Death Customs with one difference, that the religious rites of the Christian Parayars are performed in a church by a When a person is seriously ill, the priest is informed priest. The Parayars of Kadambangudi main village in most cases. Extreme Unction, the Sacrament of the are Roman Catholics whose forefathers were Hindus dying is then administered by the priest, during which but were converted to Christianity about two or three the five senses are anointed with holy oil. In some generations ago. The only Hindu Parayar family has cases the person recovers after receiving the sacrament. migrated from Manaparai in Trichy district about 10 When death occurs in a particular family, the next to years ago. kith and kin are informed by those closely associated with the bereaved family. The corpse is first bathed Birtb Customs and dressed and kept for about a day depending on the illness. In some cases the priest is brought from one Normally 10 or 11 days after a child is born it is of the neighbouring villages, who conducts the burial christened. For this purpose a priest is brought from service. The corpse is placed in a coffin amidst the one of the neighbouring villages, a suitable name being cries of the womenfolk and taken to the cemetry where chosen by the parents. The priest blesses the child it is buried, a cross being placed to mark the spot. with holy water and pronounces the name. In a few cases a feast may be arranged for the relatives. The Tattooing in Kadambangudi is done by the pollution period for child birth is 16 days. When a Kuravar community. Though this is not a general child attains the age of reason i.e., usually at~the age feature, yet we find some women tattoo their hands. 3 18 KADAMBANGUDI

As regards untouchability, it is practised in the vil­ we find the main village leads the other two hamlets with lage only in a mild form. The Pallars, the Parayars a population of 434; Thondampatti is the next bigger and Sakkilians are not permitted to take water from hamlet with 162 people, followed with 121 persons in wells which are intended for the use of the so-called Valayapatti. The main village has a concentration of high castemen, as there are wells specially ear-marked Udayars with 193 people followed by Chettiars (Padma­ for their use. saliars) with 68 people, Christian Parayans with 43 people. Except Pallars, all the other communities are Generally in the huts of these high caste-men, namely found in the main village. Thondampatti hamlet is Udayars and KaJlars, untouchability is enforced, but inhabited by only four communities; there is a in the economically upper class houses, namely, the concentration of Kallars with 129 persons followed by terraced buildings it is not strictly observed, for the Pallars with 17 people, Konars 12, and Vannans 4. Harijans move freely in such cases though they are not Valayapatti, the smallest hamlet, is exclusively inhabi­ permitted to enter the living rooms. Apart from this, ted by the Muthiriyars community with a total of 121 the Harijans have their own barbers and dhobies. people. The relative strength of different communities is Barbers generally belonging to the Parayar community shown in Table No. I. come from Trichy to crop the hair of the Parayars occasionally, but they do not enter the main Udayar caste locality. There is a Harijan dhoby who hails TABLE NO. I from Veppankudi, a neighbouring village, who washes clothes exclusively for the Parayars of Kadambangudi. Ethnic Composition He is paid 6 Marakkals or 12 Madras Measures of No. of paddy per year. Besides, he is also given his night Community house- Persons Males Females meal in any of the houses in the cheri. holds 234 5 As regards the other customs in the village the customs relating to inheritance have been modified Hindus by the recent legislation. That both sons and daugh­ Udayar 35 193 102 91 ters have an equal right to their father's property is Kallar 37 157 82 75 known to many a person in Kadambangudi. Con­ Muthiriyar 36 125 69 56 sanguinity is only of familiar types in the village, for Konar 7 26 10 16 men are allowed to marry their sister's daughter or Kammalar 7 31 14 17 paternal aunt's or maternal uncle's daughter. Polygamy Pandaram 4 18 9 9 is a rare phenomenon among all the communities. local Reddiar 2 6 3 3 brides and grooms as well as those in their ancestoral Pallar 2 17 9 8 places are preferred by all the communities. The Parayan 1 5 3 2 Kallars do not give and take brides or bridegrooms Vannan 2 6 3 3 from those near Thiruverambur. Among Parayars, Ambattan I 7 3 4 there is a Catholic Parayar woman who resides with Lingayat 1 2 1 her father-in-law in the village. Her husband works as Velar 1 6 5 painter in the Railway at Villupuram, and he has Chettiar 13 68 34 34 taken a Reddiar woman from the same village as his Christians second wife illegally, by whom he has two children. Parayar 12 43 20 23 But he sends maintenance for his first wife whom he Sakkiliar 2 7 4 3 sometimes visits along with his second wife. No enmity exists between the two women. Total 163 717 367 350

Community and Inter-caste Relationships In Thondampatti hamlet, apart from the majority community viz., Kallars, Konars, Vannans and Pallars The village Kadambangudi comprises 16 com­ are found. The Vannans and Konars live in the same munities, distributed in its three hamlets, namely, locality as the Kallars, whereas the Pallars always live Kadambangudi main village, Thondampatti and separately in the cheri away from the settlement of Valayapatti hamlets. The main village is the biggest of Kallars. A number of communities are found in the the three hamlets with 91 households followed by Thon­ main viUage with the exception of Pallars. Here in this dampatti with 37 households and next by Valayapatti hamlet Udayars, Kallars, Muthiriyars, Konars, Kam­ with 35 households. On the basis of population too, malars, Pandaram, Reddiar, Velars, Vannan and DISTRIBUTION OF CASTES

Muthlrlyar 22.11 An old Christian Parayar couple. Generally men do not wear shirts and even women do not wear blouses. Note the medal the man wears around his neck - a Christian symbol. This is a Christian Sakkilian couple. The mode of dressing of women is similar to the Christian Parayar. PEOPLE AND tHEIR MATERIAL CULTURE 19

Different types of domestic utensils u.!ed commonly by the villagers

Ambattan live in the same streets. The Chettiar com­ although it may be supplemented at times by other munity lives in a separate street away from the main cereals. Meals are taken thrice a day, but in the case Udayar streets. There is one Lingayath family in the of some rich households, the breakfast may consist of hamlet living in the same street as the Chettiars. But savouries like idlies and dosais. Both vegetarian and there are some Chettiar families who live in the main non-vegetarian households are found in the village, but Udayar street. As for the Christian and Hindu Para­ the latter form a majority. The usual items of non-vege­ yars and Christian Sakkiliars they live in a Cheri, which tarian diet are mutton and chicken, fish being taken is isolated from the main Udayar caste locality. occasionally. The Scheduled Castes are not treated properly by Table No. II exhibits the food habits of the different the Udayars and other caste-men. They are treated as communities in the village. With the exception of one socially inferior. Separate drinking water wells intended Lingayath household (Veera-Saivam), the rest are non­ for Scheduled Castes and others exist. They are not pro­ vegetarian households. The Veera-Saivites are forbidden perly represented in the village Panchayat and are also by their religion to take any type of meat. Further, the kept out of the Co-operative Credit Society. Even to­ table reveals that rice is the staple food of the house­ day the Harijans should not sit before an Udayar and holds in the village and besides all the communities have other advanced castes. Kallars also do not treat the their meals thrice a day. Here there are some com­ Harijans properly. But it is rather surprising to find that munities like the Udayars, who generally take some the Harijans are not serious about it. Even with regard extras like ghee along with their food. to festivals we find that caste feelings prevail in the village. For instance, the temple in Thondampatti Table No. III further shows the prohibited foods and hamlet is not open for worship by Muthiriyars as drinks for different communities in the village. About this hamlet is predominantly occupied by Kallars. 84.6 per cent or 138 out of a total of 163 households in the village have reported beef as prohibited. Nine have Diet and Food Habits of Communities reported both beef and pork as prohibited. 72 per cent of 118 households out of a total of 163 households in The food habits in Kadambangudi are simple. Rice the village has stated that all kinds of intoxicant constitutes the staple food of all the communities , drinks are prohibited. 20 KADAMBANGUDt

TABLE NO. It Diet and food habits

I rJ'J rJ'J ~~~ Households taking Frequency of meals :9 ~"O o~_ One Two Three 0 .~~- 0 ~.~ '-.t:l ° Community _0Il) '- .... "'" '-O~II).... "'" meal meals meals ° ~ II) ... ", • II) ;::I .... ';::1'" . t ;; o t)f)o Rice Wheat a a & more 000'" o ~o day a day (:-tZ"," Z:>"," Z ~"'" day (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Udayar 35 35 35 3S Kallar 37 37 37 37 Muthiriyar 36 36 36 36 Konar 7 7 7 7 Kammalar 7 7 7 7 Pandaram 4 4 4 4 Reddiar 2 2 2 2 Panar 2 2 2 2 Parayar 1 1 1 1 Vannan 2 2 2 2 Ambattan 1 1 1 1 Lingayath 1 1 I Velar 1 1 1 1 Chettiar 13 13 13 13 Christian Parayar 12 12 12 12 Sakkiliar 2 2 2 2 Total 163 1 162 163 163

TABLE NO. III Prohibited food and drinks No. of households reporting as prohibited No. that did not No. that did not Community report any food to report any drink to Beef Beef & All kinds Drink Pork of flesh (intoxi- be prohibited be prohibited cants) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Udayar 27 8 25 10 Kallar 37 22 15 Muthiriyar 34 29 7 Konar 7 6 1 Kammalar 7 6 1 Pandaram 4 3 1 Reddiar 2 2 Pallar 2 2 Parayar Van nan 2 Ambattan Lingayath Velar 1 1 Chettiar 13 9 4 Christian Parayar 10 11 2 Sakkiliar 2 2 Total 138 9 1 118 15 45 I'EOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULrtJRE ii

Furniture and Utensils TABLE NO. IV Furniture and consumer goods acquired in Furniture of the commonest types are found only last five years among the well-to-do families~ mostly Udayars and a few Kallar households. The common types of furniture No. of households which have are cots, stools, benches, chairs and tables. Muthiriyars, acquired in last 5 years Padmasaliars and other communities have practically Community 0 I-< no furnilure except a few coif cots. Native items of ...... 04) :ao:s ct.> furniture like grass mats, wooden planks to sit on, Bed Stead Almirah ~ ~6 improvised shelves and the like are used by all the (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) households. Mattresses and quilts are used only' by the Udayar households. Udayar 1 2 Kallar Among utensils, pottery still constitutes the principal type in the village. Different kinds of brass vessels and Muthiriyar even bronze vessels are used by Udayars and a few Konar Kallar households in Thondampatti hamlet, to cook food, store drinking water, preserve foodstuffs and so Kammalar on. Stainless steel ware and even silver ware are also Pandaram used mostly by the Udayar community. But in almost all the households in the village we find wooden utensils Reddiar like laddIes, wooden plates, small bowls and aluminium Pallan ware. Food is generally taken from a plantain leaf, or an enamelled or aluminium or stainless steel plates. Parayar Vannan Table No. IV reflects the material culture of the different communities. Only the Udayars have acquired Ambattan some furniture and consumer goods during the last five Lingayath years. One household has acquired a bedstead, another almirah. Two households have acquired radio sets and Velar one household a motor-cycle. Different kinds of pottery Chettiar are made for the villagers by the village potters. In addition some are purchased from the shandies or Christian markets nearby. Ch. Parayar ... The people in Kadambangudi use a big vessel made Ch. Sakkiliyar of tin for holding paddy before drying and dehusking is done. This type of vessel is also used for preparing Total 1 1 2 1 jaggery out of sugar cane juice. Before electricity was introduced in Kadambangudi, petromax lights were used by some Udayar households. Still a few households use them whereas lanterns or kerosene oil lamps are found in all the houses. Out of 15 electrified houses in Kadambangudi four have radio sets many of them with extension speaker so that even those people who are not in a position to have radio sets, have an opportunity of listening to the day to day news and light music. Torch lights are also possessed by 14 households, mostly by Udayars. Due to tbe sound financial position of the Udayars, they are in a position to adopt modern utensils and household goods, not only for necessities but also for luxuries.

Table No. V reflects the material culture, namely, Vessel made of tin used for boiling paddy the possession of consumer goods by the different before de· husking communities in the village. All the 163 households 22 KADAMBAN(JUDt

. IIFfJTI'li\ liI~111

1/1 /111111 Iii/If III, I

1 : II tI I1111// 111/111 11

' .. -_

Domestic Utensils

Mud pot Kooja Aluminium Vessel These are some of the household utensils as seen in an Udayar household. A well in Kadambangudi vi ll age-a source of drinking water. See the vegetation in the background ~ the vi ll age abounds in different varieties of trees. Note the poor condition of the well.

Bathing in the Pudar, a common scene in the vi llage. PEOPLE AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE 23 TABLE NO. V Possession of consumer goods No. of households possessing Hurricane Kerosene Community lantern or Petromax Battery Bicycle Radio set kerosene lamp torch light stove (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Udayar 35 12 4 3 Kallar 37 2 Muthiriyar 36 Konar 7 Kammalar 7 Pandaram 4 Reddiar 2 Pallar 2 Parayar Vannan 2 Ambattan 1 Lingayath Velar Chettiar 13 Christian Parayar 12 Sakkiliyar 2 Total 163 14 1 6 4 in Kadambangudi possess either hurricane or kerosene Pudar Canal and during the summer months from lamps, in spite of the fact that there are a few electri­ springs. The water obtained from the river and the fied houses in the main village. Fourteen house­ canal is clear and tasteless. Occasionally drinking holds possess torch lights of which 12 are Udayars. water is obtained from wells but it is slightly brackish. Apart from these, there are 6 bicycles in the village, 4 Adequate precautions are taken by the villagers, for of which are possessed by the Udayars, one by a Kallar the water obtained from the above sources is filtered and one by a Parayar household. The only motor • on the spot with a cloth and then taken home in pots cycle in the village is possessed by an Odayar house­ or brass vessels. Bathing and washing are also hold. There are also 4 radio sets in Kadambangudi, done on the banks of the Vennar or Pudar or even near three being possessed by the Udayars and one by a wells, though in some cases, washing is done in their Kallar. respective households, as in the case of rich Udayar households. Women generally bathe in their. houses. Thus the Udayar community is found higher up the economic scale than the other communities. Another feature which is not unusual in the village is Though there are a few households in the Kallar that even cattle may be found bathing in the river and the canal along with the villagers. community, who use consumer goods such as torch lights, bicycles and radio sets, yet they cannot in any Sanitary arrangements are inadequate which is seen way be compared to the Udayars, who are definitely from the absence of drainage facilities in Kadamban­ more prospero'ls. gudi. Consequently all the waste water enters the street and forms filthy and odourous cess pools which Health and Sanitation breed mosquitoes and flies. The people also exhibit a Adequate water ~upply exists in Kadambangudi. disregard for environmental hygiene. Insanitary Drinking water is obtained from the Vennar river and habits like indiscriminate spitting due to chewing and 24 KADAMBANGUDI smoking, and urination and answering calls of nature houses are periodically sprayed with DDT and in case in the streets by children give the village an unhealthy of fevers a blood test is done at Thanjavur to see appearance. whether it contains malarial germs. Epidemics like Cholera and Smallpox used to affect the villagers almost periodically. But according Besides, the villagers also have a strong belief in the to the death statistics for Kadambangudi for the past treatment of the sick by Pujaris, that is, those who have 10 years, death due to epidemics is not so considerable become possessed and are supposed to express the wish as to cause anxiety. Among all the epidemics, Cholera of the God or Goddess concerned. The sick people commonly appears in all the villages bordering the river carry out the instructions of the Pujari and they believe Cauvery. When this epidemic breaks out in the that it has some effect on them at least. village, the villagers take precautions· that the water that they use for drinking purposes is first boiled and The nearest hospital is at Tirukattupalli and the they drink it either hot or after cooliFlg it. This prac­ patients have to be taken there. Besides there is a tice is also resorted, when fresh water comes into the Panchayat Union dispensary at Budalur. The villagers Vennar and Pudar. prefer to go to Budalur as it is easier to approach the village from Ayanapuram railway station, whereas Health and sanitation is fairly satisfactory in a river has to be crossed to reach Tirukattupalli. Kadambangudi main village when compared to the position in the hamlets. There are two lepers in the village, one Udayar and one Parayar. The main Medical Care village is tidier and apparently free from any serious disease. Medical care in the village is indicated. by Table No. VI which furnishes details of maternity cases, ordi­ Medical Assistance nary medical treatment, medical consultation and vaccin­ tion. Regarding the maternity cases, we find 430 cases of Paucity of modern medical assistance is one of the all the communities have been reported as confined by immediate causes which contributes to the low health unqualified 'Thai' at home. These cases are generally level of the population in rural areas and Kadamban­ attended to by elderly women assisted by other women. gudi is no exception. Modern medical and maternity There are only 6 maternity cases confined by a quali­ aid is still out of reach for the bulk of the villagers fied midwife at home, and there is not even a single case except in the case of rich Udayars and a few Kallars hospitalised. As regards ordinary medical treatment, the who are in a position to secure the benefits of modern Allopathic system leads all the other systems with a medicine because they are economically better off than total of 140 people. Of all those who follow the Allo-' the other communities. There are no medical practi­ pathic system of medicine the Kallars top the list with 35 tioners, and doctors rarely vrsit the village. However, people followed by Udayars, Muthiriyars, and others. there is an Homeopathic doctor who treats the patients Apart from the Allopathic system, there are 13 Kallars in all the three hamlets of Kadambangudi, and the who prefer Homeopathic treatment given by the village people have faith in him. In Marneri, a neighbouring doctor, 10 have a combination of more than one of village, there is another native do::tor, but the people of these systems and 123 take native medicines. The Kadambangudi village rarely go to him. Apart from people in Kadambangudi generally consult the Homeo­ this, the villagers have their own treatment for common pathic doctor in the village who has a fairly extensive ailments, as restrictions in diet and sometimes they practice. Rarely do they call in physicians and generally even adopt methods like smearing fresh cowdung on they go to public hospitals. There are 136 families a wound. Palliatives like 'Aspro' which are common who have their medical consultation in public hospitals medicines are available in the village shops at prices or •. disp~.w~a~ies, 7 in private hospitals or dispensaries; slightly higher than in the towns. ?~.~¥J ·t.)lJo~~tt'le physicians, 52 Homeopathic and 93 Kadambangudi village comes under the Thanjav.ut o.tners: Out '-of, tlle total population of 717 persons, 667 unit of the National Malaria Eradication Progra~~:" persons have beetljaccinated at least once which works Though the village is not a malarial tract;'!' 'j:l;l~ ?u~. t~utJl3 p~i-~t of the total. 01 .,' PEOPLE AND TIlEIR MATERIAL CULTURE 2S

TABLE NO. VI Medical Care

No. of Maternity Ordinary Medical Medical consultation Vacci­ cases confined treatment nation

o til.~ '3 '" By calling in .... ~ 00 .s.. ~ 's..~ physicians CIJ (/:) 0 ~ Community ~ §; o ~ ... f!l '" o 0 ...... ,.Q ,.Q8,-.... <9 o.~ ~ 8.. ] ll! :.2:0 ~a""s :':::'0 o:l.:a - ...... 0 0 ..... ~ 0 '" '0 i5.. 1': 0 .oo"tl I-< .g ~ .~ ~ g '" '"o:l 0:=8Sd>'] 0...... I-<~ g- S ~ ~ ==~Oo;:::;r/J~ ... (l...... :::: 0 -::: <: <: ::t: u 0 .sO .50 <: ::t: 0 < (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) Udayar 6 99 34 ... 1 3 32 31 4 5 10 19 177 Kallar 103 35 ... 13 3 24 34 6 17 16 151 Muthiriyar 74 30 1 36 30 30 115 Konar 16 6 3 4 6 3 3 25 Kammalar 18 5 6 4 2 5 29 Pandaram 12 2 3 2 4 18 Reddiar 3 1 I 1 6 Pallar 9 2 2 2 2 11 Parayar 2 t 1 1 5 Vannan 4 6 Ambattan 4 7 Lingayath 1 2 Velar 4 1 1 5 Chettiar 48 9 3 10 10 5 7 62 Christians Parayar 28 11 9 3 11 483 41 SakkiJiar 6 2 2 7

Total 6 430 140 ... 35 10 123 136 7 18 52 93 667 ... CHAPTER III POPULATION

Population Trend The table given above relating to birth and death A varying sex composition is observed in this village. particulars shows a natural increase of 21 for a period In 1901 the females outnumbered the males, the num­ of II years. This partially accounts for an increase in ber was equal in 1921 whereas in 19I1, 1951 and 1962 population since 1951 Census. This works out to the males outnumbered the females; this tendency is about 35% of the increase. Further, according to the in accordance with the varying sex composition in our birth particulars, we find a preponderance of male State. The growth in population for the whole village births which accounts for a varying sex ratio. could be seen in the following table. The birth rate for males is 28.2 and that of females

OJ is 20.9 per thousand whereas the death rate for males :i is 21.7 and 21.6 for females per thousand. The birth Census years 0. ., .2 °Cl0. rate clearly indicates the changing sex pattern of the 0 rn ..!! :. -'~os'" C) 01 .. '; s >< village. On the other hand the death rate is very close "0 <) 0 E-< ~ u.. III between males and females although it is slightly high 1901 557 259 298 1151 in respect of males. The slightly low birth and death 1911 651 335 316 943 rates among females when compared to the males could 1921 592 296 296 1000 be partially accounted for by under-registration. 1931 r (Not available) The causes for deaths are to be found in the birth 1941 and death regist~r. They are generally recorded as 1951 663 335 328 979 cholera, small-pox, fever, diarrhoea and other causes. 1961 723 365 358 981 Among all the causes for death, dysentery and 1962 717 367 350 954 diarrhoea have taken the largest toll, i. e. 5 persons in (as per S.B.S) 1953. Cholera and small-pox affect the villagers least, The above table reveals that the growth in population 4 in 1957 and one in 1958 respectively. is somewhat irregular. There is an increase in popu- lation in 1911, but then there is a fall in 1921 after Density of population whtch it increases in 1951. Socio-economic survey The density of population in Kadambangudi village has recorded a higher figure. The birth and death is indicated below: particulars for the period 1951-61 are given below:

Births Deaths Population Density Census per sq. Natural years Total Males Females mile Year ., increase rJ <) or 335 328 597 '; 0; 1951 663 -;;; 0; '"«) decrease '" E "0 <.) (5 'a 1961 723 365 358 651 E-< ~ u.. I-< ~ £ 1962 717 367 350 646 1951 14 6 8 17 9 8 - 3 !952 (Not available) (According 1953 18 12 6 28 17 II - 10 to survey) 1954 15 13 2 17 8 9 - 2 1955 17 10 7 10 5 5 7 The density of population has increased from 597 1956 19 12 7 9 3 6 10 in 1951 to 651 in 1961. According to 1951 Census 1957 15 6 9 19 8 II 1958 22 14 8 17 9 8 - ..5 the density for Thanjavur taluk was 907 and for 1959 22 II II 9 4 5 13 Thanjavur district 798 whereas according to 1961 1960 15 8 7 S 4 I 10 Census the density is 611 for Thanjavur taluk and 1961 13 7 6 18 9 9 - 5 868 for Thanjavur district. The density of the village Total 170 99 71 149 76 73 21 is higher than the normal. P{)PULA1'ION 27

Marital status Further this -table also shows that a majority of the According to Table No. VII age and marital status population are found in the young age groups or middle do not reveal any peculiar feature in Kadambangudi. age groups. Only III males and III females are found Out of a total population of 717 persons, 44.9% or 322 in the old age group, viz., 35·59 and 60 and over, which persons are married, 44.35% or 318 persons are classified works out to 31 % of the population. as never married, 23.7% or 75 persons are widowed and The age structure for Thanjavur (rural) taluk is given 0.61% are divorced or separated. The percentage of as follows: married people is higher than the never married persons whereas the percentage of never married males is 0-14 77,315 persons higher than the never married females. But on the 15-34 13,222 } 67.5% contrary, the married females are higher than the 35-59 60,035 " never married females. The percentage is given as 60 & over 12,400 " } 32.4% Age not stated 11 " follows: "

No. of never mar· Percentage to No. of married Percentage to Population ried persons total persons tOlal Males Females Males Females Males Females Male. Females Males Females 367 350 181 137 "9.3 39.2 166 156 "5.2 ..... 6

The widows outnumber the widowers in this village Further for Thanjavur district with a popUlation of as they form more than twice the number of widowers. 3,245,927 persons the age structure is given below: The reason for this is obvious. For, out of 55 widows, 0·14 1,187,20 4} 36 belong to the higher age groups 45-59 and 15·34 1,067,520 69% 60 and over. Such widows have little or no possibility 35-59 811,351 } of getting married again. On the other hand, widows 60 & over 179,624 30.5% Age not stated 138 in the young age groups 25·29 and 30-34 have greater chances of getting remarried than the others. The percentage of persons in the old age group in There are only 2 divorced or separated women in Thanjavur district is 30.5%. Thus we find a majority this village. Males are not found in this category of persons in the younger age groups. which must be due to the fact that men, as it usuaIIy happens, get remarried almost immediately after Size and composition of households separation whereas it takes a considerable time for the The size and composition of households in Ka­ women to get remarried. dambangudi changes from community to community.

TABLE No. VII Age and Marital Status Total Population Never Married Married Widowed Divorced or Age Group Separated Persons Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) 0- 4 99 50 49 50 49 5-- 9 88 43 45 43 45 10-14 65 39 26 39 25 1 15-19 56 28 28 28 18 10 .. 20-24 71 32 39 17 15 38 .. 25-29 70 41 29 4 36 26 1 2 30-34 46 23 23 21 21 ·2 2 35-44 91 43 48 40 33 3 15 45-59 88 42 46 39 23 3 23 60 and over 43 26 17 15 4 11 13 Total 717 367 350 181 137 166 156 20 55 2 28 KADAMBANGUDI

The average household comprises 4-6 members as Analysing the data community-wise, the Udayars are this group forms 47.9% or 78 households in the village, leading again with the largest number of family followed by 2-3 members group which has 53 house­ members. This cannot be mainly attributed to the fact holds (about 32.52%). The other groups are 7-9 member that the normal size of an Udayar family is large, but households-I7 households, 10 single member house­ also because of the joint family system. Hence in the holds and there are 5 households with 10 members and group 10 members and over, the Udayars form a over. majority with 25 out of 58 members. Similarly in the group 4-6 member households WI members from Taking into account the number of members in the the Udayars form a larger number in the group, respective households, the 4-6 member households are followed by Kallars with 97 members. Among the again leading with 197 males and 191 females, a total of single member households, 3 out of 10 are Muthiriyars. 388 persons. There are 132 persons in 2-3 members, There are two members in each of the Udayar 129 in 7-9 members and the households with 10 members and Kallat communities. and over comprise 58 members. There are 10 persons in the single member households. Of them, Types of Families eight are widows and two males in the same group The nature of families is clearly brought out by Table are widowers. No. IX. The simple families form a majority. A simple

TABLE No. VIII Size of Household

Single member 2-3 members 4-6 members 7-9 members 10 members & over No. of rJj rJj rJj Community Q) Q) Q) , '" Q) , Q) Q)'O,'" '" ''0 '" '" Q)'O households Q)- rJj v~ rJj Q) '" ",- Q) '; '; ",- Q) '; ",- Q) ';; "''0 0 «$ ;::l 0 '" "'0 ..!:l ;::l 0 '" ;::l 0 ;::l- '" - '; IS «$ IS ~ IS o..t:: '; IS 00 ~ IS o..t: 0 g..c Q) o..t: Q) Q) Q) ::t ~ IJ.. ::t ~ IJ.. ::t ~ IJ.. ~ ~ IJ.. ~..t:: ~ IJ.. (1 ) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) Udayar 35 2 2 4 6 4 20 52 49 7 30 25 2 14 11 Kallar 37 2 2 12 13 15 19 53 44 4 16 14 Muthiriyar 36 3 1 2 19 28 22 14 40 32 Konar 7 1 2 2 3 4 7 13 Kammalar 7 2 4 2 5 10 15 Pandaram 4 2 3 2 1 6 6 Reddiar 2 1 2 2 Pallar 2 3 4 6 4 Parayar 1 3 2 Vannan 2 ... 2 2 Ambattan 1 ..... 3 4 Lingayath 1 Velar 1 ] 5 Chettiar 13 4 6 4 5 11 13 3 11 12 6 5 Christian Parayar 12 1 4 4 5 6 13 13 3 4 Christian Sakkiliar 2 2 3 I

Total 163 10 2 8 53 70 62 78 197 191 17 66 63 5 32 26 POPULATION 29

family is one which comprises a husband and wife Literacy with or without unmarried children. This type of There is only one elementary school in Kadam­ family predominates the village and is found in all the bangudi main village which was started with only the communities except PalJars, Hindu Parayars, barber and first class on 19-10-1961, under the auspices of the Velar where we find either joint or intermediate families. Budalur Panchayat Union. Then there were only 4 The KalJars form the largest percentage of simple males and 7 females in the school. families i.e., 50.5% followed by Muthiriyars 50% and then by Udayars 49.9% and so on. The strength of the school in April 1962 was as follows:

TABLE NO. IX CLASSES Communities II III Types of Family TMF T M F T M F Types of Families living in Padmasaliar (chettiar) 6 5 1 I I ... the households "0'" 2 Udayar 9 5 4 5 "",'0 u 0 .... Community 0"5 1 0:1 3 Reddiar 2 2 " 0. ,",,~ .... 0'"''" ';:l'" 0"0 ..c: 0 0 S .... u '0'" .... 4 Gounder 1 Z..c: Vi ..5S ~ 0 5 Pandaram 8 7 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) 6 Konar Hindus: 7 Barber Udayar 35 17 4 14 8 Kallar Kallar 37 20 4 13 '" I 9 Kammalar ... I Muthiriyar 36 18 2 16 10 Rarijan II 2 2 2 2 Konar 7 2 5 7 " Total 41 2714 5 4 7 6 Kammalar 7 5 1 Pandaram 4 1 2 The above table reveals that the strength of Reddiar 2 2 the school has increased considerably during Pallar 2 2 the last 6 months. Harijans, Udayars, Pandarams and Padmasaliars form the bulk of the students followed Parayar 1 1 by other communities. The Harijans include Parayars Vannan 2 and Pallars. Sending children to school depends Ambattan largely on the proximity of the school. As for instance. Lingayath children of the Muthiriyar community are not to be Velar found in the Elementary School at Kadambangudi main Chettiar 13 3 2 7 village and the Kallars are also found only in sr_n~lI numbers in this school, as both these commumtIes Christians: send most of their school going children to Indalur or Parayar 12 5 3 4 Nedungulam schools. Sakkiliar 2 1 The Elementary School at Kadambangudi main village is housed in a thatched building v.:hich is rent­ Total 163 76 2 21 64 free. Education is imparted to the chIldren of the school by two male teachers who are both higher grade. Tamil is the only language taught in this school Out of a total of 163 households, 76 or 47% are and English and Hindi are expected to be taught only simple families, 39% or 64 households are classified as after the institution of the V class. The mid-day others, that is those families which cannot be classified meals scheme has since been introduced in the village as simple, joint or intermediate. Next we come to the school. But there is no play-ground for the school. category of joint families with 21 households, i.e. 13%. The school children generally play such games as And finally we have 1.2% or 2 households which are Nondi, Chadugudu, Jaihind and so on. classified as intermediate families, consisting of a husband, wife with unmarried brother, or sister and There are quite a number of children attending the anyone of the parents. schools in the neighbouring villages as they are very 30 kAOAMBANGUOl much closer than the school at the main village. The 3. Aided Elementary School, Marneri strength of the children from Kadambangudi village Class attending such schools is given as follows: Communities IV V 1. Little Flower Higher Elementary School, M F M F Megalathur. I. Vdayar 2 2 1 2. Padmasaliar Class Communities I II III IV V VI vn VIII 4. State Welfare School, Marneri -Only one M FMFMFMFMFMFM F M F Parayar boy from Kadambangudi village is studying in I. Udayar ...... 1 I I ... 2 3 I ... I ... I .. , this school. 2. Kallar ...... 3 ..... , ...... 1 .. . 3. Chettiar ... 1 The children who pass out from V standard generally go to study in the Little Flower Elementary School at Thirukattupalli. Caste Communities II III IV V divisions in the schools are not of a serious nature. MF MF MF MF M F Children mix with one another freely in games as well I. Muthiriyar 3 ... 1 ... I as inside the class rooms. If the people of Kadamban­ 2. K~lIar 4 6 ... I gudi are desirous of giving their children college

Elementary School in Kadambal/gudi main village •

I

I I ~!~ I I I I

~ ~ I I ~

I o POPULATION 31

education, they have to send them to Trichy or the village, there is not even a single graduate. So Thanjavur. There are at present two Kallar boys from unless the general attitude towards education is the village who are studying in a Technical Institute at considerably changed, the future prospects of the Trichy for an overseer course. villagers would not be brighter.

The general attitude of the people towards education The standard of literacy and education is indeed a sore is not very satisfactory. No doubt the villagers are spot in Kadambangudi village. The illiterates largely desirous of educating their children to a certain outnumber the literates in the village and they form extent, but they are not keen on sending them for 74.6% or 535 of the total population. Out of a total higher studies like college education. They consider of 535 illiterates, the females form 317 or 59.3%. The college ~ducation as something which may not be rest are males. The large number of female illiterates useful for life and hence no importance is attached to is mainly because no importance has been attached to it. Further women's education has been considered as female education, by any of the communities in the useless and men going to college have been hampered by village. the fact that they have to help their parents at home to look after their property and also learn to manage The number of illiterates in the school-going age is the household. Moreover, except for the Udayar 35 males and 69 females, i.e., in the age groups 5-9, community, no other community in the village is in a 10-14 and 15-19. This appears to be a rather discoura­ position to educate their children either in a high ging feature of the village ano hence the school-going school or in a college, as their economic status is rather habit should be inculcated in the children. Thus the low. According to the present literacy standards in parents should take the initiative and encourage their

TABLE No. X Education

Total Literate without Primary or Matrie or popUlation Illiterate educational Junior Higher Age group standard Basie Secondary

P M F M F M F M F M F (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (l2)

0- 4 99 50 49 50 49 5- 9 88 43 45 14 33 28 11 10--14 65 39 26 9 12 17 11 13 3 15-19 56 28 28 12 24 5 2 10 2 20-24 71 32 39 14 37 8 9 2 25-29 70 41 29 23 29 6 11 30-34 46 23 23 13 22 1 7 2 35-44 91 43 48 28 48 6 9 45-59 88 42 46 31 46 6 5 60 & over 43 26 17 24 17 2

Total 717 367 350 218 317 79 25 65 8 S

P: Persons M: Males F: Female$ 32 KADAMBANGUDI children and only then would it be possible to achieve a higher percentage of literacy in the village. The literates form 182 or 25.4% of the total population. The percentage of males among the literate population is 81.8%, the females forming the rest. 79 males and 2S females are classified as literates without educational standards and 65 males and 8 females as primary or junior basic. Apart from the 5 males who have passed their matriculation, there are no females in this category. None of the inhabi­ tants of Kadambangudi village has distinguished himself by passing either the Intermediate or Pre­ University or secured any degree or diploma. A hut in Kadambangudi Housing and streets On the other hand, we may find that some houses in the The nature of house types in the village largely village are a combination of any two of the above depends upon the prosperity of the communities, for types. The pucca buildings are provided with strong in Kadambangudi we find a marked difference between foundations of rubbles and lime or cement. The the houses of the Udayars and other castemen. The roofing materials are brick, lime and beams and for a Udayars, a prosperous community, as they are mainly tiled house, Mangalore tiles are used. These houses engaged in cultivation, live in brickwalled and terraced are provided with doors and windows which are rather or tiled houses, whereas the houses that belong to the old fashioned and have engravings of flowers and even other communities are generally thatched structures deities. Generally the doors and windows are made of with mud walls. Almost all these houses are arranged teak wood. Recently a few houses with an ultra in streets except for a few which are isolated from the modern appearance have been constructed by the rest. Streets are found in all the hamlets of Kadamban­ Udayar community. They have pillars in pairs, gudi, but they are rather irregular. concrete shades which are ornamental and so on. The houses in Kadambangudi could be classified The flooring in these pucca buildings is of cement. under three main types, viz., pucca buildings terraced, Among the pucca buildings about 15 houses which pucca buildings tiled and mud walled thatched ones. belong to the Udayar community are electrified.

A typical hut in Kadambangudi l, l r \\; ~ " .:' If. ' '·r. :- ~--, -1I.·.'. " E" , iif'¥"_\ _ ,_1.,, ' ; " - l "

The Elementary school at Kadambangudi main village under the auspices of the Budalur Panchayat Union. Note the two male teachers who impart education to the number of school children which has considerably increased.

A closer view of one of the streets in the main village. Note the three typical houses in the picture - pucca buildings both terraced and tiled and the mud-walled thatched houses in the distance. A street scene in Valayapatti hamlet. The low mud-walled thatched houses of the Muthiriyars depict the low economic standard of that community.

An Udayar street in striking contrast with that of the Christian locality. Here the houses are generally terraced. POPULATION 33

Besides these houses are also provided with an adequate number of doors and windows and also ventilators which let in plenty of sun light and breeze. The typical houses in the village are the thatched houses with mud walls. These houses do not have KITCHEN inlets to allow breeze or light. The foundation for thatched houses is not very deep and it is generally about two or three feet. The walls are of mud, being smeared with lime or they are whitewashed. Flooring is earthen, polished with cowdung and water. The roof is first thatched with palm leaves and then unspoilt straw is tied on to the palm leaves and the J edges are cut. This enables the thatching to serve a longer time without letting rain or wind attack it straight. The roof frames in these thatched houses are I made of country wood, bamboos being used as reapers. Valayapatti hamlet which is exclusively inhabited by HALL the Muthiriyar community comprises houses, some of which do not have even doors, not to speak of windows and ventilators. There are still others which have doors made of small bamboos tied together with a coir, that one has to bend low to enter these houses. The nature of house types in Kadambangudi, viz., the different types of roofs, walls and floor is' clearly brought out in Table No. XI. Out of a total of 163 I I households in the village, I31 are straw or grass roofed which form a majority, i.e. about 80.3%. Six are Ground Plan (not to scale) Mangalore tiled, one each is terraced, country tiled, straw or grass combined with Mangalore tiles, terraced also with asbestos, terraced and Mangalore Udayar households are grass or straw roofed whereas tiled and so on. This clearly indicates the prosperity all the households that belong to the Muthiriyar of the respective communities; 13 out of a total of 35 community, i.e., 36 in alL are straw or grass-roofed. Out of 37 Kallar households, 35 are straw or grass­ roofed. There is only one house with country tiles and that house is possessed by a Velar. Of the six Manga­ lore tiled houses, one belongs to a Kallar, one to a Lingayath, three to Chettiars and one to Christian Parayan. There is only one pucca terraced house which belongs to an Udayar. As regards the other roof types that belong to the Udayar community, there is only one straw or grass-cum-Mangalore tiled, one terraced-cum-asbestos corrugated iron roof, two Man­ galore tiled corrugated iron, straw or grass-roofed. So, as far as roofing is concerned, the Udayars are better off than the other communities followed by Kallars and two Pandaram households.

Now dealing with the nature of walls built, we find that the Udayars live either in brick or mud walled houses, i.e., 21 and 14 respectively. In the Kallar community, out of a total of 37 households, only one has brick wall and the remaining 36 are mud walled. .Another type of hut With the exception of two Pandaram households and 5 34 KADAMBANGUDI

TABLE NO. XI House Types

No. of houses with the roofs made of No. of No. of houses

I houses with with til walls built of ...o No. of ~ ... o Community >. o Ei: 'houses "0 til "0 "i:l o ~ 0 ~ 0 ... 0 o fi: d ~ til c

Christians Parayar 12 11 12 12 Sakkiliar 2 2 2 2

Total 163 1 1 18 216 1 131 1 1 138 25 136 27 one Lingayath household which have brick walls, the done once a year or even once in two years. Minor other communities have only mud walled houses. repairs are regularly carried out including the change of roof. The nature of flooring in the houses of Kadamban­ gudi presents a somewhat similar picture. Nearly A variety of common trees are found growing behind 83.44% or 136 houses have their flooring paved with the houses of Kadambangudi such as Vembu (Melia mud. whereas 16.56% or 27 houses have cement floor. Azadirachta), Karivepilai (Murraya Koenji), Mango, Among the houses with cement floors, the Udayars Cocoanut. and Poovarasu (Thespesia populnea). form a majority that is 22 out of 27 households which Cacti and wild grass are being found in the backyard works out to about 81.5%. 136 out of a total number of some households. Besides we find that adjacent of 163 houses have mud floor. to the houses cattle sheds are built. Generally they are thatched, but in some cases we even find tiled cow Regarding the general upkeep of the houses in sheds. The flooring cobbled with stone slabs has a Kadambangudi, especially the cleanliness in thatched slight slope to allow the waste water run. ones is rather satisfactory. The womenfolk generally sweep the front yard as well as inside their houses at Before selecting a site for house construction or cattle­ least twice a day. Besides they also wash the whole shed construction, rich people generally consult house occasionally. whereas washing of pucca houses is astrologers. Auspicious days are chosen for laying POPULAtION 35 foundations, roof laying or house warming ceremonies. Apart from this, Brahmin priests may be requisitioned ~ ____~J l~ ____~ for the purpose. As regards housing materials the people of the village secure them from Trichy without much delay and at reasonable prices. They prefer to get their building materials from Trichy for it is not only convenient as far as conveyance is concerned but they are also in a position to pick and choose. In spite of the fact that there are artisans like blacksmiths and carpenters in the village, they do not playa large part in the construction work, for we find a large ""ALL number of construction workers coming from neigh­ bouring villages to work for wages. This is because the villagers are engaged in other occupations like agricultural labour and weaving. The economic standard of the people is determined by the size and composition of dwellings to a large extent, that is, the living space available in the houses and number of rooms. Table XII shows that in all the 163 households in Kadambangudi there are 84 regular rooms which works out to less than one room per household. On the basis of population it works out to about 8.5 persons per room which is not a favourable ~------~I I~ ______~ picture at all. Ground Plan Out of a total of 163 households in the village, 18 households with a total number of85 family members 75.4% or 123 households have no regular rooms. live in single-roomed houses. This works out to about The total number of family members living in these II % of the total population in the village. Besides households is 495 or 69.0 %of the total population. Only there are 6 households with 5.4% of the total population

The third type of hut in the village KADAMBANGtJDi

or 39 family members living in 'two-roomed ·houses. with 4 rooms or more with a total of 37 family members There are 10 households with 3 rooms with a total of and fill belong to the Udayarcommunity. 61 members or 8% of the total population. Nine of these 10 households belong to Udayar caste, 37 persons Households with one room comprise 8 Udayar or 5% of the total population live in houses with 4 or households with 43 family members, 2 Kallar households more rooms in Kadambangudi, all of them being with 8 family members and one household each Udayars. Nine Udayar and one Pandaram households from Muthiriyar, Konar, Kammalar and Lingayath with a total of 58 and 3 family members respectively communities. Four Chettiar households with a total of are living in three-roomed houses. There are 6 houses 24 family members have their houses with single room.

TABLE NO. XII Households by Number of Rooms & by Number of Persons

Households Households Households Households Households with no with one with two with three with four or Community regular room room rooms rooms more rooms House- mem- House- mem- House- mem- House- mem- House- mem­ holds bers holds bers holds bers holds bers holds bers

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (1) (12) (13) (14)

Udayar 35 69 193 7 28 8 43 5 27 9 58 6 37

Kallar 37 2 157 35 149 2 8

Muthiriyar 36 125 35 123 1 2

Konar 7 26 6 23 3

Kammalar 7 31 6 28 3

Pandaram 4 5 18 2 3 12 3

Reddiar 2 6 2 6

Pallar 2 17 2 17

Parayar 5 5

Vannan 2 6 2 6

Ambattan 7 7

Lingayath 1 2 1 2

Velar 6 6

Chettiar 13 4 68 9 44 4 24

Christians Parayar 12 43 )2 43

Sakkiliar 2 7 2 7

Total 163 84 717 123 495 18 85 6 39 10 61 6 37 A typical mud hut in the Paracheri of the main viIlage

A tiled house belonging to a Kallar family in Thondampatti hamlet. An Udayar's house in Kadambangudi main village -a pucca building terraced and ultra-modern in appearance. 31 Of the 6 households with :2 'tooms, 5 households belong to the Udayar community and the other one is a Pandaram household with 12 family members.

Households with no regular room form a majority in the village, out of which 7 are Udayar households with a total of 28 family members. 35 out of 37 Kallar households with 149 members or 94% of the total Kallars in the village live in houses with no regular room. Similarly in the Muthiriyar community, there are 35 households with 123 family members or 98% of the total Muthiriyars in the village, who live in houses with .1 no regular room.

Thus we find that out of a total number of 84 rooms, in all the dwellings of the village, 69 or 82.1 % are found in the houses of Udayars. Pandarams come next with 5 rooms or 5.9% of the total rooms in the village. Next we have the Chettiar community with 4 rooms, Kallars with two rooms, Muthiriyars, Konars, Kammalars and 1M the Lingayath community with one household each, comprising one room whereas the dwellings of other communities viz., Reddiar, Pallar, Hindu and Christian Parayar, Vannan, Ambattan, Velar, and Sakkilian do not have any room at all.

From the above account it is clear that among all the communities in the village, the Udayars are defi­ nitely better off. For we find that out of 123 house­ A pucca house belonging to a rich Udayar family holds in the village living in houses without regular nity. The rest of the Ud\lyars live in houses with regu­ room, only 7 households belong to the Udayar commu- lar rooms-a privilege denied to other communities. CHAPTER IV VILLAGE ECONOMY

OccupatioDal pattern tion and household industry. The percentage of workers The villagers belonging to different communities in different occupations is as follows: are engaged in different occupations, and especially among the Udayars, a majority community in the village, Occupation Males Females Total % to Total we find a variety of occupations. Apart from cultivation, Cultivation 169 140 309 70.9 which forms the mainstay of the village population, Agricultural there are workers engaged in different walks of life as Labourer 16 21 37 8.5 panchayat clerk, shepherd, homeopathic doctor, village munsiff, construction worker, agricultural labourer, Household Industry 23 19 42 9.6 servant, goldsmith, carpenter, blacksmith, dhoby, Business 1 4 5 1.1 barber, painter, weaver and those engaged in business. Service 33 10 43 9.9 Out of a total population of 717 persons i.e., 367 males Total 242 194 436 100.0 and 350 females, the workers form a larger percentage. A total number of 436 persons, i.e .. 242 males and 194 females are workers. The percentage of workers among The percentage of workers in the :cultivation group males and females is as follows: is found to be much higher than that of agricultural labourers. Workers in cultivation are found in mostly Males 65.94% all the communities whereas household industry is Females 55.43% practised only by Kammalars and Chettiars. The The workers in this village are drawn mainly from Kammalars are engaged either in blacksmithy, gold­ three communities namely Udayars, Kallars and smithy or carpentry and the Chettiars in weaving. But Muthiriyars, the predominant occupations being cultiva- we find that agricultural labour is not taken up

Community Cultivation Agricultural Labourer Household Industry Business Service Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Udayar 46 35 1 17 5 Kallar 47 38 1 2 "... 5 Muthiriyar 47 38 3 5 Konar 6 8 2 2 Kammalar 2 2 8 2 Pandaram 7 3 Reddiar 2 2 Pallar 5 3 Parayar 2 2 .... Dhoby 3 3 Ambattan 2 Lingayath Velar I Chettiar 1 2 2 1 15 18 Christian Parayar 6 9 4 6 3 Christian Sakkiliar 2 Total 169 140 16 21 23 19 4 33 10 VILLAGE ECONOMY 39 exclusively by any community nor is the participation females work side by side which is a rare feature-for rate high; among miscellaneous services there are 43 a high participation rate of females is found in almost persons or 9.9 per cent of the workers engaged in all the categories which helps greatly in increasing the occupations like village official, teachers, painter, labour force in the village. shepherds and servants. Even in this category, large number of Udayars are found, with 17 males and 5 Table No. XIII gives an analysis of the workers females, four females being employed as servants and in the village. In the Udayar community we find the one as a shepherd. This is a village where males and largest number of workers, the males outnumber the

TABLE No. XIII Workers classified by Sex, Age Group and Industry, Business and Cultivation

Total Workers Number of Workers engaged in Household Household Household Others Community Age group Industry Business cultivation Persons Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females (I) (2) (3) (..f) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) • ( 10) (II) (12) (13)

Udayar All ages 104 63 41 46 35 17 6 0- 4 5- , 10-14 ') 4 5 2 2 2 3 15-19 14 10 4 4 4 6 20-24 J9 13 6 8 5 5 25-29 7 6 I 5 30-34 12 4 8 3 8 35-44 20 II 9 10 8 45-59 16 10 6 10 5 60& over 7 5 2 4 2

Kallar All ages 95 53 42 2 47 38 6 2 0- 4 5- 9 2 I 10-14 3 3 2 15-19 7 3 4 2 4 20-24 5 6 5 5 25-29 "14 9 5 8 5 30-34 II 3 8 2 8 35-44 19 13 6 12 5 45-59 21 II, 10 II 8 60 & over 7 5 2 5 2

Muthiriyar All ages 93 SO 43 47 38 5 0- 4 5- 9 5 2 3 2 3 10-14 7 4 7 3 15-19 "6 4 2 3 2 20-24 12 5 7 5 7 25-29 14 8 6 8 6 30-34 8 6 2 6 2 35-44 18 9 9 8 7 2 45-59 12 .. 8 3 7 60 &; over ., 5 2 5 , KADAMBANGUDI 40

TABLE NO. XIII (Continued)

Workers classified by Sex, Age Group aod Industry, Business and Cultivation Total workers Number of workers eDgaged in Others Household Household Household Males Females Community Age group Persons Industry Business cultivation ... ~ .;'" 8 Males Females Males Females Males Females '0 ::e ~ (6) (7) (8) (12) (13) (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (9) (10) (11)

Konar All ages 18 8 10 6 8 2. 2 0-4 5 - 9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 -24 I I I 25 - 29 5 2 3 I 3 30 -34 2. 2 2 35 -44 3 1 2 I 2 45 - 59 3 3 2 60 & over 4 3 2

Kammalar All ages 12 9 3 8 2 0-4 5 - 9 10 - 14 1 IS - 19 3 2 I 20 - 24 1 I , 25 - 29 3 3 3 30 - 34 35 - 44 I 45 - 59 3 3 3 60 & over

Pandaram All ages 12 8 4 7 3 0-4 5 - 9 10 - 14 15 -19 3 2 20 - 24 25 - 29 2. 2. 2. 30 - 34 ]5 - 44 1 2 ... 45 - 59 3 2 I 2. 60 & over 2. 2. 2

Reddiar All ages 4 2 2 .. I 2 2 0-4 5 - 9 10 - 14 IS - ,9 2.0 - 2.4 25 - 29 30 -34 35 - 44 45 - 59 2. 60& over VILLAGE ECONOMY 4l

TABLE No. XIII (Continued) Workers classified by Sex, Age Group and Industry, Rusiness and Cultivation Total workers Number of Workers Engaged in Household Household Household Others Co~unity Age group Industry Business Cultivation Persons Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females Males Females (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) Pallar All ages B 5 3 5 3 0- .. 5- 9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 2 2 2 30-34 3 2 2 35-44 3 3 3 45-59 60 & over Parayar All ag:es 4 2 2 2 2 0- .. 5- 9 10-14 15-19 20-24 2 25-29 30-34 35-44 45-59 .1 60 & over Vannan All ages 6 3 3 3 3 0- 4 5- 9 10-14 15-19 I 20-24 2 2 2 25-29 'I 30-34 35-44 45-59 2 60 & over Ambattan All ages 2 2 2 0- 4 5- 9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35--44 45-59 60 & over Lingayath All ages 2 0- 4 5- 9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 J5-44 45-59 to &toyer 6 42 KADAMBANGUDI

TABLE No. XlII (Continued)

Workers classified by Sex, Age Group and Industry, Business and Cultivation

Total workers Number of workers engaged in Others Household Household Household Community Age group Persons Males Females ., Industry Business Cultivation .. ~ '; a'" Males Females Males Females Males females ~ ~ (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) ( 13)

Vela All ages 2 0-4 5 - 9 10 - 14 15 -19 20 - 24 25 - 29 30 - 34 3S - 44 4S - 59 60 & over ehettlar All ages 41 19 22 15 18 2 1 0-4 5 - ') 10 - 14 I I I 15 - 19 5 I 4 4 10 -14 6 1 4 I 4 15 - 29 7 5 1 5 2. 30 - 34 3 2 I 1 1 35 - 44 7 1 5 2 I 1 45 - 59 9 5 4 4 4 60.&: over 3 2 1

ChrIstIan Parayar All ages 28 13 IS 6 9 7 6 0-4 5 - ') 10 - 14 I I IS - 19 1 I 20 - 24 5 2 3 2 2 25 - 29 5 3 2 2 2 30 - 34 2 1 I \ 3S - 44 4 2. 2 I 2 I 4S -- 59 7 3 4 2 2 2 60 & over 3 2 2.

Christian Sakkiliar All ages 2 1 2 0-4 5 - 9 10 -14 IS - 19 20 - 24 25 - 29 30 - 34 35 - 44 45 - 59 60 & over VILLAGE ECONOMY 43 females by 11, both in cultivation and others. The hold cultivation and 2 males and 1 female in agricul· concentration of workers is found between 20-24 to turallabour. The two Christian Sakkiliyars are village 45-59 age groups. This applies also to Kallars and servants. Muthiriyars whereas among Konars female cultivators outnumber males by 2. There are 9 male and 3 female The occupational classification of workers in each workers in the Kammalar community, who are engaged community is clearly indicated in Table No. XIV. The either in household industry or in olher jobs. Among workers among Udayars form a larger percentage, i.e., Pandarams 7 males and 3 females, and 5 males and 3 23'8% of the total workers in the village. Among the females of Pallars and 2 males and 2 females among 193 Udayars, 53'88% of them are workers. Apart Parayans, are all engaged in household cultivation. In from cultivation, the Udayars are engaged as Panchayat the Pandaram community, apart from workers engaged clerk, shepherds, native doctor, village official and in cultivation, there is one worker engaged in household construction workers. Only one female among the business and one in other services. 2 males and 2 Udayars is an agricultural labourer. 11 persons i.e., 7 females are engaged in services among Reddiars. 3 males and 4 females have been returned as servants. male and 3 female dhobies and also 2 male barbers are These servants do not however belong to the Udayar found in the village. There is one household each in community, but they are engaged by Udayars for their the Lingayath and Velar community and both are household chores from other communities. Hence they engaged in cultivation. .<\mong Chettiars industrial should not come under the Udayar community workers form a majority; 15 males and 18 females are although they live in Udayar households. engaged in weaving which is their traditional occupation. The weavers are found in the age groups 10-14 to 60 Among Kallars, 60'5% or 95 of them are workers, and over. One male and one female are engaged in thus forming 21'7% of the total workers in the village. household business, one male and 2 females in house· Apart from 64 persons who are engaged in cultivation,

TABLE No. XIV Workers classified by Sex, Age Group and OccupatioD

Community Age Group. Occupation (I) (2) (3) Cultivation Lease cultivation Clerk Shepherd P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. O. 4 5-9 10-14 .. 2 2 3 2 15-19 10 8 .. .of 3 3 .. 20-24 13 8 5 I I =- 25·29 6 5 I "::) 30-34 1O 2 8 35·44 18 '0 8 45·59 15 10 5 60& over 6 4 2 Total 80 45 35 , 6 Native Village Servant Construction doctor official contractor P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. 0- .. 5- 9 ~ 'ti 10·14 2 2 i:i 15-19 0 2 2 ~ 20-24 .. 3 .. 25-29 ~ 30·34 35-44 j " 45-59 60 & OVllf Total II 7 .. 44 KADAMBANGUDl

TABLE No. XIV (Continued)

( I) (2) (3) Agricultural Lease Teacher labourer Cultivation cultivation P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. 0- 4 ...... 5 - 9 :E 10 - 14 I I I: 0 IS - 19 5 2 3 I ~ 20 - 24 .. 8 4 2 I 25 - 29 .!! 8 5 "3 5 2 ..til -; >- til 30 - 34 :Ii: 7 I 6 3 I 2 'tJ 35 - 44 IQ j 15 5 7. 7. 45 - S9 14 8 6 5 3 2 60 & over 5 4 1 2 Total 64 35 29 21 12 9

Shepherd Agricultural P.W.D. Idly making and labourer Laskar selling P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. 0- 4 5 - 9 'ti'" 10 - 14 2 2 a 15 - 19 I 0 20 - 24 ~ .. 25 - 29 .!! 30 - 34 ~ 35 - 44 45 - 59 60 & over Total 3 3 3 2 7. 2

Cultivation Lease cultivation Agricultural labourer p M F P M F P M F 0- 4 5 - 9 5 2 3 10 - 14 10 7 3 .. 15 - 19 5 3 7. til 20 - 24 II 4 7 .;:>- 25 - 29 14 8 6 :c 30 - 34 8 6 2 ...:::I :t 35 - 44 14 8 6 3 2 45 - 59 9 3 6 2 I 60& over 5 4 1 I I I Total 81 45 36 4 7. 2 8 3 5

Cultivation Agricultural labourer Carpenter P M F P M F P M F 0- 4 5 - 9 10 - 14 15 - 19 ..til ..til -; I: 20 - 24 I 0 E :.: 25 - 29 I 3 E 30 - 34 "2 2 :.:til 35 - 44 3 2 45 - 59 2 7. I 60 & over 2 2 2 Total 14 6 8 4 2 7. " 3 VILLAGE ECONOMY 4S

TABLE No. XIV (Continued) (I) (2) (3) Goldsmith Blacksmith AgrIcultural Shepherd labourer P. M. F. p. M. F. p. M. F. P. M. F. 0- 5 - '"9 ~"" 1:1 10 - 14 0 IS - 19 ~.. 20 - 24 If 25 - 29 ii E 30 - 34 E 35 - 44 If ::.:: 4S - 59 60 & over 2 I Total 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 '" Lease cultivation Cultivation Servant Idly making and selling P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. 0- 4 S - 9 10 - 14 S IS - 19 2 !.! 20 - 24 If ~ 2S - 29 2 2 ..c 30 - 34 D. 35 - 44 I 45 - 59 2 I 60 & over 2 2 Total 9 6 3

Agricultural labourer Lease cultivation Lease cultivation P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. 0- 4 5 - 9 10 - 14 .. IS - 19 .. III 20 - 24 .. 2 :; .!! :..III ~ .. III 25 - 29 2 2 a: 30 - 34 Z 3 2 I l. 35 - 44 3 3 45 - 59 2 60 & over Total 4 2 2 8 5 3 2 2 '" Vannan Barber Cultivation P. M· F. P. M. F. P. M. F. 0- 4 5- 9 10-14 c 15-19 I c J:. If S ...III C 20-24 2 2 ... c .. .. 25-29 I .c & > E c 30-34 4 :::i 35-44 45-59 2 60& over Total 6 3 3 2 2 2 46 KADAMBANGUDl

TABLE No. XIV (Contd.)

(I) (2) (3) Cultivation Agricultural Weaving Cultivation Business labourer P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. 0- 4 5 - 9 10 - 14 I I 15 - 19 .. 4 .. 20 - 24 5 I .. ..!! GI 25 - 29 752 > 30 - 34 3 2 I 35 - 44 321 2 2 45 - 59 8 .. .. 60 & over 2 1 Total 2 3 2 33 15 18 3 1 2

Cultivation Teacher Agricultural labourer P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. 0- 4 5- 9 10-14 1 15-19 1 20-·24 I I 3 2 25-29 2 1 1 30-34 2 I 35--44 I I 45-59 3 I :2 3 :2 60& over 3 2 I Total II 4 7 2 1 10 4 6

Lease cultivation Painter Village menial P. M. F. P. M. F. P. M. F. 0- 4 5 - 9 10 - 14 ~ 15 - 19 ~ II 20 - 24 UI 25 - 29 ..C 30 - 34 i 35 - 44 'j;; .c 45 - 59 U 60& over Total .. 2 :2 :2 2 there is a male teacher, 3 shepherds, 3 agricultural as agricultural labourers. The same also applies labourers, one P.W.D.laskar and two women (widows) to the Konar community who also form 4.1 % of the engaged in idly making and selling. The lease cultiva­ total workers. tors among Konars are larger in number than the Udayars as the number of persons who own lands are The Kammalars apart from being engaged as many among the Udayars. carpenters, goldsmiths and blacksmiths which are their traditional occupations, 2 males and 2 females are The workers among Muthiriyars form 21.33% of the agricultural labourers and 2 females are engaged in total workers in the village. The principal occupation of tending cattle. N% of the workers belong tv the the Muthiriyars is cultivation (47 males and 38 females) Kammalar community. The o.ccupations in which the and we also find 3 males and 5 females working workers of the Pandaram households are engaged in VILLAGE ECONOMY 47 cultivation, idly making and selling and there is one male father's traditional occupation. Out of the remaining employed as a servant. Reddiars are engaged as agricul­ 26 households, 19 of them had their fathers engaged tural labourers and the Pallars and Parayars as lease in cultivation, but they have since taken to other cultiyators. There are 6 dhobies, 3 males and 3 females occupations mainly because they are more profitable or and two barbers (males) in the village who are engaged they have been forced by circumstances like poverty or in their traditional occupations whereas the 2 workers loss of lands. Of these, 10 persons are engaged as each in Lingayath and the Velar communities do agricultural labourers, one household has changed cultivation only. About 9.4% of the workers in the because he has no share in his father's property and village belong to the Chettiar community among who the remaining 9 households because their lands were apart from being engaged in weaving there are two males sold. Besides there are two Kallars and one Pandaram and one female as agricultural labourers, one male and who have given up cultivation because they have no two females engaged as cultivators and one male and land and are now engaged as street vendors which they one female in shop keeping. Among Christian Parayars find to be more profitable. Due to the spread of there are IS cultivators and 10 agricultural labourers, education in Kadambangudi and especially among besides 2 teachers and a painter. Two Sakkiliyars are the Parayar community one head of the household village menials. has changed his father's occupation namely cultivation and taken to teaching in order to earn a decent salary. Tables No. XV and XVI reveal occupational mobility There is another Parayar household who has given up among the working population. The occupational cultivation and taken to employment as a painter in mobility or shift in occupation from father to son is the Railways so as to earn more, for his father owned well brought out, along with the aspirations of parents only a small bit of land. One rich Udayar has forsaken regarding their son's future occupations. 137 heads of cultivation and preferred to remain as a rent receiver, households out of 163 i.e., 84% still continue their because he could not look after cultivation, and is

TABLE No. XV Occupational Mobility and cause of cbange

0'" No. of persons who No. of persons who I-,8 ::: '" :::'" Old and 0 ..::: occupation occupation change >, >,() 0 ~ ::: .o§ .oC vC... :5- til'" :-;::; d til new occu- f-< ..... I.) "-< I-< '" A~ ....o til ..... I.) I-< 0 til I-< .... ::: ...... '" ..... "0'" pations 00 til c:: "OS .... I.) I.) ;::l I.) C El I-< ()Il. ;::l ;::l <) ;::l I.) • ;::l ~o ..:::..... ci I-< () ..::: 0 .... () '0 01-< 0 0'" ..... ZO() ~'o 0 - co > Z > ~'o 0 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) Kallar 2 3 Dependant Cultivation Land given to son P.W.D Laskar Cultivation Land sold away Agricultu- Plantation To earn ral Labour Labourer locally 6 2 Sundal Vendor Cultivation No land Mutbiriyar 4 3 Agricultu- rallabour Cultivation No land Agricultu- rallabour Cultivation No share in 5 property 48 KADAMBANGUDI

TABLE No. XV (Contd.)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) Udayar 2 Agricultu- One household rallobour Cultivation No land changed his Highways occupation contractor To earn from cultiva- more tion to rent 3 Rent recei- receiver, because ver Cultivation hecould not look after culti- vation

Kanar Agricultu. Land sold 2 1 rallabour Cultivation away 1 Agricultu- rallabour Cultivation No land 3

Kammalar 1 Carpenter Goldsmith Did not want goldsmithy Agricultu- Carpenter No other rallabour alternative 4

Pandaram 1 Idly, Sun- dal vendor Cultivation No land

Reddiar 2 Agricultu- ral labour Cultivation No land Pallar Vannan 1 Parayan 1 Ambattan Lingayath Velar Chettiar 3 1 Agricultu- No proper One household rallabour Weaving assistance changed his after wife's occupation from death. weaving to busi- 4 Business Weaving Colour ness due to poor blindness sight and colour ... blindness. Agricultu- No factory rallabour Weaving to continue there Christian Parsyar 2 1 Railway Cultivation Toeam From Military to Painter more Railway painter Teacher Cultivation Studied to (One household) 5 earn decent pay 1 Agricultu- Cultivation rallabour No land Christian Sakkiliar 2

Total 9 l~ ~5 ." ,.. 6 VILLAGE ECONOMY 49

content with the amount received as rent by letting out Kallar household whose father was plantation labourer his lands on lease. Another Udayar who is now outside the village but who has become an agricultural working as a P.W.D contractor has given up his labourer in order to work in the village itself. Two father's occupation viz., cultivation in order to earn Chettiar households have given up weaving and taken more. Among Kallars there are two heads of house­ to agricultural labour--one household has no proper holds who have changed their fathers' occupations-one assistance after his wife's death and another has no head of household is a dependant at present as he workshop to continue. Besides, there is one Chettiar has given away his lands to his son and another has household who has changed his traditional occupation given up cultivation and taken up employment as a namely weaving to business due to poor sight and P.W.D. laskar. One head of household whose colour blindness. Lastly, one Kammalar household father was a temple priest, has taken up lease culti­ has shifted his occupation from goldsmithy to black­ vation as his principal occupation and takes up temple smithy as blacksmithy paid him more. Cultivation is pujari as a subsidiary occupation, as he found that he still the dominant occupation in the village did not get much by way of income as a temple pujari and traditional occupation of a large number of house­ alone. Among agricultural labourers there is one holds in Kadambangudi.

TABLE No. XVI

Occupational Mobility - Nature of change from Father's generation to present generation

No. of persons whose father's No. of persons who want their No. of occupation was sons to be persons Occupation in the :::: .S: occupa- ~ 0 tion ~ o.~ '::: E.~ U ~~ (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Teacher 1 Village Official 3 3 Highways, P. w.n. Contractor 1 P.W.D. Lasker I Business 1 1 Lease Cultivation 16 15 4 11 1 Cultivation 97 97 14 52 28 AgricUltural Labourer 18 4 10 1 2 2 8 8 Weaving 10 10 2 7 1 Blacksmithy 1 1 Goldsmithy 2 2 2 Carpentry 3 2 3 Railway Painter 1 Sundal Vendor 3 3 3 Barber I Vannan 2 2 2. Rent Receiver 1 Dependant 1 Total 163 137 19 1 1 3 1 1 3 20 1 90 1 45 3 7 50 KADAMBANGUDI

Out of a total of 163 heads of households 48 did not mobility or shift in occupation would be found only express any desire for occupational change. Of the when they are compelled to do so. remaining 115 households, 90 heads of households are The occupational classification of households is indifferent, that is, they have no definite ideas regarding clearly indicated in Table XVII. Cultivation is the their sons' future and prefer them to get any good job, principal occupation for 70.6% or 115 households in from which they could derive the maximum income. the village. Besides we have II households engaged Only 25 heads of households have expressed some both in cultivation and industry and one household desire for occupational change; of these 17 are content engaged in cultivation and business. This increases if their sons continue in their present occupation and the total to 127 and the percentage to 77.9%. 2 agricultural labourers wished that their sons should As regards industry there are 6 households, 3 take up cultivation. There are only two cultivators Kammalar households and three Chettiars engaged in who have expressed some desire for occuaptional household industry. Kammalars are the traditional change. One father would like his son to become an goldsmiths, blacksmiths or carpenters. There are 4 Engineer and one to be an Overseer. Thus this is a households engaged in business only viz., idly selling village with no progressive ideas and occupational and shop-keeping.

TABLE No. XVII

Occupational Classification of Households

Households Households House­ engaged in House­ engaged in House­ House­ Total No. holds industry only holds Cultivation & holds holds Community of house­ engagcQ in engaged in engaged in engaged in holds Cultivation Business Cultivation other occu- only only & Business pations

(I) (2) (3) (5) (6) (8) (9) (10) Udayar 35 33 2 Kallar 37 31 2 3 Muthiriyar 36 31 5 Konar 7 5 2 Kammalar 7 3 3 Pandaram 4 3 Reddiar 2 2 Pallar 2 2 Parayar 1 Vannan 2 2 Ambattan 1 Lingayath 1 I Velar 1 1 Chettiar 13 3 7 2 Christians Parayar 12 8 4 Sakkiliar 2 2 Total 163 115 4 u ,., 1 Z6 OCCUPATIONAL PATTERN OF HOUSEHOLDS

~ X JC

Cultivation 70.5 %

\ VILLAGE ECONOMY 51

Further we have the occupational combination of we also find 7.6 per cent of the total workers in the age households. There are 11 households engaged in culti­ group 60 years and over. But among non-workers the vation as well as their traditional occupation, viz., majority of them, namely 219 persons or 77.1 per cent industry. Chettiars are weavers and Velars apart from are found in the age group 0-14. In age group 15-59 making the village pottery are also engaged in cultiva­ there are S5 non-workers or 19.4 per cent, and 3.5 per tion which forms the principal occupation. Only one cent or JO persons in the age group 60 years and over. Kallar household is engaged in r.ultivation and business. There are 26 other households engaged in other Non-workers services., A further analysis of the data on non-workers as found in rable No. XIX shows that dependants; According to Table No. XVIII, workers are greater infants and children not attending school and than the non-workers in Kadambangudi. Among persons perma~ently disabled account for 54.5% of the workers the males outnumber the females whereas total non-workers in the village, viz., 284 persons. among non-workers the female non-workers are more Among them, infants in the age group 0-4 outnumber than the males. This table indicates that there are 433 non-\'.orkers in any other age group. There are only a persons who are workers in all the age groups which few dependants-2 males and 6 females in the old age works out to 60.4% of the total population. The groups of 45-59 and 60 and over. Full time students or remaining 39.6% are non-workers. Of the total workers children attending school form the next largest percen­ in the village 55.6% are males and the rest, i.e., 44.4% tage among the non-workers who account for 27% of are females. the total non-workers in the village. Among students males are nearly thrice as many as the females. Persons Among workers the bulk are found between the ages engaged in household duties come next with one male 15-59, 84.7 per cent or 367 persons, that is 200, males and 50 females which works out to 19.5%. and 167 females. The males outnumber the females. In age group 0-14 there is 7.6 per cent of workers, that Thus we observe that dependants, infants etc., are is 33 persons in all, 17 males and 16 females. This goes greater in number than any other classification of non­ to prove that even children below 14 assist their parents workers. Among dependants, children in the age groups in the cultivation of land, which forms the principal 0-4 and 5-9 account for nearly 90% of the total depen­ occupation of a large majority of the workers. Further dants in the village.

TABLE No. XVIII

Workers and Non-workers by Sex aud Age Groups

Total Population Workers Non-workers Age Group Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) 0-4 99 50 49 99 50 49 5 -·9 88 43 45 7 3 4 81 40 41 10 -14 65 39 26 26 14 12 39 25 14 15 -19 56 28 28 41 23 18 15 5 10 20 -24 71 32 39 60 29 31 11 3 8 25 -29 70 41 29 63 41 22 7 7 30 -34 46 23 23 44 23 21 2 2 35 -44 91 43 48 79 42 37 12 11 45 -59 88 42 46 80 42 38 8 8 60 & over 43 26 17 33 24 9 10 2 8 Total 717 367 350 433 241 192 284 1:Z6 158 52 KADAMBANGUD)

TABLE No. XIX

Non·workers by sex, age groups and nature of acth-ity

Total non-workers Full time students or Persons engaged only Dependants, infants & children children attending in household duties not attending school & persons Age Groups school permanently disabled P M F Males Females Males Famales Males Females (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) 0- 4 99 50 49 50 49 5- 9 81 40 45 • 29 11 11 30 10-14 39 25 14 25 9 3 2 15-19 15 5 10 3 10 2 20-24 11 3 8 8 25-29 7 7 7 30-34 2 2 2 35-44 12 11 10 1 45-59 8 8 6 ,2 60 & over 10 2 8 4 2 4 Total 284 126 158 58 20 1 50 67 88

The percentage of non-workers under different cate­ The position in 1368 Fasli was as follows: gories is as follows: Acres-Cents Dependants, infants etc" 54.58% I. Occupied Dry 280.80 Students 17.96% Wet 210.24 Persons engaged 19.5% 2. Inam land Dry 1.12 in household duties 3. Unoccupied Dry 16.81 4. Poromboke 203.84 Agricultural Pattern Total Ayacut of the village 712.81 Cultivation is the predominant occupation of the This clearly indicates that there has been a reduction in villagers thus forming the mainstay of the village occupied wet area and an increase in occupied dry area. population. This has been made possible by the various This is because the village natham is situated in the sources of irrigation like rivers and canals which helps middle and some of the wet lands around have since to irrigate a large extent of land. been used for the construction of house sites, storing The areas of land according to Revenue and Resettle- haystacks and the like. Besides there is also a reduction ment Accounts (in acres) are: in unoccupied dry lands and increase in occupied dry

OCCUPIED UNOCCUPIED Particulars Wet Mana- Dry Total Wet Mana- Dry Total Inam Unas- Communal TOTAL vari vari sessed Poromboke

According 218.02 207.34 425.36 .37 71.70 72.07 1.18 210.82 709.43 to Rev. Account According 223.86 208.09 431.95 1.08 53.80 54.88 1.12 224.86 712.81 to Re- settlement

VILLAGE ECONOMY 53 area because unoccupied lands have since been occupied are cultivated in a year, i.e. the first crop from Ani either by unauthorised occupation or by assignment of (June-July) to Purattasi (September-October) and the lands by the Government to the villagers. second crop from Aippasi (October-November) to Thai (January-February). Two crops are resorted to The extent under various crops cultivated in F. 1370 during the S.W. monsoons, the first crop known as the is indicated below: short-term or 'Kuruvai' crop and the second the Average for the last Thaladi crop. On the other hand the cultivation of a Crops Area (Acs. Cents) 5 fasUs single crop is most common in the village, which is from (Acs. cents) Adi (July-August) to Thai (January-February) in a Paddy 471.40 322.93 year. The arrival of fresh water in the month of Adi Ragi 2.88 1.60 heralds the cultivation season. Maize 1.73 0.70 Varagu 34.60 29.33 The extent of land held by the cultivating households Kothi 0.47 Nil of different communities is shown in the Table No. XX Thuvarai 5.85 7.71 bdow:- Groundnuts 4.30 16.30 Out of a total of 163 households in the village, 34 Cocoanuts 0.22 0.27 households or 20.9% have no land at all, Reddiar, Tamarind 0.66 0.75 Vannan, Ambattan and Christian Sakkiliar being the Mango 7.55 9.00 landless communities. Among the land owning com­ Nellikay 0.Q2 Nil munities the Udayars form the major community in the Narthai 0.76 0.10 village, for out of a total of 35 households only one Bamboos L01 0.94 household has no land at all, 29 households own land, 5 Ulundu 0.25 (Black gram) household have lease lands, and only one household Plantains 0.09 cultivates Government land. In the Kallar community 5 Palmyra 0.02 households out of 37 households have no land. Of the Cashew 0.01 remaining, 15 households have own lands, 13 households Kuruthavali 4.44 lease lands and 3 households Government lands. Among the households that hold lands direct from Government Paddy is the chief crop and varagu, Ragi, Kurutha­ under a tenure less substantial than ownership, the vali etc., are cultivated in Kadambangudi. Two crops Muthiriyars form a majority with 32 out of a total of

TABLE No. XX Land Holdings Size of Holdings .A. '""I Households Owned land Lease lalld Government land Total No. of Communities having no tIlQ OJ Q "'Q households Q> f> Q, ~~ "'0 0'1 O land ~ 0 .. U.c ~ 0\ t).c ~ u OQ ..f~ "'u 7 os 00 .,.:~ ~C 7 os .Qe ..f~ 0" os~ -Qu... 1!3 10 -Uy... 11:1 10 Uu 10 i~ ~os .... os .,..os ~Od ~os .... ., .,..'" ~Od ~., .... I! .,..~ ~Od (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) Udayar 35 I 8 12 8 1 1 I 1 ... Kallar 37 5 7 5 2 2 9 1 2 1 Muthiriyar 36 4 31 Konar 7 2 .. Kammalar 7 4 2 Pandaram 4 I Reddiar 1 2 Pallar 2 2 Parayar I Vannan 2 1 Ambattan I I Lingaya,h I Velar I Chettiar 13 6 4 3 .. - Christian Parayar 12 4 I 3 3 Christian Sakldliar 2 2 TOTAL 163 34 14 12 18 10 6 17 3 2 35 54 KADAMBANGUDt

38 households thus forming 88 per cent of the total own lands which come under the same group. So also Muthiriyar households in the village. The remaining 4 with two Pallar, one Lingayath and one Velar house­ households in this community are landless. The hold. Thus out of a total of 64 land holdings in the Muthiriyars being an economically backward com­ village, 36 of them are small land holdings and can be munity are not in a position either to have own lands considered as uneconomic. or take lands on lease. They thus cultivate on small pieces of poromboke lands for which a penalty is According to the income pattern we find the bulk of paid. Among the other communities namely Kam­ the households in the higher income groups naAlely malars, Chettiars and Christian Parayars we find a Rs. 76-100 and Rs. 101 and over are cultivating house­ considerable number of households having no land. holds. Out of 26 households in income group Rs. 101 & over, 21 are cultivators and there is only one house­ If we take roughly 5 acres as an economic holding, hold each in Painter (Railways}, Teacher, Village then the following statement furnishes the number of Official, P.W.D. Contractor and Carpenter. Whereas households among the different communities having in income group 76-100, 9 out of to households are economic land holdings in the village: cultivators, and only one is weaver. Taking Rs. 75 as a normally good income, 30 out of 36 households in Community Owned Lease Government the income range above Rs. 75/- are engaged in culti­ land land land vation which goes to prove that the cultivators are in a Udayars 20 2 better economic position than those engaged in other occupations. Kallar 7 2 Pandaram 1 Regarding the extent of land held by different TOTAL 28 4 communities, among Udayars 8 households own lands of 10 acres and above, and 12 households own 5-10 acres. The Udayars form a majority i.e. 20; out of a total In the same way the number is 2 and 5 respectively for of 28 households, 7 belong to the Kallar community the Kallars and apart from these two communities, no and one to the Pandaram. The remaining households other community possesses lands under these groups have small land holdings i.e., below 5 acres. The except one Pandaram household. The smallest area of following are the households that have uneconomic land owned is by three Konar households, two land holdings in the village. Kammalar households, one Lingayath household and one Chettiar household. Among all the households in Community Owned lease Government the village only one Udayar household has given out land land land lands to private persons or institutions, whereas more Kallars hold lands from private persons or institutions Udayar 9 3 for cultivation than any other community in the Kallar 8 11 2 village. Most of the households other than those in Muthiriyar 32 the Udayar community hold lands of 1 to 2.4 acres or Konar 4 2.5-4.9 acres. Lease cultivation is taken up mainly Kammalar 2 by the Kallars rather than by any other community. Pandaram 1 The Muthiriyars hold lands from Government under a Pallar 2 tenure less substantial than ownership, i.e., they hold unauthorised lands which belong to the Government Parayar for which a penalty is levied and paid. As the original Lirigayath allotment was between 1 to 2.4 acres, many of the Velar people had stealthily sold away the small chunks of Chettiar 4 3 land to others. There is only one landless household Christian} among the Udayars whereas the proportion of landless Parayar 4 3 1 families is comparatively greater in other communities. TOTAL 36 23 37 Canals and tanks are the two sources of irrigation in Kadambangudi. Ananda Cauvery, Marueri Vaikkal AU the four land-owning households of Christian and the Pudar (Grand Anicut Canal) are the canals and Parayars have uneconomic land holdings i.e. below 5 Thondaman Eri is the tank which feed the fields of acres. Among Chettiars 4 out of 13 households have Kadiunbangudi. During Fasli year 1378 the acreage VILLAGE ECONOMY 55 under each of these sources of irrigation was as Rs. 15.87 nP. and 1 acre 12 cents of inam lands the follows: assessment being Rs. 2.42 nP. There is no assess­ Acres Cents ment on Poromboke lands. Thus the total assessment 1. Ananda Cauvery 17 72 on 712 acres. 81 cents is Rs. 1866.11 nP. 2. Marneri Vaikkal 62 16 3. Grand Anicu t Canal 274 95 Taking the first crop, the gross area under wet lands 4. Thondaman Eri 73 13 is 194 acres 57 cents, of which 192 acres 69 cents TOTAL 427 196 have been irrigated. The remaining 1 acre 88 cents is un-irrigated. Out of a gross area of 190 acres 49 From the above it is seen that the largest extent of cents of dry lands, only 126 acres 97 cents are land (274.95 acres) is irrigated by the Grand Anicut irrigated i.e., 53 cents have been irrigated out of a Canal thus constituting more than 50 per cent of all gross area of 2 acres by the Ananda Cauvery, 84 cents the irrigational sources of the village whereas the out of a total of 93 cents under Marueri channel, 86 smallest extent of land irrigated (17.72 acres) is by the acres 70 cents out of a gross area of -86 acres 75 Ananda Cauvery which is the branch of the Vennar. cents by the Grand Anicut Canal, and finally only 37 acres 90 cents out of 100 acres 81 cents has been The details of crops, area cultivated under these irrigated by Thondaman Eri. The remaining 63 acres sources of irrigation namely Ananda Cauvery, Marneri 52 cents have not been irrigated, which is most probably channel, Grand Anicut Canal and Thondaman Eri, in due to the non-availability of irrigational facilities. All Fasli year 1372 have been categorised as wet, dry, dry the 42 cents under dry waste lands have been irrigated, waste, poromboke and lnam lands and are shown whereas in poromboke lands out of a gross area of 66 below. The extent of wet lands is 209 acres-19 cents acres 89 cents, 42 acres 85 cents are irrigated. There and the total assessment on these lands is Rs. 1556.98 is a gross area of 49 cents under inam lands of which nP. The assessment on wet lands is higher than that 47 cents are irrigated. Thus under the first crop of dry lands for the assessment on 280 acres. 75 cents out of a gross area of 452 acres 86 cents, only 363 of dry land is only Rs. 290.84 nP. The total assess­ acres 40 cents have been irrigated. 89 acres 46 cents ment on both wet and dry lands amounts to have not been irrigated which must be due not only Rs. 1847.82 nP. Besides there are 16 acres 81 cents because of the absence of irrigational facilities but also of dry waste lands for which the assessment is due to inadequate rain during these months.

1372 - Fasli - Tbanjavur Taluk - Kadambangudi Yillage - Details of area cultivated and irrigated

Particulars I Crop II Crop Source of irrigation Area Assessment OrolS Area Area irrigated Fallow Gross Area Area irrigated Acres Cents Rs. nP. Acres Cents Acres Cents Acres Cents Acrea Cents Acres Cents 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 I. Ananda Cauvery 20 80 148.10 13 7S 13 24 7 5 87 87 2. Marner! channel 43 72 311.30 41 8 -40 90 2 64 25 20 25 20 Wet 3. Grand AnlcutCanal 110 80 847.9 106 45 105 26 4 35 69 27 69 27 4. Thondaman Ed 33 87 250.49 33 29 33 29 0 58 3 27 3 27 209 19 1556.98 194 57 192 69 14 62 99 61 99 61 I. Ananda Cauvery 4 70 7. 3 2 I S3 2 70 2. Marneri channel I 24 1.84 93 84 31 80 80 Dry 3. Grand Anieut Canal 89 63 121. 4 86 75 86 70 2 88 27 58 27 58 4. Thondaman Eri 185 18 160.93 100 81 37 90 84 37 3 22 3 22 280 75 290.84 190 49 116 97 90 26 31 60 31 60 Wet 209 19 1556.98 194 57 192 69 14 62 99 61 61 Dry 280 75 290.84 190 49 126 97 90 26 31 60 "31 60 489 94 1847.82 385 6 319 66 104 88 131 21 131 21 Dry Waste 16 81 15.87 0 42 0 42 16 39 0 8 0 8 Poramboke 204 94 66 89 42 85 138 5 3 0 3 0 Inam 12 2.42 0 49 0 47 0 63 0 9 0 9 TOTAL m 81 1866.11 ·m 86 363 41) 259 95 134 38 134 38 S6 KADAMBANGUDl

Under the Second Crop the gross area under the constructed. Dry lands are not cultivated for want of different categories is indicated as follows: adequate irrigation facilities. .n Acres Cents Further according to 1372 fasli the extent of land Wet 99 61 holdings have been classified according to the land tax Dry 31 60 paid by the patta holders. There are 62 joint pattas Dry Waste o 08 with a total of 173 joint pattadars or tax payers, which Poromboke 3 00 works out to about 2.3 persons for each patta. The Inam o 09 total land tax paid by these Joint-Pattadars is Rs. 350.99 nP. i.e. an average of Rs. 2.28 DP. is paid TOTAL 134 38 by each tax-payer. The extent of land holdings of The total extent of land viz., 134 acres 38 cents these joint pattadars is as follows: under the second crop has been irrigated. This is Acres Cents because this second crop is raised during the rainy Dry lands 80 77 months and hence the whole extent is irrigated. Wet lands 36 80 Apart from the lands used for the cultivation of TOTAL 117 57 the 1st crop and the 2nd crop a certain extent of lands The land holdings under this category are found to lie fallow: be limited, and when further divided among the joint Acres Cents pattadars, the extent of land owned by them becumes Wet 14 62 very small, and as a sequel land disputes arise and as Dry 90 26 a result the land remains uncultivated, until and unless Dry waste 16 39 the Karnam opines and settles the matter. Poramboke 138 05 Correspondingly there are 178 independent pattadars Inam 0 63 who pay a land tax of Rs. 1496.83 nP. i.e., each TOTAL 259 95 pattadar pays aproximately Rs. 8.45 nP. for the land holdings. The extent of land holdings are as follows: These lands have not been cultivated by the people of the village due to the lack of proper irrigational Acres Cents facilities and adequate supply of rains in these parts. Dry lands 199 98 A certain portion of these fallow lands is being used Wet lands 172 39 as threshing fioor. In certain cases houses have been TOTAL 372 37

1372 Fasli • 10. Kadambangudi Village. Tbanjavur Taluk - Village Register Accounts

Independent Pattas JOINT PATTAS Classifi- Total Area of holdings Total Total No. of Area of holdings cation No. of Dry lands Wet lands Land tax No. of Joint Dry lands Wet lands Land tax Rs. Pattadars Acres Cents Acres Cents Rs. nP. Pattadars Pattadars. Acres Cents Acres Cents Rs.oP. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

I and below 90 57 69 0 .oj() 55.87 12 45 1 19 0 5 2.75 2-10 58 72 83 19 60 213.62 41 105 63 71 14 63 170.31 11-30 17 38 54 38 65 326.62 8 19 9 8! 17 00 132.31 31-50 7 10 74 .oj() 64 277.94 4 4 98 5 12 45.62 51-100 5 16 58 57 88 501.47 101-250 3 60 IS 22 121.31 2SI-500 501-1000 1000 and above TOTAL 178 1«)9 98 m 39 1496.83 6~ 173 80 " 36 80 35099 VILLAGE ECONOMY 57

The independent pattadars are at a better advantage Crop Calendar: than the joint pattadars for their lands are not frag­ With the above mentioned irrigational sources a large mented and thus they are able to derive the maximum extent of land is irrigated. A calendar of agricultural income from their land holdings. activities carried on in the village during the different Particulars relating to land revenue are given in the months of the year is given as follows: attached table. January: I) Harvest of samba crops 2) Sowing of Kolinji, green-gram and A crop-wise distribution of the land irrigated under the four different sources is given below: black gram February: 1) Harvest of Thaladi crops I. Grand Auieut Canal: 2) 'Poradi' Samba crop Acres Cellts I) Total irrigated cultiva- March: 1) Rest and 'Poradi' Thaladi crop tion on wet 105 26 April : 1) Harvest of grren gram & black gram 2) II Crop on single crop wet 69 27 May: I) Sheep penning 3) Dry I Crop 86 70 2) Application of silt to fields 4) Dry II Crop 27 58 3) Carting farm yard manure 5) Duffasal crop (remains for 4) Making ploughs more than I June: 1) Preparation of nursery for Kuruvai year) o 07 crop Total 288 88 2) Irrigation II. Vennar: 3) Preparation and sowing of dry crops 1) Total irrigated cultivation July: 1) Sowing of Kuruvai paddy seeds on wet 40 90 2) Preparation of fields for planting 2) II crop on single crop wet 25 20 Kuruvai Crops . 3) Dry I Crop 00 84 3) Vegetable cultivation 4) Dry II crop 00 80 August: 1) Planting Kuruvai crops Total 67 74 2) Sowing of samba seeds III. Ananda Canvery: September: 1) Planting Samba crop I) Total irrigated cultivation 2) Weeding Kuruvai crop on wet 13 24 3) Application of fertilisers to Kuruvai 2) II Crop on single crop wet 1 87 crop 3) Dry I crop 53 October: 1) Harvest Kuruvai crop Total 16 64 2) Application of fertilisers to samba crop IV. Tank Irrigation: 3) Planting Thaladi crop I) Total irrigated cultivation 4) Weeding in samba crop on wet 33 29 2) II crop on single crop wet 3 27 November: 1) Application of fertilisers to Thaladi 3) Dry r Crop 37 90 crop 4) Dry II Crop 3 22 December: 1) Weeding to Thaladi crops Total 77 68 2) Pest and disease control.

Land Revenue

Fasli Laod Reveoue Water Rate Remission (-) Miscellaoeous Cess Total Rs. As. Ps. Rs. As. Ps. Rs. As. P,. Rs. As. Ps. Rs. As. Ps. Rs. As. Ps. 1361 1120 14 0 1230 I 0 8 12 0 260 15 II 674 4 II 3877 II 0 1362 1720 14 0 1303 5 0 8 12 0 22 12 3 753 13 9 3965 8 0 1363 1721 0 0 1511 6 0 8 12 0 33 5 0 805 14 6 4551 9 0 1364 1709 8 0 159 I 9 0 8 12 0 45 10 0 820 9 3 04552 6 0 1365 1709 8 0 1540 2 0 3 IS 0 430 6 0 868 10 10 4545 I 3 1366 1709 8 0 1561 2 0 3 15 0 545 II 0 8BO 6 10 4692 12 10 1367 1754 0 0 1580 4 0 3 15 0 802 6 0 924 0 6 5056 9 6 1368 1856 04oP. 1599 S90P. 3 15 0 1353 53 oP. 1039 4oP. S844 21 nP. 1369 1854 97oP. 1728 30oP. 3 98oP. 162 64oP. 894 54 nP. 6554 26oP. 1370 1854 97oP. 179460 oP .. 3 98oP. 1101 28oP. 1107 40oP. 5854 27oP. 8 58 UDAMBANGUDI Before the agricultural operations start in the month of Chitrai (April-May), a festival is celebrated, which marks the commencement of the cultivation season and is called 'Ponnai-Kattuthal' or 'golden plough'. For this an astrologer is consulted to fix the date and time. This festival is celebrated on a grand scale for even loudspeakers may be requisitioned for the celebration of the festival. A particular plot has been earmarked for this purpose and when the date and time has been fixed the people assemble here with their ploughs and oxen. The ploughs and bulls are gaily decorated with tilak and the bulls' horns are oiled and painted. New ploughs may also be introduced. Drums are beaten and amidst cheers ploughing is commenced. Later cocoanuts, plantains, sandal paste and a preparation made of raw rice, jaggery and cocoanut chips are served to the guests. In Thondampatti hamlet this festival was celebrated in April. It was a festival of great re­ joicing for it was the day when all the Kallar house­ holds had joined together after 14 years of strife. Agricultural Practices Regular cultivation starts only when water is let out A type of granary lIade of wood to'lllld mostl, ill in the rivers and canals. Agricultural operations such Udayar houses. as ploughing, sowing, transplanting, weeding and the final stage harvesting are all done in turn. Different types of manures are used for the cultivation of land in the village. Compost, cowdung, green manures like avaram, vathamadakki, poovarasu and kolinji are in common use. Apart from these, chemical manures like urea, ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate and superphosphate are also used. The principal crops grown in Kadambangudi are paddy, Varagu, and other cereals. Threshing is done by both men and oxen; sheaves are taken by both hands and threshed against the ground. The grains that are left on the stalks are then separated by cattles treading on it. At least two or three bulls are tied by their necks together, and are made to trample on the grain. After threshing is completed, grains separated from the stalks are stored in granaries. Granaries are of four types in Kadamban­ gudi. The first type is one which is made of bamboo and looks like a big basket. This is painted with red soil and cowdung. The second type is made by the potter. It is made of clay and looks like a big jar. It is provided with an opening at the bottom which is closed and sealed with soil and cowdung when it is filled with grains. This type of granary is generally made of clay, horse and cowdung which will lighten the weight and be:;ides it would not break so easily. The third type of granary is made of wood. It is either Mud Granary square or rectan~ular in shape being provided with a The cultivation season begins. Here is an agricultural labourer carrying the wooden plough to start work in the fields.

Ploughing - the first stage in the cultivation of land. Threshing of grain - the next stage after harvesting.

Collecting straw after the harvest is a common SCene among the cultivating households in Kadambangudi. The straw collected serves as fodder for cattk. VILLAGE ECONOMY small opening at the bottom to release the paddy. inside the husks whereas socra! IS supposed to be This is painted and kept in the corner of the house. widely prevalent in the village. When Soorai occurs, None of these three types is immune from rats the worms destroy the roots and as a result the crops and small insects although they are immune from gradually wither and the tender shoots of crops are moisture. The fourth type is a special type of granary destroyed. The villagers by means of spraying found in the village. This is constructed outside the pesticides try to eradicate the insect pests from the houses in the open space as due to its largeness it area. cannot be accommodated within the house. It is made Some of the villagers have vegetable gardens in their of straw, that is, a circle of hay is put on the ground houses and in addition some of them may contain and then raised to a height of two or three feet. Over fruit trees as well, such as mango, cocoanut, guava, this the stalks (unspoilt and straight) of paddy are neatly placed and paved. Paddy grains are then heaped murraya koeinji and shade-giving trees like neem and on this and the stalks are folded around the sides. At tamarind. In some houses we find Poovarasu and Vathamadakki trees growing. The leaves from these the same time, a 'piri' which is a thick rope made of trees are used as green manures in the fields. hay is twisted in circles one by one around the granary. Generally the height is gradually raised to about 8' or Implements even more. The top of this granary is paved with straw. Slopes are built right around so as to prevent The agricultural implements are mostly age-old and primitive although Bose ploughs have been given to 6 the leakage of water inside. When paddy is required persons by the Panchayat Union. The ploughs are for use, the bottom of the granary is poked and the paddy obtained. wooden, drawn by weak bulls. The latest data available on implements is as follows: Pests 1. Wooden ploughs 151 Insects and pests are found to attack the crops; apart 2. Iron ploughs Nil from rats the crops are attacked by three different 3. Carts 44 kinds of pests commonly known as soorai, kuruthu 4. Electric pumpset 1 and savio When savi occurs there will be no grain Other implements such as spades, crowbars, aruvals and so on are also used.

The quantum of agricultural produce, their consump~ tion and sale is brought out in Tables Nos. XXI and XXII. A perusal of these two tables shows that the Udayars are in very affluent circumstances when compared to the other communities in the village. Some households produce only paddy and others gram only. There are still others who produce both paddy and gram, whereas the Muthiriyar community is the only com­ munity which produces paddy, gram and cotton. Some communities in the village have no surplus produce to sell and these are the Konar, Kammalar, Parayan, Lingayath, Chettiar and Christian Parayar commu­ nities. On the other hand households from SakkiIiar, Reddiar, Vannan and Ambattan communities are not engaged in agriculture and hence have no agricultural produce to sell. According to Table No. XXI, the unit of grains in the village is a Madras measure. Paddy is extensively cultivated by the people of the village and the total annual quantity produced by the cultivating households is 233,699 measures, out of which 134, 409 measures are consumed and the remainder 99,290 measures are Circular Granary-made of Straw and tied with ropes available for sale. Only Udayars, Kallars, Pandarams 60 KADAMBANGUDI

TABLE No. XXI

Quantum of Agricultural produce and their disposal

Community Paddy Cholam Cotton

UDAYAR Annual quantity produced 142,356 2,950 Total annual quantity consumed by the producing households 67,456 800 Total annual quantity available for sale 74,900 2,150

KALLAR Annual quantity produced 55,320 1,630 Total annual quantity consumed by the producing households 35,430 1,330 Total annual quantity available for sale 19,890 300

MUTHIRIYAR Annual quantity produced 6,350 3,452 100 Total annual quantity consumed by the producing households 6,330 3,152 Total annual quantity available for sale 20 300 100

KONAR Annual quantity produced 2,568 Total annual quantity consumed by the producing households 2,568 Total annual quantity available for sale

KAMMALAR Annual quantity produced 1,624 Total annual quantity consumed by the producing households 1,624 Total annual quantity available for sale

REDDIAR Annual quantity produced Total annual quantity consumed by the producing households Total annual quantity available for sale

PANDARAM Annual quantity produced 8,675 Total annual quantity consumed by the producing households 6,675 Total annual quantity available for sale 2,000

PALLAR Annual quantity produced 4,320 Total annual quantity consumed;by the producing households 2,320 Total annual quantity available for sale. 2,000 VILLAGE ECONOMY 61

TABLE No, XXI (Cont.)

Paddy Cholam Cotton

PARAYAR Annual quantity produced 240 Total annual quantity consumed by the producing households 240 Total annual quantity available for sale

VANNAN Annual quantity produced Total annual quantity consumed by the producing households Total annual quantity available for sale

AMBATIAN Annual quantity produced Total annual quantity con,sumed by the producing households 'Iotal annual quantity aval1able for sale

LINGAYATH Annual quantity produced, " 280 .,. Total aimual quantity con$uined by the producing households 280 Total annual quantity available for sale

VELAR Annual quantity produced 1,480 Total annual quantity consumed by the producing households 1,000 Total annual quantity available for sale 480

CHETTIAR Annual quantity produced 3,406 Total annual quantity consumed by the producing households 3,406 Total annual quantity available for sale

CHRISTIAN· An~ual quantity produced 7,080 PARAYAR Total annuAl quantity consumed by the producing households 7,080 Total annual quantity available foc sale

CHRISTIAN Annu~i"qu.mtit!4lrQ,d.uced , .. , j .....'t'1' .... 'i. 1 SAKKILlYAR Total annual quantity consume'tby,-tbe1 " producing households

~.,_ ..... Total annual quantity available for sale 62 KADAMBANGt1DJ

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS

I, .

Mammottles Aruvals Crowbar

A.n important Agricultural implement - a clod cMlle, used fIr levelling the soil after ploughing A harvest of paddy. Women are busily engaged in the harvesting of grain. A special type of granary - the straw granary found in Kadambangudi.

Weavers' Co- operative Society in Kadambangudi. VILLAGE ECONOMY 63

by the producing households and the remainder 74,900 measures are available for sale.

Apart from paddy, gram is also produced by the cultivating households of the Udayar, Kallar. and Muthiriyar communities. The total annual quantity of gram produced is 8,032 measures out of which 5,282 measures are consumed at home and the remaining 2,750 measures are available for sale. The largest quantity of gram is produced and consumed by the Muthiriyar community. i.e., 3,452 measures are pro­ duced out of which 3,152 measures are consumed and The Alakku, an agricultural implement used for 300 measures sold. cutting green leaves for mannure purposes Cotton is the only commercial crop in the village and this is produced and sold by the Muthiriyars. and P(\llars have a substantial quantity for sale. The The whole quantity of 100 pounds is available for Udayars produce a larger percentage of paddy than the sale. other communities. It works out to 60.9% or 142,356 measures out of a total of 233,699 measures. Out of Table No. XXII indicates interalia the number of the annual quantity 142,356 measures produced by the households with surplus produce. The Udayars are the Udayar households, 67,456 measures are consumed only community with the largest quantum of surplus

Wooden Plough and Yoke 64 KADAMBANGUDI

TABLE No. XXII just self-sufficient in foodgrains, i.e., the quantity of grain produced by these households is just sufficient to Quantum of Agricultural Produce meet their own needs. Fortyfive households have surplus agricultural produce. The surplus foodgrains are generally sold by the ryots themselves. Paddy bags are sent in bullock carts to the rice mills at Trichy and sold at the rate of Rs. 20 per bag of 50 Madras Community measures. In addition to this, commission agents charge Re. 1 as commission for the bags procured from the villagers which are sold mostly in Trichy. Big traders also come from Trichy and Mannachanallur rice mills and rarely from Thanjavur in order to Udayar 34 8 26 procure paddy. Paddy is sold to these traders at the 23 9 Kallar 32 first mentioned rates. There are no middle men as Muthiriyar 32 26 6 such in the village and the ryots generally have direct Konar 5 5 dealings with the buyers. Modern marketing methods Kammalar 3 3 like selling through Co-operatives have not been in­ Pandaram 3 I 2 troduced in tlte village though this can be done by the Reddiar villagers through their Multipurpos6 Co-operative Pallar 2 1 Society. Parayar 1 1 Vannan Table No. XXIII throws light on the developmental Ambattan activities in the village. 83 households have secured Lingayath 1 better type of manures, usually chemical manures. 38 Velar 1 households have secured more land for cultivatian, 11 Chettiar 7 7 households better seeds, 8 pesticides and one household CHRISTIANS has secured better irrigational facilities during the Parayar 8 8 last 5 years. Further 10 households have derived Sakkiliyar benefit from improved methods of cultivation like the Total 129 84 45 Japanese method of cultivation whereas none of the households in the village was benefitted by land agricultural produce. 26 out of 45 households with improvement measures like reclamation, soil conserva­ surplus belong to the Udayars. This works out to tion etc., dOuring the last 5 years. The latter is due to 57.7% of the total households with surplus produce. the fact that the system is not widespread and not The Kallars come next with 9 house~oldso and this popularised. The same applies to the demonstration community is closely followed by the Muthiriyars' with . in improved agricultural practices. Lastly none of the six households. Out of a total of 129 households households has patticipated in activities of community engaged in agriculture, 65.1 ~{, or 84 households are projects in any form.

TABLE No. XXIII Development Activities

Number of Households which have during the last five Years

163 11 83 38 8 10 ". VILLAGE ECONOMY 65

The extent of reciprocal aid in agricultural practices houses or houses provided by them. The mode of pay­ is shown in Table No. XXIV. Of the 129 households ment of wages is shown below:- engaged in agriculture, only 27 households borrow agri­ l. Food once and no lodging cultural implements from others at the time of cultiva­ 2. Plot of land i.e., about 1/3 acre or 33 cents tion. Among these the Udayars form the largest number is given for his own cultivation with 22 households and this is due to the fact that the Udayars are big landlords who do agriculture. A large 3. Advance of Rs. 100 free of interest number of Kallars i.e., 22 households take the help of 4. Ii Madras measures of paddy per day neighbours at the time of sowing or harvesting out of during transplanting. a total of 38 households. Besides there are 16 house­ 5. 2 Marakkals of paddy per day during holds who assist neighbours and receive help at the harvest time of cultivation in the village out of which 5 are 6. 2 Marakkals of paddy per day during Muthiriyars and 4 are Christian Parayars. threshing.

Agricultural Labourers These pannayals are engaged in agricultural opera- rations only. Their wages are given below: Of the total number of 436 workers there are 37 agricultural labourers and they belong to two cate­ 1. Rs. 175 to Rs. 200 per annum gories. The first category are the 'Pannayals' who 2. Free boarding and lodging ar" employed by rich Udayars and stay in their 3. Clothing

TABLE NO. XXIV Reciprocal Aid in agricultural practices

Community Number of house- Number of house- Number of house- Number of households holds practising holds that borrow holds that take that assist neighbours agriculture agricultural imple- help of the neigh- and receive help at the ments from others bours at the time time of cultivation in at the time of of sowing or har- the shape of manual cultivation vesting labour (I) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Udayar 34 22 3 Kallar 32 3 22 Muthirayar 32 5 Konar 5 2 Kammalar 3 I Pandaram 3 2 2 Reddiar 2 Pallar 2 2 Parayar Vannan Ambattan Lingayath 1 Velar I Chettiar 7 2 Christian Parayar 8 5 4 Christian Sakkiliyar

Total 129 27 38 16 66 KADAMBANGUDI

The second category are the seasonal labourers who A Weaver's Co-operative Society was started in come from the neighbouring village or from the same Kadambangudi on 25-2-1963, with a total of 36 village. Tbe wages for tbese labourers are as follows: members with 97 shares and Rs, 970 as share capital. In addition there are 3 sympathisers who belong to 1. Ploughing - I meal and 75 nP. the Udayar community, They hold 25 shares and 2. Transplanting usually done by women- have a share capital of Rs. 250. The society owns 25 nP. to 50 nP. for mere pulling of tender 33 looms in the village. Prior to the formation of the shoots to plant one acre of paddy on cont­ Weavers' Co-operative Society in Kadambangudi, yarn ract basis. was obtained from big traders in certain places of 3. Application of fertilisers only for an hour Trichy district, but now they depend entirely on the generally 9 A.M. to 10 A.M - on the Co-operative Society which purchases the yarn from plea that chemical manures affect the the Co-optex Sales Emporium at Kumbakona111, The health - Rs. 1.50 nP. yarn obtained by the Society is sent for dying to Dhasappa Chettiar and Company, Dyeing factory, 4. Weeding tiIlI2 noon-75 nP. (women) Gugai in Salem, and later sent to Shanmugham Pavu 5, Harvesting - 2 Marakkals of paddy per Pattarai at Manalmedu in Tiruchirapa11i district, to day be starched. It is only after these processes are 6, Threshing - 2 marakkals of paddy per day completed that the actual weaving is taken up by the weavers. The number of persons employed for threshing The weaving instruments owned by the Co-operative depends on the distance from the field to the threshing Society are indicated below: floor, In addition they are given i Madras ,measure i size design boxes of paddy, and one head load of straw with paddy 6 Weaver's reeds commonly called (Poradi). 18 Hard Press Machine (Hivi type) 1 Border (Card boards) size 3 Regarding lease cultivation, it is carried on by almost 600 all the village communities, Udayars (1 male), Kallars Jacquard Weaving Machine 1 (12 males, 9 females), Muthiriyars (2 males, 2 females), Balance set I Pandaram (I male), Pallar (5 males, 3 females) With the help of these instruments supplied by the Co­ Parayars (2 males and 2 females) (Christians) and operative Society the weavers hope to give out their Hindus (2 males and 2 females) as well. A majority maximum output, number of households among Kallars are engaged in lease cultivation, A 100m with its accessories cost roughly about Rs, 80. It is made from wood and the set is made to Industries order by a carpenter. Formerly the flying and throw shuttles were obtained from the Weavers' Co-operative Weaving of cotton sarees is an important village Society at Trichy and all the rest are made by the car­ industry carried on by the Chettiars (Padmasaliars) in penter, The comb is made of minutely cut bamboo the village. Formerly, these Chettiar families owned blades by some Muslim families in Woriyur, Usually only the looms but they could not afford to buy their five sarees can be woven by a person per mensem, own yarn, So they 'obtained their yarn from traders There are 27 looms in Kadambangudi, about 1 to 4 who own shops at Samayapuram and Poovalur in looms in each house, and each family may have I to 4 Trichy district. The yarn thus obtained are woven into looms. The entire family is engaged in the manu­ multi-coloured sarees of 100 counts as only 100 count facture of the finished product namely the saree, sarees are woven in Kadambangudi, and are then given Usually the womenfolk are engaged in 'Sitham Izhai­ to the traders who market the sarees, Since the yarn is thaI' or winding the yarn on the frame and 'Thar supplied by these traders, the Chettiars only get wages Suthuthal'. Even children playa part in the weaving which is about Rs. 20 for 30 yards of sarees woven. industry; those children above 10 years will help in A person gets about 90 yards of yarn (given only by 'Achupuniyal'. The actual weaving ir the loom is done weights) per mensem and this would be sufficient for by men. Sometimes even women in some families 3 pavus. As the yarn supplied by the traders is first resort to weaving. dyed, starched and then supplied to the weavers, it would take about 2 days (20 hours) to complete a Now for the weaving process, yarn is first transferred 100 count~ san;c;, to a small piece of corn st~m which is placed inside th~ VILLAGE ECONOMY 67 shuttle. After affixing yarn to the prescribed length in Doraisamy, the Secretary of the Co-operative Society the loom, the weaving process begins. The hands and and transmitted to the various members by him only. the legs of the weaver then start to work simultaneously. The skill varies from 'plain' weaving to checked or The left hand pulls "settle makkam" and the right 'Kothadi' weaving as it is commonly called. The term hand passes the shuttles breadthwise in different colours. used for 'Kothadi' weaving is usually 6 X6, 30 X 30, The thread that is used for weaving is first soaked in 6 Xl etci Normally a family consisting of one adult water before it is placed in shuttles, so that it might man, two adult women and one boy of 10 to 12 years not slip away from the roller. Mostly all the weaving will take 7 days to weave 30 yards of plain saree, and operations are done within the house. but for the only then the whole family will be paid Rs. 24.90 nP. purpose of "Pavurittialupiedathal" the weavers have as wages from the Society. A boy's wages per day of 5 to come out on the streets as they require nearly 30 hours ranges from 0.50 nP. to Rs 1.25 nP and a woman yards length for 30 yards of "Pavu". All the other gets 0.50 nP. A man would thus get about Rs. 1.75 for activities are done within the house itself. a working day. If there are no adult women or boys in a particular household engaged in weaving, then hired The sarees are locally designed by the weavers of the workers are employed and paid accordingly. On an society; but in the case of saree borders both Czechos­ average they have about 300 working days a year, for lovakian and Japanese devices are used. These devices usually during the rainy weather from November to are now made at Dindigul and Bangalore; and those December weaving cannot be taken up continuously with the weavers' Co-operative Society were purchased as the yarn will stick together and make weaving from Dindigul. Skills are designed by Sri N.V. impossible.

Rattillam - A weaving instrument used in Kadambangudi 68 KAD!MBANGUDI

from the nearby big villages of Budalur, Kachcha­ mangalam etc., the sarces are sold to the people of the area only. -- The Weavers' Co-operative Society has thus helped immensely in the improvement of the weaving industry,

Some Saree designs

~)

~o

@ @ o 0

Shuttles- used in weaving

The working capital of the Weavers' Co-operative Society at Kadambangudi is given as follows: Rs. nP. 36 members with 97 shares (including 3 sympathisers' 25 shares each share Rs. 10) 970.00 Government loan for the share capital 1,815.00 Loan by the Co-operative Central Bank 6,000.00 Total 8,785.00

The local rich Udayar Mirasdars patronise the weaving industry in Kadambangudi. They advance loans when required and thereby encourage the Chettiars to carryon their traditional occupation namely weaving. The clients for this industry generally being the people A traditional weaver, engaged in weaving of cotton sarees Note the Chettiar household ­ it is a thatched house provided with strong wooden beams. A Chettiar woman is seen assisting her husband in weaving.

The village carpenter busily engaged in his traditional occupation. Note the number of tools before him. The Village Munsiff. He belongs to Udayar community. VILLAGE ECONOMY 69

Small hammer Forceps Hammer Hammtr

the Chettiars or Padmasaliars - the traditional weavers-hope that in time to come they would be INSTRUMENTS USED BY THE VILLAGE able to produce a special quality of sarees known as BLACKSMITH 'Kadambangudi Sarees.'

Industrial workers are also found among the Kam­ malars, the Carpenter, Goldsmith and Blacksmith. The carpenter and blacksmith are engaged mostly in repai­ ring agricultural implements and occasionally making new ones. They do not have any regular workshop as such, but work only in sheds which are constructed adjacent to their respective houses. Both the carpen­ ter and the blacksmith are paid wages in kind and it amounts to about 20 kalams of paddy per annum for the blacksmith, and 5 bags of paddy per annum for a carpenter. Though there is a goldsmith in the village who repairs as well as makes gold and silver ornaments for the villagers, yet they generally go to Trichy Fort area where they have a choice of many varieties. The village goldsmith is paid his wages at once. He has migrated from Thanjavur about 6 to 7 years ago, and now after the Gold Control Order he is finding it rather dif­ ficult to manage as tbe villagers are not prepared to go against Government's orders regarding me.king of 22 Carat Gold ornaments. Even 14-carat gold is not used by the villagers. So he has taken to agricultural labour Bellow Plier Sledge 10 kAbAMBANGUDl as there is no continuous work in his profession. The necessary pottery for the villagers for a year. This instruments used by the village goldsmith are the borers, is called 'Kudupandam' for which he is paid wages in hack-saw, noseplier, iron tongs, curved snip, ball kind which amount to 5 bags of paddy every Masi peening, straight peening forceps and hand hammer. per annum. The other essentials are a furnace, a work table and a testing stone. His charges vary according to the Among the Chettiars or 'Padmasaliars' only one design, as for instance for making a pair of bangles household is engaged in business. A Chettiar keeps the rates vary from Rs. 5 to Rs. 10, a chain Rs. 10, a petty shop in Kadambangudi main village. thodu Rs. 4 and other small ear ornaments at the rate His wife assists him in keeping his shop. He secures of Rs. 1.50. But after the Gold Control Order the goods for his shop from Tirukattupalli or Trichy. villagers have no desire to make new ornaments. Aerated waters, betel leaves and nuts, tobacco,. bidis and cigarettes of cheap varieties are available in this Other Occupations shop. Apart from cultivation and industry, a considerable Both dhobies and barbers of the village are paid number of workers belonging to different communities wages in kind which amount to 6 Madras measures of is engaged in a variety of occupations. Shepherds paddy per annum per couple and 960 Madras measures are found only in a few households belonging to the per annum respectively for their services to all the Udayar, Kallar and Kammalar communities. households.

There is one native doctor who is a homeopath in Among the Christian Parayars, cultivation and agri­ Kadambangudi main village. He is an U dayar and cultural labour are the most important means of has a fairly large clientele. The village munsiff in livelihood. Besides there is one male Higher Grade Kadambangudi is an Udayar. Besides there is also trained teacher who is employed in a neighbouring one male in the Udayar community who is engaged in village. There is also a painter who hails from the construction work as a contractor in Public Works same community. Department. There is one Christian Sakkiliar family living near A secondary grade teacher hails from the Kallar the Paracheri of the main village. The head of the community of Kadambangudi main village, but he is household is a village menial, but he also stitches employed in some other village. There is also a kabalai leather for the cultivators. He is also paid P. W. D. laskar belonging to the Kallar caste in monthly wages. Thondampatti hamlet. A Kallar woman of the same hamlet is engaged in idly making and selling. Table No. XXV gives particulars relating to trade and commerce in the village. Only 5 households in the There is only one Velar househol d in the village who whole village are engaged in trade and commerce as apart from being engaged in cultivation, makes the such, out of which 3 belong to the Kallar community.

The Special rat trap used by Muthiriyars for catching field rats Out in the open the dhoby is busy with his traditional occupation :of washing clothes. His wife is seen in the picture, . assisting him in lighting the fire. The village barbers engaged in their occupation. HLLAGIi ECONOMY 7l TOOLS USED BY A VILLAGE C4RPENTER 12 K,o.DAMBANGUDI

VILLAGE GOLDSMITH'S INSTRUMENTS

Curved snip

Furnace

INm tong

Hack-saw

Borer Nose flier Street vendor roaming in the village is not an uncommon feature in Kadambangudi. Here is one who goes from one hamlet to another selling aluminium vessels. A petty shop in Kadambangudi main village. VILLAGE ECONOMY 73

TABLE NO. XXV Trade or Business

Buying and Selling cattle Sundal Vendor Iddli, Sundal, Vadai Shop Keeping Vendor til II) "0'" !l.l "0'" !l.l "0 !l.l "0'" () () () c a ~ a ~ '0 g '0 oj ..... ,!:; oj .... ,!:; oj ... oj .... ,!:; !l.l (I:l II) q:: .c:: q:: !l.l c (I:l 0 0 > 0 0 0 > 0 0 0 > z U rJJ

The average profit is given per mensem. The Kallar A peculiar feature in the village is that the Muthiri­ household that is engaged in buying and seIling cattle yars catch field rats and winged white ants which they gets an approximate profit of Rs. 20 per mensem eat. Thi,; is not their occupation, but it is occasionally followed by the Chettiar household with Rs. 15 (in resorted to. A peculiar rat trap called the bow rat-trap shop keeping). The two Kallar households earn is used by the Muthiriyars of Kadambangudi. This is Rs. 11.10 in selling sundal and one Pandaram household made of bamboo sticks, rubber and thread, and is in­ Rs. 3.60 in idly, sundal and vadai selling. This stalled in large numbers in the fields. White ants are also table clearly shows that there is no worthwhile business eaten by the Muthiriyars. A pit is dug and an improvised in the village that could be a stable and well·paid torch is made. White ants attracted by the light of the source of income except for bringing and selling cattle torch fire fall into the pit. When a sufficient quantity and shop keeping which may be considered so. has fallen into the pit, a bunch of margosa leaves is secured and the white ants are beaten mildly. Thereupon Vendors of oil and medicinal waters are also to be their wings fall off and the Muthiriyars collect the white found. Mutton vendors roam about on cycles as they ants to be fried with spices and eaten. come once or twice a week to the village. Besides there is a petty shop in Thondampatti hamlet which is similar to the one in Kadambangudi main village. But Livestock Statistics: the volume of business is not so much. The cloth The importance of cattle wealth is felt in Kadam­ required is purchased from Trichy. bangudi as agriculture forms the mainstay of the village 10 74 KADAMBANGUDI population. Poultry is also owned by a large number From the above figures it is noticed that there is an of households for eggs and meat although this is not appreciable increase in number over the Census figures practised as an household industry. of 1366 Fasli in bulls, cows, he and she buffaloes, The following are the data according to the latest young buffaloes under 4 years and donkeys. On the Cattle Census taken in the village in 1961. other hand, a marked decrease in number is seen in bulls under 4 years, sheep and goats because of selling Kind Nnmber and cattle diseases. The number of sheep and goats 1. Bulls (castrated) only for in the village has been considerably reduced because labour (over 3 years) 146 of a proposed tax on goats which the villagers are 2. Bulls (non-castrated) over 3 years Nil afraid may be extended to shcep also. Actually 3. Cows (bovine) over 3 years 26 a resolution was taken by the Panchayat Union 4. Cows (barren) over 3 years 103 on 30,11.60 for a proposed tax on goats, but it was not 5. Calf (bull) below 1 year 15 implemented, as there is no statutory rule to that effect, 6. Calf (cow) below I year II by the Government. Further the people of the village 7. Calves (bull) I to 3 years 24 are of the opinion that goats are highly destructive to crops and hence a majority of people are not in favour 8. Calves (cow) 1 to 3 years 27 9. Calves (bull) below 3 years 39 of breeding them on a large scale. 10. Calves (cow) below 3 years 38 The present position of cattle as seen in Table 11. Bulls over 3 years 74 12. Cows over 3 years (bovine) 38 No. XXVI according to the socio-economic survey is 13. Buffaloes over 3 years (for labour) 11 given as follows: 14. Buffaloes (decrepit and useless) 38 Kind Number 15. Buffalo calves (bull) below 1 year 20 16. Buffalo calves (cow) below 1 year 18 Milch cattle 151 17. Buffalo calves (bull) 1-3 years I Draught bullock 151 18. Buffalo calves (cow) 15 " Goats 85 19. Buffalo calves (bull) below 3 years 21 Buffaloes 226 20. Buffalo calves (cow) 35 21. Sheep upto 1 year " 35 Fowls 253 22. Sheep (be) over I year 21 23. Sheep (she) -do- 89 Cattle is owned by a number of households in the 24. Goats (he) up to 1 year 7 village. A larger percentage of milch cattle, i.e. 60 out 25. Goats (he) over 1 year 2 of a total of 151 belong to the Udayars followed by the Muthiriyars with 39 and Kallars with 25. As 26. Goats (she) over 1 year 10 a large number of Udayar households are engaged in 27. Donkey (he) 1 agriculture, we find that a majority of 95 out of a total of 28. Donkey (she) 2 151 draught bullocks belong to the Udayar community. 29. Poultry (hen) 195 Next are the Kallars with 37 and Muthiriyars with 11 30. Cocks 60 draught bullocks. Out of a total of 226 buffaloes in 31. Chicken 322 the village, 122 belong to the Udayars, 62 to the Kallars A further comparison can be made between tbe cattle and the rest to the other communities. Out of a total composition in the village in 1366 Fasli and 1371 Fasli. of 85 Goats and Sheep, 81 belong to the Kallars, 3 to the Muthiriyars and one to a Christian Sakkiliar Kind Fasli Fasli household. There is a total of 253 fowls in the village, (1366) (1371) of which 72 belong to the Muthiriyars, 61 to the 1. Bulls and bullocks 121 146 Kallars and 60 to Udayars and the rest to the other 2. Cows 100 129 communities. 3. Bulls and heifers under 4 years 144 77 4. He-buffaloes 33 74 The village cattle are fed on fodder like paddy husks, 5. She-buffaloes 106 156 kazhaneer, i.e. water in which rice is boiled, skin of 6. Buffaloes under 4 years 37 54 daJ, oil cakes, cotton seeds, agathi (a type of greens) 7. Sheep 161 145 and other leaves. Agathi is given to the cattle in 8. Goats 144 19 sufficient quantity so as to reduce the excessive b~at 9. Donkeys &, mule~ ". ~ caused by oil cakes. See the cattle grazing on the wide harvested fields in Kadambangudi.

Sheep are found grazing on the banks of tank or river. Buffaloes are owned by almost all the Udayar households. See the number of buffaloes owned by this U dayar household.

A view of the Multi-purpose Co-operative Society at Kadambangudi VILLAGE ECONOMY 75

TABLE No. XXVI Livestock statistics

Milch/cattle cows Draught bullock Goat/Sheep Buffaloes Fowl

'bi) ~.S ;:l c:: ZO o~ Community .J:: ..... o -; ~'"0- '0 z..8 Eo-< (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)

Udayar 25 60 26 95 24 122 19 60 Kallar 13 25 }5 37 2 81 25 62 30 61 Muthirayar 26 39 7 11 2 3 1 1 32 72 Konar 3 3 3 9 3 6 Kammalar 4 5 4 7 Pandaram 2 5 4 2 6 2 8 Reddiar Pallar 2 2 7 2 4 Parayar Vannan 2 2 2 Ambattan Lingayath 2 Velar 1 2 Chettiar 5 6 2 3 6 Christian Parayar 3 4 2 7 14 10 20 Christian Sakkiliyar 3

Total 84 151 51 151 5 85 67 226 109' 253

According to the villagers in Kadambangudi, cattle also be attacked by fits which may cripple some of could be attacked by four different diseases. Raththa them. komari, Adappan, Kasappu and fits. Cattle suffer from raththa komari due to loss of blood and slug­ Veterinary assistance is not easily secured and in gishness. When this occurs goats' blood is given time for the affected cattle as the nearest veterinary internally as a cure for this disease. Adappan is a hospital is at Thanjavur, The villagers use a disease which would tend to suffocate the cattle all on kind of balm which is prepared by a man from a sudden. When this happens, a small thin sheet is Palayanoor, a village which is about 10 miles from laid inside the mouth of the cattle with butter on it. Kadambangudi. This balm is given along with grass A hot iron is then placed on the butter which melts (Arugampul) internally. Further this is said to be a and enters the throat and thereby the disease is cured. Talisman which is expected to cure any kind of cattle Kasappu is another cattle disease which is due to disease. This medicine is highly popular among the excessive heat and which results in inflamation on villagers and rather cheap as it costs only 25 nP. per legs and mouth of cattle. Hence to cool the system of bottle of two ounces. The villagers have so great a faith the cattle Agathi leaves are given. Besides cumbu is in this medicine that they even dangle a bottle of this cooked and given internally. Occasionally cattle may balm in a corner of the cattfeshed. 76 KADAMBANGUl>l

The work done in Animal Husbandry from the year TABLE NO. XXVII 1961 to 1963 in the village is as follows: Monthly income of households by Occupation No. of inoculations done for Haemarrhagic disease 360 Number of households Monthly No. of inoculations done for income per household Black Quarter disease 126 in the range of 0 Yfllt ~1~~)~ I/ljl.lll71, :.",. 0 l..'Ylj ::::: ~ § C!l ~ 0 <: 0- Z 0 0..... CD .....0 E:::> u ~ ~ 'CO U II! ~ 0 0 c:: U"I 'II ILl ::: 0 tt ~ ::g~ 0 ..,0 u 0 .....Z M ~ ~ :r:~ 0 .... ,.t> 0 .... ~ .....0'" ..... 'II '"C 0 .9 II! .... .~ 8 .~ 'II

TABLE No. XXVIII Average monthly expenditure per household by income groups and occupations

No. of Households with a monthly income of All Households Rs.2S-less Rs.26.5O Rs.51·75 Rs.76.100 ,Rs. 101 & over

U Q ... ", "', ~ ... OJ 0'0 3~ M B '0'" ::l :9 ... '0 '0 Occupation Items of U>.CI :og &'6 ~;a ... .CI ~:B .... .8 .CIQ e.CI Ole Ole Expenditure 1!~ o~ ... 0 01;l 8'" :2 ....UQ, " ~Q, '0 U>Q, '0 00 8. ... 00 0 0 z] ~ &.8 ~~ <~ Z.CI ~~ Z.CI Rs. Dp. Rs. np. Rs' np. Rs. np. Rs. up. (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14) Cultivation Rice 97 22.34 IB.50 43 19.38 23 21.80 9 24.75 21 28.14 Other grain s 97 5.97 6.00 43 4.76 23 7.12 9 6.SO 21 6.86 Vegetables 97 2.89 1.75 43 2.27 23 2.61 9 347 21 4.26 Meat, Fish etc. 9S 3.14 2.62 42 2.63 22 3.07 , 3.40 21 4.14 Milk 97 6.85 2.25 43 4.41 23 6.28 9 7.19 21 1.28 Ohee, Oils. 97 8.43 5.2S ~3 6.IB 23 6.76 9 9.31 21 14.62 Condiments 97 2.31 1.75 ~3 1.97 23 2.16 , 2.S4 21 3.11 Sugar or Jaggrey 97 2.16 1.25 43 1.70 23 1.90 9 2.37 21 3.30 Coffee & Tea 97 1.51 1.00 43 1.23 23 1'31 9 1.60 21 2.30 Tobacco, Smoking & 96 1.57 1.50 43 1.38 22 1.44 9 1.75 21 1.97 Chewjng Education 38 5.96 9 2'33 10 2.S5 4 2.75 15 11.27 Dhoby or Soap 93 0.54 0.25 40 D.45 23 DAB B 0.66 21 '.76 Barber 94 0.49 0.25 41 0.34 23 0.51 8 0.70 21 0.71 Travelling 95 1.48 0.75 42 1.15 23 1.25 8 1.56 21 2.39 Medical fees &: 10.00 10.00 Medicines Amusements 91 I'OB , 39 0.71 23 0.77 8 1.28 21 2.02 Savings (Provident I 5'00 I 5.00 Fund) Payment of debts 60 18.19 2.50 27 10.53 14 13.66 4 25.50 14 39.53 Other items. 96 6.57 3.00 42 4.B2 23 6.09 9 7.04 21 10.55

Leas. Cultivation Rice 16 20.79 10 19.81 6 22.44 Other grains 16 5.24 10 4.9B 6 5.6~ Vegetables 16 2.72 10 2.50 6 3.0B Meat, Fi5h etc. 16 2.97 10 2.90 6 3.08 Milk 16 5.23 10 4.53 6 6.42 Ohee, Oils 16 7.00 10 6.40 6 8.00 Condiments 16 218 10 2.14 6 2.26 Sugaror Jaggery 15 2.09 9 2.0B 6 2.11 Coffee & Tea 15 1.,30 9 LIB 6 1.47 Tobacco,smoking& 15 1.62 9 1.61 6 167 chewing Education 5 2.40 3 2.00 2 3.00 Dhoby or Soap IS 0.56 9 0.56 6 0.56 Barber IS 0.59 9 0.61 6 0.56 TravelliDI IS 1.42 9 1.39 6 1,46 Amusements 14 1.00 8 0.98 6 1.02 Payment of debts 12 7.71 8 8.25 4 6.63 Other i~s IS 6.09 9 6.04 6 6.17 7S KADAMBANGUDi

tABLE No. xxvtn (Contd.)

( I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) ( II) (12) (13) (14)

Street Vendor

Rice 3 8.50 3 8.50 Other grains 3 3.'11 3.41

Vegetables 3 1.17 3 1.17

Meat, Fish etc. 3 1.25 3 1.25

Milk 3 1.75 3 1.75 Ghee, Oils 3 2.58 3 2.58 Condiments 3 1.50 3 1.50

Sugar or Jaggery 1.00 1.00

Coffee & Tea 0.50 0.50 Tobacco, smoking & 2 0.75 2 0.75 chcwIDg

Dhoby or Soap 2 0.38 2 0.38

Payment of debts I.SO 1.50

Other items 1.58 3 1.58

Alricultural Labourer

Rice 18 15.99 2 7.50 13 16.73 3 18.42

Other grains 18 4.36 1 4.63 13 4.21 3 4.83

Vegetables 18 1.94 2 1.35 13 1.96 3 2'23 Meat, Fish etc. 18 2.31 2 1.75 13 2.27 3 2.87

Milk 18 3.99 2 2.13 13 4.15 3 4.SO Gbee, Oil. 18 5.08 2 3.88 13 5.08 3 5.92

Condiments 18 1.87 '2. 1.00 13 1.88 3 2.37

Sugar or J aggery 17 1.58 2 1.06 12 1.58 1.92 Coffee & Tea 17 1.03 2 0.63 12 1.02 1.67

Tobacco, smoking & 18 1.24 2 0.97 13 1.24 3 1.3' chewing

Education 4 1.25 3 1.33 1.00

Dhoby or Soap 17 0.47 2 0.25 12 0.50 3 0.50

Barber 14 0.50 0.25 10 O.SO 0.58

Travelling 15 1.08 0.75 11 1.07 3 1.25

Amusements 10 0.89 O.SO 1 0.95 2 o q4 Payment of debts 9 461 2.50 8 4.88

Otheri tems 18 3.64 ? I.SO 13 3.60 J 525 V1LLAGE ECONOMY 79

TABLE No. XXVIII (Contd.)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (to) (11) (12) (13) (14)

P. W. D. Contractor

Rice 19.50 1950 Other grains 04.25 4.25 Vegetables 3.62 3.62 Meat, Fish etc. S 25 S 2S

Milk 16.50 16 SO Ghee, Oils 14.00 1400 Condiments 2.99 2.99 Sugar or Jaggery 3.00 300 Coffee & Tea 2.00 200 Tobacco, smoking & I 212 2 12 chewing Dhoby or soap 0.75 0.75 Barber 0.75 075 Travelling 10.00 1000 Amusements 200 2.00 Other items 10.00 10.00

P. W. D. Laskar

Rice 19.75 1975 Other grains 6.25 625 VegitabJes 2.69 269 Meat, Fish etc. 2.50 2.S0 Milk 3.75 375 Ghee,Oilss 600 600

Condiments 200 2.00 Sugar or Jaggery 175 175 Coffee & Tea 125 1.25

Tobacco, smokIng & I I 50 1.50 chewing Dhohy or soap 025 0'25 Barber 0.25 025 Travelling 1.25 1.25 Amusements 075 075 Saving (Provident 2.50 2.50 Fund)

Payment of debts 300 3.00

Ott!llr ilen1s ~.50 .. , .. , 3.S0 .. , 80 KADAMBANGUDl

TABLE No. XXVIlJ (Contd.) .

(I) (2) (3) ,4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

Village Official

Rice 3 27.00 2 1350 54.00

Other grains 3 683 2 3.63 13.25 Vegetables 3 3.87 2 1.56 850 Meat, fish etc. 3.17 2 2.00 5.50 Milk 6.50 2 1.88 15.75 Ghee, oils 3 7.08 2 2.75 15.75 Condiments 3 3·50 2 2.38 5.75 Sugar or Jaggery 2 5.94 1.62 10.25 Coffee & Tea 2 2.25 1.50 ... 3.00 Tobacco, smoking & 3 1.92 2 1.25 3.25 chewing Education 35.00 35,00 Dhoby or soap 3 0.5S 2 0.50 0.75 Barber 3 0.58 2 0.50 0.75 Travelling 3 1.58 2 1.00 2.75 Amusements 2 ".63 0.75 8.SO Others 3 9.17 2 2.75 22.00

Goldsmith Rice 1 19.00 2 ".00 Other grains 2 4.13 2 4.13 Vegetables 2 2.25 2 2.25 Meat. fish etc. 2 1.94 2 1.94 ... Milk 2 3.25 2 3.25 Ghee. Oils 2 4.88 2 4.88 Condiments 2 1.87 2 I.S7 Sugar or Jaggery 2 1.63 2 1.63 Coffee & Tea 2 0.15 2 0.75 Tobacco. smoking & 2 1.31 2 1.31 chewing Education 2.00 2.00 Dhobyor soap 2 0.50 2 O.SO Barber 2 0.50 2 O.S(I Travelling 1.00 1.00 Amusements 0.S7 0.87 Payment of debts 2.50 2.50 Othen 1 5.31 2 5.31 VILLAGE ECONOMY 81

TAlJLE No. XXVIII (Contd.)

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14)

Carpenter

Rice 3 20.08 22.50 18.75 19.00 Ot her gra ins 3 5.33 5.25 3.75 7.00

Vegetables 2.75 2.50 I.B7 187 Meat, Fish etc. 3 3.33 2.50 2.50 S.OO Milk 3 6.08 5.50 5.25 7.50 Ghee, oils 6.67 7.25 4.75 8.00 Condiments 3 2.17 2.25 1.50 2.75 Sugar or jaggery 3 2.21 2.00 1.37 3.25 Coffee & Tea 1.29 1.50 0.75 1.62 Tobacco, smoking 1.56 1.69 1.25 1.75 & Chewing Education 2.00 2.00 Dhoby or soap 0.67 0.50 0.50 I.CO Barber 0.58 0.50 0.50 0.75 Travelling 3 1.58 1.50 1.25 2.00 Amusements 3 1.00 0.75 1.00 1.25 Payment of debts 1.50 1.50 Others 5.75 7.25 4.50 5.50

Dhoby

Rice 2 21.38 2 21.38

Other grains 2 4.25 2 4.25

Vegetables 1.91 2 1.91 Meat, fish etc. 2 2.13 2 2.13 Milk 2 3.00 1 3'00 Ghee, oils 2 4.13 2 4.13 Condiments 2 1.75 2 1.75

Sugar or jaggery 2 1.59 2 1.59 Coffee & Tea 2 0.88 2 0.B8 Tobacco, smoking 2 1.50 2 1.50 & chewing Barber 2 0.50 2 0.50 Travelling 2 0.88 2 0.88 Amusements 2 0.7S 2 0.75 Payment of debts 2 6.25 2 6.25 Others 2 3.63 2 3.63

11 82 KADAMBANGUDI

TABLE No. XXVIII (Contd.)

(I) (2) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14)

Blacksmith

Rice 22.CO 22.00 Other grains 4.25 4.25 Vegetables 225 2.25 Meat, fish, etc. 4.00 4.CO Milk 15.00 15.CO Ghee, oils 8.50 850 Cor.diments 3.50 3.50 Sugar or Jaggery 2.00 2.00

Coffee & Tea 1.00 1.00

Tobacco, smoking & I 1.12 1.12 chewing Dhoby or soap 1.00 1.00 Barber 1.00 1.0u Travelling 2.00 2.00 Amusement 1.25 1.25 Payment of debts 12.00 12.00 Others B.OO 800

Barber

Rice 22.50 22.50 Other grains 3.50 3.50 Vegetables 1.87 187 Meat, fish etc. 2.25 2.25 Milk 5.75 5.75 Ghee, Oils 5.00 5.00 Condiments 1.75 1.75 Sugar or Jaggery 2.00 2.00 Coffee & Tea 0.75 0.75 Tobacco, Smoking 1.00 1.00 & Chewing Dhoby or soap 0.50 0.50 Travelling 1.00 1.00 Amusements 0.75 0.75 Payment of debts 10.00 10.00

Othef~ 11,75 ".7~ VILLAGE ECONOMY 83

TABLE No. XXVIII (eoutd.)

(I) (2) (3) ("l (5) (6) (7) (B) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (I")

Teacher Rice IB.SO IB.50 Other grains 3.25 3.25 Vegetables ".1l0 ".00 Meat, fish etc. 3.62 3.62 Milk 6.75 6.75 Ghee, oils ".00 ".00 Condiments 2.62 2.62 Sugar or jaggery 3.00 3.00 Coffee & tea 2.25 U5 Tobacco, smoking 1.50 1.50 & chewing Dhoby or soap 0.50 0.50 Barber 0.50 " 0.50 Travelling 1.75 1.75 Amusements 0.75 075 Others 7.00 7.00

Retired person Rice 19.00 19.00 Other grains 3.25 3.35 Vegetables 3.00 3.00 Meat, fish etc. 2.87 2.B7 Milk 6.75 6.75 Ghee, oils 9.00 9.00 Condiments 1.75 1.75 SURar or jaggery 2.00 2.00

Coffee & tea 1.00 1.00 Tobacco, smoking 1.62 1.62 & cbewillg Educatioll 2.00 2.00 Dhoby or soap 0.75 0'75 Barber 0.75 0.75 Travelling 1.50 1.50 Amusements 0.75 0.75 Payment of 5.00 5.00 debts Others 7.00 7.00 ,.. 84 KADAMBANGUDI

TABLE No. XXVJII (Contd.)

( I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14)

Business Rice 16.00 16.00 Other grains 3.25 3.25 Vegetables 1·75 1.75 Meat, fish etc. 2.37 2.37 Milk 4.00 4.00 Ghee, oils 5.50 5.50 Condiments 1.93 .1.93 Sugar or jaggery 1.62 1.62 Coffee & tea 1.25 1.25 Tobacco. smoking LSO 1.50 & chewing Dhoby or soap 0.50 0.50 Barber 0.50 0.50 Travelling 1.75 1.75 Amusements 0.75 0.75 ... Payment of debts 1.50 1.50

Others 3.50 3.50

Painter Rice 18.75 18.75 Other grains 6.25 6.25 Vegetables 3.00 3.00 Meat. fish etc. 3.14 3.14 Milk 7.00 7.00 Ghee,oils..· 6.50 6.50 Condiments 2.99 2.99 Sugar or jaggery 2.00 2.00 Coffee .t tea 2.00 2.00 Tobacco, smoking 1.69 1.69 & chewing Dhoby ac soap 0.75 0.7S Barber 0.75 0.7S Travelling 3.50 3.50 Amusements 1.50 1.50 Savings' 10.00 10.00 (Provident Fund) Payment of debts 5.00 5.00 Others \. 5.00 5.00 VILLAGE ECONOMY 85

TABLE No. XXVIII (Contd.)

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) ( II) (12) ( 13) ( 14)

Weaving Rice 10 22.55 6 21.75 3 21.67 30.00 Ocher grains 10 ".78 6 ".08 3 ".50 9.75 Vegetables 10 3.02 6 2.72 3 3.25 4.12 Meat, fish ett'. 10 2.30 6 2.BO 3 2.96 3.37 Milk 10 6.50 6 6.17 3 6.42 8.75 Ghee, Oils 10 7.28 6 6.79 3 7.50 9.50 Condiments 10 2.29 6 2.19 3 2.25 3.00 Sugar or Jaggery 10 2.26 6 2.18 3 2.25 2.75 Coffee & Tea 10 1045 6 1.33 3 1.50 2.00 Tobacco, Smoking 10 1.44 6 1.31 3 I.S8 1.81 &. Chewing Education 7 2.71 5 3.00 2.00 2.00 Dhoby or Soap 10 0.58 6 0.58 3 0.50 0.75 Barber 10 0-70 6 0.79 3 0.50 0.75 Travelling 10 1.75 6 1.67 3 1.83 2.00 Medical fees 2.50 I 2.50 & Medicines Amusements 10 1.19 6 1.06 3 1.42 1.25 Payment of debts 10 3.79 6 1.75 3 6.33 S.OO Others 10 7.99 6 8.31 3 6.83 9.50 the occupations is above 60% except in the case of a other than expenditure on food, a certain percentage is retired person where the percentage of expenditure on also spent on luxuries, whereas there are only two food is only 43.30%. The highest percentage of households in the whole village which have made some expenditure on food is 83.70% and incurred by the savings. The fact that some of the households in the 3 households which are engaged in idly making and village incur expenditure on a few luxuries like smoking they fall in the income group Rs. 25 or less. In the and amusements does not necessarily mean that these household of a teacher with an income exceeding people are well off. Rs. 100, the percentage on food is 80.6%, the rest is According to the Table No. XXIX showing expendi­ spent on miscellaneous items like dhoby, barber, ture on marriages, a majority of 45 households or 88.9 travelling, amusements and other items. The owner per cent of the households in the village, have not cultivators spend 60.94% of their ~n_come on food, reported any expenditure on marriage in recent times, 17.60% in the payment of debts, 9.32 per cent in approximately within five years, whereas the remaining medical fees,S per cent on education, 4.66 per cent in 11.1 per cent or 17 households in the village have resor .. savings and the rest on miscellaneous items. It is ted to unostentatious spending on marriages, both in the only among cultivators that we find any expenditure on higher as well as in the lower income groups. There is medicines. The majority of the cultivators in the one household, in the income group Rs. 25 and below, higher income groups belong to the Udayar commu­ 4 in Rs. 26-50, one in Rs. 51-75 and 2 in Rs. 50 which nity and hence they can afford to get modern medical spent between Rs. 201-400 on marriages. It is surprising aid from the neighbouring villages. There is only one to note that there is only one household in the income household among cultivators and another painter group Rs. 101 and over which has spent Rs. 101-200 who save monthly Rs. 5 and Rs. 10 respectively. on marriages. One household in the income group Besides, the households have also incurred expenditure Rs. 26-50, has spent less than Rs.500. Expenditure on tobacco both for smoking and chewing, dhoby, on Marriage has reached a maximum of Rs. 1001 and barber, traveiling and amusements. Thus we find that over, in one household in the income group Rs. 51·75. 86 KADAMBANGUDI

TABLE No. XXIX Expenditure on Marriage

Expenditure Number of households with a monthly income of on Marriage Rs. 25 & below Rs.26-50 Rs.51-75 Rs.76-IOO Rs. 10 I & over

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Nil 8 69 35 8 15 Rs. SO-or less I Rs.51-100 Rs.101-200 2 2 Rs.201-400 4 2 Rs.401-600 R~. 601-800 Rs.801-1000 Rs. 1001 & over Total 10 77 39 10 26

Table No. XXX relates to expenditure on festi­ incurred debts for various purposes, a large amount vals. The expenditure on festivals, in Kadambangudi being spent on unproductive expenditure like marriages. is not as ostentatious as that on marriages, for A majority of households in the village have incurred in some cases it is almost negligible. 145 households in debts for household expenditure, house contruction, different income groups have incurred only below cultivation, etc. Rs. 51-for festivals. 17 households have not reported Debts have been incurred mostly by all the com· any expenditure on festivals, and there is only one munities except by the Hindu Parayars, Christian household in the village which has no income and Sakkiliars and many Udayar households. Even some expenditure (Dependant). Udayars have borrowed money to build houses or for household cultivation. An average villager borrows Rural Indebtedness mainly for financing the current agricultural operations Indebtedness is an important feature in the economy and the purchase of land. The percentage of loans for of a Village. Thus the nature of debt, its source and these two purposes has come to 33.6 p,er cent. the terms of repayment are important aspects for study. Marriages are the second important item for which the People in various communities in the village have rural folk take loans from money lenders. Ordinary

TABLE No. XXX Expenditure on Festivals

Expenditure on Number of households with a monthly income of FestIvals group Rs. 25 & below Rs.26-5O Rs.SI-75 Rs.76-100 Rs. 101 & over (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Nil 4 13 Below Rs. 5 6 64 39 10 26 Rs.6-10 Rs.II-20 Rs.21-30 Rs.31-4O Rs.41-50 R3.sl-100 is. 101 & over

Total 10 77 39 10 26 VILLAGE ECONOMY 87 wants form a larger percentage of debts that is about The extent of indebtedness can also be measured by 42.8 per cent. The other reasons for taking loans are ascertaining the percentage of families under debt and for repairs to and construction of houses, to buy free from debt. That is 63.1 per cent of the familie~ cattle, for confinement, education and sickness. The are indebted in Kadambangudi, the remaining 36.9 rates of interest vary from 61 per cent to 25 per cent. per cent being free from debt. Among all the com­ munities only the households that belong to Hindu The Co-operative Credit Society at Kadambangudi Parayars and Christian Sakkiliars are completely free charges 61 per cent and the village money lenders from debt. charge varying rates with a maximum of 25 per cent. The village money lenders are all Udayars. They Table No. XXXI shows the indebted proportion of discriminate between persons even in the collection of households among the people of various income levels interest, for the more well known and reliable a person in different communities. 103 out of a total of 163 is, the less is the interest charged on debts. But on the households in the village or 63.1 percent are indebted, other hand, if th~ money lender considers a debt a bad the total amount of debt being Rs. 102,440. The debt, then accordingly he increases the rate of interest. total amount of debt is largest in respect of Udayars Thus the money lenders justify this act of tbeirs as a with a total debt of Rs. 55,700j-followed by Kallars safeguard against bad debts. with Rs. 28,750/-.

Interest is generally paid in kind, the rate of On the basis of income in the Udayar community, interest being a bag of paddy for Rs. 100/-per annum, the largest amount of debt is incurred by those house­ which works out to Rs. 25 at the current value of holds which are found in the income group Rs. 101 and paddy. Nevertheless, the rates of interest should be over per mensem, although a higher percentage of debt further reduced so as to enable the debtors to repay the is incurred by households in the income group Rs. loan promptly and clear it up quickly. Further, it has 26-50. Besides the average debt is also larger in the been noted that those people who obtain loans from case of the former. The same applies to the Kallar the Co-operative Society for specific purposes like community also. But the households in debt are grea­ cultivation do not use the money for the same purpose, ter in the income group 51-75 than in other groups. The but use it for some unproductive pourpose viz., largest amount of debt. that is Rs. 1245/- in the marriage expenses and others. Thus a proper Muthiriyar community is incurred by the income group supervision of co-operative loans is absolutely essential 26-50. This is perhaps due to the fact that the per­ to ensure that the loans are used for the specific capita income of a household is smaller in the Muthiri­ purposes for which they are obtained. yar community. AmoQg Konars, 5 out of a total of 7 households are indebted, the amount of debt being The table given below shows the average debt per very small. The largest amount of Rs. 1950/- is incur­ family among the indebted in Kadambangudi. red by the households in the income group 26-50. As for the other communities the number of households that are in debt is much less in number. Among Kamma­ No. of Average debt lars 3 households have incurred a debt of only Rs. 650/­ Community families per family whereas 2 out 4 of the households in the Pandaram com­ indebted Rs. munity have incurred debts to the tune of Rs. 2500/-. Udayar 19 2931.5 Both the Reddiar households in the income group Rs. Kallar 28 1026.7 '26-50 have borrowed Rs. 800/- and in the same income Muthiriyar 17 1214.7 group the Pallars are indebted for Rs. 1300/-. Both the Konar 5 410.0 Vannan households in the village, have borrowed Rs. Kammalar 3 216.6 500/- and fall in the income group Rs. 25/- and below. Pandaram 2 1250.0 The barber household has incurred a debt of Rs. 400/-. Reddiar 2 400.0 Lingayath and Velar communities in the income group Pallar 2 650.0 Rs. 26-50 have borrowed Rs. 100/- and Rs. 1,650/­ Vannan 2 250.0 respectively. The total debt incurred by the Chettiar Ambattan 400.0 community is Rs. 3875/. The largest amount of Rs. Lingayath 100.0 1700/- in this community is shared by 3 households in Velar 1 1650.0 the income group 51-75, followed by Rs. 1,600/- by 8 Chettiar 13 281.1 households in income group Rs. 26-50. The rest is Christian Parayar 6 350.0 accounted for by one household in income group Rs. 25/- 88 KADAMBANGVDI

TABLE No. XXXI Indebtedness Average in- Total No. of Percentage debtedness Income Total for Community No. of Households of indebted indebtedness Group households in debt Households Household in debt Rs. Rs. Rs. (I) (2) (3) ("l (5) (6) (7) Udayar 25 and below 26 to 50 8 5 62.5% 4,3S() 810 51 to 75 5 3 60% 9,600 3,200 76 to 100 20% 2,000 2.0CO 101 and over 17 10 58.82% 39,750 3,975

Kallar 25 and below 2 50% 50 50 26 to 50 II 9 81.81% 4200 "66.67 51 to 15 15 12 80% 6,300 525 76 to 100 2 66.61% 6,000 3,000 10 I and over 5 4 811% 12,200 3,050

Muthiriyar 25 and below 2 50% 100 100 26 to 50 23 II 47.83% 1,245 113.18 51 to 75 II 5 45-<15% 720 144 76 to 100 101 and over

Konar 25 and below 100% 100 100 26 to SO 4 80% 1,950 487.5 51 to 75 76 to 100 101 and over

Kammalar 2S and below 26 to 50 3 2 66.67% ISO 7S 51 to 75 3 33.33% 500 500 76 to 100 10 I and over

Pandaram 25 and below 26 to SO 2 50~~ 500 500 51 to 75 76 to 100 100o~ 2.000 2,000 101 and over

Reddiar 25 and belew 26 to 50 2 2 100% 800 400 SI to 75

7~ to 100 101 and over VILLAGE ECONOMY 89

T ABLE No. ~XXI (Contd.)

( I) (2) {3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Pallar 25 and below 26 to SO 2 2 100% I.3CO 65'; 51 to 75 76 to 100 101 and over

Parayar 25 and below 26 to 50 51 to 75 76 to 100 101 and over

Vannan 25 and below 2 2 10O~~ 500 EJ 26 to 50 51 to 7S 7610 100 101 and over

Ambattan 25 and below 100o~ 400 400 26 to 50 51 to 75 76 to 100 101 and over

Lingayath 25 and below 26 to 50 100% 100 100 51 to 75 76 to 100 101 and over

Velar 25 and below 26 to SO 100% l,tSO 1,650 51 to 75 76 to 100 101 and over

Chettiar 25 and below 100% 175 175 26 to 50 8 8 100% 1,600 200 51 to 75 3 3 IOOo~ 1,700 566,6] 76 to 100 I(lO~,; 400 40'} 101 and over

Christian Parayar 2S and below 2' to SO B 625% 1,600 320 51 to 75 76 to 100 101 and over 3 33,33% SOD 5;)0

Christian Sakkiliar 25 and below 26 to 50 2 51 to 7S 76 to 100 101 and OVllr l? 90 KADAMBANGUDl and below and another in Rs. 76-100. 6 households Table No. XXXII gives a detailed analysis of indebted­ among the Christian Parayans have incurred a debt of ness and its causes. Only Kallar, Pandaram, Udayar, Rs. 2,100/- out of which the largest 'amount of Rs. Muthiriyar and Christian Parayar households have 1,6001- is incurred by 2 households in the income group incurred debts for the purchase of land. A total of 11 26-50. households have incurred a debt of Rs. 30,450 for the

TABLE No. XXXII Causes of debt

oW .0

TABLE No. xxxn (eontd.)

.... 0 .0 .... ;:l'" .0... I) .0 .... o:s I) '1;) I) 00 '1;) .... '"0 ~ .... I)O~ .... ';:J 0 o.S 01)'" .... 0 ..... SgS;.o ;:l C ~ 53 I) ;::l .0 .~ ~ '1;) I) § S 0 S:;::: o ...... c 0 S ;::l'" 0 o:s S ;::l S ::;~ ... 8 U U ~ ZcS P-;'1;)So:s (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) . Pandaram Purchase of land 1,500 1 60 Ordinary wants 1,000 2 40 Reddiar Marriages 300 1 37.5 Ordinary wants 500 2 62.5 Pallar House construction or repairs to existing building 800 1 61.54 Ordinary wants 500 2 38.46

Vannan Marriages 400 2 80 Ordinary wants 100 20 Ambattan Marriages 400 100 Lln,ayath Ordinary wants 100 100 Velar Ordinary wants 1,500 90.91 Household cultivation 150 9.09

Chettiar House construction or repairs, to exis- ting building 850 3 21.94 Marriages 300 2 7.74 Sickness 250 2 6.4~ Ordinary wants 2,225 9 57.42 Household cultivation 250 6.45

Christian Parayar Purchase of land 350 16.67 House construction or repairs, to exis- ting building 100 4.76 Marriages 200 9.52 Ordinary wants 1,050 6 0.50 Household cultivation 100 1 4.76 Education 300 1 14.28 92 RADAMBANGUDI

purchase of land. The other productive purposes for Electricity is consumed by fifteen households in the which debts have been incurred are house construction main village and it is proposed to extend it further to or repairs, household cultivation, purchase of cattle the other households in the village. There is also a and education. Debts on house construction and repairs proposal to introduce street lighting. Radio sets are and household cultivation come next to purchase of ~ possessed by those households who have electricity. land, among productive debts, in volume. Women are now taking to modern dresses like nylon, georgette, chiffon, rayon, art silk and also to toiletry. Apart from these unproductive debts like marriage, Children are sent to schools. The people in various expenses on ordinary wants and confinement are communities even go to cinemas in other places for the common for almost all the communities in the village. sake of recreation. The fact that the Sakkiliars and Hindu Parayars have not incurred any debt does not mean that they are The picture would not be complete if we fail to prosperous. The proportion of debt for ordinary wants mention the role of Pudar or the Grand Anicut to total debts is greater among Udayar, Muthiriyar, Canal constructed in 1936. This really irrigates Konar, Reddiar, Lingayath, Velar, Chettiar and the fields of the village, which results in an abundant Christian Parayan commUnItIes. The highest yield in a variety of crops, and thus increases the percentage is found among the Konar, Lingayatl: and prosperity of the village. Previously the cultivation of Velar communities which ranges from 90 to 100 percent land depended entirely on rains or the parched tanks, of the total debts incurred by the respective commu­ but now they are provided with ample water supply nities. Debts on marriage expenses have been incurred from the Pudar. The construction of the Pudar Canal by all but Konar, Pandaram, Hindu Pall an, Hindu was the harbinger of a prosperous era. According Parayan, Lingayath, Velar and Sakkiliyar commu­ to Table XXXIII, all the 129 households owning land in nities. The barber household has incurred debt the village have recognised this fact, and they have only for marriage expenses. benefitted by land reclamation and development measures. They form 79 per cent of the total households Thus taking the village as a whole, unproductive in the village. debts still form a large chunk of the total volume of debt incurred by all the communities - i.e., more than TABLE No. XXXIII 50 per cent or Rs. 59,935 out of a total debt of Rs. 1,02,440 in the village. Land reclamation and development

Indices of Prosperity Number of families Number of benefitted by land Of all the communities of Kadambangudi, the Community households reclamation and Udayars are most prosperous followed by the Kallars. owning lands development measures Most of the Udayars live in terraced and storeyed (1) (2) (3) hOllses with many rooms, and they are built of brick, rubbles, mortar, and cement. The houses that are Udayar 34 34 beillg built are of modern designs and have many rooms· Kallar 32 32 Besides, some of them are even provided with modern Muthiriyar 32 32 amenities like water pipes. A few Kallars have tiled Konar 5 5 3 houses only, and other communities not even these. Kammalar 3 Pandaram 3 3 Most of the village lands are owned by the Udayars Reddiar 2 who are big landlords in the village. They are culti­ Pallar 2 vating landlords. They are followed by Kallars in Parayar 1 this respect also. Among the land-owning households Vannan 30.5 percent belong to the Udayar community, and Ambattan 24.4 per c;:nt to the Kallars. Only the Muthiriyars are Lingayath landless, and even they seem to be trying Velar 7 to acquire lands of their own. Apart from this, the Chettiar 7 land cultivated has been progressively improved by the Christian Parayar 8 8 use of more and more chemical manures, reSUlting in a Christian Sakkiliyar better yield. Total 129 129 VlLLAGE ECONOMY 93

Table No. XXXIV shows the prosperity index of the Community Prize Bonds Insurance various communities in the village for the past lOyears. Rs. Rs. From this table we find that Reddiars, Vannans, Udayar 18 980 10,000 Kallars 15 280 2,000 Ambattans, Lingayath, Velar and Sakkiliyar commu­ Muthiriyar 2 55 nities are not prosperous. None from these Pallar 2 15 communities has cleared any debt that existed prior to Pandaram 15 10 years. Neither have they invested capital in any Parayar 1 10 building or undertaking, nor made any savings in cash, Chettiar 2 !O securities, bonds, insurance policies and so on. Konar 1 5 Christian Parayar 9 45 51 Households. 1415 (2 Households. 12,000 Rs.) Among all the communities the Udayars and Kallars are the most prosperous communities. Life insurance But the mere fact of the purchase of prize bonds by a politics have been taken by households belonging to community cannot indicate its prosperity. For instance these communities, But it is interesting to note that all the Muthiriyars who have purchased prize bonds worth Rs. 55/- are not prosperous. Most of these commu­ the communities except those shown as not prosperous nities in Kadambangudi might have purchased these have purchased prize bonds of some value. Following prize bonds only to please the village officials, who are the communities that have purchased prize were given a target which these officials were expected bonds :- to achieve or even exceed at any cost.

TABLE No. XXXIV Prosperity Index during the last 10 years Number of house­ No. of hOl1seholds which have, holds which have Total extent during the last 10 years cleared debts which of debts clea­ made any invested Community existed prior to 10 red under item acquired savings in capital in years from the (1) by all the any cash, jewels, any new un­ income of the households property insurance and dertaking or households together prize bonds building (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Udayar Lands Cash 7 households 2 households 1 household (29 acres) Houses Cash & Jewels 6 households 7 households (10 houses) Lands & houses Pri%e bondl 4 households 18 households 118 acres & (Rs. 980) 7 houses) Insurance 1 household (Rs. 1O,000j Prize bonds & Insurance 3 households (Rs, 800 & Rs.28,000) Kallar 3 Households 3 Households Lands Cash & Jewels (1000 Rupees) 8 Households 4 Households (26, acres) 94 KADAMBANGUDI

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Prize bonds 15 households (Rs. 280) Insurance 1 household (Rs.2,000) Prize bonds & Insurance 1 household (15+2,000) Provident fund I household (Rs.350)

Muthiriyar Lands Prize bonds I household 2 households (2 acres) (Rs. 55)

Konar Prize bonds 1 household (Rs. 5)

Kammalar Jewels I household

Pand.ram Lands Prizt bonds 1 household 1 household (6 acres) (Rs. 15)

Reddiar Nil

Pallar Prize bonds 2 households (Rs. 15)

Parayar House 1 household Prize bonds 1 household (Rs. lO) VILLAGE ECONOMY 95

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Vannao Nit

Ambattan Nil

Liogayath Nil

Velar Nil

Chettiar Jewels I household

Prize bonds 2 households (Rs.10)

Christian Parayar Land - Prize bonds 1 household 9 households (l acre) (Rs.45)

Christian Sakkiliar Nil CHAPTER V SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

Social and Economic Processes another of cash and yet another was theft of gold sovereign and cash. Out of the two thefts that were The social life of the villagers in Kadambangudi detected, one was convicted and the other acquitted. has shown definite trends of change. The effects of Though theft seems to be the commonest form of urban areas like Tiruchirapalli could be clearly seen crime committed in the village, it is not of a very in the village in small matters like cropping the hair, serious nature. There was one Arson case in 1961. use of shoes and slippers, toilet and in dress. The A kidnapping case ended in acquittal. Ihe trial for village is more influenced by Trichinopoly than other the hurt case was pending (in April 1962). The offence towns ofTanjore. In the absence of adequate communi­ against the Untouchability Act was taken up to the cation, the process of urbanisation is however slow. court but it ended in the acquittal of the culprits. As It is proposed to build roads linking Kadambangudi regards prohibition offenc.::s, none has been reported to other outlying areas. This if implemented will [rom 1958-62, but prior to 1958 particulars are not accelerate urbanisation. available. Cultivation forms the chief activity of the bulk of the population with weaving as subsidiary industry. Recreation and Leisure The Chettiars (Padmasaliars) who are traditional Modern recreational facilities have indeed changed weavers were depending on Master Weavers for yarn the old traditional forms of recreation in the for their handloom industry. Th.e weaving industry village. A touring theatre has been established has since been improved by making the weavers within the village limits, Sri Rajamanickam Udayar of independent by supplying them with yarn through Kadarnbangudi being one of the partners. Prior to Co-operative Societies, and then arranging for the this the people from Kadambangudi used to go to marketing of the finished products. A Co-operative touring talkies in Budalur-- 6 miles away, or even Society was formed on 25.2.63 for the we~vers of to Tiruverambur which is 7 miles to the west of the Kadambangudi. The Society has started production village. Some peopie even go to theatres in places and sales. like Tiruchirapalli, Tirukattupalli and Thanjavur but Most of the villagers are still ignorant of the recent this is only once or twice a year. There are quite a development measures. There are no social contacts number of people who are interested in dramas which between Kadambangudi and the other villages because are staged in neighbouring villages like Kachcha_ of poor communication facilities. mangalam and Koviladi. Troupes generally visit these places during festivals. As regards games the people The crime statistics for Kadambangudi village are are becoming more and more enthusiastic now-a-days. as follows' !allikattu or (chasing the Bull) is an indigenous game which is generally played only on occasions like the Nature of Crime inauguration of ploughing, during the cultivating season and Mattu Ponga1. Formerly, the villagers (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)(10)(11)(12)(13) of Kadambangudi were interested in a game played 1. Theft 2 2 with sticks called Silambam. This is an indigenous 2. Arson 1 game similar to fencing. But now these games are 3. Kidnapping played only very rarely. So is the case with cards 4. Hurt which are played only by men and 'Thayam', a kind 5. Untouchability of draughts by women. 6. Prohibition Not Available Under the Block Development Scheme a Social Among the different crimes in the village, the number Education centre was established in the village. of theft cases seem to be comparatively higher. There Formerly there was a Harijan teacher Maridas as the were 6 theft cases from 1951-1962 and cut of these convenor. At that time adult education was four thefts were undetected. One was theft of hay, taken up by the centre and all the Harijans were SOCIAL AND CULTIJRAL LIFE 97

taught how to sign their names. They were also given rats the Muthiriyars use an arrow - a long bamboo instructions on topics of public interest. Publications pole with a sharp-edged iron piece about 18 inches and periodicals of the value of Rs. 100/- per annum long is fixed at one end. This is manufactured by the are supplied by the Panchayat. The present Conve­ local blacksmith. Besides, the Muthiriyars also have nor is Mr. Subramania Udayar from the main village. special rat traps called 'Bow-rat-traps' to catch rats as Except for reading of some daily Tamil newspapers a pastime after the rains, but it becomes a profession and magazines like Ananda Vikatan, Kumudam, after the harvest season for which they are paid 12 nP. Kalki and so on, the reading habit of the villagers and per rat by the Mirasdar. These rats are then cooked even among the Udayars is poor. and the flesh eaten. They also eat winged ants called 'Easels'. The Muthiriyars are rather fond of them Apart from all these forms of recreation, the and consider them delicious. First, a pit is dug, then Muthiriyars of Valayapatti have interesting pastimes. with torch lights in one hand, and neem leaves in The Muthiriyars hunt rabbits and partridges with sticks another, they beat the ants down into the pit and the and nets. Ordinary sticks about three feet in length wings flyaway. Later all the ants are collected and with iron fixed around it are thrown when a rabbit is dried. When dry, they are fried and eaten and at sighted and correctly aimed upto ten to fifteen yards. tjmes even with spices. Rabbits are thus caught during the rainy season. These sticks are commonly called 'Kattukambu'. Besides, Table No. XXXV relates to the general activities of there is also a rabbit trap which is locally manufactured people in the village. According to the Table, out of with wire. This net is first tied about four inches a total of 163 households in the village, 22 per cent from the ground and with stick in hand the Muthiriyar or 36 households read the daily newspaper, 29 house­ chases the rabbits into these nets. When tht: rabbits holds occasionally and 7 regularly. As for social pass through the noose ring, the noose gets tightened work, there is only one member in the whole village and the rabbit is trapped. The 'Kumbarakambu' is engaged in social work, and he is in charge of the an ordinary stick sharpened at one end; used for the Social Education Centre. None of the villagers digging and tracing rabbit holes. As fOf catching takes any active part in politics.

TABLE No. XXXV Genera) Activities

No· of Households Total No. of r------.A.______·___ , Households Member or members Member or members Member or members of Reading daily of which work for of which take active which have joined newspaper SOCial uplift part in politics Co-operative Societies (I) ~ ~ ~ ~ 16] 36 56

There is a multi-purpose Co-operative Society of Christian Parayar households are in majority with 91.6 which 58 households in Kadambangudi are members. per cent followed by Udayars with 91 per cent. 89.1 These mainly comprise Udayars who form the per cent of the KaHars, 85.7 per cent of Konars, 83 majority of the population. Apart from Udayars, per cent of Muthiriyars, 7S per cent of Pandarams, there are no other communities in the village who are 71.4 per cent of Kammalars are all aware of these three economically well off so as to compete in this field. different headquarters. The location of the Police Station at Budalur (which was formerly at Tirukattu­ As seen in Table No. XXXVI the range of informa­ palli) is known to many a villager in Kadambangudi. tion for different communities is rather good. 89 per 156 out of J63 or 95.7 per cent of the heads of house­ cent or 145 heads of households out of a total of 163 holds know its exact location - that is with the households in the village belonging to Reddiar, Pallar, exception of two Udayars, three Kallars. one Muthiri­ Parayar, Vannan, Ambattan, Lingayath, Velar, yar and one Pandaram household. Except for two Chettiyar, and Christian Sakkiliar households, know the households in the whole village, that is one Udayar name of the district, taluk and panchayat headquarters. and the Qther KI\Jlar, the rest of the heads of house- 98 KADAMBANGUDI

holds l

TABLE No. XXXVI Range of Information

Number of heads of households which know the name of Total Community No. of District Taluk Panchayat Principal households Head. Head- Block Head- Police rivers of quarters quarters quarters Station the district (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Udayar 35 32 32 32 33 34 Kallar 37 33 33 33 304 36 Muthiriyar 36 30 30 30 35 36 Konar 7 6 6 6 7 Kammalar 7 5 5 5 7 7 Pandaram 4 3 3 3 3 4 Reddiar 2 2 2 2 2 2 Pallar 2 2 2 2 2 2 Parayar 1 Vannan '1 '1 2 2 '1 2 Ambattan Lingayath Velar Chettiar 13 13 13 13 13 13 Christian Parayar 12 II II II 12 12 Christian Sakkiliyar 2 2 2 '1 2 2 Total 163 145 145 145 156 161

Family Planning main village has 6 children. He is 39 years old and Family Planning as such is not known to many he is aware of family planning methods. He says although they are aware of the problem. Most of that he does not mind adopting family planning the villagers are orthodox in this respect. It does not method if it does not impair his living, but he is appear to be an acute problem in the village as most much against surgical method. His wife 30 years old of the families do not have more than three or four has no objection~. An analysis of tables No. XXXVII childr~n, On~ Chettjar h9US~hold in Ka.dambaniudj to XU feve\ll~ tp.e attitud~ of the peopl~ tOW!lfd~ family SOCIAL AND CULTU!tAL LIFE 99 planning. According to Table XXXVII, which relates sons, no sons and also those who have both sons and to the attitude of the people with reference to the daughters who want more children. Most of the house­ number of sons and daughters in a household, 57 or holds generally look forward to sons and none of them 34.97% of households in the village have stated that they is eager to beget daughters. This is most probably due want more children, whereas only 3 households having to the fact that they could have their sons to look sons and daughters do not want any more children after their ancestral property. None of the households (2 Udayars and one Kallar household). Among those in the village is aware of a family planning centre and who want more children, those who have no children 103 or 63.2 per cent of the total households in the at all, that is, 18 households, are greater in number than village are simply indifferent to family planning those who have 1-3 sons, no sons and those who have as such-thus only effective propaganda can make both sons and daughters. It should be noted that in the villagers realise the seriousness of family this village there are households who have 1-3 planning.

TABLE No. XXXVII Attitude towards family planning with reference to number of sons aud daughters

Number wanting more cblldren Number wanting no more children ,---____-A--, .A. till 'tl d OJ 01 c:I .9 rl" .E !!l~ d ...og - o:s! d 2 0 ... 0 2~'O "'0 0 .. ,d erl"CI "'0 .,'" 00- .. c. 00- ....c '" 0 .... c:I. Community eo!! 0 "''5 0 0" 0::1 0 0'" "'0. 8 .. c dB gg 8"'0... .<=: .!..~ c cB Co°Cl ",B .!..~ ::I o..c:l ~ >-e "'~ 00 ., o~ "''''.,'tl ~c~ 0>0 >011 ,,'" 1Il~ "':::= .. "c'" > >::1 rt:2 >"CI ~ >:S ~ ::I ",,,,::I ",::I ",.~ 08c 10",::1 ~,d "'.~ ~..c 1Il,d0 "'c O::,dO "'", Z<2l8 .. ,d IIl.S III'" O::'tl"'''' o::-B 0::", ... .<=: 0::.5 0::'" o::.@ o::-B :I:'tl (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9j (10) (II) (12). (13) (14) Udayar 3 2 3 2 Kallar 2 5 I Muthiriyar 1 "I 6 "2 Konar Kammalar :I Pandaranl' Reddiar Pallar Parayar VanDan 2 Ambattan Lingayath Velar Chettiar . 1 Christians Parayar 2 .. ' Sakkiliar Total IS 12 18 12 3

Table No. XXXVIII is with reference to the age of Those who db· not want any more Children, namely 3 the head of the household. This Table shows that among households are also found in the same age groups, those households that want more children, 50 heads that is 21-30 and 31-40. o(households belong to the age group 21-30 and 31-40, and only one head of the household above 50 years Taking Table No. XXXIX which relates to the attitude of age and one less than 20, want more children. of the people towards family planning with reference lOll KADAMBANGUDt

TABLE No. xxxv III Attitude towards family planning with reference to age of the head of the household

No. wanting more children, the age of the No. wanting no more children, the age of the head of household (Male) being head of household (Male) being

Community AboveSO 41-50 31-40 21-30 20 Of less above SO 41-50 31 -.40 21-30 20 01 less ( I) (2) (3) (4) (S) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) Udayar 225 Kallar 1 7 7 MUlhiriyar 4 7 Konar Kammalar Pandaram Reddiar Pallar Parayar Vannan Ambattan Llngayath Velar I Chettiar 3 Christians Parayar 3 Sakkiliar Total 5 20 30 2

TABLE No. XXXIX Attitude towards family planning with refereDce to age of the child bearing women

NO. wanting more children, the age of the No. wanting no more children, the age of the child beariDg woman beiog child bearing woman being. 4) Community "Cl 36-40 31-35 26-30 21-25 16-20 j~ 36-40 31-35 26-30 21-25 16-20 :l~! ]~ _ ...l_Ii! < ...l ... < (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) (12) (13) (14) (IS) Udayar 4 2 I Kallar S 5 4 I Mulhiriyar 2 S 4 Konar I Kammalar 2 Pandaram Reddiar pallar Parayar Van nan 2 Ambaltan LitJgayath Velar Chetliar 3 Cbtistians Parayar 4 sakkillar I Total 3 5 ., 24 17 2 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 101 to the age of the child· bearing woman, 41 women are According to Table No. XL which reveals the attitude in the age groups 16·20 and 21·25, and want more of the people towards family planning with reference children. Besides there are 7 women in the age group to the duration of marriage, there are, among those who 26·30, 5 in the age group 31·35, 3 in age group 36·40, prefer to have more children, 23 who fall in the group and one in age group above 40 who want more 6-10 years duration, 19 .in 5 years or less, 8 in 11·15 children. But the number of women wanting more years, 6 in 16-20 years and one in over 20 years. children gradually falls in the higher age groups of Among those who want more children, that is 26-30 to 40 and above. on the basis of duration of marriage, the Kallar Udayar and Kallar women constitute the total community is leading, then both Muthiriyars and number of child·bearing women who do not want any Udayars followed by other communities. Those that more children. They are found in the age groups state that they do not want any more children are found 26-30, and 21-25 i.e. One Udayar woman in age group in the group (duration of marriage) 6-10 years and 21·25 and another in the group 26·30. There is also 11-15 years. Thus on general perusal of the table we one Kallar woman in age group 26-30 who does not come to the conclusion that as the duration of marriage want any more children. All the Pallar and Parayar increases, the desire to have more childeren gradually women are totally indifferent to child-bearing and family planning. falls.

TABLE No. XL Attitude towar's family planning with reference to duration of marriage

No. wanting more children, duration of No. wanting no more children duration of marriage being marriage being .--____.A- ______• ,-.______.A- ____ Community Over 20 16-20 11·15 6-10 5 or Jess Over 16·20 11-15 6-10 5 or less years years years years years 20 years years years years year. (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (II) Udayar 4 2 2 Kallar 3 6 5 Muthirayar 3 5 4 KOllar Kammalar 2 Pandaram Reddiar Pallar Parayar Vannan Ambattan Lingayath Velar Chettiar 2 Christians ParaYiIl 3 Sakkiliar Tolal 6 B 23 19 2 102 KADAMBANGtiDl

Income is another factor which would influence the Kallars with 4 households. Besides there are 13 house· attitude of the people towards Family Planning. holds in income group 51·75, 9 in income group 101 According to Table XLI we find a larger number and over, 3 each in the groups, 76·100 and 25 or less, of households in the lower income groups. Thus who state that they want more children. Among those it is surprising to note that as many as 29 in the income group Rs. 101 and above who want more how,eholds who want more children have only a children there are 6 Udayar families. Among those marginal income which would mean that they would be who do not want more children, there is one household denied most of the necessities of life. In this group, in the monthly income group of 76·100 and two in the Muthiriyars lead with 9 households followed by the income group Rs.51·75.

TABLE No. XLI Attitude towards family planning witb reference to monthly income

No. wanting more children. having No. wanting no more children having monthly income of monthly income of Community r--- r- ..A...... Rs.IOI& Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.15 Rs. 101 Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs.1S above 76.100 51.75 26-50 or less & above 76-1(10 51-75 26.50 or less (I) (2) (3) ,4) (S) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) Udayar 6 I KaBat 2 7 , Muthiriyar 3 , KODar Kammalar Pandaram Reddiar Pallar Parayar Vannan 2 ArribattaD 1 LIn'ga,ath I Velar I Chettiar .. Chriatialls Parayar 2 1 Sakkiliyar 1 Total 9 3 13 29 3 :z

Regarding the Panchayat's work in the field of have been carried out in the village. Only one individual Family Planning not much progress is achieved inspite has been canvassed by the Panchayat union. of the.fact that propaganda has been carried on by the union. The Gramasevaks during their periodical Awareness of changes in Hindu laws of succession & visits to the village instruct the villagers in this regard. Adoption As there is no family planning clinic in the village, None of the households in the village is aware of the those interested have to go all the way to the Govern­ changes in the Hindu Laws of Succession and Adoption. ment Hospital at Thanjavur for which Rs. 10/- is given This is inspite of the fact that all the households in the by the Panchayat union to each individual for con­ village with the exception of 12 Christian Parayar and veyance and other expenses to and fro, and Rs. 30/· on 2 Cbristian SakkiIiar households are Hindus. This is completion of the operation. But so far no operations most probably because all the Bindu households in the SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 103

village still resort to their age old practice of inheritance mented. For instances levying of taxes on houses, of property whether ancestral or acquired only through vehicles and shops, installation of a radio for the sons and not through daughters. Panchayat, opening of a school in Kadambangudi main village, the construction of a bridge across the Pudar in Inter-Caste Marriages Thondampatti, and the entrustment of collection of The people of Kadambangudi belonging to different revenue to village officials were implemented. The communities have all r<:turned that inter-caste marriages resolutions yet to be implemented are on street-lighting, are neither permissible nor desirable. Each community digging a tube well in Thondampatti hamlet, construc­ in the village preserves their own traditions and tion of an overhead tank in Kadambangudi main customs. Inter caste marriages are not permitted village, and construction of a drainage system. among all the castes. The Scheduled Castes found in the village, are the Parayars, Pallars, Sakkiliars and There is no building for the Panchayat office at Pandarams. The Scheduled Castes in this village do Kadambangudi and the office is located in the Presi­ not mingle with the so-called high communities· Caste dent's house. All the meetings are conducted in his is found still preserved intact in Kadambangudi. house or in the Subramaniaswami koil in Kadamban­ gudi main village. Contravention of Marriage Rules There has been no contravention of marriage rules Taxes are levied on houses, vehicles and shops. in the different communities of Kadam bangudi village. Following are the rates of taxes: house-tax at nP. 25 per Rs. 100 worth of house property, vehicles tax Rs. 1.62 Level of social awareness per item and professional tax at Re. 1/- for every Rs. 308/- income. These amounts are charged in periods of A sure sign of social awareness is that the villagers are fully aware of the Community Development 6 months only. The revenues for Kadambangudi village Programmes sponsored by the Panchayat Union. for the year 1960-61 are given below; Though resolutions have been passed by the Panchayat Rs. 467.50 on the subject, the people lack initiative and do not House tax give whole-hearted cooperation for the implementation Vehicles tax Rs. 72.50 of improvement schemes. Thus the villagers rely more Professional tax Rs. 2.00 on Government help than on their initiative to improve their lot. Surcharge on stamp for quarter ending 30·6-61 Rs. 481.00 Village Institutions For quarter ending 30-9-61 Rs. 316.09 Kadambangudi village has a statutory Panchayat of Matching grant on house tax for its own. The Panchayat started on 9-9-62. Sri. Narayana­ half year Rs. 450.00 swami Malayar, a Kallar of Thondampatti hamlet, was elected as President. Mr. Pichayya Udayar was elected Local cess for 1370 Fasli Rs. 138.00 as Vice-President. Besides, there were 6 members out Additional surcharge Rs. 166.CO of which one was a woman that is Mrs. Rajambal, the wife of Mr. Subramanian, a member of the Panchayat The limd revenue collected is given to the Panchayat. Board. All these members were elected through adult The villagers are generally well disposed towards the suffrage. Panchayat Raj. However some of tbe defects are glaring. The Udayars and Kallars have the majority The distribution of Panchayat members according in the Panchayat. This is inspite of the fact that the to community is given below ;- Muthiriyars lead in number; but they are not economi­ cally well off. Of all the three hamlets, Valayapatti Udayar --- 3 (including one female) hamlet, exclusively inhabited by the Muthiriyars, is the Kallar I most neglected one as no improvement whatsoever has Pallar been affected so far in this hamlet. Another important Muthiriyar point to note is that though sanction was given for that Panchayat in 1960, it started effective work from 1962 The Minute Book of the Panchayat Board contains only i.e. after the Panchayat Union was formed. some worthwhile resolutions; most of them are still only Political parties do play a part in the Panchayat; but ~m paper. Some (_)f the resolutions passed w~r~ impli- 9a§te di~tinctions are <;lecisive durin ~ the elections, 104 KADAMBANGUDI

Statement Showing the Receipt and Cbarges of Kadambangudi Pancbayat for the Year 1962~-1963

Receipt Charges Sl. No. Particulars Amount SI. No. Particulars Amount Rs. nP. Rs. nP. 1. House Tax 1,254.63 1. Clerk's Pay 180.00 2. Stamp Duty 1,216.23 2. Lighting 2,042.22 3. House Tax-Matching Grant 691.00 3. Radio 422.37 4. Vehicle 165.10 4. Contingencies 91.05 5. Profession Tax 5.00 5. Tools & Plants 265.30 6. Library Cess 26.07 6. Independence & Republic Days 42.99 7. Midday meals 40.80 Receipts 3,617.98 Charges 3,084.73 Opening Balance 1,676.39 Closing Balance 2,209.64 Total 5,294.37 Total 5,294.37

Table No. XLII relates to the existence and attitude are socially more numerous and economically more of the different castes towards caste panchayat in powerful than the other communities, yet they are Kadambangudi. Only three communities, namely the not aware of the existence of a panchayat. Of the Udayars, Muthiriyars and Christian Parayars have 37 Kallar households, 51 per cent or 19 households caste panchayats. Among the Udayars only 14 house­ are aware of caste panchayats in Kadambangudi. holds out of a total of 35 or 40 per cent are aware of This i~ rather surprising as the Kallars do not have a the existence of a caste panchayat. This does not give caste panchayat of their own and yet are fully aware a very good picture of the Udayars. Even though they of other caste panchayats in the village.

TABLE No. XLII Caste Panchayat - Existence & attitude No. according to whom caste panchayat exists for Total No. according to Community No. of whom caste/tribe/ house- Udayar Muthiriyar Parayar community panchayat holds should exist (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Udayar 3S 14 14 14 10 Kallar 37 19 19 19 14 Muthiriyar 36 Konar 7 4 4 4 .. Kammalar 7 2 2 2 2 Pandaram 4 Reddiar 2 Pallar 2 2 2 2 Parayar Vannan 2 Ambattan Lingayatb 1 Velar 1 Chettiar 13 3 3 3 Christians Parayar 12 II II II 9 Sakkili~ar 2 2 2 2 2 Total 16~ 5? 5? 5~ .. 7 SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 105

Though Muthiriyars have a caste panchayat of their the village than any other community. As regards the own, they are not aware of their own panchayat other communities namely Pandaram, Reddiar, nor are they aware of the other caste pan­ Vannan, Lingayath and Velar, hou5eholds are not chayats that exist 111 the village. This is aware of tht: cxistt:nce of a caste panchayat in the not a strange feature as the Muthiriyar caste village. panchayat is defunct now and ceased functioning years ago. It is important to note that the Muthiri­ Now for the attitllde of different communilies in yars live in a world of their own and are least the village toward~ caste panchayal~. among Udayars interested in other communities. 10 out of 35 households i.e. 2R pcr cent still advocate the continuance 01':1 pal1cIJayai. Similarly 1,7 pcr cellt As far a<. the other communities are concerned 4 out of tile Kallars wanl ca~tl.' pallcl\av:lts, :Iltholl!'h they of 7 Konar householus, 2 out of 7 Kammalar hOLlse­ do not have ca~tc p:lll<.:hayal<; (II' Iheir own :It present. holds, 2 Hindu Pallan hou:.eholds, OIlC Hindu Parayar. Regarding the other coml11ullilie,. I'our Kllilars, two one Am hattan, three Chetti,tr and two Christian Kammalars, one each of Pallar, Hindu Parayar and Sakkiliar household" arc aware of this fact, namely the Ambattan, three Chettiars, nine Christian Parayars existence of caste p:lnchayats for the thre.: commu, :lI1d 2 Christian Sakkiliar households desire the exis­ nities in the village. 91 per cent of the Christian tence of caste panchayats in the village. Whereas the Parayars that is II out of the 12 households know Muthiriyars are indifferent toward.~ it, the Panda­ about it. This clearly indicates that among all the ram, Reddiar, Vannan, Lingayath and Velar' house­ communities in the village the Christian Parayars arc hold~ are either indifferent towards caste panchayats more conscious of the social divisio.ls and customs in or do not want them at all.

TADL[ No. XLIII

Functions of Caste Panchayat

No. according to whom functions of caste/community panchayat are Community No. of households ,------"------, To preserve caste unjt~ To regulate and to settle disputes the community (I) (2) (3) (4)

Udayar 35 14 Kallar 37 18 MuthiriY.lr 36 Konar 7 4 Kammalar 7 2 Pandaram 4 Reddiar 2 Pallar 2 2 Parayar I Van nan 1 Ambattan Lingayath Velar

Chettiar 13 Christians Parayar 12 II

Sakkiliyar 2 2 \_, Total 163 S8 14 106 KADAMBANGUDI

Table No. XLIV deals with functions of the caste pan­ and Velar who are still not aware of the principal chayats in the village. Out of a total of 163 households functions of the caste panchayats. The attitude of in Kadamb:mgudi, 59 of them have stated that they these communities towards caste panchayats is signi­ know the functions of the caste panchayats. This ficant for the future, as only with the disappearance works out to 36.2 per cent of the households in the of these caste panchayats social intercourse and fusion village. The functions described by these households between communities will prevail in Kadambangudi. of the caste panchayats for three different communities namely the Udayar, Muthiriyar and Christian Parayar Village Panchayat are to preserve caste unity and to settle disputes and secondly to regulate the community. One of the According to Table XLIV 98 per cent or 159 house­ principal functions of any caste panchayat is to holds out of a total of 163 households in the village were preserve caste unity and to settle disputes according to in a position to tell the period of the existence of the 58 informants. One Kallar household has stated that Panchayat correctly. Among the Udayar community one of the functions of the caste panchayat is to regu­ all the households know it as the Udayars dominate late the community. According to communities all the the Panchayat. All the households in these communities, Pallars, Hindu Parayars, Ambattan 3nd~Christian Sakki­ namely the Konars, Kammalars, Pandarams, Reddiars, liar households, 40 per cent of the Udayars, 51 per cent of Pallars, Parayars, Vannans. Ambattan, Lingayath, Velar, the Kallars, 57.1 percent of the Konars, 28.5 per cent of Chettiar, Christian Parayars and Christian Sakkiliars the Kammalars, 23 per cent of the Chettiars and 91 know the period of existence of the Panchayat. As per cent of the Christian Parayar households are all regards the communities represented in the Panchayat, aware of the principal functions of the caste panchayats all the households among Udayars, Kallars (except 3 in the village. Yet there are many households in the households) Muthiriyars except one household and all different communities of Kadambangudi like the Pallar households are able to tell the period of existence Muthiriars, Pandaram, Reddiar. Vannan, Lingayath of the Panchayat correctly.

TABLE No. XLIV Information about Main Functions of Panchayat

Remarks including No. that could tell the No. that could describe note on the functions Community No. of households period of existence of the main functions of of tbe panchayats Panchayat correctly the pancha)at set up accNding to Statute (I) (2' (3) (4) (5) Udayar 35 35 31 Kallar 37 34 33 Muthiriyar 36 35 31 Konar 7 7 7 Kammalar 7 7 6 Pandaram 4 4 4 Reddiar 2 2 2 Pallar 2 2 2 Parayar J Van nan 2 2 2 Ambattan I 1 Linga~ath 1 Velar I I Chettiar 13 13 12

Christians Parayar 12 12 I() Sakkiliyar 2 2 2

Total 163 159 ;'1C SOCIAL AND CULTIJRAL LIFb 107

Among the 159 households that could tell the period able to describe the main functions of the Panchayat of existence of the Panchayat correctly 146 of them correctly. We thus conclude that the villagers of were able to describe its main functions. This works Kadambangudi are well - informed as regards the main out to 92 per cent. All the households among Konars, functions of the Panchayat and its period of existence. Pandarams, Reddiars, Parayar, Vannan, Ambattan, Velar and Christian SakkiIiar households are able to Table No. XLV indicates the opinion of different describe the main functions of the Panchayat, whereas communities in Kadambangudi with regard to the only 88 per cent of the Udayars, 97 per cent of the improvements through Panchayats. All the 163 house­ Kallar, 88 per cent of the Muthiriyars, 85 per cent of holds in the village are of the opinion that there has Kammalars, 92.3 per cent of the Chettiars and 83.3 been neither improvement nor harm since the establish­ per cent of the Christian Parayar households are ment of the statutory Panchayat.

TABLE No. XLV Opinion about Improvement through Panchayats

No. according to whom No. according to whom after establishment of after establishment of No· according to Community 1'>0. of households statutory panchayat statutory panchayat whom there has been there has been there has been lJeither improve­ Improvement Harm ment nor harm

( I) (2) (3) (04) (5) Udayar 35 35 Kallar 37 37 Muthiriyar 36 36 Konar 7 7 Kammalar 7 7 Panda ram of

Christians Parayar 12 12 Sakkiliar 2 2 Total 163 163

It must be remembered that statutory Panchayat in Block. Kadambangudi is part of the Budalur Panchayat Kadambangudi after remaining dormant for a period Union. Improvements in the field of agriculture, of two years since its inception began effective work c,attle, poultry and social education have definitely only in 1962. Besides, the many resolutions that were been introduced in the village. Yet none of the house­ passed at successive meetings have not yet been imple­ holds have indicated that they were benefited by the mented. Their actual implementation is far from Block Development. Probably this must be due to the satisfactory. fact that the villagers have not responded in a proper manner to the development activities in the village, or Table No. XLVI shows that 92 per cent or 150 out the liason work between the villagers and the Block of 163 households are aware of the existence of N.B.S. officials is not effective. IPS KADAMBANGUO'I

'fAlln. No. XLVi N. E. S. Blocks -- Nature of Benefit

No. aware of No. benefited in the manner No. of existence of No. benefited as below Remarks Community households N. E. S. by N.E.S. Block Block Describe Describe (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Udayar 35 34 Kallar 37 34 Muthiriyar 36 33 Konar 7 7 Kammalar 7 6 I'iindaralll 4 3

Rcdd III [ 2 2 Pallar 2 2 Parayar I Yannan 2 2 Ambattan Lingayath Velar Chcttiar 13 12 Christians I'Mayar 12 10 Sakkiliar 2 rotal 163 150

[t IS rather ,trallge 10 1l0l<.; tbat none met by the Panchayat Union. Fertilizerb have been or the hOllscholcb ill Kauamhanguui is aware supplied through the Cooperative Society at- Kadam­ Ill' (he JlIllctions or the Grama\c\,:J];. The duly bangudi. Thc village was not included in the Package of the GramasevaJ.-. io to pt:riodically visit the village. Programme in 1961-62 but ha<; been included during ~o that he could keep in tOllch with thc villagers, 1962-63. 55 acres of land had been brought under the know their needs and difticulties and thtn try (0 alle­ Japanese method of paddy cultivation. Improved viate them through his department. Actually the seedlings like Mango (60 nos.) Guava (4), lemon (5) Grama Sevak visits the villa)!e rarely. and Coconut (10) have also been ~upplied at half cO~l by the Panchayat Union. Improved Paddy seeds have Block Development also been introduced into the village, which are indi­ Kadambangudi Panchayat was formed on 27.7.60, cated below: a constituent of the Budaillf Panchayat Union. I. ADT-20-Very popular (180 al;res) The Panchayat Union has effected some improvements 2. CO 25-10 acres in the village so far, and other, have been planneu for 3. ADT -8-10 acres the near future. 4. CO-30 -20 acres

Improvements in the held of agriculture have been Besides, Sesbania, a border plant, has been planted in carried 011 in the village by supplying agricultural 59 acres of paddy fields. implements like Rotary weeder or intercultivator. Rurme~(' S:litoon or in~truJ11ent to press leave~. has been Package Programme giwn tll [1\(1 persons and Bose plough, have heeB given ;\ recent develop1l1~nt of the Block Development to six. per,ons at half.cost the other half being scheme at Budalur is the tA.D.P. (Intensive Agricul- SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 109

tural District Programme) or Package Programme The Package Programme envisages both technical which was introduced in the Budalur Block in 1961-62 guidance and timely credit and supplies to the ryots. and in the village Kadambangudi in 1962-63. Under Technical guidance, assessment of credit and agricultural this scheme a village is selected in each block which requisites are given in the farm plans prepared by the does not have natural barriers of any kind, and is Grama Sevak by contacting the ryot in person. The ideally suited for the cultivation of crops. Hence Grama Sevak gets his guidance from the Extension Kadambangudi was chosen under the Block. In the Officer (Agriculture) and Extension Officer (Co-oper­ first instance 30 per cent of the village lands were taken ation), the former being responsible for the technical by tbe LA. D.P., and subsequently year after year it field guidance and the latter for the timely credit was increased by 10 per cent. In 1962-63 it was and supplies of agricultural requisites such as increased to 50 per cent, and in the current year to 75 fertilizers etc. per cent, and it is boped, that in the year 1964, 100 per cent of the lands would come under this scheme. The This scheme is generally welcomed by the ryots for agricultural improvements effected under the LA.D.P. the following reasons:- for the year 1962-63 are as follows: Acres Cellts 1. Formerly only a handful of persons took Tractor ploughing of wet advantage of the credit provided by the M.P.C.S. and lands with LA. D.P. tractor 15 00 also the technical guidance given by the Agricultural Pesticides used by ryots JKG 505 Department. Now as individual ryots are contacted Bose ploughs given 7 and as their credit requirements and agricultural Iron ploughs 2 requisites are individually assessed, a larger number of Burmese sattoon 4 the people get their credit requirements and supplies met at their very doors by the M.P.C.S. more often in In the year 1962-63, 68 Farm Plans were prepared time. The M.P.C.S. which is a ratailer for sales and under this scheme, and Rs. 22,000/- was distributed as chemical fertilizers not only caters to the needs of those loan to the pattadars for cultivation of crops. For who take credit but also to those who pay cash. the current year 1963-64 up to 31-10-63, 88 Farm Plans were prepared and Rs. 16,207/- was given in the form 2. Protcding the crops again~t pests and diseases of loans to 186 pattadars. Under the Intensive was not known to many of the ryots previously. Now Agricultural District Programme or the Package plant protection measures are adopted widely. Scheme every pattadar is expected to become a member of the Multi-purpose Cooperative Credit Society in the 3. Advantage~ of using improved implements and village. There are 141 members on roll in the agricultural practice, are known to the ryots. As a Kadambangudi Multi-purpose Co-operative Credit result there has been a good response for adopting Society which shows that there are more than two improved methods and also in the purcbase of improved pattadars in some of the cultivating households. The ploughs, Burme&e Sattoon. A tractor under I.A.D.P. total paid up share capital of the Society is Rs. 2, 127/­ Scheme is also readily made available to the ryots for Thus with the grant of loall~, supply of agricultural ploughing the wet lands. implements, fertilisers and pesticides by the LA.D.P. it is hoped that the fields of Kadmbangudi would give 4. Generally there i~ a desire on the part of the out its maximulll yield. people to get more yield per acre of land, and the agricultural improvements under the programme will The off-take of chemical fertilisers after the introduc­ enable them to secure more yield per acre. tion of the l.A.D.P. in the village during the years 1962-63 and 1963-64 are as follows: However complaints are also heard that in a few Year cases credit and supplies are not readily made available 1962-63 in time. The Cooperative Society Office bearers some­ T Kgs. times help only those in whom they are interested. Ammonium Sulphate 66 872.25 Village factions disturb the timely supplies and Super phosphate 73 330 provision of timely credit. As the institution is a 1963-64 purely non-official agency, strict control by officials is Ammonium Sulphate 30 453.5 considered as interference. However every year the Super phosphate 42 426 conditions are getting better. 110 KADAMBANGUDI No improvement, to cattle have so far been effected,. women of the village. The Convenor is paid an Applications for improved breeds have been made honorarium of Rs. 5/- to conduct 8 meetings in a by some villagers and these are being considered. The month. These meetings generally comprise literacy people of Kadambangudi, however, try to improve classes during which magazines are read, cooking br~eds on their own. Veterinary assistance is given classes are conducted, instructions are given in child only periodically, that is, at least once in six months welfare, health, sanitation and modern methods of as the nearest Veterinary Hospital is at Thanjavur. dressing. This Madhar Sangam also organises Baby Crossbreeding from Poondi is resorted, but not Shows for which prizes are given for the best baby, artificial insemination. To improve the local buffalo dramas and even educational tours for the women. breed, Suruttai breed is mated with local cows. For Further they distribute first aid boxes and sewing cows, Kangayam, breed is mated to get an improved machines. But there is a Women's Welfare Committee breed. No improvement in poultry has been made in in each Panchayat and Kadambangudi is one of them. Kadambangudi. Fifteen white leghorns have been The Women's Welfare Committee was formed in 1962 exchanged in Marneri, a neighbouring village. in Kadambangudi. A road from Solagampatti station to Marneri (via) Solagampatti village has been planned Social Education at an estimated cost of Rs. 16,000. From Marneri there is a village road to Kadambangudi. Another On 7-11·61 a Social Education Centre was opened road from So!agampatti to Marneri (via) Ponvi1ain­ for the Harijans. The Centre is housed in a rent free than patti and Kadambangudi has been planned at an thatched building. There are 29 members out of which estimated cost of Rs. 20,500. This will be an extension 20 have been taught to sign both in English and of the village road already existing from Solagampatti Tamil. The working hours for the Centre is from station to Indalur. Besides a draw well at a cost of 7 p.m. to 9 p.m. There is a convener for the Centre Rs. 1,430/- has been planned. Apart from this, the and a grant of Rs. 50/- is made available from union Union has also construction programmes for the funds per annum to purchase magazines. Dinamani, scbool building, a culvert and an overhead tank in Ananda Vikatan, Grama Nalam and Mezhi Chelvam Kadambangudi. are received in tbe Centre.

Apart from the otber improvements the Block Co-operative Societies Development Officer at Budalur has also organised a The Parayars of the village were the first to become village Welfare Committee in Kadambangudi main aware of the principles of Co-operation. They started village. It comprises six members of whom 5 persons a Farm Labourer's Co-operative Society as early as belong to the Udayar community and one to the 1927 with unlimited liability. The office bearers for Kallar community. This' sort of Panchayat was in­ the society were all Parayars. But the society remains troduced mainly to give the villager~ the incentive to dormant now with only Rs. 50/- as funds. This Society work for the social uplift of the village as a whole, was first introduced with the main purpose of financi­ and make them realise their own responsibilities in ally helping the agricultural labourers. The Society this connection. The Village Welfare Committee is dormant now most probably because of the hostility advances loans to the villagers when required and of the land-lords. especially to the Padmasaliar community who require cash for the upkeep and improvement of the weaving A Multi-purpose Cooperative Society was inaugu­ industry. rated in Kadambangudi on 27-9-59. Sri M. Pichayya Udayar is the President and Sri C. Muthukumaraswamy Women's Welfare Udayar is the Vice-President. This Society has a Another important organisation of the Block Panchayat consisting of three members. All of them are Development at Budalur, which would be mentioned Udayars of which onc is the Village MllllSiif of Kad­ here, is the organisation of a Madhar Sangam or ambangudi. This Society when it first started had 41 Women's Organisation in each Panchayat of the Block, members. At present it has 141 members. but this is yet to be introduced in Kadambangudi village. The main idea of this Madhar Sangam is to The total share capital of the Society amounts to promote women's education in the village. This Rs. 1,119.96 including membership fee. So far loans organisation is under the guidance of a Mukiyasevaki amounting to Rs. 9,500 have been disbursed to 44 and two Grama Sevakis who in turn instruct the persons and the entire amollnt recovered from the SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE III

debtors. At present, there are applications for fresh Table XLVII shows the number of households as loans amounting to Rs. 20,000. The Society is a members of the Multi-purpose Cooperative Society of constituent of the Cooperative Central Bank, Tanjavur. Kadambangudi in 1961. Only 31 per cent that is 52 house holds out of a total of 163 households in the The castewise mem bership of the Society is as village are members of the Society. follows: Temples and Churches 1. Udayars 52 In Kadambangudi village, five temples are found, 20 2. Kallar two are situated in Thondampatti hamlet and are 3. Chettiar 14 named after Padaithalicha Amman and Ganesan. The 4. Asari 6 other three are Kamakshi Amman Temple, Sangili 5. Konar 5 Karuppa Temple and Subramania Temple located in 6. Pandaram 3 the main village, whereas the third hamlet Valayapatti 7. PaUar 2 has no temple at all. The Paracheri in the main village has a Roman Catholic church. 8. Muthiriyar 2 9. Ambattan 2 As Valayapatti hamlet is exclusively inhabited by the 10. Van nan Muthiriyars as they do not have a temple of 11. Reddiar their own, they worship Mariayee in the form of two 12· Lingayath Chembu, Thoobakkal and Tambazham under a tree. ~ot even a shed is provided for this Goddess. The 13. Velar Muthiriyars in this hamlet celebrate "Panguni Uthiram" Although the Society is known as a Multi-purpose a festival ih honour of marriage. This festival is Society, it is in reality a single purpose one namely celebrated on three consecutive days. On the first day, for grant of loans. Further in this Society the Udayars a 'Kavadi' is carried by a few people. A puja is form a majority. So naturally even business is mono­ performed on the second day, in which food is cooked polised by the Udayars which the other communities and offered to the Goddesses along with coconuts. resent. A Mavilakku i.e rice flour mixed with jaggery is made

TABLE No. XLVII Co-operative Society Number that have not become members because of Name of No. of r------__'___ ..A. Community Co-operative mem- Not No No needs Not Cannot be a Reason not Society bers necessary lands interested member stated Udayar Multipurpose 24 8 2 co-operative society Kallar 4 17 5 3 8 Muthiriyar 2 15 9 7 Konar I 4 2 2 Kammalar 2 3 2 Pandaram 2 I Reddiar 2 Pallar 2 Parayar Vannan '. 2 Ambattan Lingayath Velar I Chettiar 10 2 Christians Parayar 2 8 I Sakkiliyar 2 Tota) 52 S9 15 16 2 18 112 KADAMBANGUDI into a ball, the top is hollowed out and ghee is poured temples that is Sangilikaruppan and Kamakshi are on into it. A wick is then placed in it and lit, a small the southern bank of Ananda Cauvery and Subramani­ slice of which is distributed afterwards to every an temple is in the heart of the main village. There is household in Valayapatti hamlet. On the third day, a horse in SangiIi temple. Pujas are conducted in all people visit the temple of the Goddess in Ambalur the temples every Friday by the Poosari, a Velar which is about 3 miles to the north of Valayapatti. (potter) from the main village. Apart from these. the Udayars also worship Gods in other places. These are In addition to this, the Mnthiriyarg worship also called Kaniyachi Koil or ancestral temples. The Padaithalicha Amman which is a deity of Thondampatti Udayars had come down to Kadambangudi village hamlet. Adi 18th is a festive occasion in all the three from three different places namely Ariyalur, Kurinjip­ hamlets of Kadambangudi. It is on this day, that adi and Sangenthi, in Tiruchirapalli district and hence sacrifices of goats, sheep and poultry are made. Only thcy go ,?n pilgrimages to these places either once a Kallars cut the animals, the heads are given to the year or once in two of three years. In Ariyalur Poosari who performs pujas in the temple. This we have the PerumaJ, Uppilatha Amman and poosari comes from Indalur and belongs to the Velar Sallgilikaruppan temples and Pechiayee temple community. Pujas are performed by the poosari twice in Kurinjipadi and Sangilikaruppan temple in daily during the month of Margazhi, Karthigai and Sangenthi. Thai. Otherwise, pujas are performed only occasion­ ally. Steps are being taken to renovate the temple of The people of the village generally get together once Padaithalichamman for which a sum' of Rs. 1500 has in two or four years for a common festival in the been spent and the Kumbabhishekam done in the Tamil month of Vaikasi. The total expenditure which amounts month of Adi in 1962. The villagers of Kadambangudi to Rs. 300 approximately is shared by all the house­ also visit the temples in other places. Muthiriyars go holds in the main village. Loudspeakers and decor­ to Srirangam and Palni and to Kaliaperumalswami Koil ations are found everywhere during this time. This which is near Jeyangondacholapuram in Tiruchirapalli festival is common for all the communities in the main district, and Vathanapettai Perambur which is near village; sacrifice is offered to Sangilikaruppan. Any Pudukkottai in Tiruchi district. These are supposed man is permitted to cut the goats or poultry and the to have been places of worship of the ancestors of the meat will be shared by all the households in the Muthiriyar community. village. The Kallars worship Padaithalichamman in Thondampatti. They also visit the Mariamman temple There is a Catholic church in Paracheri in Kadamban­ at Anbil, in Lalgudi taluk of Tiruchi district and gudi main village. It is dedicated to St. Xavier. This Srirangam during· the month of Chitrai. Their church was constructed by the local people in 1939-40. communal deities which are said to have been wor­ It is mud walled with mangalore tiled roof. Prior to shipped by their ancestors are found in Kolathur taluk the construction of this building there was a thatched of Tiruchi district. The Kallars also worship Ganesan hut, to the north of the present building, which was in Thondampatti hamlet. washed away in the floods in the early twenties of the Even the Konars worship Padaithalicha Amman and Century. The cost of the new church was approxi­ other deities in the village. Occasionally they go to mately Rs. 600. Inside the church there were images Srirangam temple and get their heads shaved. Besides of saints Antony, Xavier, and Jesus Christ. There they worship Adiyai (Ayyanar). They also go on was also a round bronze bell. A Catholic priest comes pilgrimages to Kaliaperumal temple at Kallakurichi, occasionally from a church in Muthandipatti which is Mariamman Koil at Anbil, and Adiyar Temple at about seven miles to the south east of Kadambangudi. Neiveli in Tiruchirapalli district. The Chettiars or TIle Catholics also go to churches in the neighbouring Padmasaliars of Kadambangudi worship the local villages like Marneri and Megalathur to attend mass deities. Once in three or four years, they visit the and receive holy communion. Besides these people go temples at Srirangam and Anbil, Angayee temple at to churches at Velanganni (Arokiamatha), Manga­ Karnanoor in Musiri taluk of Tiruchi district and also nalluI' (St. Sebastian) and Nariappanur (St. Anthony) Karuppanaswami temple at Ethumalai which is north for "Netthikkadan" (vows) and special prayers. of Samayapuram in Tiruchi district. The villagers are religious-minded and the people are The Udayars worship in three temples namely, keen on religious observances and going on pilgrimages Sangilikaruppan, Kamakshi and Subramanian. Two to various churches and temples, This is Lord Subramania's temple found in the heart of the main village.

Vinayagar temple in Kadambangudi main village. A view of the Roman Catholic church in Paracheri of Kadambangudi main village. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE 113

Festivals prdperty. Many brave young men still come forward The villagers celebrate all the important religious to participate in this sport. festivals with pomp and show. Both Hindus and Adi 18th heralds the cultivating season in the village. Christian have their own festivals which they celebrate It is a great day for the cultivators for it is 011 this day in different parts of the year. The Hindus celebrate that fresh water will come gushing into the Pudur and important festivals such as Deepavali, Ayudha Puja, the Vennar. The people take a bath in this water. Pongal, Mattupongal, Adi 18th, Tamil New Year This is a day of great rejoicing as it is this water that Day and Sivaratri. The Christians celebrate important would enable them to fill their granaries with paddy. festivals like Christmas, New Year and Easter. The agricultural operations begin with Adi 18th. Deepavali begins with the wearing of new clothes after their customary oil bath, and amidst the fury Sivarathri is another important. festival which is celebrated by all the Hindu communities in the village. of fire crackers. It is a festival of great mirth especial1y for children. A variety of sweetmeats are This festival is celerbated with a doll show and iecora­ prepared and after offering to God they are eaten. tions, and is specially celebrated by the Udayars. Besides houses are even white-washed and decorated Christians celebrate Christmas, New Year and Easter with Kolam. apart from other feast days of saints which they Another important festival celebrated among Hindus remember, and pray to the saints. Christmas is the is Ayudha Puja. This festival is celebrated particularly birth day of Jesus Christ, which is a day of great by artisans like potters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths and joy and merriment. Mass is said in the church in the carpenters. On that day, the people do not use their morning. The people attend mass in the morning. instruments but have them washed and cleaned. They' Christian Parayars wear new clothes and have a sump­ then affix 'tilak' in sandal paste and red kumkum and tuous meal, which is mostly non-vegetarian. New then offer pujas. The cultivators follow the same Year is celebrated on the 1st January. The year procedure for their agricultural implements. Saraswathi begins with an early morning mass, followed by a Puja is also celebrated the next day. This festival is sumptuous meal. celebrated by the Hindus to express their gratitude to A. Catholic priest visits the village church for Saraswathi, the Goddess of Learning, and also to Christmas, New Year and Easter. Before Easter, beseech her to shower more and more blessings Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday, and Good Friday in future. Books are not used that day, but placed are important for the Christians. On Palm Sunday, in front of Goddess Saraswathi during the Puja, after affixing tilak. Christ went in procession in Jerusalem before His crucifixion and the church commemorates this with a pongal or "Harvest Festival" is celebrated on the procession by the congregation who hold tender palm first day of the Tamil month of Thai as a thanksgiving leaves in their hands. On Maundy Thursday the day after the harvest. New raw rice is first cooked services are held in the evening. The people receive with jaggery or sugar in a new pot which is decorated. Holy Communion served by a Priest. The following As the rice boils and when the water bubbles over the day is Good Friday, that is the day when Jesus was pot, all gather round and shout in a chorus "Pongalo crucified. There will be sermons on the seven state­ Pongal". This cooked rice is then served, during the ments Jesus uttered while in crucifixion. On the third day, sugar canes are munched avidly by the people. day, namely Sunday is Easter. It is the day when Jesus rose from the grave. There will be a mass early MattupongaJ is celebrated the next day by those morning, followed by a sumptuous dinner. households that possess cattle. This festival is celebra­ ted to honour the bulls which have served, the cultiva­ Both Hindus and Christians incur expenditure on tors faithfully, during the past year. Their horns are festivals. But they are not celebrated as pompously as painted and they are fed with Pongal which is specially they used to be some decades ago. prepared. Besides an indigenous sport is conducted on that day. The bulls are decorated, new clothes and Village organisation even money and jewels are tied around their horns. These Kadambangudi village comprises three hamlets. bulls are then allowed to run wild in a place marked Valayapatti hamlet is exclusively inhabited by the for the purpose and young men have to control them Muthiriyars and Thondampatti hamlet by Kallars who in which case money and new jewels become their form a majority and by Konars, Vannan and Christian

15 114 KADAMBANGUDI

Pallars. The main village has a number of communities with a majority in the Panchayat Board and the of which the Udayars form a majority. The inter­ Cooperative Society. For these reasons the Udayars hamlet relationship is not happy. The Muthiriyars are not liked by other communities. Further difference who inhabit Valayapatti hamlet are not liked by other is created by the fact that land owners mostly belong castes. Further, the Muthiriyars who are poor find it to Udayars and Kallars while others are landless. difficult to worship or even participate in any of the festivals in Padaithalichamman temple in Thondampatti The relationship between the three hamlets in hamlet. Kadambangudi does not present a happy picture. As social intercourse between the people in different An important feature in the village is caste distinction. hamlets is almost forbidden in the village and it is Caste is a powerful factor which tends to keep the never tolerated. caste differences are observed and people in the various communities apart. Among all social contact is strictly restricted to particular com­ the communities in the village. the Udayar caste is munities. As regards the other factors, there are no economically powerful and hence tries to dominate voluntary organisations of any type and neither is others. Further, the Udayars even dominate the scene there a School Improvement Board. CHAPTER vt

CONCLUSION

Thus Kadambangudi is an interesting village with a population is cultivation and this has become more conglomeration of 16 communities. As it is inhabited profitable after the construction of the Grand Anicut by different Scheduled Castes inter-caste relationship is Canal. This is the harbinger of a prosperous era for not a happy one at all. The mainstay of the village the villagers of Kadambangudi. AJIPENDIX I

CENSUS 1961--S0CIO ECONOMIC SURVEY

Household Schedule Name of village: HOllse number: Serial numbl:r:

I. Person or persons interviewed: 2. (a) Name of the head of the household: (b) Sex: (c) Age: 3. Statement:

v, ...._ coc: .:: "," ,,- 0; :..0" t;'o; ... 0 ~ ... u·9 ~",. I ~ -co u ... - ell'': "'Zb" ell", ",- ~.+::.o !: '"ell "O~ £6 ._6~ 0 ill) '" I'U'~ ... -5§ cO -5 ~.~ 0 " co .. ._E~ ::> C u co. Ou 'E ~~ 8 -c ~ ! ~ 0" 0::>

i 1 I I I I I I : i I I I :

i 'I I I 1 , I i , I I I ! I ! ! I I I, i ! I I I I I 'I 1 i ! I I I I I I I I I ! I ! I I I I I I I I i I 1 I APPENDIX in A. DURATION OF RESIDENCE:

4. (a) For how many generations, counting from head of the household backwards, has the household been residing in this village? (b) If the head of household has migrated to this village, together with the household, where was his ancestral home? (Specify taluk, district, and State.)

B. RELIGION: 5. (a) Religion: (b) Sect: . (c) Tribe or Caste: (d) Sub-tribe or sub-caste: 6. (a) Is there a deity or object of worship or a sacred plant in the house ? (Answer Yes/No) (b) If 'Yes', where is the deity or object of of worship located in the house?

(cl . What is the name of the deity or object of worship or sacred plant and what is the form of worship? (d) Other than this, what is the principal deity of the household? 7. Do you know that untouchability in any form has been prohibited under Law? (Answer Yes/No)

C. MARRIAGE:

8. (a) (1) Has any marriage in contravention of Caste or Tribal Law taken place in this household? (Answer Yes/No) (2) If such a marriage bas taken place, give details about the marriage.

(b) With what castes or tribes other than the caste or tribe of the household is marriage. (1) Permissible. (2) Desirable. (c) Was dowry given on the occasion of the marriage of the son? (Answer Yes/No.) If 'Yes', mention amount-cash and kind.

(d) Was dowry given on the occasion of the marriage of the daughter? (Answer Yes/No.) If 'yes', mention amount. KADAMBANGUnt

(e) Are you aware of the fact that the taking of dowry has been prohibited according to a recent piece of1egi~lation ? 9. Have you any objection to contract marriages for persons of your household with persons of same social and economic status as yours but belonging to the following communities? [Mark with a (V) the names of the communities against which you have no objection] (communities to be listed in the village):- D. INHERITANCE:

10. (a) Do you know that there have been changes in recent years in Hindu Adoption Act? (Answer Yes/No.)

(b) If yes, what do you think are the salient features of recent changes? (List of salient features to be prepared.)

11. {aj Do you think that there have been changes in recent years in Hindu Succession Act? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) If yes, what do you think are the salient features of such changes? (List of salient features to be prepared.)

12. (0) What relatives, including male members and widows and daughters, married and unmarried, inherit property on the death of a married male person belonging to the same caste as your houshold? (b) What is the share of each such member 'I 13. Are you in favour of inheritance of property by daughters equally with sons? E. PROPERTY: Land 14. If the household possesses land fill up the following :- (a) (I) Own lands. (2) Land held direct from Government under tenure less substantial than ownership. (3) Land held from private persons or insti. tutions. (4) Land given out to private persons or institutions, (5) Land held on lease. (6) Others.

Total ... APPENDIX 119

(b) Total area under cultivation:

(c) Area comprising homestead:

(ti) Name of crop Quantity obtained Quantity Quantity last year consumed sold (il Paddy (ii) Wheat (iii) Cholam, Ragi, Cumbu (iv) Pulses including gram (v) Sugarcane (vi) Barley (vii) Vegetable (viii) Jute (ix) Chillies (x) Tobacco (xi) Oilseeds (xii) Cotton (xiii) Ginger (xiv) Fodder or bomboo or cane (xv) Fruits (xvi) Other agricultural crops (Maize, Jowar, Bajra, etc.)

(e) What is the organic manure used?

(I) Do you use chemical fertilisers?

(g) Do you use any new agricultural implement which has been taught to you for the first time in the last five years?

(h) Do you borrow agricultural implements from others at the time of cultivation?

(i) Do you take help of neighbours at the time of sowing or harvesting?

(j) Do you assist your neighbours and receive help at the time of cultivation in the shape of manual labour ?

15. How much did your father own at the time of his death? (a) Land in acres.

16. (a) Do you own any cattle or poultry? Give numbers. 120 KADAMBANGUDI

(i) Milch cattle. (ii) Draught bullock. (iii) Cows, goats, sheep. pigs, duck/geese, fowl, and buffaloes. (b) How much milk or milk products do you sell ? 17. Fishery---

(a) Does the household own any tank? (b) If fish is reared, was any quantity sold last year? (Answer Yes/No.) If 'Yes', mention quantity. F. INDUSTRY: 18. Do you conduct any industry? If yes, is it traditional?

(a) What are the products? Quantity produced and quantity sold last year. (b) Which of them do you sell to neighbours or in the market? (c) Have you taken up this industry for the first time in the course of the last five years? (d) Have you adopted any new tools or instruments for running this industry? If so, name the details of the tools and instruments. 19. Name the art or craft in whieh you have earned proficiency. 20. When and how did you learn the art or craft concerned? (a) Do you consider further training necessary? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) If yes, describe the type of training you desire.

21. (a) What was your father's occupation? (b) If you have changed your father's occupation, why have you done so ? (e) Were you forced for lack of choice into this occupation? (Answer Yes/No.) 22. (a) Have you yourself changed your occupation from another kind to this one? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) If yes, explain why you have changed your own occupation? (cl Are you content with the present occupation? APPENDIX 121

(d) If not, what other work are you doing? 23. (a) Are you content with the persent occupation? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) If 'No', what other work are you doing?

24. What kind of work would you like your son to do?

25. (a) If you are engaged in trade or business, mention the commodities dealt in ? (b) How do you get your finance? (c) What is your approximate profit?

G. INDEBTEDNESS: 26. If head of household is in debt- (a) Mention amount of debt outstanding. (b) Is the household in debt? If 'Yes', fill up the following: Amount (a) Cawe- Rs. nP. 1. Purchase of land. 2. House construction or repairs to existing building. 3. Marriages. 4. Funerals. 5. To give dowry. 6. To clear outstanding debts. 7., Sickness. 8. Confinement. 9. Family day-to-day expenses. 10. Household cultivation. 11. Industry run by household. 12. Business run by household. 13. Festivals. 14. Others.

(b) Source of debt- AmoUllt Rate of interest l. Relatives. 2. Friends or neighbours. 3. Village money-lenders. 4. Professional money-lenders from outside, 5. Government institutions. 16 122 KADAMBANGUDI

6. Co-operative Credit Societies. 7. Land Mortgage Banks. 8. Other Co-operative Societies. 9. Others (Specify.)

H. EDUCATION: (a) How much did you spend last year on the education of your children? (b) Does any member of the household regularly read a newspaper or listen to news broad­ cast?

I. COMMUNITY: 2R. (a) Does the head of the household know head­ quarters of district, tal uk, Panchayat Union Council and Block Development Office; location of the Police station under the jurisdiction of which the village is ? (b) Does the head of the household know the names of the principal rivers flowing through the district?

APPLICABLE TO ZAMIN VILLAGERS AND THOSE RECENTLY SETTLED: 29. (a) Do you think that abolition of zamindari and intermediary rights has resulted in any good to you? (Answer Yes/No) (b) If yes, indicate how you have henefited. (c) If no, why have you not been benefited?

30. (a) Have you benefited from any scheme of land reclamation or land development or any other form of Land Reform? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) If Yes, explain how you have benefited.

31. (a) Is there a Co-operative Society in your village? If yes, how many are there? If no, do you desire to have one? (b) If yes, are you a member? (Give the name of the society or societies.) (c) If no, why are you not a member?

32. (a) Is your village covered by the Community Development Project? (b) Do you know what are the functions of Grama Sevak? (Answer Yes/No.) (c) If yes, describe his function. ApPENDIX In

33. (a) Have you benefited from the Block Develop­ ment Office? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) If yes, how have you benefited?

34. (a) Is there a Panchayat in your village? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) If yes, how long has the Panchayat been in your village? (c) What are the main functions of the Panchayat? (d) What are the main parties in your Panchayat and which caste is leading the Panchayat? (e) Has there been any improvement in your village since the Panchayat was established? (Answer Yes/No.) (f) If yes, what have been the improvements? (g) Has there been any harm after its establish­ ment'? (Answer Yes/No.) (h) If yes, what were the evils?

35. (a) Has any caste or tribe of your village got a separate Panchayat of its own? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) If yes, what are the main functions of this Caste or Tribal Panchayat 'I (c) Since the Statutory Panchayats are function­ ing, do you think these Caste or Tribal Panchayat, should stilI continue? If Yes, why should they exist?

36. (a) Is there a Family Planning Centre in your area? (Answer Yes/No.) (b) Do you know that man and wife can prevent conception of a child by deliberate means if they wish to do so ? . (c) Does the head of the household wish that no more children were born to him: or does he wish for more; or is he indifferent? 1. DIET:

37, (al How many times a day do the members of the household take their meals? Are they vegetarians or non-vegetarians? (b) What are the usual items of diet at each meal? (Specify whether rice, wheat, grams, roots etc,) 114 KAOAMBANGUni

(c) What are the foods or drinks prohibited '! (d) Does the household take sugar, tea or coffee '! K. UTENSILS:

38. (a) What utensils are used for preparing food and for storage of drinking water? (b) Of what materials are important utensils made?

(1) Earthenware (2) Aluminium (3) Copper (4) Brass (5) Eversilver (6) Silver

1. FUEL:

39. What fuel is ordinarily used for cooking?

40. How do they procure it ? M. FURNITURE AND ORNAMENTS:

41. (a) Does the household possess a bedstead I chair I table I mirror I bench / local cot/wall­ shelf/almirah/stool. (cross out those not found)

(b) Is the household using any new kind of furniture for the first time in the last five years? (c) If so, what are they? (d) Does the household use moquito nets?

42. List all the ornaments used by (a) men and (b) women. Give the local names and mention whether gold or silver or brass or any otber material is mainly used. Give drawings. N. HOUSES:

43. Give details about the house materials. Roof-

(1) Mud roof. (2) Country tiles (3) Mangalore tiled. (4) Terraced (pucca roof). (5) Zinc sheet. Ari>ENDIX 125

(6) Tin roof. (7) Asbestos roof. (8) Corrugated iron roof. (9) Wooden roof. (10) Straw or grass roof. (11) Leaf roof. (12) Others.

Wall-

(l) Mud wall. (2, Bamboo wattled wall. (3) Mud plastered bamboo wattled wall. (4) Wall of twigs and brancl1es. (5) Wall of twigs and branches plastered with mud. (6) Reed wall. (7) Mud plastered reed wall. (8) Wooden wall. (9) Brick wall. (10) Straw or grass wall.

(11) Leaf wall.

(12) Stone wall.

(13) Others.

Floor-

(I) Mud floor. (2) Cement floor.

(3) Wooden floor.

(4) Stone floor. (5) Lime and mortar floor.

Number of slopes-

One. Two. Three. Four' Five. 126 KAbAMSANGUDI

Nwnber of slopes (Contd.) Six or more. Without slope.

44. (a) Give a plan of the house and compound showing the main places, the materials of the roof, walls and doors. (b) Total number cl' rooms in the house. NOTE: - Give sketches and photographs wherever possible. O. CONSUMER GOODS:

45. (1) (0) Does the household possess hurricane lantern / petromax or hazak / battery torchlight / kerosene stove / bicycle / gramophone I radio set. (Cross out those which do not apply.) (b) Has any of the items been acquired for the first time in the last five years? If yes, which are these articles? (c) Does the household use toilet soapi washing soap? (d) Are clothes sent to washerman ?

POSSESSIONS:

(2) Does the household possess- (a) Car. (b) Bullock cart. Ie) Jutka. (d) Ponies. 46. (A) Moternity cases: (l) Cases hospitalised. (2) Number of cases: (a) Confined in hospital. (b) Confined by bringing doctor home. (c) Confined by qualified midwife at home. (d) Confined by unqualified 'Dai' at home. (e) Confined without assistance.

(B) Medical treatment: What is the medical system followed?

(1) Allopathic. (2) Ayurvedic. APPENDIX 127 (3) Homeopathic. (4) Combination of more than one of these. (5) Others. (C) Medical consultation: Where do you go for medical consultation? (I) Public hospitals or dispensaries. (2) Private hospitals or dispensaries. (3) Private doctors. (a) Allopaths. (b) Homeopaths. (c) Others. (D) Vaccination: How many members of the family have been vaccinated ? (1) At least once. (2) Within the past six months. 47. Income: Total family income per mensem from­ (a) Land. (b) Industry.

(c) Business. (d) Occupation. (e) Others (specify source.)

48. Average monthly expenditure:- What is expenditure on (A) Food: (1 ) Cereals and pulses,'

(a) Rice.

(b) Other grains. (c) Dhal!. (d) Total (2) Vegetables:

(a) Potatoes. (b) Tapioca. (c) Onions. (d) Coconut. 128 KADAMBANGUDI

(e) Others. (f) Total. (3) Non- Vegetarian: (a) Meat. (b) Fish. (c) Egg. (d) Others. (4) Milk. (5) Ghee and oils: (a) Ghee. (b) Oils. (c) Total. (6) Condiments: (a) Chillies. (b) Tamarind. (c) Others. (d) Total. (7) Sugar: (a) Sugar. (b) Jaggery. (cl Total. (8) Coffee and teal (a) Coffee. (b) Tea. (c) Total. (9) Liquor: {10) Tobacco: (a) Smoking. (b) Chewing. (c) Total.

(11) Other foods including refreshments. Total under food:

(b) Education: (1) Fees. (2) Books. (3) Uniform. (4) Others. APPENDIX 129

(e) Clothing. (d) Fuel. (e) Marriage. (f) Festivals. (g) Miseellaneous. (I) Dhoby or soap. (2) Barber. (3) Travelling (4) Medical fees and medicines. (5) Religious observances. (6) Amusements. (7) Provident Fund and other compulsory savings. (8) Payments of debts. (9) Remittances to dependants residing elsewhere. (h) Others. Total.

49. (a) Has the household secured during the !ast five years? (I) Better irrigation facilities. (2) Better types of cattle. (3) Better seeds. (4) Better implements. (5) Better manure. (6) More land for cultivation. (7) Use of pesticides. (8) Improved methods of cultivation like Japanese method. (9) Land improvement measures like land reclamation, soil conservation and con­ solidation. (b) Have you received demonstration in improved agricultural practices? (e) Have you participated in activities of Com­ munity Project by contribution of land, labour, cash, or material? 50. Prosperity lndex- (1) Have you cleared any debt which existed prior to ten years from ~he income of the household? 130 KADAMBANGUDI

(2) If yes, specify the amount so cleared. (3) During the last ten years--

(a) Have you acquired any property? (b) Have you made any savings in cash or in the shape of ornaments, etc.? (e) Have you invested capital in any new under­ taking or building? (d) Have you opened a voluntary account in any post office savings bank or any other bank? (e) Have you invested in N.S.C. or price bonds or other forms of rural saving campaigns? (f) Are you a member of any chit fund or other indigenous funds except where it is wholly from any debt incurred for the purpose and/or the proceeds or any sale of property?

51. Extra-curricular activities-

Has any member or members of this household­ (a) Worked for social uplift. (b) Taken active part in politics. (c) Joined any co-operative society. (d) Joined any club, library, dramatic party or other cultural organisation in the village.

SOCIAL DISABILITIES: 52. (A) Do you have free access to­ (1) Shop, hotel or restaurant. (2) Temple or place of worship. (3) Any other place of public resort.

(B) Do the following render you their services­ (I) Brahmin priest. (2) Barber. ,3) Washerman. (4) Any other village servant.

(C) Are you avoided by Caste Hindus in regard to- (l) Touch. (2) Serving cooked food. (3) Serving water. ApPENDIX II

CENSUS 1961-S0CIO ECONOMIC SURVEY

Village Schedule

Name of Police Station/Taluk Name of District.

Name of village: L.C. No. of village.

Area of the village: No. of Households.

What is the religion which majority of the villagers profess?

Name the caste to which the majority of the villagers belong:

1. Topography of the village:

(a) Is the village situated on a plain/on an undulating surface/on a plateau/on a hillock/or at the bottom of a depressioni?

(b) The system of grouping of houses-average distance between two clusters of houses­ reasons for such grouping e. g. whether on account of the nature of the surface of land or on account of the social customs.

(c) rnternal roads - Tanks - Village common - any stream or other extensive source of water - proximity or otherwise of any jungle - Approximate number of shade­ bearing trees and how they are arranged.

2. What is the local legend about the village?

3. Detailed description of average house of the members of each caste/tribe, religious group, occupational group in the village.

4. Name and distance of Hat or Hats to which surplus produce of the village is taken for sale.

5. Name and distance of the nearest railway station and bus route.

6. Distance by road from Thana and sub-division headquarters. 132 ICADAMBANGUDI

7. (a) Distance of the Post Office from the village. (b) Distance of the Telegraph Office from the village. (c) Can money be sent through that Post Office?

8. Religious practice followed by members of each caste, tribe and religious group in the village. The description of the religious practice in each case should begin with the name or names under which the Supreme Being is known and then proceed from ceremonies that might be observed in respect of a person from sometime before he is born and end with the funeral rites after his death.

9. Give the details of places of common religious worship, if any.

10. Describe community festivals, if held III the village.

II. Dress commonly worn by the villagers with special reference to peculiarities on account of Caste, Tribe or religious sanction or economic status.

12. Number and types of schools in the village

13. Describe Social Recreation Centres, jf any.

14. State of Co-operative movement in the village. (Number and names of Co-operatives)

IS-A. Details of crime statistics for the past ten years.

Year Place of crime No. and nature of crimes Remarks

IS-B. Prohibition Offences.

Year Place of crime Number Remarks APPENDIX

16. Details of births and deaths for the last ten years.

Births Deaths Natural increase Year Month ,-_.A._-"'I ,-_.A.__ -. , __ .A. __-"'I Males Females Males Females Males Females

A brief note on the cause of death: 17. Details of village lands classified by crops:

Year Name of crop Extent of land

18. Total population of the village in 1931, 1941, 1951 and 1961. 19. Is the village electrified? 20. School statistics in detail. 21. What are common diseases in the village? 22. Give your impressions of cleanliness. 23. Drainage and sanitary facilities-A note. 24. What is the source of drinking water? 25. Is outbreak of epidemic frequent and what are the preventive and curative efforts taken to combat them? 26. Is there a Primary Health Centre or Maternity \ ward? Which is the nearest hospital? 27. Is widow remarriage allowed by different castes? 28. What are the sources of irrigation in the village? Give number and types and brief note thereon including the number of pumpsets. 29. Give the number of temples/mosques/churches in the village. 30. If there is any Co· operative Society in the village, give a detailed note on it. 31. Total livestock in the village as per the 1956 Census and present position. 32. Is there a Key Village Centre in the village? If no, which is the nearest Veterinary Hospital? 33. Is there a cattle pound in the village? 34. Do the villagers tatoo their bodies? 35. Do they favour female education? 36. Are there any ancient monuments in the village? If yes, give a note on them. 37. Give the current proverbs in the village. 38. Give a note on the Panchayat. -

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APPENDIX III

GLOSSARY OF LOCAL TERMS

SI.No. Local terms Phonetic transcription English equivalents

1. Aval AVAL Rice quashed and dried

2. Chembu CHEMBU A drinking vessel

3. Easel iSAL Ant with wings

4. Jallikattu JALLI KATTU A wild game of pursuing and grappling a lusty bull

5. Kadukkan KAQUKKAN Ear-ornament worn by men

6. Karthigai KARTTIKAI Tamil month corresponding to November-December

7. Karumathi KARUMADI Expiatory ceremony performed at the termination of pollution

8. Kavadi KAVAQI A palanquin-like structure in which the offering to a deity are suspended

9. Kazhaneer KALINiR Waste water left after boiling rice

10. Kolusu KOLUSU Anklet

11. Kondai KOJ:-lQAI Chignon

12. Kuchchu KUCHCHU A thatched hut

13. Kumbabhishekam KUMBAPISHEKAM A ceremony in commemoration of the renovation of a temple

14. Margazhi MARKALI Tamil month corresponding to December-January

15. Mavilakku MAVILAKKU ·.i\:~.il:k-Jamp on a ball of rice flour ,::~" ~;;~.. 16. Metti METTI SlIver ring worn on toes by women ;i . 17. Netthikadan NERTTIKKAJi>AN" • -:'~:{/e»N .' 18. Nondi, NOJ:-lQI CHAI?UOUQlJ In9fgenQUS games played by children Chadugudu

19. Pannayal PAJ:-IJ:-IAIYAL Farm labourer

20. Pavu PAVU Web or warp yarn in weaving

21. Pongal PONGAL Harvest festival in mid.January APPENDIX 139

GLOSSARY OF LOCAL TERMS (Contd.)

8)' No. Local terms Phonetic English equivalents transcription

22. Poonut PO~OL A sacred thread, worn cross-wise over the shoulders

23. Piri PIRI A thick straw-rope

24. Puniyathanam PU~~IY ADANAM Purificatory ceremony

25. Pupu Nirattuthal POPPU ~ i RATTUDAL A purificatory ceremony after puberty

1/~ 26. 8ilambam SILAMBAM An indigenous game similar to fencing, played by men

27. Tambazham TAMBALAM Tray

28. Thai TAl Tamil month corresponding to January-February

29. Thalaichan TALAICHCHAN The first child in a family

30. Thayam TAYAM A kind of draughts played by women

31. Thodu TOI;>U Ear-ring

32. Thongattam TOI'lGATTAM An oscillating ear-ring

33. Thoobakkal TOPAKKAL An incense stand

34. Thucka choru TOKKA CHORU Food served by the relatives of bereaved, after the burial of the dead

35. Thuckam Thirvu TUKKAM TiRVU The seventeenth day ceremony after death, to end the mourning period

36. Vaikasi VAIKASI Tamil month corresponding to May-June.