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A Critique of the Epistemological Basis of Human Geography in Education

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A Critique of the Epistemological Basis of Human Geography in Education SCIENCE, KNOWLEDGE AND EXISTENCE: A CRITIQUE OF THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION A.W.J. WHITE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION THESIS PRESENTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN GEOGRAPHY IN EDUCATION. SUMMER/AUTUMN 1988 ABSTRACT The academic recognition of human geography as a discipline of knowledge is determined by the definitional rigours of scientific criteria. The development of human geography has been largely orchestrated by the philosophical underpinnings of `normal' science. Logical positivism has prescribed the epistemological and methodological dictums of its terms of reference as well as for the meaning of rationality and social reality. The scientific paradigm otherwise validates and affirms the credibility of human geography as a social science. Many of its presumptions have been adopted from those employed in the physical and biological sciences. Empiricism and nominalism are the fundamental axioms for the investigation of socio-spatial phenomena by the 'scientific method'. Recent developments in geographic thought challenge this view. The emergence of alternative themes in human geography - namely those of structuralism and reflexivity - have appealed either to a Marxist critique of political economy or to phenomenology and existentialism in an attempt to uncover the dynamics of interaction between man and his spatial environment. The pluralistic face of human geography has not only raised a hermeneutic dilemma but also questions the acceptability of 'normal' science and the parameters which it seeks to impose. The ethos of this study is grounded in the presupposition that all the major philosophical positions which currently influence geographical research and education must initially tackle the question and purpose of human existence. Its contention is that the individual social actor cannot be objectified as an impersonal particular within the corpus of geographic inquiry. Nor can he be 2 made subordinate to technico-scientific, ideological or philosophical contingencies. Moreover, the ontological clarification of socio-spatial relations is a necessary precondition for the formulation of an epistemological standpoint and of methodological procedure. Failing this, human geography cannot adequately explain present-day spatial problems and must either resort to some emancipatory futuristic view of 'optimistic humanism' quo, utopian idealism, or concede that pessimism and nihilism constitute the actual epistemological backcloth of its premises. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The development of this work into a full-blown research thesis was in many ways an unintentional outcome to what had initially begun as a part-time MA Geography in Education at the Institute. Some combination of the comprehensive reading programme and the stimulating company and exchange of views in Dr. Keith Hilton's seminar groups provided the impetus towards a focused curiosity concerning the philosophical terms of reference which underpin the dynamics of geographic thought and practice. This thesis was supervised by Professor Norman Graves to whom I am indebted for his guidance and patience with me and moreover, the measure of flexibility which he accorded me for the assembly of ideas throughout the duration of the work. Thanks are also due to Professor John White for his reading of the philosophical content of the draft manuscript and the many pertinent comments and recommendations which he provided as food for thought. Equally, my gratitude is extended to Dr. Philip Ogden at Queen Mary College, London who supervised my M.Phil research prior to my registration at the Institute of Education: his task of knocking me into shape in order to satisfy the demands of post-graduate research is not forgotten(!) and has continued to be influential in this study. The ultimate accolade belongs to my wife, Morgane. Not only has she endured two consecutive theses over the last ten years whilst running the home and bringing up our four young children, but has also played a crucial part in sustaining the progression of this work. I fail to recall the numerous occasions at all times of day and night over the last five years that she has engaged in extensive discussion with me regarding the clarification of philosophical concepts and thought. Without her unflagging support during the course of these conversational exchanges, hardly any of my own presuppositions in this area could have matured. Finally, but not least, to Mrs. Rose Bodley-White, who has seen it all before and encouraged me to pursue this research. Without her backing, my registration at the Institute would not have been possible. The typing of this work was undertaken by Saffron Walden Office Services, Essex, to whom I extend thanks for all the difficulties which we have encountered and overcome in getting it right. 4 CONTENTS ABSTRACT 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4 PREAMBLE 8 INTRODUCTION: THE DEHUMANISATION OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 15 PART ONE: SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY AND MAN: A METHODOLOGICAL EXPOSE. 27 The meaning of human geography 28 The development of scientific thought; a historical review 35 Philosophy, theology and scientific mysticism 47 Geography as social science: background practices 54 Language: the universal experience 62 Critical remarks on background practices 78 Rationality, Reason and Reality 80 Rationality and psychology 88 Conclusion: towards a dehumanisation of human geography 96 PART TWO: HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AS SOCIAL SCIENCE 99 Geography, methodology and epistemology 100 Geography as a discipline of social science 104 Geography and relevance 116 Geography, man and autonomy 119 The historicity of geographic thought 128 Geography and the paradigm debate 132 Critical remarks on the paradigm issue 143 Geography, man and space 146 Geography, conflict and pessimism 165 Conclusion: Human Geography as social science - complicity or 5 dissent? 171 PART THREE: HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 174 Geography and Scientific status 175 Geography and Positivism 178 The development of Behavioural Geography 187 The tenets of Behavioural science 195 Human Geography and Evolutionary thought 203 Human existence and Biological Evolutionary theory 206 Human geography as Evolutionary. science 217 Cosmological science, man and the Earth 220 Conclusion: the inadequacy of the Scientific method 230 PART FOUR: HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AS POLITICAL ECONOMY 232 Geography, the Status Quo and Radicalism 233 Neoclassicism and the Welfare approach in Geography 235 Marxist theory and Economic Geography 245 (i) Dialectical thinking 247 (ii) Marx and Consciousness 249 (iii) The Mode of Production 251 Some Interpretations of Marx: (i) Althusser and Piaget 253 (ii) Mannheim's Sociology of Knowledge 261 Post-structuralism, neo-Marxist theory and beyond: 269 (i) The Hermeneutic encounter in Human Geography 269 Knowledge and Knowing 271 6 (ii) Critical Theory: 1. The Frankfurt School 280 Epistemology and Methodology in the Frankfurt school 285 Marcuse 286 Adorno 294 Horkheimer 301 2. Habermas 307 A Summary critique of Habermas 322 3. Critical Theory and the Ethical imperative 327 Conclusion: (i) The primacy of the individual in Economic Geography 330 (ii) Work 'for man' or Man 'for work': the concept of work and person 333 PART FIVE: HUMAN GEOGRAPHY, POWER AND ETHICS 337 Human Geography, power and conflict 338 Power, ethics and the political state in human geography 340 Human Geography and social ethics: The problem of the 'value-approach' 354 PART SIX: CONCLUSION 369 GLOSSARY 381 REFERENCES 390 7 PREAMBLE The central thesis of this study is based on the contention that there is a pressing need to reappraise the epistemological status of human geography in education. This charge, in turn, demands a clarification of the philosophical terms of reference which underpin the theory and practice in human geography. Equally, it is a necessary precondition towards the formulation of an epistemological backcloth and a methodological procedure whose orientation is geared to a reconstitution of socio - spatial reality. This issue is fundamental to the educational context of human geography as an applied discipline of knowledge in the social sciences insofar that it is an expression of the authenticity and credibility of its content. Epistemology and methodology in human geography must, however, be preceded by the ontological imperative. Put otherwise, in order to tackle the question of 'how do we know' - that is, the reality of the categories which support either the promulgation of a truth, or the exposure of an untruth - it is first necessary to verify the postulate of what 'there-is' that needs to be known - that is, to establish the origins and nature of existence of which geographical phenomena are a part. The contemporary development of human geography has largely appealed to the scientific method for its validation and academic respectability. In so doing, geography has primarily allied itself to the tenets expounded by logical positivism. More recently, the areas of syllabus development, curriculum innovation and the structure of teaching-learning relations have been increasingly orchestrated by the vested interests of governmental and corporative agencies. These have tended to impose debilitating financial and ideological constraints on the social sciences in general so that any notion of 'progress' and 'development' broadly 8 corresponds to their institutionalization within the technocratic scientific state. A moribund and uncaring human geography, stripped of any measure of critical reflexivity,
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