Race, Class and National Identity in Black Ecuador: Afro-Ecuadorians and the Struggle for Human Rights David Dixon Clark Atlanta University

Atlanta University Center DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library 4-1-1977 Race, class and national identity in black Ecuador: Afro-Ecuadorians and the struggle for human rights David Dixon Clark Atlanta University Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/dissertations Part of the Political Science Commons Recommended Citation Dixon, David, "Race, class and national identity in black Ecuador: Afro-Ecuadorians and the struggle for human rights" (1977). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff iL brary. Paper 193. This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center. It has been accepted for inclusion in ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center. For more information, please contact [email protected]. AB S TRACT POLITICAL SCIENCE DIXON, DAVID L. B.A. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA, 1982 M.A. ATLANTA UNIVERSITY, 1987 CLARK ATLANTA UNIVERSITY, 1997 RACE. CLASS AND NATIONAL IDENTITY IN BLACK ECUADOR: AFRO ECUADORIANS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR ITUMAN RIGHTS Advisor: Professor Guy Martin Dissertation dated May, 1997 This study analyzed the social predicament of Ecuador’s black population. The main objectives of the dissertation were to explain the low social status of Afro-Ecuadorians from a political economy perspective; to analyze the concept of race and Minority Rights as an aspect of human rights; and to focus the debate on the Republic of Ecuador’s human rights policy regarding its black population. In this methodology, political economy, race analysis and minority rights theory were developed. It was argued that in black Ecuador slavery, “concertaje,” “mestizaje,” racial democracy, dependency underdevelopment and white supremacy, as developed in the Ecuadorian context, have severely limited the social mobility of Afro-Ecuadorians. The researcher concluded that developments in the political economy of Ecuador since the abolition of slavery have brought little change for the Afro-Ecuadorian population. This process of socio-economic exclusion is based on a deliberate policy that excludes Afro-Ecuadorians from civil society. RACE, CLASS AND NATIONAL IDENTITY IN BLACK ECUADOR: AFRO-ECUADORTANS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF CLARK ATLANTA UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY DAVID L. DIXON DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE ATLANTA, GEORGIA MAY 1997 1997 DAVID L. DIXON All Rights Reserved ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Without the help and support of many people, the writing of this dissertation would not have been possible. I want to first thank the following individuals and institutions whose support was indispensable: Nelson Estupifián Bass and Luz Argentina, Antonio Preciado, Juan GarcIa, Carmen Kiinger, José Arce, Elizabeth Delgado, Edgar Lemos, Jacinto Fierro, Dogenes Cuero Caicero, Diego Quiroga, Rafael Savoia, Charo Quesada, Maria Carrion, Zanga Touré, Madonna Touré, Keith Jennings, Ajamu Baraka, Arvis Averette and my mother, Annie Stanley. Institutionally, I am grateful to the Fondo Ecuatoriano Populorum Progresso (FEPP), the Afro-Ecuadorian Cultural Center, the Comisión Ecuménica de Derechos Humanos (CEDDHU) and the Universidad de San Francisco in Quito. I am also grateful to the people of Chota, Esmeraldas, the Cayapas River and to all Afro-Ecuadorians who welcomed me into their communities and homes, and provided invaluable information. Finally, a special thanks goes out to my dissertation committee, Dr. Guy Martin, Dr. Harry Vanden and Dr. William Boone. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii LIST OF TABLES v GLOSSARY vi CHAPTER 1: RACE, CLASS AND NATIONAL IDENTITY iN BLACK ECUADOR: AFRO-ECUADORIANS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS 1 Overview 1 Statement of the Problem 10 Hypothesis 10 Methodology 11 Theoretical Framework 13 Time-Frame 29 Statement of Significance 29 Statement on the Structure of the Research Presentation 30 Scholarly Research and Objectivity 32 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW: AFRO-LATIN AMERICA AND SOCIAL DISCRIMINATION RACE, ETHNICITY AND NATIONAL IDENTITY 33 Comparative Perspectives on Black Latin America 33 The Evolution of Afro-Latin Scholarship: A Historical Perspective 35 Racial Perspectives in Contemporary Latin America 38 Race, Class and National Identity in the Afro-Ecuadorian Context 53 The Afro-Ecuadorian Literary Tradition: A Brief Overview 63 Conclusion 65 CHAPTER 3: THE BLACK AMERICAS AN]) THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY . .68 Theoretical Perspectives on Slavery in the Western Hemisphere as a Component of Human Rights Theory 69 Overview of the Comparative Slave Debate 74 The Transatlantic Slave Trade and Early Capitalism 83 Brief History of Slavery in Black Latin America 85 Slavery on the Northern Coast of Ecuador and the Chota Valley 89 Characteristics of the Slave System in Ecuador 95 The Ecuadorian “Sierra” or Highlands: The Chota Valley and Slavery 97 Organization of the Slave System 101 Slave Uprisings In Ecuador 102 Manumission and Abolition 104 The Period of”Concertaje” or Sharecropping 110 Conclusion 112 111 CHAPTER 4: SOCIAL MOVEMENTS, BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS, NEGRITUDE AND THE ROLE OF “MESTIZAJE” IN BLACK ECUADOR 114 “Mestizaje” and White Supremacy in Contemporary Ecuador 114 Black Social Movements and Consciousness in Ecuador 118 The Role of Afro-Ecuadorians in the Carlos Concha Liberal Insurrection 122 Négritude and Afro-Ecuadorian Literature 129 Conclusion 133 CHAPTER 5: THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF BLACK ECUADOR: RACE, CLASS, GENDER AND POWER IN ESMERALDAS AND CHOTA 137 Overview 137 Geographical and Historical Perspectives on the Black Communities of Ecuador 138 Location and History of the Afro-Esmeraldan Population 140 The Growth and Development of the Political Economy of Esmeralda In the Twentieth Century 142 “Afro-Chotefios:” “La Gente Olvidada”/The Forgotten People 153 Conclusion: Race and Marginalization of Afro-Ecuadorians 162 CHAPTER 6: HUMAN RIGHTS AN]) MINORITY RIGHTS IN CONTEMPORARY ECUADOR 165 Overview 165 The Social Context of Human Rights in the Republic of Ecuador 166 Race as a Factor in Human Rights Violations 169 The Ecuadorian Constitution and Penal Code 172 Overview of the International Instruments that the Republic of Ecuador has Signed, Ratified, or Acceded To 175 The National Development Plan of Ecuador (1989-1992) 181 Afro-Ecuadorian Minority Rights and Human Rights 184 Contemporary Perspectives on the Blacks of Ecuador 192 The Future of Black Rights in Latin America: Overview of Options and Policy Recommendations 198 Conclusion 205 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION 206 BIBLIOGRAPHY 213 Published Sources 213 Unpublished Sources 222 LIST OF TABLES Mapi 7 Map2 8 Table 1.1 149 Table 1.2 185 GLOSSARY This glossary of basic definitions is provided to help the reader understand key concepts related to ethnicity, race, class and social systems in the black Latin American context. AFRO/AFRICANO/AFRO-LATIN AMERICA - These terms are used to refer to the various black populations in Latin America. More specifically, the term Afro- Latin America includes all regions of Latin America where groups of people of known African Ancestry are found. African-American populations are found in Argentina, Belize, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, The Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Puerto Rico, Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela. AFRO-LATiN SOCIAL MOVEMENTS - Refers to the various black power movements that are rapidly developing and expanding in Latin America. Black political movements are presently gaining momentum in Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador, Uruguay, Nicaragua and Peru. Some champion “blackness” and African heritage, reclaiming black history and insisting on respect for the black contribution to the national culture, while others are protesting in the streets to challenge century old forms of social discrimination. BLANQUEARJ BLANCO/BLANQUEAMIENTO - To be white or of European ancestry; the process of whitening. The Spanish colonial system ranked people by an intricate system of graduated differences in skin-color and other physical features. in cultural terms, this process refers to people who aspire to be white in Latin America. According to this line of thinking, “money whitens.” In Latin America the key to social advancement is associated with whiteness, while darkness is associated with underdevelopment, poverty, and destitution. BOZAL - Slaves transported to the Spanish Indies directly from Africa. BOMBA - The musical expression of the Afro population of the Chota region of Ecuador. It represents the expression of the hardships of slavery and is the mixture of three distinct cultural influences (indigenous, African and European) CAFÉ CON LECHE (COFFEE WITH MILK) - A term coined by the poet-politician André Eloy Blanco with which he likened the racial composition of Venezuela to “café con leche.” Also, a term used to refer to racial mixing in Venezuela. CANTON - Ecuador is divided into provinces, and each province is divided into small administrative units referred to as canton. Cantons are headed by a chief administrative officer. CHOLO/A - An extremely pejorative term used to refer to people who are thought to be of mixed indigenous “mestizo” heritage. In general it signifies low social class, poverty and lack of culture. CHOTA (Chota

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