Biodiversity Sustainability and Economic Valuation of Ecosystem

Anthropogenic Effects on Sustainability of Fish Biodiversity in Tyhume River, Eastern Cape, South Africa By Jane Njeri Kinya A Thesis Submitted in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Zoology) Department of Zoology and Entomology Faculty of Science and Agriculture University of Fort Hare Alice, South Africa Supervisor: Professor Daniel O Okeyo 2018 Declaration I, the undersigned, hereby certify that this dissertation is my own original work, except where references to the contrary are indicated. This work has not previously been submitted to another university. It may be photocopied for educational purposes and made available on inter-library loan, subject to copyright laws of South Africa. Jane Njeri Kinya May 2018 ii | P a g e Acknowledgements My special thanks go to my Supervisor Prof. Daniel O. Okeyo for providing an intellectual research environment, and for securing funding from the Govan Mbeki Research and Development Centre (GMRDC) and the National Research Foundation (NRF), to support this study. I am sincerely grateful for the support and encouragement received throughout the study period. I extend my gratitude to Prof. Okeyo’s family, Mrs. Alice P. Okeyo and their children for the many times they provided a home away from home for me. Prof. Jacques van Heerden, Prof. Sam Waladde, Prof. Judith Masters, Prof. Emmanuel Do Linh San and Prof. Niall Vine, all served as Heads of the Department of Zoology and Entomology, during the course of study and were most encouraging and helpful. Special thanks to Mr. Enock Nkoane and Mr. Mzwandile Mfuko from the Department, for assistance with field surveys and with sampling; and to Mr. Aveline Fasi and Mr. Ntuthuzelo Makhasi for assistance with the economic survey. My gratitude to Ms. Nokonwaba Fasi for being my closest companion while she was collecting macroinvertebrates data, for river health assessment of the Tyhume River, towards her MSc. Degree Study during the same period. The Tyhume River was virtually our home and office, and the times we shared will forever form a part of our special bond. To Dr. Francis Kuriah, who was pursuing doctoral studies at the time, for his assistance with gathering sampling equipment. Special thanks to the National River Health Programme (RHP) champion, Ms. Phumza Gaza-Lubelwana of the then Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), for support in the initial project formulation; she provided me access of attachment to RHP and for assistance with field equipment. Thanks also to Dr. Patsy Scherman of Scherman Consulting and Mr. Eric Qonya of Eastern Cape Department of Environment Affairs, Economic and Tourism (DEAET) for, all the lessons I learned working together with them on RHP. Thanks also to: iii | P a g e Mr. Z. W. Mdwayi and Ms. C. Kana, officers at the National Department of Agriculture (NDA) office, Alice, Nkonkobe Municipality, for information on Agricultural and Livestock activities in Alice and the surrounding areas of the study. Dr. Roger Bills of the South Africa Institute of Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB) for help with preliminary lists of fish species in the Keiskamma River, and for corroboration of sampled fish species identities. Dr. Jim Cambray of Albany Museum, for organizing a team of professionals to give inputs into the preliminary project concept; Mr. Stefanus Jacobus De Lange, Municipal Engineer, Nkonkobe Municipality, who kindly provided assistance by availing municipal planning documents; Mr. Brian Smith, for editing the thesis; I am grateful to the staff at GMRDC. Special thanks to Prof. Andrew Gilbert, Dr. Petrus Strijdom, Ms. Rina Flanegan, Ms. Koleka Makoboka and Mrs. Grace Amoah, for successfully processing funding towards my studies Thanks to the Government of Kenya, for graciously granting study leave, to enable me to pursue this study. My special thanks to Prof. M. Ntiba, the Principal Secretary, State Department of Fisheries and Blue Economy; Mr. G. Monor, the Director of Fisheries; and Susan W. Imende, Interim Director General, Kenya Fisheries Service; My grateful thanks to many colleagues of mine at the State Department of Fisheries and Blue Economy (Kenya) and University of Fort Hare (South Africa), whose, names have not been mentioned herein, but who contributed in one way or another towards the successful completion of this work. iv | P a g e Dedication To the loving memory of my son, Master Mbugua Kinya and my father, Mr. Mbugua Ndukui, who both brought sunshine to my life; to my mother, Mrs. Mwihaki Mbugua, for unwavering support. To my husband, Mr. Kinya Gichohi, and to my children, Gichohi, Gacheri and Mwihaki, who believed I had what it takes to complete this journey. v | P a g e Abstract To determine the anthropogenic effects on the sustainability of fish biodiversity in Tyhume River, a mixture of ecological, economic and institutional parameters were used. To measure ecological parameters, 10 study sites were selected to represent varying intensities of anthropogenic effects on habitat, to represent typical river zones, and to correspond with historical survey sites for trend analysis. In these study sites, habitat characteristics that represent geomorphology (habitat quantity), water quality and ‘alien’ (non–native) fishes were used to determine anthropogenic effects on habitat and fish assemblage. The measured geomorphology characteristics included current velocity, wetted width and depth. The water quality characteristics used were temperature, pH and conductivity. To determine the effects of native and non-native on indigenous fish species in situ, electro fishing was used in riffles, small pools and runs; as well, in situ seine-netting was done in pools. The riches of river fish species was measured, using numbers abundance and longitudinal distribution indices. It was established that only 11% of the Tyhume River habitat was relatively near natural, while 89% exhibited anthropogenic habitat modification. Three major sources of anthropogenic modification on habitat were identified. The major contributor of anthropogenic effects was Binfield Park Dam which accounted for 43% of modification. The second source of anthropogenic effects on habitat was Alice urban area where storm water runoff accounted for 28% of modification. Agricultural and livestock grazing, the third anthropogenic effect, accounted for 18% of modification. The Eastern Cape Rocky, Sandelia bainsii Castelnau, 1861 and Border Barb, Barbus trevelyani Günther, 1868, exhibited reduced distribution. B. trevelyani longitudinal distribution was less than 25 km along the river continuum, with sporadic presence in the sandy foothills. S. bainsii was not found in the Lowland Zone, while previously this species extended from the mountainous zone to the confluence of the Tyhume and Keiskamma Rivers in the Lowland Zone. These indices supported the homogenization theory, as reflected by increased dissimilarity for two indigenous fish species, S. bainsii and B. trevelyani, among study sites. S. bainsii was previously vi | P a g e distributed from source to confluence, while B. trevelyani recorded a 50% decline at the study site below the Binfield Park Dam. To assign economic value to ecosystem services and assess post Rio-institutional parameters two hypothetical scenarios were developed from the ecological survey; one depicting current conditions and another depicting improved ecosystem services. Using a structured interview questionnaire, five ecosystem services in need of restoration were described to respondents. Applying the contingent valuation method respondents were asked a dichotomous choice question on willingness to pay (WTP). Results of the economic study from 209 personal interviews revealed, individuals were willing to pay an additional R 32.00 on their monthly water bill or R 384.00 annually. Generalizing this to 2 829 households living in the Alice and Ntselamanzi urban areas, a total value of R 1 086 336 would be realized annually. This was equivalent to the Nkonkobe Municipality annual budget for storm water management in Alice urban area. Costs/benefits revealed a positive net present value (NPV) = 1, which, in line with economic theory, meant gainers were able to compensate losers The institutional part of the economic survey sought to determine the effects of post Rio Earth Summit institutional measures on sustainable management of Tyhume River fish assemblage. A desk review of Rio Declaration and three South African statutes were used namely; Constitution Act 108 of 1996 (South African Constitution 1996); the National Environmental Management Biodiversity Act No. 10 of 2004 (NEMBA 2004), the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) No. 107 of 1998 (NEMA 1998), and the National Water Act No. 36 of 1998 (NWA 1998). The Institutional and Analytic Development (IAD) Framework, coupled with requirements for sustainability of Multiple Use Resource Domains were used for the analysis. De Jure, the statutes had internationalization of environmental costs through “polluter pays principle”, while sustainable use was the overarching goal. De facto, the community participation, a requisite of post Rio measures, was low; however vii | P a g e 89% of community respondents were willing to join an environmental conservation group. This, coupled with the fact that 77% of those interviewed supported the establishment of a Tyhume River Restoration Fund, provided scope for a broad based community participation framework This study contributes to sustainable use of Tyhume River and other lotic systems

Load more