The Mine Tailings As Construction Material in the Viceregal Period: Case Study in Guanajuato City, Mexico

http://dx.doi.org/10.18268/BSGM2019v71n2a18 P. 543‒564 VOL. 71NO. 2 BOL. SOC.GEOL.MEX.2019 Victoria, Guanajuato, Mexico. Industrial PuertoInterior, 36275Silaodela Valenciana No. 200,Col.Fraccionamiento. Politécnico Nacional,Av. Mineralde Ingeniería CampusGuanajuato, Instituto Unidad Profesional Interdisciplinaria de Salazar-Hernández Ma. DelCarmen Guanajuato, Mexico. Universidad deGuanajuato, Irapuato, División deCienciaslaVida (DICIVA), Gabriela AnaZanor Guanajuato, CampusGuanajuato, Mexico. Arquitectura, ArteyDiseño, Universidad de deArquitectura,Departamento Divisiónde Velia Yolanda Ordaz Zubia Mexico. sidad deGuanajuato, CampusGuanajuato, Geología, DivisióndeIngenierías, Univer deMinas,Departamento Metalurgia y Isidro Loza-Aguirre Yanmei Li Cristina DanielaMoncada Raúl Miranda-Avilés [email protected] María Jesús Puy-Alquiza Gabriela Ana María Jesús case studyinGuanajuatoCity,Mexico The minetailingsasconstructionmaterialintheviceregalperiod: Manuscript July accepted: 20, 2018. Corrected manuscript received: June 23,2018. Manuscript received: January 20,2018. Puy-Alquiza Zanor , Ma. Del Carmen , Ma.Del Carmen , Raúl - Miranda-Avilés Diffraction. Coupled Plasma MassSpectrometry,X-Ray viceregal period, Guanajuato city,Inductively Keywords:tailings, mine hacienda, mining amalgamation. by themethod of the mineral benefit of the processof them are the product of Zircon, Sepiolite, Brushite, Fizelytemost of and Gypsum; Schuetteite, Sphalerite, Zinkenite, Sanidine, Sidorenkite, Calcite, Faujasite Erionite-K, Na andK, Gismondine, Illite, 17majorminerals:Quartz, Orthoclase, the presence of firmed respect to theresults we obtained X-Rayin con Diffraction, eighteenth centuries in the New Spaintoobtainsilver. With was by amalgamation usedinthe sixteenth, seventeenth and benefit Hg indicates that the method of presenceThe of a metallurgical process. indicate that they were the product of Cu,Zn,Pb and SnpresentedHg andCr). The in the adobes heavy metals (Cu, Be, Zn,Sn, Pb, Ni, Co, V,tration of Sb, share the same chemical composition, varyingthe concen SpectrometryPlasma Mass showed analysis that adobe bricks low compressibility.correspond tosiltof Inductively Coupled to the UnifiedSoil Classification System,the adobes studied (70%). According fines samples have ahigherpercentage of different behavior, onthe property depending tested. Adobe analytical results support that the six adobe samples exhibited the adobe architecture. The contribute to the conservation of adobeconstructions, andto for of thesafetyassessment knowledge, essential studiesaimto establishThese of abasis tent), and biological properties (organic material content). (granulometry, real density, total porosity andmoisture con properties (simple compressive strength), physical properties their mechanical some analyzes to determine were performed know their chemical and mineralogical likewise,composition; and ScanningElectronDiffraction Microscopy, inorder to InductivelySpectrometry, Coupled Plasma Mass of X-Ray adobe specimens wereThe investigated by the techniques Hacienda Rayas)Hacienda PurisimaandMining inMexico. Hacienda SanClemente,Hacienda Duran,Mining Mining Juan Nepomuceno,Hacienda SanJeronimo, Mining Mining eighteenth centuries in Guanajuato city (MiningHaciendaSan the seventeenth and bricks, collected from several buildings of adobe sixsamplesof mechanical andchemical properties of the Guanajuato River.work,this In we studythe physical, mud andminetailings, takenfrom the surroundingsof of material they usedfor their construction wasadobes composed by these haciendas were their activity, determined of so, the obtained from themines. designandarchitectural The style with their main objectiveself-sufficient to benefit from the ore As they up, grew they became federal states, which were in Guanajuato were a very well-developed economic system. Guanajuato. haciendas The the city of and development of along the Guanajuato River, promoting the human settlements mine tailings. mininghaciendaswere first The established of the yearin production 1557. Mining generated large amounts weredeposits discovered in about 1552, andmore intensely From the earliest records, it can be deduced that the mineral the following years, the silver-gold were deposits discovered. valuable minerals, andtoevangelize.ranches, In insearch of the distribution of of Guanajuato for the purpose of territory 1540–1550,when someSpaniardsentered the the decade of Guanajuato anditsenvirons in began colonizationThe of ABSTRACT Salazar-Hernández Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín , Velia Yolanda , Yanmei Ordaz Zubia - - - Li , Isidro La producción cantidades de jales mineros. minera generó grandes brieron hacia 1552, y de una manera más intensa en el año 1557. primeros sededucequelos yacimientos registros mineros sedescu siguientes años sedescubrieron los yacimientos de plata-oro.los De ganaderas,busca en de minerales valiosos y aevangelizar. Enlos de estancias de la repartición guanajuatense con motivo al territorio la década en de 1540–1550,cuando algunos españoles entraron La colonización dela cañada deGuanajuatoysus alrededores inició RESUMEN Inductivamente, Difracción de Rayos X. Espectrometría deMasas de Plasma Acoplado ciudad de Guanajuato,virreinal, periodo Palabras clave: jales, haciendas de beneficio, proceso debeneficiodelmineral porelmétododeamalgamación Fizelyte yGypsum; la mayoríaBrushite, de ellos son producto del Esfalerita, Sanidina, Sidorenkita, Zinkenita, Zircon, Sepiolite, Faujasita Na yK,Erionita-K, Gismondina, Illite, Schuetteite, presencia de 17 minerales principales: Cuarzo, Ortoclasa, Calcita, a los resultados obtenidos en Difracción de Rayos X, se muestra la España paraXVII y XVIII enla Nueva obtener plata. Con respecto método de beneficio fue la amalgamación utilizada en los siglos XVI, producto de un proceso metalúrgico. La presencia de Hg indica que el El Cu,Zn,Pb y Snpresenteslos en adobes indican que fueron el metales pesados (Cu, Be, Zn, Sn, Pb, Ni, Co, V, Sb, Hg y Cr). la misma composición mineralógica, variando la concentración de Plasma Acoplado Inductivamente muestra que los adobes comparten sibilidad. El análisis realizado con la Espectrometría de Masas de Suelos, a limos de baja compre los adobes estudiados corresponden acuerdo(70%). De con elSistema Unificado de Clasificación de diferente. Las muestras de adobe tienen unmayor porcentaje de limos indican que las seis muestras de adobe mostraroncomportamiento un dela arquitectura del adobe.la conservación Los resultados obtenidos de adobe, de y las contribuirconstrucciones a luación de la seguridad estudios pretenden establecer una base de conocimiento para la eva las propiedades Estos biológicas (contenido de materia orgánica). metría, densidad real, porosidad total y contenido de humedad), y (resistencia a la compresión simple), propiedades físicas (granulo propiedades mecánicas química y mineralógica. Se determinaron y Microscopía Electrónica de Barrido, para conocer la composición Masas de Plasma Acoplado Inductivamente, Difracción de Rayos X de adobe fueronmediante técnicas de Espectrometría investigados de Purísima y Hacienda Minera Rayas) en México. Los especímenes Minera Duran, Hacienda Minera San Clemente, Hacienda Minera Juan Nepomuceno, Hacienda Minera San Jerónimo, Hacienda XVII y XVIII enla ciudad de Guanajuato (Hacienda Minera San de seis muestras de adobes recolectados en varios edificios de los siglos este trabajo se estudian las propiedades físicas, mecánicas y químicas y jales de minas, extraídos de los alrededores del río Guanajuato. En fueron que utilizaron adobes creados para por su construcción barro por su actividad, por lo que elmaterial haciendas fueron determinados ral obtenido de las minas. El diseño y el estilo arquitectónico de estas que eran autosuficientes, era ysuprincipal objetivo beneficiar el mine rrollado. A medida que crecieron, se convirtieron enestados federales haciendas de Guanajuatoeransistema un económico muy biendesa Guanajuato, las cuales dieron origen a la ciudad de Guanajuato. Las Las primeras haciendas mineras se establecieron delrío alolargo , Cristina Daniela Loza-Aguirre /2019 Moncada 543 , ------

The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico ABSTRACT The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico INTRODUCTION 544 544 1. Introduction Africa, the Indiansubcontinent andother parts United States,the southwestern Mesoamerica, America in years by indigenouspeoples of of building material, widelyusedfor thousands Adobe mud blocksare prehistoric acommon by Spanish capitals around strategy, which labor, mostlyindigenous, whichgathered was of economic unitsthat took the abundant availability century, they consolidated as interdependent themining in locations to supply them. Later,centers inthe seventeenth contiguous in first at mining,thein late is sixteenth century. Ithappened in which they developed farming, ranching and the haciendas, origin of The domestic purposes. adobe buildings erected were used for most of Peninsula. During the Spanish Colonial period, during their 800 century. Arabs brought The adobe to Spain until the Spanish introduced it in the seventeenth United States did notuseadobe southwestern the early the XVIcentury, while the Indians of the Spanish in beforeadobe bricks the arrival of Mexicoand Central America developed Maya of Oaxaca and the Mayathe Valley lowlands. The of architectural efficient Aztecs from the West Mexico,developments of the are this for example also been used asthe raw basicbuilding material, Mexico, the earth has Throughout of the history been found inTurkestan(4000 BCE). andAssyria 8000to6000 BCEhave of 2008). Constructions BCE (Heathcote, 1995;Kemp, 1999;Atzeni use to first the raw the earth for building since 10 was civilization Egyptian The dating7000 BCE(Steen, as far back 1977). as villages in Mesopotamia, Neolithic farming structures are those discovered in the ruins of adobe 1989). Amongtheearliest remainsof broughtwas (Smith andAustin, totheAmericas theNewWorld, the word “adobe” of conquests and Canas-Guerrero, 2006). Through Spanish (Houben andGuillard, 1994;Jiménez-Delgado Europe the Middle East, andSouthern Asia, of / Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín th ya cuaino theIberian year occupation of th Millennium et al ., /2019 Mintz, 1957). Some haciendas were enormous were1957). Somehaciendas Mintz, enormous and the owner” (Wolf the status aspirations of scarce capital accumulation, but also to support of organized to supply asmall-scale market by means dominant landowner labor force, andadependent and looters. haciendaswere The “operated by a to exploit it from land andsafekeep bandits was objective main their and self-sufficient, were grew, service.farms As theybecame states, which conquerorsin exchangeand Spanish for military during that time, which land by granted the Revolution. originwasgiven The toasystem period between the Conquest and the Mexican in Mexico were an economicsystemduring the domination. Haciendas facilitated the processof 2004; Meyers, 2005).Animportant distinguishing 1985; Meyers andCarlson, 2002; Alexander, archaeological studies (Benavides, number of research hasproduced a small, but growing in several regions. Recently, Mexican hacienda archaeological projects by the growing number of well to anthropological investigation, asevidenced racial identities.such, As the hacienda lendsitself the new class, ethnicand and institutionalization of contact and provided a locus for the generation conquerors andindigenousconquered into daily brought haciendasystem The European anancientlandscape. physical reordering of each newhacienda, there came a social and of estate.large agricultural With the establishment MexicanThe hacienda was more a than simply 1990; BrannonandJoseph, 1991,Chance, 2003). Morner, 1973;Van Young, 1983;Jarquín and society (Chevalier, 1963; Taylor, 1972; the institution inthe Mexican history, economyof research, leaving nodoubtasto the importance historical long beenafocusthe haciendahas of States (Meyers andCarlson,2002). InMexico, slavesUnited the Caribbean in andsouthern plantation peons led lives similarto those of debt including peonage, indigenoushacienda Sanchez, 1997); however, due to many factors, hacienda workers were slaves not legally (Gonzalez force paralleled New World plantations, although labor and structure whose fiefdoms, landholding et al ., allowed obtaining pure silver at low costandat that the XVI century innovation in the mining of method was the most important technical thatalso known is amalgamationas “patio”. The amalgamation silvermade by was the method of of benefit the centuries, XVIII and XVII During both. and development of state capital, and fromdate,this boththeprogress Guanajuato, but also the mining inthe district of vein, of not only beginsthe history San Bernabe the example,Guanajuato, in the discovery since of by the activity developeddetermined therein. For the hacienda were designandarchitectureThe of and studieswithanexcavation focus. haciendaarchaeological settlement patterns; of with linkagesto broaderstudies cultural patterns; hacienda development events and processes of archaeologically relevant, becausetheydescribe three types: studies that are historicallybased,but and Daneels, 2012), that can be grouped into Fournier Garcia andMondragon,2003;Liberotti (Alexander, 1997;Fournier-Garcia, 1997; strong anthropological problem orientation these investigations hasbeen their attribute of upon this process, the haciendas arose in the (Antúnez, 1964). Based then melted into bars and recovered by cooling. pure The silver was (capellina), so that the mercury wasevaporated heatedwas “piña” under abell The called “piña”. mass solid a leaving flow would mercury the that “pella”, which was placed in canvas bags, so the metal elements, obtaining a material called to separate the earth and theimpuritiesfrom for three months.washed the“torta”was Then mercury and left to rest waswell incorporated moved with shovels or walking on it, so that the “torta”was a pastecalled “torta”. The to form water, salt and quicksilver common (mercury) siltclays, adding reducing the ore to the size of passed through trawls where it was re-worked, 8mmindiameter, later this material was a size of the material extractedgrinding from the mine to amalgamation method consisted of mineral. The for that reason, it was usedmainlyasalow-grade profit, for refined be could that amounts greater Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín 2. Studyarea and metallurgical operations by throwing them tailings derived frommining the of to dispose in common and mills. Duringthe mining process, itwas harvest storage, laundries, foundryfurnaces, store, garden, stables, for corrals cattle, wineries chapel, workers’houses, administrative buildings, the hacienda” had a main house, the” hull of the hacienda lived. Next tothe the of owners wherehouse the main thehacienda”is of “hull the hacienda”. The areaa housing called “hull of landwith silver (Figure 1).Theyhad vast tractsof castobtaining main its quicksilver, of benefit of local mining by the method the development of seventeenth promoting century, withtheaimof fadobe, whosewere dimensions 0.45 m x 0.35 of constituted, whenever possible, by whole blocks Guanajuato (Figure sampleswere 1). The of city the of points different in distributed chosen, San JeronimoLa Purisima, and Rayas) were (San Juan Nepomuceno, San Clemente, Duran, selected. Based onthis,haciendas sixmining belonging to the 17th and18thcenturies was construction adobe of types different of samples six For the experimental test campaign, aset of processes for mininghaciendas. considered as geological materials inrestauration period, and provides reference values that can be used inGuanajuato cityduring the viceregal adobe bricks, traditionally characterization of studySengupta, 1993). This contributes to the from miningwaste (Orozco andOrozco, 1992; constructive materials and regulation inthe use of there are fewstudiesrelated to the elaboration adobes. Nowadays, waste was the manufacture of throwninto the river, this therefore, the use of government prohibited the mining waste to be the population. To avoid thissituation, the affecting severely floods numerous caused season during the rainy to becomesilted,which turn in into the river channels, which caused the rivers the iigdsrc fGuanajuato mining district of /2019 545 545

The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico INTRODUCTION / STUDY AREA The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico STUDY AREA 546 546 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY BUILDINGS STUDIED 2.1. DESCRIPTIONOFTHE SEVENTEENTHAND Figure 1 in the Mineral de la Luz initiates the exploitation the silver vein discoveryThe of inthe 16th century chambers, ovens, andstables. moretubs, wash water wheel, warehouses, barn, achapel, gallery, mills, oneor consistedof These the late seventeenth and early eighteenth century. we can say that the mining haciendas were built in (Camarillo-Ramirez andCortez-Barroso, 2015), historicbuildings According to the catalog of stonemillsmoved bymules. ore bymeans of hacienda’s galleys, the a space designed to grind the blocksstudied wereThe x 0.12m. m part of / General mapof Guanajuatocityshowing thesevenbuildings studied. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín /2019 usd f h iybiglctdo h ak f the city being located of on the banks outside of by the eighteenth century, they had moved to the city; occupied what nowadaysis the center of haciendas intheir beginnings amalgamation. The silver local mining by meansof development of emerged in the sixteenth century, promoting the haciendas then rainbecame important. The of riverthe main andother currents thattimes in bythe route determined was that followed both the settlement of In Guanajuato, the morphology the New Spain. in various partsof ings silver. haciendas were These in build fact the first particular in the smeltingoramalgamation of mining, haciendasbuilt of for the sole purpose of Guanajuato. discovery This led to the formation the mineral wealth in the District of Mining of - Figure 2 (Figures 2,3and4). San Juan Nepomuceno and La Purisima das of and tothe south, there were located the hacien space in Clemente. haciendathatoccupying The was a Duran,Rayas andSan east with the hacienda of thecityandcontinuing towardsthe the north of that towardsin anindustrialcorridor began mainly Guanajuato, concentrating the districtof mining haciendasthroughout caused theproliferation of the main river.(1765–1808) Bourbon reforms The General of themining characteristics haciendas SanJuanNepomuceno and La Purisima.

the interior of the city was San Jeronimo,was thecity the interior of Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín - 3. Methodology evaluate their use inconstructionandrestoration mechanical tests (simplecompressive strength) to (organic material content), and tests biological real density, total porosity, moisture content), sampled, such as:physicaltests (granulometry, the materials logical and physical of parameters byadobe typology applying mechanical, bio the at surveying aimed was one first the phases: researchThe developed was in three distinct /2019 547 547 -

The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico STUDY AREA / METHODOLOGY The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico METHODOLOGY 548 548 3.1.1. PHYSICAL TEST 3.1.1. PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION 3.1. MECHANICALANDPHYSICAL Figure 3 content. ulometry, real density, total porosityand moisture Physicalcharacterization testsprovided thegran theresults obtained. of sisted intheinterpretation Microscopy third(SEM-EDS). The phasecon Electron Scanning and (XRD) Diffraction X-Ray Coupled Plasma SpectrometryMass (ICP-MS), Inductively the techniquesusing analysis of ogy chemical characterization and morphol cation of monuments. second phasewasthe appli The of / General of themining characteristics haciendas SanClementeand Duran. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín - - - - /2019 3.1.1.2. REALDENSITY 3.1.1.1. GRANULOMETRY between themass andthevolume (Equation 1). real density wascalculated using the relationship test had a cubic shape(8 cm x8 cmx8cm).The seven1936, (2006). The specimensusedfor this imens, applyingthe European Standard UNE-EN Real Density tests were out on seven carried spec System (USCS). classified considering the Unified Soil Classification to ASTM D2487-11 standard. sampleswere The sieving. Sieve out accordingwas carried analysis particle sizeThe distributionobtained by was Pr =me/Vs (prh)(1) - 3.1.1.4. MOISTURECONTENT 3.1.1.3. TOTAL POROSITY Figure 4 cut piece was placed intothe ovencut piecewas at aconstant cut andweighed.adobe was Subsequently, the To themoisture content,apieceof determine Where ( thespecimen(Equation 2). volume of thepores (openandclosed)theapparent of lated using the relationship between the volume UNE-EN 1936, (2006). Total porosity wascalcu specimens, applyingtheEuropean Standard total porosityThe out on seven test was carried per cubicmeter. placed by( the mass; ( imen ingrams; Where ( General of themining characteristics haciendas SanJeronimo and Rayas. pb me ) is apparent density and( ) is the mass of crushed and dry spec crushedanddry ) is the of mass p =(1–pb/pr)X100 (2) Vs stevlm fliquiddis the ) is volume of prh ) water density in kilograms ) water density inkilograms pr ) real density. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín - - - 3.2.1. ORGANIC MATERIAL CONTENT 3.2. BIOLOGICAL TEST Where sulfate andthesample weight (Equation 3). potassiumdichromate, the ferrous volume of calculated using the relationship between the NMX-AA-21-1985. Total organic material was on seven species, applying the Mexican Standard total organic material out The test was carried thesample. weight of change between the initial weight and the dry tent was calculated considering the relative weight allowed to cool and weighed. moisture The con this time, the sample removedwas from the oven, 105±5°Cfor 24hours. After temperature of Organic material (%)= (V1.N1-VNF)K/P(3) V1 = Volume of potassium dichromate potassium =Volume of /2019 549 549 -

The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico METHODOLOGY The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico METHODOLOGY / RESULTS 550 550 3.4.1. ICP-MSANALYSIS MORPHOLOGY ANALYSIS 3.4. CHEMICALCHARACTERIZATION AND 3.3.1. SIMPLECOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHTEST 3.3. 3.4.2. XRDANALYSIS M K ferrous sulfate. solution of the sample in cm tion of ferrous sulfate solution usedinthe titra volume of potassium dichromate. the solution of of solution usedinthe sample cm model Rigaku, ULTIMA IV diffractometer at mineral research andcharacterization laboratory diffractometer IV ULTIMA Rigaku, model studied weresamples analyzedXRD using the minerals, the To thenature of determine Mori of we usedthemethodology For 75µm. sample preparation, to asizecrushed of nineteenth centuries. samples were The previously the seventeenth,in industry eighteenth and with the amalgamationthe methodmining usedin toxicity andtheir relationship for of their degree (Querétaro, Mexico). metals were These studied XII instrument at Centro deGeociencias-UNAM out bycarried Series ICP-MS, using a Thermo Co, Sb, Cr,Sn, Pb, Cu,Zn, and V)were Th eleven metals (Be, Ni, chemicalThe analyses of interval wasbetween 2and 6min. strain were continuously registered; sampling time rupture (1367 kN).Loadand within the limits of increasedaxial load was continuouslyat arate 1471kN. The allowed a maximum axial load of testing device(Universal PressForney apparatus) about mechanical isotropy.information The dicularly cut to the sediment bedding to obtain x 8cm)werex 8cm (8 cm parallelly and perpen cubic samples UNE-EN1926 (2006). The Norm specimens, applyingtheEuropean Standard strength (UCS) tests were out on seven carried stressreached before failure. Simple compressive the maximum value of to determine formed Simple compressive strength test also per was / ECHANICAL TEST =0.003. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín 3 . P N =wih fsample. = weight of =Nraiyo the of = Normality 3 . N1 et al = Normality = Normality . (2009). V = - - - /2019 3.4.3. SEM-EDS 4.1.1. GRANULOMETRY CHARACTERIZATION OFADOBES 4.1. PHYSICAL ANDBIOLOGICAL 4. Results anymetal coating. SEMinstrument(JEOL, The were investigated by SEM observation without the adobe bricks aspects of morphological The collection perstep. 0.02 and 2 s data and 90° 2θ, with width a of step 3° between diffraction investigatedwereX-rayby was obtained, as described above. Both fractions 0.044mm(Wentworth-Udden particle scale) of removal the of quartz. Subsequently, a fine fraction obtained by sieving, which allowed the partial was 0.0625mm seven powder samplesof of fraction first A radiation. CuKα University,with theGuanajuato (LICAMM), laboratoryof ad fsilty soils, elastic silts; ML:Inorganic Sandy of fine diatomaceous or micaceous silts, Inorganic soil:MH: studied correspond to the three types of wt% silt-clay. According to the USCS, the adobes 10.01 to 23.12 wt% sand and 73.36 to 87.94 size0.25 to 3.95 wt%gravel, compositionwas that make upthe adobes matrix grain studied. The the particles Table 1 showsthe size distribution of (Smith andAustin, 1989;1996). silt-size grains, and1to 15 wt% clay-size grains size, 89 wt%sand-and-larger grain 8to68wt% commerciallyThe produced adobe contains 27to raw material originally used to make the adobes. ing adobe, since it provides insightinto the type of aspect to be taken into account when characteriz size)adobe, is anessential (grain granulometry the fromApart the mineralogical of composition theGuanajuato University.oratory LICAMMof SEM-EDS wereanalyses out inthe lab carried used for semi-quantitative chemical analysis. The spectrometer (EDS), attached tothe SEM, was low vacuum,scanner whiledispersion the energy JSM- 6010 PLUS/LA) was operated at 15 kV ina - - Table 1.Granulometryofadobebrickssamples. CONTENT 4.1.3. MOISTURECONTENTANDORGANIC MATERIAL 4.1.2. REALDENSITYANDTOTAL POROSITY Hacienda Nepomuceno (XVIII) Nepomuceno Hacienda RayasHacienda (XVII) Clemente San Hacienda (XVII) La (XVIII) Hacienda Purisima (XVII) Duran Hacienda (XVII) Jeronimo San Hacienda Purisima (2.60%), Hacienda Rayas (2.29%), moisture content (3.80%), followed by Hacienda HaciendaSanJeronimoThe the highest has shown inTable 3. moistureThe and organic material content are bricks studiedvaries from 49.47to55%. adobe porosityThe the brick. of overall quality of reactivity,as: mechanical chemical strength, durability and the such properties, on influence its to g/cm values shownby studied the is 2.02to bricks 2.37 bulk density, of the range of sity values in terms Table a 2. The realThe density andtotal porosity are shown in (Table 1). gravelly clays, Sandyclays, clays, silty leanclays, low tomediumplasticity,CL: Inorganic clays of and plasticity slight with silts clayey or sands fine clayeyof flour, rock silty sands, fine very and silts followed by the Hacienda Rayas (15.60%), sented in the Hacienda SanJeronimo (19.20%), organic matter preis highestpercentageThe of Nepomuceno (1.85%). Duran (1.90%) and Hacienda San Juan Hacienda SanClemente (2.18%), Hacienda Adobe bricks samples bricks Adobe 3 . Porosityan important is parameter due d obe samplesshowed similarden rvlSn Silt-Clay Sand Gravel .12. 79.49 20.1 73.36 22.69 87.94 0.41 10.01 84.49 3.95 14.68 81.87 2.05 17.87 73.45 0.83 23.12 0.25 3.43 % % (%) (%) (%) Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín - - 4.2.1. SIMPLECOMPRESSIVESTRENGTHTESTS 4.2. MECHANICALCHARACTERIZATION OFADOBES 4.3.1. ICP-MSANALYSIS CHARACTERIZATION 4.3. MINERALOGICAL ANDCHEMICAL L nrai ly flwt eimpatct,gael clays, gravelly plasticity, medium to low of clays clayey Inorganic or CL: silty flour, rock sands, fine very and clays, silts gravelly Inorganic ML: plasticity, medium to low of clays clayey Inorganic or CL: silty flour, rock sands, fine very and silts clayey Inorganic or ML: silty flour, rock sands, fine or very and sandy silts Inorganic fine ML: diatomaceous or micaceous silts, Inorganic MH: sandy clays, silty clays,clays. lean clayey or fine sands plasticity. with slight silts sandy clays, silty clays,clays. lean clayey or fine sands plasticity. with slight silts clayey or fine sands plasticity. with slight silts elasticsilty silts. soils, different behavior. Hacienda Duran (5.48 kg cm showed that thesevenexhibitedsamples bricks orientations. resultsusing perpendicular The Table tests were 4. These conducted on specimens the mechanical tests are given in resultsThe of (7.58%) andHaciendaDuran(5.21%). Nepomuceno (8.96%),HaciendaSanClemente Hacienda Purisima(9.15%),SanJuan strength values, whenapplied perpen theloadwas San JuanNepomuceno cm (4.32kg Hacienda SanJeronimocm (5.44 kg graph. In Hacienda San Jeronimo,graph. the resulting metals, which are described in the following para certain heavy that have highconcentrations of heavy metals, however,values of there are adobes adobesshow shownTablein 5.Allstudiesof metals presentedThe samples arein the brick showed higherstrength values. cm Rayas (13.67kgcm dicularlyto thebeddingplanes, while Hacienda -2 ), and Hacienda San Clemente (7.11 kg cm Classification -2 (USCS) ), HaciendaPurisima(9.61kg /2019 -2 ) hadalower -2 ), Hacienda 551 551 -2 -2 ), - - )

The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico RESULTS The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico RESULTS 552 552 Table 4. Simple compressive strengthTable 4.Simplecompressive ofadobebrickssamples. Table 3.Moistureand organicmaterialcontent(%)of adobe brickssamples. Table 2.Natural volume weight,voidratio, porosityand realdensityofadobebrickssamples. ainaNpmcn XII 7 .793 9.37 9.47 9.39 9.48 9.5 8.71 9.47 8.89 8.16 8.65 870 8.16 7.92 799 (XVIII) Nepomuceno Hacienda 674.5 (XVII) Rayas Hacienda (XVII) Clemente San Hacienda 455 (XVIII) La Purisima Hacienda (XVII) Duran Hacienda (XVII) Jeronimo San Hacienda Hacienda San Clemente (XVII) Hacienda La PurisimaHacienda (XVIII) Duran (XVII) Hacienda San Jeronimo (XVII) Hacienda Hacienda Nepomuceno (XVIII) Hacienda Rayas Hacienda (XVII) ainaSnJrnm XI)20192.5 200 Duran(XVII)Hacienda (XVII) SanJeronimo Hacienda ainaNpmcn XII 63 35.7 40.43 52.75 36.36 41.31 NepomucenoHacienda (XVIII) 54.12 RayasHacienda (XVII) SanClemente Hacienda (XVII) LaHacienda (XVIII) Purisima low, when compared toother samples analyzed. Hacienda San Juan Nepomuceno, the values are g μg (4347.66 Pb and g μg (3671.18 Cu in ues Hacienda San Clemente has the high valThe g μg (2.31 Sn in values high the are there Purisima, g μg (33.78 Be in presented are respectively.values InHaciendaDuran,thehigh μg g g μg (76.85 Ni to correspond values / −1 Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín ) and Th (3.18μgg ) andTh Adobe bricks samples Weight Height Side 1 Side 2 Side 1 Side Height Weight samples bricksAdobe Adobe bricksAdobe samples Adobe bricks samples Wet weight (g) weight Wet samples bricks Adobe −1 ), Sb (158.68 μg g −1 −1 −1 ). InHaciendaRayas and ), respectively. ), and Cr (164.40 μg g −1 , n 62.7 g g μg (6121.37 Zn ), −1 Natural volume weight Void ratio Total porosity Real density Real porosity Total ratio Void volume weight Natural 9.586 .28.7 8.92 8.68 697.05 4. .6889.23 8.8 8.76 749.5 ). In Hacienda 43 63.12 64.32 68 55.55 56.82 g c)(m (mm) (mm) (cm) (g) −1 ), Co(12.10 (kg/m³) 1054 1081 1053 1015 1122 1083 −1 Dry weight weight Dry −1 ), - /2019 ) (g) 4.3.2. XRDANALYSIS Calcite (CaCO types different minerals, crystalline such as:Quartz (SiO of contain samples analyzed The Zn>Cu>Pb>Cr>Sb>Ni>V>Be>Co>Sn>Th. metals in the adobe studied were vity sequence of Be, are SnandTh the least variable. selecti The variability,and Vshowing while ahigherrange of analyzed metals are Ni, Cu,Co, Sb, Zn,Pb, Cr values. Amongthe ples display awiderange of Heavymetal concentrations from the adobe sam Moisture content content Moisture .849.47 0.98 .751.64 1.07 .753.76 1.17 .350.64 1.03 .450.74 1.04 1.1 1.85 2.18 2.29 (%) 1.9 2.6 3.9 3 ), Orthoclase ((K,Ba)(Si, Al) 52.35 (%) Organic material content material Organic Simple compressive (kg/cm strength 19.2 8.96 5.21 15.6 7.58 9.15 (%) 13.67 9.61 4.32 5.44 7.11 5.48 (g/cm 2 2.37 2.21 2.05 2.02 2.15 2.1 ) 3 ) 4 O), 2 ), - 5. Discussionandconclusions 4.3.3. SEM-EDSANALYSIS ofTable 5.Chemical adobebrickssamples. compositions(ICP-MS) The major and trace elements trace major The and (K, H H Na S), Fizelyite (Pb, Ag) Schuetteite (Hg (CaAl (Na (Na Sanidine K(Si s fadobe is very commoninLatin America, use of used materials commonly in construction. The the oldest and most areAdobe bricks one of als, presents Pb(Figures 6,7and8). additionto presentingin theaforementioned met Se. Hacienda San Clemente is the only one that, haciendas studied have Fe, Cu,Hg, Sn,Zn,S, and the theadobesof be observedit can thatof most forto theHaciendaLaPurisima.As themetals, all the studied adobes, excepting those that belong and dry grass vegetal fibers are common in almost pollen, and P in all adobe bricks. presences The of num (Si/Al)-rich particles and C,Ca, Na, Mg, K, SEMexaminationThe revealed silicon/alumi and Figure 5). (OH) 2 O, Zinkenite Pb 3 2 2 Mn(PO Cu Cu Zn Zn Co Th Cr Pb Be Sb Sb Sn Ni ( ,K , Ca,Mg) V 2 2 H (μgg (μg g (μg g (μg g (μg g (μg g Si (μg g (μg g (μg g (μg g 3 2 μg g μg O)(Al, Mg, Fe) ,Ca)2Al 2 2 O and gypsum (CaSO O and gypsum O −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 ) 8 4 ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ·4(H )(CO 3 4 Al)O Si 3.5 3 2 3 (SO O), Dickite(Al ), Sepiolite Mg ), Sepiolite 14 [Al O 8 , Zircon ZrSiO 4 7 36 )O Si Hacienda San San Hacienda ·15H 9 2 Sb 17 8 (Si,Al) 2 Jeronimo Sb 107 885 1731.99 1858.57 1160.78 ), Sphalerite ((Zn, Fe) O 158.68 248.34 291.86 63.03 164.4 76.85 22 2.39 1.36 12.1 0.85 48 S 2 ]·32(H O, Gismondine 42 11 4 ,Brushite CaPO S O 2 4 Si ·2H 10 24 4 2 [(OH) Si O , Sidorenkite 2 O), Erionite 2 6 5 O) (Table 6 O (OH) 4 , Faujasite Hacienda Hacienda 15 7.8344.74 407.56 575.38 701.97 Duran 50.33 33.78 29.95 15.04 2 2.09 1.47 6.48 24.8 (OH) ,(H 4 , Illite 2 O)], Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín 26 - - 3

Hacienda La La Hacienda Purisima 57.75 13.65 89.24 27.43 74.8 3.18 2.31 8.88 fia h ninsbotnn n te at fAfrica, the Indian subcontinentandother parts of ncasadsls h ainaRyso the in claysand silts. Hacienda Rayas The of content percentage different thesamples the by explained are of compression of values Different (Table 1). XX soil:MLandCL, correspond totwo typesof ML and CL, while ones the eighteenth-century soil:MH, USCS, theycorrespond tothree types of greater particle size diversity, andaccording to the theseventeenthhave century that thebuildingsof and control in production. Similarly, we can see adobes raw materials for the production of tion of (Figure that 1)suggests therea careful was selec materials in their distribution and particle size for only awhile. these Finally,if thesimilarityof presenting the adobes attenuates thisrisk, tion of consolidation andcompac of account the degree water, especially in the rainiest areas. Taking into erodibility and a potential risk to be eroded by matter (Table 3), which gives these materials high organic dominant, witha moderate amount of fine, very fine andthat slimefractions sandsof are clay are high, exceeding 87% (Table 1); the fact of the adobes studied, the percentages the matrix of silt andclayare thepredominant component in particle size indicates that sizes, of analysis The buildings inGuanajuato city are texturally similar. the seventeenth and eighteenth-century of bricks the present study indicate that the adobe results of Europe.the Middle East andSouthern Asia, The th Hacienda San San Hacienda cnuybidnsaetetp fsoil: ML buildings-century are the type of Clemente 3671.18 4347.66 6121.37 22.76 42.67 32.24 11.45 2.24 1.71 4.93 12.6 Hacienda Rayas Hacienda 1078.57 403.11 509.64 55.66 44.59 15.42 30.53 10.73 6.12 2.98 2.3 /2019 Nepomuceno Hacienda Hacienda 1047.77 576.94 36.99 49.38 20.32 531.9 4.31 1.87 8.43 9.24 3.14 553 553 - -

RESULTS / DISCUSSION AND The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico CONCLUSIONS The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 554 554 554 Table 6.Chemical compositions(XRD)of adobesamples. Hacienda LaPurisima (XVIII) Hacienda SanClemente (XVII) Hacienda Duran(XVII) Hacienda SanJeronimo (XVII) Hacienda Nepomuceno (XVIII) Hacienda Rayas(XVII) nificant changes. However, in the Hacienda San San Hacienda the However, in changes. nificant all samples tested have nosig densityof results of theadobes. The of the current goodcondition (XVIII) with a52.35%.Macro porosity canjustify est porosity, followed by the Hacienda La Purisima San Clemente the high (XVII) witha53.76%has theHacienda (Tablestudied of 2),thesamples porosityobtained According tothepercentages of soilandwater. fibers as asupplement in the mixture of vegetable of use the to related are results the Hacienda La Purisima (XVIII). Porosity of the case is this thehaciendas; of construction an advantage in the raw material used for the a naturalis consolidatorearth, on whichmeans and HaciendaLaPurisima(XVIII).Calcium for example the Hacienda San Clemente (XVII) silty clays, and silicon, have a higher content of aluminum All samples contain greater amount of the seventeenth (Table century 4). Clemente of and San the eighteenth century La Purisima of uniaxial compression, followed by the Hacienda seventeentha greaterhas resistance century to / Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín Adobe bricks Adobe Samples Sanidine, Orthoclase, Quartz, Na Na, Gismondine Na urz Faujasite- Quartz, Faujasite-Na, Erionite-K K, Faujasite- Quartz, Faujasite- Quartz, Gismondine Quartz, Gismondine Erionite-K, Faujasite-Na, Orthoclase, Quartz, etslctsPylslctsNsslctsCroae ufdsSulfates Sulfides Carbonates Nesosilicates Phyllosilicates Tectosilicates Faujasite------ikt -- --Fizelyite ------Dickite ----- Sidorenkite ------Sphalerite Calcite ------Zro act Sphalerite Calcite Zircon ------Illite Sepiolite Dickite, - - /2019 -- act Sphalerite Calcite ------act Zinkenite Calcite ------Calcite ----- sures allow for proper drying. mostcommon The betweenin thickness 6 and 10cm.These, mea 1:2between the width andthe length, varying of is the adobe normally,dimensions; they are ratios the building. Another important aspect of history ofthese elements provides insightinto the construction The presence cracking. from solidified great weather ability and prevents the blocksonce withclay allows grass properdry agglutination, Mix fibers. plant and grass, pollen, have studied resistance to uniaxial compression. All adobes ter, porosityand which explains itspercentage of organic mat and Rayas) have higher content of seventeenth-century haciendas(San Jeronimo of adobes the this, on Based time. by caused effects clayey soils, better tole of ter, it increases theporosityaerationand capacity organic mat in asample withhighcontent of as in the above variables (porosity anddensity); (2006). Organic matter plays animportant role 2.2 g/cm Clemente the above average between 1.6and 3 was reported by Achenza and Sanna rating the mechanical Schuetteite Gypsum Gypsum, cutet ------Schuetteite ysm----- Gypsum Schuetteite Schuetteite Brushite ------Phosphates - - - Figure 5 XRDofadobebricks samples. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín /2019 555 555

The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 558 558 Nepomuceno. Figure 7 fthe haciendas had his own technique for the of indicates that12 x4060cm.This each owner whilex 45cm, sizes the eighteenth-century are dimensions, seventeenth-centurysizes are 12x35 different have studied buildings the up make that In ourcasestudy,and 7x2040cm. the bricks ratios found are 6 x 15 x 30 cm, 10 x 30 x 60 cm Zn>Cu>Pb>Cr>Sb>Ni>V>Be>Co>Sn>Th. metals in the adobe studied were vity sequence of Be, are SnandTh the least variable. selecti The variability,Cr and Vshow while ahigher range of values. Ni,Cu,Co, The Sb,Pb, Zn, wide range of concentrations from the adobe samples display a the time. Heavymetal derived from the mining of benefit is,thatthe local, is adobes manufactureof indicates This the raw materials used for the that the originof concentrations. different with Be,Zn, Sn,Pb, Ni,Co, V, Sb, Hg, andCr),but adobe sharebricks the same heavymetals (Cu, the adobes. ICP-MS showsthat preparation of / SEMmicrophotographs ofheavymetals andcomposition: a,b)Mining EDS Hacienda Duran; c,d)Mining Hacienda SanJuan Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín /2019 cess bycess presencethe amalgamation method.The pro beneficiation mineral the during calcite and carbonate sodium the addition of is the result of additive material manufacturing.in brick Calcite particles somesand as an cess, andto the use of pro beneficiation the after generated waste the Quartz (SiO presenceThe of minerals. and Gypsum.Quartz and Calcite are the major Sidorenkite, Zircon, Sepiolite, Brushite, Fizelyte Schuetteite, Sphalerite, Zinkenite, Sanidine, K, Erionite-K, Gismondine, Illite, Dickite, Quartz, Orthoclase, Calcite, Faujasite Na and diffrac X-ray the 18majorminerals: tion show the presence of from obtained results The is the presence of Erionite-K. The Erionite-K, Erionite-K. The is the presence of turies. Animportant element within the adobes used duringthe seventeenth and eighteenth cen S) and Zinkenite (Pb Schuetteite (Hg of 3 (SO 9 Sb 4 22 )O S 42 2 ), Sphalerite ((Zn, Fe) ) is due to the process 2 ) i s attributed to - - - - Hacienda SanJuanNepomuceno. Figure 7 (Continuation) SEM microphotographs ofheavy metalsandcomposition: a,b)Mining EDS Hacienda Duran; c,d)Mining Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín /2019 559 559

The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 560 560 Hacienda SanJuanNepomuceno. Figure 7 / (Continuation) SEM microphotographs ofheavy metalsandcomposition: a,b)Mining EDS Hacienda Duran; c,d)Mining Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín /2019 Hacienda SanJuanNepomuceno. Figure 7 ogetdfeecsa otecmoiino the of composition the to as differences great no mining, we cansaythat there were haciendas of the results obtained from the of ration. In terms architecturalinternal features, and water satu the unequal settlements, collapsingbecause of as such forms, deterioration different of creation these mechanismsled to the conditions. Allof als used;manufacture processes;and dominate may This be due to the presence of: the materi units are variable. bricks these define that characteristics The 2004). trollivestock in production) (IARC, 1987a;NTP, tural applications (i.e. infertilizersand odorcon processcracking and studiedfor itsuseinagricul a noble-metal-doping catalyst inahydrocarbon geological settings. Erionite-Kbeenusedas has of volcanic tuffs ( certain in found Zeolite fibrous natural a is which (Continuation) SEM microphotographs ofheavymetalsandcomposition: a,b)Mining EDS Hacienda Duran; c,d)Mining e.g . rhyolite tuff) and in a wide range Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín - - - - Acknowledgements Juriquilla-Queretaro. Mexico (UNAM), AutonomousUniversity of laboratory ultraclean ICP-MS from the National samplesanalyzed in the and measurement of M. C. Ofelia Perez Arvizu inthe preparation to thanks special Also, SEM. the and diffraction X-ray of the analysis support intherealization of Our to the thanks laboratory LICAMMfor its different periods. of various samples from different mining districts and adobe haciendas mining, to analyze it is necessary greater theoretical and practical knowledge about for that recommend We benefit. of hacienda the metals materials, except for the presence of /2019 561 561 in

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS / The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The mine tailings as construction material in the viceregal period: case study in Guanajuato City, Mexico DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 562 562 Figure 8 / SEMmicrophotographs of heavymetals andcomposition: EDS a,b)Mining Hacienda San Jeronimo. Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín /2019 References Antúnez, F., Históricay 1964,Monografía Alexander, R.T., 2004,Yaxcabá andthe caste war Alexander, R.T., 1997,Settlement Patterns Achenza, M.,Sanna,U., 2006,Ilmanuale Chance, J.K., 2003,Haciendas, Ranchos, and Camarillo-Ramírez, L.E.,Cortez-Barroso, Benavides, A.,1985,Notas sobre la Brannon, J., Joseph, G.M., 1991,Land,labor& Atzeni, C.,Pia, G., Sanna, U., Spanu, N., 2008, A Cagliari, DEI,126p.Cagliari, recupero dei centri storici della Sardegna: tematico cruda,Manuali della terra di 15–45. Puebla: Ethnohistory,Colonial Valley 50, of Indian Towns: ACase Study from the Late Guanajuato, 833p. del Estado de1927-1980: H.Congreso M.D., 2015,Catálogo del Archivo histórico Antropológicos, 31,45–58. Yucatán: Revista Mexicana de Estudios arqueología histórica de laHacienda Tabi, AlabamaPress, 344 p. University of andpolitical economy:history Tuscaloosa, Yucatán:capital inmodern essays inregional Building Materials, 22,1607–1613. earth-based materials: Constructive of the porous microstructure fractal modelof Naturales noRenovables, 588p. Distrito Federal, Consejo de Recursos Minera sobre elDistrito de Guanajuato: Press, 207p. New Mexico Albuquerque, University of Yucatán: anarchaeologicalof perspective: 2940 p. 38,Archaeology, California, University of Central, andSouth America: Institute of México, to the Historical Archaeology of G.C., Fournier-Garcia, P. (eds.), Approaches before the Caste War, Landand Population the Distribution of Parish, Yucatán, México: Implications for the Late ColonialPeriod inYaxcabaof in Gasco, J., Smith, Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana Geológica Sociedad la de Boletín González Sánchez, I.,1997,Haciendas, Tumultos Fournier-Garcia, P., Mondragon,L.,2003, Fournier-Garcia, P., 1997,Tendencias de Consumo Chevalier, F., 1963, Landandsocietyincolonial Kemp, B., 1999,Soil (Including Mud-Brick Jiménez-Delgado, M.C.,Canas-Guerrero, I., Jarquín,M.T., 1990,Origenevolución y de la for Agency ResearchInternational Cancer Houben, H., Guillaud, H., 1994, Earth earthwall Heathcote,1995, Durabilityof K.A., México. 50,47–68. Ethnohistory Life in the Mezquital Valley,of Hidalgo, Haciendas, Ranchos, andtheOtomiWay 38,49–58. California, University of Archaeology,and South America:Institute of México, Central, Historical Archaeology of Fournier-Garcia, P. (eds.), Approaches to the Independiente, en México durante los PeriodosColonial e Press. California University of México; the great hacienda: Berkeley, Cambridge, 79–103.ISBN:0521452570. Technology:Cambridge UniversityPress, Materials and I. (ed.), Ancient Egyptian Architecture), and BuildingMaterials, 20,9,679–690. 2006, Earth building in Spain: Construction Historia. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Mexiquense; Universidad Iberoamericana: Edo. de México [México City]: Colegio de septiembre de1989,1 realizadomemorias del simposio del 27 al30 hacienda en México, XVIal XX: siglos 42, 1–239,PMID:2824337. Chemicalsto Humans, Carcinogenicof Risk the IARC onthe Evaluation Monographs of (IARC), 1987a,Silica and somesilicates. ITDG Publishing, London,UK,376p. ComprehensiveConstruction: A Guide, 185–189. buildings:Construction BuildMater, 9, Manuales. México, D.F., INAH, 1778–1798. y Trabajadores Puebla-Tlaxcala: Serie in in Nicholson, P.T., Shaw, Gasco, J., Smith,G.C., a ed. Zinacantepec, ed.Zinacantepec, /2019 563 563

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