The European City in Contemporary Film How are stereotypes and images of European cities revisited and challenged in the films of American director ?

Master Thesis European Studies Identity and Integration Graduate School for Humanities Dr. K.K. Lajosi-Moore Prof. Dr. J.T. Leerssen The 1st of July 2016 Raisa van Nieuwenhuize 10306242

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Contents Introduction ...... 3

Chapter 1 Theoretical Framework ...... 7 Cultural Constructions of Images ...... 7 The City and Film ...... 9

Chapter 2 Paris (2011) ...... 12 Locations ...... 14 Themes and Characters ...... 19

Chapter 3 (2008)……………………………… . 20 Locations ...... 22 Themes and Characters ...... 26

Chapter 4 Rome To Rome with Love (2012) ...... 26 Locations ...... 27 Themes and Characters ...... 38

Chapter 5 (2005) ...... 32 Locations ...... 32 Themes and Characters ...... 34

Conclusion ...... 38

Bibliography ...... 41

Cinematography ...... 46

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Introduction As numerous studies have shown, images have a strong impact on peoples’ minds, and therefore, it is important to understand how images are represented to the public and what the aim of the images are. We see this in how national identity, national characters, and national stereotypes are represented, and therefore, we have certain prejudices about nations, cities, and social groups. These images are hetero-images, how we see others, but also auto-images, how we see ourselves. The study of Imagology looks into these images. Imagology is the study of national characterizations and national, cultural or ethnic stereotypes. Imagology looks at the origin and historical development of these images and how they are represented.1 Just like a nation has a national character, a city has a city character, and both nation and city characters consist of cultural features that construct the cultural identity of the nation or city.2 For example, when one thinks of Paris, he or she usually immediately thinks of a city of love and fashion, of the Eiffel tower and the Louvre, and of artistic people eating croissants. When one thinks of London, he or she usually thinks of the Tower Bridge, Big Ben, the financial centre, red double-deckers, and people who are snobbish, love the royal family and like to drink tea. These characters are used to emphasize the differences among nations and, in this case, among cities as well. For that reason, the focus in this thesis will be on the representation of European cities. Nowadays, more than fifty per cent of the population lives in cities. Cities, most of all, represent innovation, modernity, and industrialisation, but they also represent cultural heritage and history. In addition, representations of cities have an influence on people’s visual and cultural perceptions of those cities, which is called the urban mindscape.3 However, it not only addresses the external appearance of the city, but also its internal activities. That consists of local and external images of a city (auto and hetero images). That is why all these features form the character of the city. However, why do we always have the same images about these cities? What kind of influence does the (cultural) history have on the perception of the city? And are these hetero-images the same as their auto-images? These are questions in which the discipline of imagology may have an answer. European cities were chosen for this research because nowadays cities have a significant influence on their nations and on Europe as well. Cities are part of a nation’s economic development and are used for promotion of the national identity.4 However,

1 M. Beller & J. Leerssen, Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters – A Critical Survey, ed. Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2007), xiii. 2 J. Leerssen, “The Rhetoric of National Character: A Programmatic Survey”, Poetics Today, 2, (2000): 267. 3 G. Weiss-Sussex, G. & F. Bianchini, “Urban Mindscapes of Europe”, Special number of European Studies, 23, (Amsterdam, 2006): 13-14. 4 H. Kim & S.L Richardson, “Motion picture impact on Destination Images”, Annals of Tourism, 1, (2003): 217. 4 imagology focuses largely on the representations of images in literature, and since the beginning of the 20th century, there have been new media developments through the emergence of cinema and television. People are now constantly influenced by television, social media, which make it easier and faster to represent and spread certain images and to influence a large audience. Therefore, the main theme of this thesis is how stereotypes and images of European cities are represented in contemporary films. Nowadays, film is used to promote positive images of European cities because authorities became aware of the potential that the creative industries have for a city’s economic and image development.5 Soffier described film “as a medium that shows landscapes throughout the world, cinema helps to increase the media coverage of an area.”6 The main research question of this thesis is as follows: How are stereotypes and images of European cities revisited and challenged in the films of American director Woody Allen? Woody Allen was chosen because, in the last ten years, he has made several films that were set in European cities. These films can be seen as an example of the effect that public policies can have on the contemporary film industry because Woody Allen was mainly filming in these cities for practical and financial reasons.7 The Europeans financed Woody Allen’s films because they knew what kind of benefits these films could have on their cities’ images. Still, Woody Allen could represent the cities in his film like he wanted from his own American perspective.8 For that reason, it is of interest to examine how Woody Allen visualizes stereotypes and images, as well as what kind of influence that visualization has on the European cities and on people’s perception of those cities. Therefore, I will examine how certain images, related to people’s expectations of a city, are represented in film. The image formed by films is of importance for certain destinations because it works as a mode for the promotion of cities.9 For that reason are “movies extremely influential in promoting, confirming, and reinforcing images, opinions, and the destination’s identity, as well as playing a significant role in the image construction of touristic destinations like certain European cities” according to Rodriguez Camp and Rodiguez-Toubes Muniz.10

5 A. Soffier, “How European Cities are fighting over Cinema”, Inalglobal, last modified on June 21, 2016: http://www.inaglobal.fr/en/cinema/article/how-european-cities-are-fighting-over-cinema. 6 Ibid. 7 J. Matloff, “Woody Allen’s European Vacation” last modified on June 21, 2016: http://jasonmatloff.com/selected-articles/woody-allens-european- vacation/. 8 Ibid. 9 L. Rodriguez Campo, J.A Fraiz Brea, D. Rodiguez-Toubes Muniz, “Tourist Destination Image formed by the Cinema: Barcelona positioning through the feature film Vicky Christina Barcelona,” European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation, 1, (2011): 137. 10 Ibid. 5

To examine how stereotypes and images of European cities are revisited and challenged in the films of American director Woody Allen, the first chapter will outline the theoretical framework of the thesis, which consists of both literature and films. The selected literature will survey how cultural constructions of images and stereotypes are represented, how cinema contributes to people’s understanding of cities, and how filmmakers make use of urban space. The imagology theories in the literature are mostly based on the research applied to literary books, but with the rise of cinema, television, and internet, these theories will be used for the analysis of the selected films of Woody Allen. In the second part of the thesis, four Woody Allen movies, divided in four chapters, recorded in European cities will be analysed by the theories of images outlined in the first chapter, the theoretical framework. The first film is Midnight in Paris (2011). In the film, Gil, an American screenwriter, is trying to write a novel. He longs for the Paris of the twenties, a period he sees as a golden era. The film presents Paris in a beautiful picturesque way as the city of artistic people and love. The second film is Vicky Christina Barcelona (2008). This romantic comedy is about two American students who become in love with a Spanish artist and his mentally unstable ex-wife. In this film, a general perception of “Spanishness” is set out through the characters and through the way Woody Allen viewed Barcelona. The third film, To Rome with Love (2012) is a comedy. The film brings the audience four stories: one about an American architect reliving his youth, an average middle-class Roman who suddenly is famous, a young married couple from the province who are drawn into romantic encounters, and an American opera director who cannot accept mortality. The last film is Match Point (2005). A former player, Chris, tries to get in the upper class of England. At the same time he falls for the beautiful Nola, who happens to be the girlfriend of his friend Tom. Eventually Chris has to choose between his love for Nola and his life in the upper class. By analysing these movies, I will look into questions, such as: what are the most common expectations when people think of a particular city and which images rise in people’s minds? Then, I will apply the theories according to the research on the films by analysing the locations that Allen had used for his films. I will determine whether they are characteristic and unique for that city, and meet the expectations of the audience or not. In addition I will analyse the characters, the themes and the narratives as well, where I want to examine how the city is represented in the film and whether this representation resembles the city’s stereotypes and images.

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In the final chapter, the conclusion, a short overview of the whole thesis will be given in which, after the similarities and differences of the films are compared, a final conclusion will be presented to provide an answer to the research question.

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Chapter 1 Theoretical framework In this chapter, the theoretical framework of the thesis will be discussed. The selected literature will survey how cultural constructions of images and stereotypes are represented. Therefore, I look into the field of imagology, which will explain why this affects the human perception and the formation of stereotypes. Additionally, how cinema contributes to people’s understanding of cities and how filmmakers make use of urban space will be clarified. Cinema, as a medium, has a significant influence on the cultural identity of a city and is an important agent to attract tourists. The cultural identity of a city represented in film is related to the city as a tourist destination, and I will examine how they affect each other.

Cultural Constructions of Images One of the main questions in the examination of the cultural construction of images is: how do ethnic and national stereotypes emerge?11 The study of imagology addresses this question and the historical development of national stereotypes, which can deepen one’s understanding of what these stereotypes consist of and how they emerge.12 Therefore, imagology studies the origin and function of features of countries and places, as expressed in works of literature, poems, travel books, and essays.13 The study of people’s images of any other nation or place will identify the significantly active prejudices and stereotypes that people have from total complex imaginary images.14 Thus, it is important to examine the definition of an image. An image can be defined in various ways. According to Crompton, “an image is the sum of beliefs, impressions, ideas, and perceptions that people hold of objects, behaviours, and events.”15 According to the definition of Mitchell, “an image can be divided into five meaningful categories: Graphic, such as pictures, statues, and designs; optical, like mirrors and projections; perceptual, sense data, species, and appearance; mental, such as dreams, memories, and ideas; and verbal, like metaphors and descriptions.”16 The mental images are considered most important because an image can be used as a mental silhouette of the other according to Beller, “who appears to be determined by the features of family, tribe, group, or

11 M. Beller & J. Leerssen, Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters – A Critical Survey, ed. Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2007), 478. 12 Ibid. 13 M. Beller & J. Leerssen, Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters – A Critical Survey, ed. Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2007), 7. 14 Ibid., 8. 15 H. Kim & S.L Richardson, “Motion picture impact on Destination Images”, Annals of Tourism, 1, (2003): 218. 16 M. Beller, “Perception, Image, Imagology,” in In Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters – A Critical Survey, ed. Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2007), 4. 8 race.”17 An image like this influences and forms people’s opinions of others and certain places and controls their behaviours towards those others and places.18 Because of that, cultural discontinuities and differences construct positive and negative judgements, prejudices, and images people have. 19 Taking this all together, it seems that most literature on images described a totality of impressions, beliefs, ideas, expectations, and feelings connected to a place over time.20 In addition we also have to examine what a national self-image is. A national self- image is the image that a nation has about itself and can be defined as its character. According to ERNiE, it consists of a canon of cultural traits, such as language, heritage, traditions, historical memories, and narratives, and is what makes the nation different from other nations.21 However, it is actually almost always bias-confirmed and influenced by what other people think of the nation. But wow is an image of a nation formed? That concerns how ethnicity is characterized. Hence, I examined ethnotypes. An ethnotype can be defined as a discursive commonplace of how people identity, view and characterize others opposed to ourselves, to characterize a certain nation, people, or ethnicity.22 Ethnotypes always concern how countries differ; therefore, they obscure the extent to which countries may resemble each other. They are an important influential part of culture and ideology. 23 However, these ethnotypes change over time because of the peoples’ perceptions, auto-images, and hetero- images about a nation. Ethnotypes are also steered by the stereotypes that influence peoples’ perceptions. Now the definition of images has been established, there can be indicated that images have a great importance in the construction of stereotypes. A stereotype can be defined as “a generalization about a group of people in which identical characters are assigned to virtually all the members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members”.24 Furthermore, they have influence on people’s expectations about a particular place or location. For example, one might assume that the majority of the Spanish population dances to Tango music and that the women have an exotic appearance, as described in the novel Carmen from Prosper Marinée. Because these stereotypes complement people’s perceptions,

17 M. Beller, “Perception, Image, Imagology,” in In Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters – A Critical Survey, ed. Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2007), 4. 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid. 20 H. Kim & S.L Richardson, “Motion picture impact on Destination Images, Annals of Tourism, 1, (2003): 218. 21 “What is Nationalism?”, last modified on June 21, 2016, http://www.spinnet.eu/wiki instructions/index.php/FAQ#What_is_nationalism_according_to_ERNiE.3F. 22 J. Leerssen, National Thought in Europe: A Cultural History (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006), 17. 23 J. Leerssen, Cultures of Nationalism in Contemporary Europe, Lecture 2, 2nd of November 2016. 24 M. Beller, “Stereotype,” in In Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters – A Critical Survey, ed. Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen, (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2007), 429.

9 sometimes people maintain those images because they satisfy their expectations. Thus, these images and stereotypes are almost always prominent in films and literature in order to induce a certain association.

The City and Film Now the importance of images has been determined, as well as how images and stereotypes affect people’s perceptions. I will relate these images to cinema and explain how cinema contributes to people’s understanding of cities and how filmmakers make use of urban space. Before the rise of cinema, the novel was a powerful tool to construct mental images. Novels affect people’s imaginations and are, therefore, powerful tools to make representations about certain images and characters in people’s minds. However, over time, popular media changed from books to cinema and television. Novels sent mental pictures and ideas, but a movie represented these images in a powerful way: they did not only provide stories but also had immediate visual impacts on the audience. The rise of cinema is related to the development of urbanization and industrialization. Therefore early cinema productions were mostly urban.25 Because of these developments in the film, as in the cities, a city was a diverse setting and subject where urban life was presented in different ways to the audience.26 Therefore, the relationship between the city and film can be understood in different ways. On the one hand, film can be understood as an urban archive that displays the various changes and developments in the urban landscape.27 On the other hand, film is used as a way to produce the city, by producing an imaginary urbanism through the construction of f urban spaces, ideas and ideals of the city.28 This is also seen in how European cinema affects people’s perspectives by projecting images of its inhabitants that create a certain identity. 29 This can also be related to the concepts urban mindscape and urban imaginary.30 According to Weiss-Sussex and Bianchini, a person’s worldview can be defined as a mindscape: a structure of reasoning, cognition, perception, and conceptualization. An urban mindscape is “a structure of thinking about a city and indicates something exists between the psychical landscape of a city and people’s casual and cultural perceptions of that city.”31 The city can, therefore, also be represented as an urban image bank that consists of local and

25 P. Robertson Wojcik, “ The City in Film”, Oxford Bibliographies, last modified on June 21: http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199791286/obo-9780199791286-0109.xml 26 Ibid. 27 Ibid. 28 P. Robertson Wojcik, “ The City in Film”, Oxford Bibliographies, last modified on June 21: http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199791286/obo-9780199791286-0109.xml 29 Ibid. 30 G. Weiss-Sussex, G. & F. Bianchini, eds.,“Urban Mindscapes of Europe”, Special number of European Studies, 23 (Amsterdam, 2006): 13-14. 31 Ibid. 10 external images consisting of the following: media coverage; stereotypes; representation of a city in music, literature, film, the visual arts, myths, and legends; tourist guidebooks, city marketing, and tourist promotional literature; and views of residents, city users, and outsiders.32 The concept of urban imaginary is related to the idea of the city as an imagined environment, created by James Donald, leading to the notion of urban mindscape.33 The specific components of the concepts explained above are both mental constructs of the city that include media and cultural representations of different meanings and memories.34 These concepts can be related to a way of branding the city. Branding the city involves examining things people find typical for a specific city.35 For example, with Amsterdam, most tourists will consider what they think is typically Dutch and what fits their image about Amsterdam and Dutch people. However, Amsterdam itself utilizes this image because it has a significant influence on the commerce and tourist industry and, therefore, on economic development. This is called cultivation of culture. Culture becomes cultivated for the purpose of cultivating and valorising a national self-image and hetero-image. It is no longer only in the service of the nation, but in the service of commerce. Thus, the commercial enterprise uses culture to attract tourists to gain money. Thus, according to Kim and Richardson, “the image formed by the movie industry often represents an added value for certain destinations because it works as a real tool for promotion at an international level and as a factor that induces travel.”36 The representations and images of famous European cities that are mostly tourist destinations as well, developed through the mass media, such as cinema, television, and literature, play a significant role in influencing the process of destination decision.37 These different media are very influential in promoting, confirming, and reinforcing images and the human perception and play an important role in the image that shape tourist destinations.38 According to Kim and Richardson “the way in which a city is represented in films and television series can have an enormous influence worldwide in perpetuating a particular image and vision of the country.”39 The concept urban mindscape, and how and for what reasons the city brands itself, is related to the fact that the moving image culture has played an on going role in shaping perceptions of its urban environment. Additionally, the moving image culture can change the

32 G. Weiss-Sussex, G. & F. Bianchini, eds.,“Urban Mindscapes of Europe”, Special number of European Studies, 23 (Amsterdam, 2006): 13-14. 33 Ibid., 14. 34 Ibid., 15. 35 J. Leerssen, Cultures of Nationalism in Contemporary Europe, Lecture 3 Branding the public space, 9th of November 2016. 36 H. Kim & S.L Richardson, “Motion picture impact on Destination Images, Annals of Tourism, 1, (2003): 218-219. 37 Ibid. 38 H. Kim & S.L Richardson, “Motion picture impact on Destination Images, Annals of Tourism, 1, (2003): 216. 39 Ibid. 11 identity of a city.40 Because it is used for commerce and to attract tourists to certain destinations, it is related to economic benefits for the city itself, which is exactly what is happening in Europe in the last couple of decades. Matloff argued in his article that city administrators have realized that cities can become fully involved in the film industry as a whole and that the attention that cinema provides can have a significant effect, both economically and culturally, in particular thanks to its positive impact on tourism.41 Therefore, the theoretical understanding about the relationships of movies and cities as tourist destination images is associated with marketing ideas for the city.42 Thus, cinema has always had an effect on a city’s image, and nowadays, the major European cities are trying to boost their economies and create a brand through cinema, which is why Woody Allen was attracted to Europe: All of his films were sponsored by European investors to represent a certain image of a city to attract people, enlarged commerce, and increase economic development.43

40 H. Kim & S.L Richardson, “Motion picture impact on Destination Images, Annals of Tourism, 1, (2003): 219. 41 J. Matloff, “Woody Allen’s European Vacation” last modified on June 21, 2016: http://jasonmatloff.com/selected-articles/woody-allens-european- vacation/. 42 H. Kim & S.L Richardson, “Motion picture impact on Destination Images, Annals of Tourism, 1, (2003): 219. 43 J. Matloff, “Woody Allen’s European Vacation” last modified on June 21, 2016: http://jasonmatloff.com/selected-articles/woody-allens-european- vacation/. 12

Chapter 2 Paris: Midnight in Paris Most people think of Paris as the city of love. If one thinks of the city, he or she likely almost immediately thinks of the Eiffel tower, beautiful buildings, like the Notre Dame, shopping on the Champs-Elysees, and visiting the Louvre and the Arc de triumph, as well as of artists, like Auguste Rodin, famous composers, like Chopin, and fashion brands, such as Chanel. When one thinks of the inhabitants of France and Paris, he or she likely thinks of them as civilized people with elegant behaviour, social manners, refined taste, style, gallantry, and self- expressions.44 These images derive from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, where the king, Louis XVI, had absolute power and was living in Versailles. Paris is, therefore, usually represented as a cultural environment; it is the city in which the French fashion and cuisine is situated. Paris has a leading role in the arts and intellectual sphere and a vanguard position in the field of politics.45 Midnight in Paris (2011) tells the story of a young American man, Gil (), who is with his fiancé Inez (Rachel McAdams) and her parents in Paris. Gil is in love with the “idea” of Paris. He sees himself living there and fantasises about how it would be to live in Paris in the twenties when the great intellectuals like Ernest and Picasso were living. During his trip to Paris, Gil is working on his own novel, about a man who works in a nostalgia shop. Inez dismisses his ambition as a romantic daydream and prefers him to remain with screenwriting instead of writing a novel.46 One night, Gil gets becomes lost in the streets of Paris. At midnight, a Peugeot Type 176 from the twenties drives beside him, and the passengers ask him to join them. They go to a party where Gil realizes that he has been transported back to the twenties.47 It is the era that makes Paris famous, and the era that developed the image of Paris as a city where all the artists and intellectuals stayed.

The visual representation of the city: locations The film opens with a three and a half minute montage of Paris, showing the usual iconic tourist sites: The Eiffel tower, Sacre Coeur, , Arc du Triumph, Notre Dame, and the river . French cars are seen, like Renault and Peugeot, and brands such as Dior that represents Paris as a fashion city. This shot is a stylistic montage, used simply to establish

44 R. Florack, “French”, in Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters – A Critical Survey, ed. Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2007), 154. 45 Ibid. 46 “Midnight in Paris (2011)”, last modified on June 27, 2016: http://cinemalit.weebly.com/story-analyses/midnight-in-paris-2011-synopsis-and- analysis. 47 Ibid. 13 location.48 Therefore, the audience knows immediately at the opening scene that the film is located in Paris, and that is exactly the aim of this montage. The scene visualizes the image that people have in their minds when they think of Paris. It is a representation of the urban landscape of Paris because it emphasises people’s mental images, like impressions, beliefs, ideas, expectations, and feelings, connected to Paris. The way in which Allen visualizes the image of Paris is repeated in the rest of the film as well, as shown by some locations he used. One of the first scenes, where Gil and Inez are kissing on the bridge and Gill is talking about how great Monet was, was shot at Claude Monet’s Water Garden, the famous gardens of impressionist painter. Hereby, Allen demonstrates the link between Paris and its famous artists, like Monet. This link is again emphasized in the scene where Paul argues with the tour guide () about Rodin’s wife at the Rodin Museum and at Musée de l'Orangerie, where Gil argues about the painting with Paul (). Another scene where the cultural heritage of Paris is shown is where Gil argues with Paul at Versailles. The represented the wealth of Paris during the period when Louis XIV held power in France. Versailles was the centre of political power in France at that time and is, therefore, a remarkable and important building because it stands as a symbol for the Ancient Regime, which is why it represents part of France’s national history. The scene where Gil is in the past and meets is at the Polidor. The Polidor is one of the most popular restaurants on the Left Bank. Its interior has been basically unchanged since the late nineteenth century49. Many famous artists and literary figures, such as James Joyce, Ernest Hemingway, Antonin Artaud, and Henry Miller, visited it. Allen probably chose this place because the Polidor was a famous phenomenon in the twenties and thus should not be missing in the picture of Paris that Allen creates for to the audience. When Gil is again with the tour guide from the Rodin museum, and he asks her to translate the passage from Adrianne’s memoirs, they are at Square Jean-XXIII, located behind the Notre Dame cathedral, a tourist attraction famous for its French Gothic architecture. The last scene of the movie, when Gil meets with Gabrielle (Lea Seydoux), is shot at the Pont Alexandre III. Gil and Gabrielle are walking on the west side of the bridge, and the camera is looking north toward the Grand Palais. In many movies, this bridge symbolizes love, and in this scene, it symbolizes love again.

48 K. Turan, “Movie Review: Midnight in Paris”, The LA Times, last modified on June 27, 2016: http://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/20/entertainment/la-et-midnight-paris-20110520. 49 “Polidor”, last modified on June 21, 2016: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polidor. 14

Examining the locations indicates that almost all the tourist attractions of Paris are visualized. Allen presents beautiful images of the city, which could be seen as a great example of branding the city through the moving image: the cultural heritage and the artistic side are shown, and Paris is represented from the perspectives and the expectations of the audience. These perceptions are constructed from Allen’s own imagination as well: "I just wanted it to be the way I saw Paris, Paris through my eyes".50 The image of Paris expressed in the film can, therefore, be considered an idealized version of the reality. Nowhere in the film is any description of the working-class quartiers or of the rich diversity of multi-cultural immigrant neighbourhoods. Paris as a multicultural society with additional problems and disadvantaged districts is not represented here.51 Midnight in Paris shows the city’s pride and maintains the image of Paris as a culturally civilized city with a rich history. Thus, the movie promotes the national history to show what Paris has achieved over time. On the one hand, Paris was already branding itself through the building of monuments, museums, and statues and by filming on these specific locations. On the other hand, the film is used as an agent to underline the cultural identity of the city. Allen is presenting the national hetero- and auto- image of France and Paris because it emphasizes the cultural elements, like the historical memories and narratives that are seen in the architecture, monuments, and museum. Therefore, it seems that Allen is showing a pretend reality of Paris that matches the expectations of the audience and tourists who visit Paris.52

Characters and Themes I have thus far only examined the locations used in the film. However, to fully understand how Woody Allen presents images and how he plays with them, I have to examine the characters, themes, and stereotypes of the film. Midnight in Paris is not only about Paris as a city, but also about the American fascination with Paris.53 This fascination for Paris can be found in several themes. The first one, and also the main theme of the film, is nostalgia. This theme, explored in diverse academic fields, is described as “a feeling of loss and anxiety about the passage of time, accompanied by a desire to experience again some aspect the past.”54 The theme is established especially in the character of Gil with his obsession with the past: “Imagine this town in the twenties- Paris in the twenties – in the rain – the artists and

50K. Fusco, “Love and Citation in Midnight in Paris: Remembering , Remembering Woody,” in A Companion to Woody Allen, ed. P.J. Bailey & Sam B. Girgus (Wiley, 2013), 315. 51 K.S. Szlezak, “Hi Mr. Hemingway: Time and Space, Travel, and literary Heritage in Midnight in Paris” in Referentiality and the Films of Woody Allen, (New York : Palgrave MacMillan, 2015), 205. 52 Ibid., 215. 53 P. Eubanks, “Memory and Nostalgia in Woody Allen’s Midnight in Paris”, Revista de Humanidades, 10, (2014): 170. 54 K.S. Szlezak, “Hi Mr. Hemingway: Time and Space, Travel, and literary Heritage in Midnight in Paris” in Referentiality and the Films of Woody Allen, (New York : Palgrave MacMillan, 2015), 205. 15 the writers- I was born too late. Why did deliver me into the world in the 1970’s and in a Pasadena yet” is one of his first sentences in the film and is also related to the scene where is reading the first page of Gil’s novel: “Out of the Past was the name of the store and its products consisted of memories. What was prosaic and even vulgar to one generation had been transmuted by the mere passing of years to a status at once magical and also camp.”55 In addition to his own novel, Gil refers many times to one of his favourite books, the memoir of Ernest Hemingway, which is about Hemingway’s years as a struggling young writer in Paris in the twenties. Gil’s life shows similarities with Hemingway’s because Gil is also a writer who is in Paris struggling with his life and his identity.56 Because of the idealized image Gil has of Paris, he can be characterized as an American tourist who believes in the Paris myth: The timeless attractions of Americans to Paris.57 Gil is living in his own dream and wants to fulfil that dream to stay in the twenties. Because of that attraction to Paris, this can also be seen as a form of escapism, another theme of the film. Just like the American Hemingway and the other intellectuals were escaping from in the twenties. Paris became the new heart of many writers and artists because Paris introduced a new culture in which everything was possible, in contrast with the United States during prohibition.58 This can be related to the United States during George Bush, represented in Gil’s conservative right wing parents from whom Gil tries to escape.59 Their characters can be portrayed as American stereotypes that are the opposite of Gil’s artistic, freedom-thinking character. They do not speak French, they expect locals to fulfil their needs, they watch Hollywood films in Paris, and they do not embrace the Parisian culture, because it is not the American one.60 Inez says that she "could never live outside the United States", which is related to the stereotype of a patriotic American who cannot imagine that other places in the world offer something positive or better.61 John, specifically, is the stereotype of a Francophobic American patriot. As shown in his dislike for French politics, he is only drinking wines from California because those are the best, and his privileging of the commercial over the artistic: “I will always take a California wine, but the Napa Valley is

55 Midnight in Paris, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2011; Paris: Sony Picture Classics, 2011). 56 J. H. Jackson, Midnight in Paris, Fiction and film for French historians, A Cultural Bulletin, 2, (2011): http://h-france.net/fffh/the-buzz/midnight-in- paris/. 57 Ibid. 58 A. Greenberg, “Paris Jazz Age: New Generation Explodes in Paris (1920)”, last modified on June 22, 2016: https://bonjourparis.com/archives/paris- jazz-age-new-generation-1920s/. 59 P. Eubanks, “Memory and Nostalgia in Woody Allen’s Midnight in Paris”, Revista de Humanidades, 10, (2014): 170. 60 P. French, “ Midnight in Paris Review”, last modified on June 22, 2016: https://www.theguardian.com/film/2011/oct/09/midnight-paris-woody- allen-review. 61 P. Eubanks, “Memory and Nostalgia in Woody Allen’s Midnight in Paris”, Revista de Humanidades, 10, (2014): 172. 16

6000 miles away”.62 He does not understand why Gil is longing for experiences that do not have materialistic value, like writing and making promenades at midnight. He, therefore, becomes suspicious as to whether Gil is faithful:63 “I don’t know. I see what he earns but sometimes I think he’s got a part missing. And I didn’t like his remark about the tea party Republicans. They’re decent people who want to take back the country – they’re not crypto- fascist, airhead zombies.”64 Thus, he ascribes communism to Gil for his disinterest in commercial and materialistic values and for his artistic interests, which is presented in what John says and in one of the last scenes where Gil leaves Inez and her parents, and John tells him to say ‘hi’ to Trotsky.65 Peter Eubaks described this in his article: “Communism, an ideology which he (falsely) ascribed to Gil for his disinterest in commercial ventures and for his artistic sensibilities, is thus revealed to be, for john, a thing of the past, a political and economic system that has run its course an has bee revealed by human progress to be grossly deficient. To be communist is thus not only to subscribe to a system inimical to the capitalism which has led to such great prosperity in John’s own life; it is also to reject the progress of the present, to be mired in a backward, unenlightened ideology that belongs essentially to the past.”66 Therefore, John’s character can be also ascribed to someone who rejects the present in favor of an idealized past, like Gil, and this character contributes to the nostalgia theme of the film: “the rejection of the painful present and impending mortality which nostalgia represents”.67 The nostalgic feelings of Paris in the twenties that Allen wants to create could also be related to the theme of . Surrealism is a cultural movement that was developed in the early twenties, and its aim is to "resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream and reality".68 What Gil is going through, when he is suddenly back in time is not real, but he feels like it is real, as if he is in a dream world. However, at the same time, he can bring his belongings from the present to the past, and Adriana writes about him in her diary, which he discovers in the present. This surrealistic world in which he lives in is also presented in the scene where Gil sits with and Man , both surrealists. Gil says he has the feeling he lives in two worlds, and finds this understandable: “you inhabit two worlds”.69

62 P. Eubanks, “Memory and Nostalgia in Woody Allen’s Midnight in Paris”, Revista de Humanidades, 10, (2014): 172. 63 Ibid.,173. 64 Midnight in Paris, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2011; Paris: Sony Picture Classics, 2011). 65 P. Eubanks, “Memory and Nostalgia in Woody Allen’s Midnight in Paris”, Revista de Humanidades, 10, (2014): 172. 66 Ibid., 173. 67 ibid. 68 “ Surrealism”, last modified on 22 June, 2016: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrealism. 69 Midnight in Paris, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2011; Paris: Sony Picture Classics, 2011).

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However, the surrealistic theme is not only seen in the storyline but also in how Allen visualizes the setting of Paris in the twenties. It is an idealized version of the twenties, with all the positive imagery of that time. Allen used dark red and brown colours, with dimmed light, and the people are wearing Bohemian styled clothing. He accomplishes this through his use of montage and setting, but he reinforces the image through his use of music. The music in the opening scene, and the soundtrack of the film, is from the American jazz saxophonist, clarinettist, and composer Sidney Bechet, who was probably chosen by Woody Allen because he was a famous jazz musician and he had several performances at the famous Bricktop Club Paris where Gil finds himself later in the film. 70 An artist like Bechet is an understandable choice, so Allen can transport the feelings of living in the twenties to the audience. In addition to Sidney Bechet, was a famous American singer that often performed in Paris and at Bricktop. Prohibition came the United States in the twenties, and many people went to Paris because of that.71 Other famous songs, such as “Let’s Fall in Love”, are coming by. Allen represents a perfect romanticised version of Paris in the twenties that is seen in all the details. When Gil enters this world, he cannot believe it; it is real and a dream at the same time. However, he accepts it and starts to sing along to “Let’s Fall in Love”. Because of how Allen idealizes the past, he reproduces a surrealistic image that becomes a theme. The world that Allen is presenting can be also be related to the American fascination with Paris because he shows the Paris of the American community during the twenties; the audience sees nothing of the French Parisian community of that time. The Paris that Allen shows to the audience is the Paris that only exists in Gil’s imagination. It is his Paris, a Paris that he has built for himself in his fantasy, his idealized version, and he cannot share it with anyone else. Comparing this surrealistic image of Paris in the twenties to the Paris of 2010, which I have analysed by looking at the film locations, Allen created a Paris from his own perception, his mental picture of Paris. It seems that two idealized versions of Paris come together in the film.72 Love is another theme in the film. On one hand, love concerns the romance Gil has with Adriana. Gil is in engaged to the wrong woman and realizes that when he meets Adriana and falls in love with her. However, Adriana lives in the twenties, and therefore, his love for Adriana can be seen as a metaphor for his feelings about Paris. Adriana is like Paris, beautiful

70 “Midnight in Paris: Soundtracks”, last modified on June 22, 2016: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1605783/soundtrack. 71 Greenberg, A., “Paris Jazz Age: New Generation Explodes in Paris (1920)”, last modified on June 22, 2016: https://bonjourparis.com/archives/paris- jazz-age-new-generation-1920s/. 72 P. Eubanks, “Memory and Nostalgia in Woody Allen’s Midnight in Paris”, Revista de Humanidades, 10, (2014): 176. 18 and everyone wants to be connected with her, but he cannot have her because she lives in another time.73 Throughout the story, the other characters are critical about Gil’s nostalgic feelings and about nostalgia as a phenomenon in general. For example, in the scene at Versailles, Inez says this about Gil: “Brands him one of the who live in the past, people who think their lived would be happier if they lived in an earlier time”. Also Paul analyses nostalgia: “Nostalgia is denial. Denial of the painful present.” Gil answers with, “golden age thinking- the erroneous notion that a different time period is better than the one one’s living on”. Szelzak argues that Paul described nostalgia as “a negative phenomenon because he personified the dominant discourse of rationality that suggests scepticism toward nostalgic impulses”.74 He can be seen as a symbol for the bad conscience many have when they give into nostalgic fantasies. However, whether this phenomenon is right or wrong does not matter in the end. 75 In the end, Gil can be recognized as a realistic idealist instead of a nostalgic, who, according to Cohen, is a person who is “willing to concede that even the most ideal place, society or culture have shortcomings and thus able to achieve self-realizations at the centre without deluding themselves of its faultlessness.”76 After Gil travels back with Adriana to the Belle Époque, his conclusion is to “realize that the past can feel perfect because the present is a little unsatisfying, because life is a little unsatisfying”. 77 Allen created a portrait of Paris at the beginning of the twentieth century that is romanticized, the Paris of intellectuals, which can be related to the Paris myth and the idealized version of Paris that does not really exists. Allen did this as well in the way he shot beautiful images of Paris with all the tourist attractions in them. The Paris myth stays alive.

73 P. Eubanks, “Memory and Nostalgia in Woody Allen’s Midnight in Paris”, Revista de Humanidades, 10, (2014): 176. 74 K.S. Szlezak, “Hi Mr. Hemingway: Time and Space, Travel, and literary Heritage in Midnight in Paris” in Referentiality and the Films of Woody Allen, (New York : Palgrave MacMillan, 2015), 205. 75 Ibid., 205. 76 K.S. Szlezak, “Hi Mr. Hemingway: Time and Space, Travel, and literary Heritage in Midnight in Paris” in Referentiality and the Films of Woody Allen, (New York : Palgrave MacMillan, 2015), 210, 77 E. Cohen, “A Phenomenlogy of Tourist Experiences”, Sociology,13,(1979): 190. 19

Chapter 3 Barcelona: Vicky Cristina Barcelona For many years, Spaniards were associated with ethnocentric exoticism and represented as barbarians.78 Later, during the romantic period, Spain was described as a country of passionate women, bandits, and colourful customs.79 Writers, such as Washington Irving and Prosper Mérimée with Carmen, represented Spanish identity with images of Spain in literary works that became popular. This affected the auto-image and hetero-image of Spain. However, these auto-images and hetero-images were changing over time. This is for example seen a few centuries later. Franco was in power and a totalitarian regime was implemented in Spain, and citizens were oppressed. Therefore, in the years after Franco, freedom became a central concept and characteristic of the Spanish identity and gave a new image to the Spaniards. This is especially emphasised in the films of Spanish director Pedro Almodóvar. He had a great influence on the Spanish film industry because he refers in his film to the Spanish identity and what the new Spain looked like in a post-Franco society.80 One of the main cities that exemplifies these images and is representative of the national hetero-image of Spain is Barcelona. At the same time, tourism has functioned to promote and make a certain brand of Spanish modernity visible.81 Barcelona, as a tourist destination, has positioned itself in several internationally promoted films.82 One of these films, Vicky Cristina Barcelona (2008) by Woody Allen, conditions the foreign perceptions of Barcelona.83 When one thinks of Barcelona as a holiday destination, he or she mostly thinks of images like the Sagrada Familia, Las Ramblas, Gaudi, Picasso Museum, Parque Guell, Barrio Gotico area of Barcelona Camp Nou, and Casa Mila. Typical stereotypes like Spanish guitar music and passionate men and women with exotic appearances rise in people’s minds. These images are attractions and characteristics that are unique or distinctive to Barcelona and Spain. Vicky Cristina Barcelona (2008) is a romantic comedy-drama film that tells the story of two American women: Vicky, played by and Cristina, played by , who are spending the summer in Barcelona. During their stay, they meet the

78 José Manuel López de Abiada, “Spaniards”, Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters – A Critical Survey, ed. Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2007) 246. 79 Ibid. 80 M.A. Allison, A Spanisch Labyrinth, The Films of Pedro Almodóvar, (New York: J.A. Allen & Co Ltd 2001), 3. 81 S. Amago, Spanish Cinema in the Global Context: Film on Film (New York: Routledge, 2013), 145. 82 Ibid. 83 Ibid.

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Spanish artist Juan Antonio, played by , who is attracted to both women but is still involved with his ex-wife Maria Elena, played by Penelope Cruz.

The visual representation of the city: locations The main characters of Vicky Cristina Barcelona move though the Spanish landscape, while viewing landmarks.84 Hence, the locations and attractions of Barcelona that are presented in the film can be seen as examples of how the moving image emerges as a crucial marketing concept in the tourism industry, just as in Midnight in Paris. It influences tourism-related attitudes and behaviours by confirming and reinforcing existing images and creating new and changing images of certain places.85 For this reason, the practice of tourism can be seen as a thematic and narrative structuring element.86 Woody Allen says this about making this movie: “I wasn’t thinking of anything other than creating a story that had Barcelona as a character. I wanted to honour Barcelona, because I love the city very much, and I love Spain in general. It’s a city full of visual beauty and the sensibility of the city is quite romantic.”87 In the opening scene, the audience hears a Spanish song, “Barcelona”, that indicates, because of the title of the film as well, that the setting is in Barcelona. The importance of the song will be analysed in the next section. Vicky and Cristina arrive at the Barcelona airport, and walk out of Terminal 2, which is designed by the famous surrealist Joan Miro. In the shot, they then meet Vicky’s family, Mark and Judy, with whom they are going to stay during the summer. In the next shot, the theme song “Barcelona” is played again and, Vicky and Cristina visit the tourist attractions of Barcelona, with the Sagrada Familia in the first shot. This is the most famous building in Barcelona and attracts most of the tourists. In the next shot, they are on the roof of Casa Mila, designed by Gaudi, and the narrator says, “Vicky and Cristina drank in the artistic treasures of the city, they particularly enjoyed the works of Gaudi and Miro” to outline the landmarks.88 Allen presents Barcelona as a cultural city of art, which is seen in the next scenes as well. The works and architecture of Gaudi, especially, are seen, which indicates that Gaudi is used as a tourist attraction for Barcelona. When Vicky meets Juan again after their night together, they are at Parque Guell, in front of Gaudi’s salamander fountain. When Vicky has doubts about her marriage, she is with the American student from her language class, Ben,

84 S. Amago, Spanish Cinema in the Global Context: Film on Film (New York: Routledge, 2013), 145. 85 Rodriguez Campo, L., Fraiz Brea, J.A., Rodiguez-Toubes Muniz, D., “Tourist Destination Image formed by the Cinema: Barcelona positioning through the feature film Vicky Christina Barcelona,” European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation,1, (2011): 138-139. 86 S. Amago, Spanish Cinema in the Global Context: Film on Film (New York: Routledge, 2013), 146. 87 “Vicky Cristina Barcelona: Spain According To Woody Allen”, last modified on June 22, 2016:http://www.spain.info/en/reportajes/vicky_cristina_barcelona_espana_segun_woody_allen.html. 88 Vicky Cristina Barcelona, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2008; Barcelona: Cineart La Collection, 2008).

21 and they are standing in front of the grand arched entrance of Hospital de Sant Pau, designed by Catalan modernist Lluís Domènech i Montaner, where he invited her to go the film Shadow of Doubt from Alfred Hitchcock.89 This can be related to the fact that Vicky keeps her night with Juan a secret. The former hospital is now resorted as a museum and cultural centre.90 The scene where Maria Elena teaches Cristina about the art of photography is shot in Parc de la Ciutadella, near another Gaudi fountain. In one of the last scenes, where Cristina is beginning to have feelings of doubt and disaffection and is sitting alone overlooking the water, is at the harbour Port Olimpic.91 Looking only at the locations that Allen shows the audience, art is presented everywhere, even in the scene where Judy encourages Vicky to pursue Juan Antonio as they walk down the steps of the National Art Museum of , the national museum of Catalan visual art. The locations show that Allen has chosen he wants to promote Barcelona as a city of art and culture, since the cultural perception of the city is shown. However, at the same time, Barcelona is shown as a tourist destination where the sun is always shining. By shooting these kinds of locations, Allen gives the viewer substantial information about a place in a short period of time. He reaches a large audience, and the movie is, therefore, an example of how a city or tourist destinations influences the tourism decision-making process, which relates to what John Urry defined as the tourist gaze: “‘The tourist gaze’” is directed to features of landscape and townscape, which separate them off from everyday experience. Such aspects are viewed because they are taking to be in some sense out of the ordinary. The viewing of such sights often involves different forms of social patterning, which a much greater sensitivity to visual elements of landscape or townscape than normally found in everyday life. People linger over such a gaze which is then normally visually objectified or captures through photographs, postcards, films, models and so on. These enable the gaze to be endlessly reproduced and recaptured.”92 This was one of the aims of the film because the destination financed the movie with a million euros, because of its international projection, the cast, and the importance of the director, with the objective of bringing the image of Barcelona to millions of people.93 These images can therefore be seen as an example to show the importance of film to the construction of place imagery.

89 “Vicky Cristina Barcelona Film Locations”, last modified on June 27, 2016: http://www.movie- locations.com/movies/v/Vicky_Cristina_Barcelona.html#.V3EPCFfSrgI. 90 Ibid. 91 Ibid. 92 S. Amago, Spanish Cinema in the Global Context: Film on Film (New York: Routledge, 2013), 145. 93 Rodriguez Campo, L., Fraiz Brea, J.A., Rodiguez-Toubes Muniz, D., “Tourist Destination Image formed by the Cinema: Barcelona positioning through the feature film Vicky Christina Barcelona,” European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation,1, (2011): 138. 22

On the other hand, critically, Allen views Spain as a cultural destination for Americans. However, the working class and the immigrant communities are totally absent from his images. Again, just as in Midnight in Paris, Allen does not present today’s reality. He is, in this way, promoting Barcelona and the Catalan identity of Barcelona by showing Gaudi almost everywhere. This can be considered one of the reasons that he chose Barcelona, except from being financed by Barcelona, instead of for example Madrid; because Barcelona is situated in Catalonia, and related to Catalan artists such as Gaudi. However, this image is, in reality, displaced by being in the constant stream of the traveller’s gaze, and does not show the cultural and political problems in Barcelona. The inhabitants of Barcelona would probably look very different from the image of Barcelona that Allen created. Barcelona is situated in Catalonia, which cultivates its own identity, and therefore Barcelona has complex identity issues. This may be related to the fact that Allen wants to criticize the American naivety towards their perception of the culture of Barcelona. To a broad public there is no difference between the Catalan and Spanish culture; they see everything as one whole, as the Spanish culture. This is seen in the film, in which Gaudi is used as a Spanish landmark despite the fact that Gaudi is a Catalan artist. Vicky’s research into the Catalan identity is limited to Gaudi in Miro. This is in contrast to the inhabitants of Barcelona who consider themselves Catalan rather than Spanish. According to Anna Wilson, it is “in response to such complex identity issues, Barcelona has become increasingly self-obsessed with its own image and the way this image might be mirrored by outside portrayal”.94 We can conclude from this that for an American public this distinction is irrelevant, but for a Spanish public, and especially the inhabitants of Barcelona, this difference would be very meaningful.

Characters and Themes The main characters of the film are Vicky and Cristina, who, according to the narrator, have decided to spend their summer in Barcelona. The characters are introduced by the narrator as follows: “Vicky was completing her master’s in Catalan identity, which she had become interested in through her great affection for the architecture of Gaudi. Cristina, who spent the last six months writing, directing and acting in a twelve-minute film, which she then hated, had just broken up with yet another boyfriend, and longed for a change of scenery”.95 Again, just like in Midnight in Paris, the main characters are American tourists who are seeking something different than their own ordinary lives. Because Barcelona has a reputation as a

94 A. Wilson, “A Broken Mirror? Global-Local Images of Barcelona,” in Barcelona: Visual Culture, Space and Power, ed. by H. Buffery and C. Caulfield, (Wales: University of Wales Press, 2014), 206. 95 Vicky Cristina Barcelona, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2008; Barcelona: Cineart La Collection, 2008). 23 sunny, beautiful, romantic city, it seems to be a good destination to spend time during the summer. In addition to the importance of the locations, Barcelona presented as an artistic city of painters and music is involved in the characters, themes and music as well. The main theme of the movie is love and the complex relationships of love. This theme goes along with other themes, such as exoticism, escapism, and identity crisis. The music of the film plays an interesting role here. The local music drives the action of Vicky Cristina Barcelona and that observation confirms the story.96 The presence of acoustic guitar music sets numerous scenes and clarifies the cultural journey of the two American women who fall into romance while they visit Barcelona during the summer. The guitar music can be seen as a metaphor for the emotional nature of the narrative’s exotic environment.97 This exploration of Vicky Cristina Barcelona clarifies Allen’s use of music, which functions to reinforce the visual and textual aspects of the film.98 It is the idyllic version of the summer of love. Furthermore, analysing the soundtrack of the film Barcelona, from Giulia y los Tellarini, shows the idea of Barcelona is emphasized in it.99 According to Wynter, “it comments on the fluidity of this great cosmopolitan city and the ease of movement along the boulevards and up the staircases of love.” Further, the lyrics of the song suggest that although the characters may search for themselves in Barcelona, in the mirror of the exotic Other that is represented in Juan, they eventually are not able to find who they are. Embracing the exotic Other is nothing more than a fantasy. The only way to love the Other is by memory in a nostalgic way.100 For this reason, Allen exploits the influence of music, moving images, and narrative since they complement each other.101 In addition to in the sunny picturesque images and the Spanish acoustic guitar music, Spanish stereotypes are seen in the characters of Juan Antonio and Maria Elena: “The soulful Latin lover and the tempestuous Latina”, as described by Jason Bailey.102 However, they are not overwhelming.103 The character of Maria Elena as a passionate woman has some similarities with Carmen from Prosper Mérimée. She is beautiful and smart but also

96 Havis, A., “Guitar and Cultural Tresspass in Vicky Cristina Barcelona,” in: in Referentiality and the Films of Woody Allen, ed. by Klara Stephanie Szlezák & D.E. Wynter (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2015), 185-186. 97 Ibid. 98 Havis, A., “Guitar and Cultural Tresspass in Vicky Cristina Barcelona,” in: in Referentiality and the Films of Woody Allen, ed. by Klara Stephanie Szlezák & D.E. Wynter (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2015), 187. 99 Ibid., 188. 100A. Wilson, “A Broken Mirror? Global-Local Images of Barcelona,” in Barcelona: Visual Culture, Space and Power, ed. by H. Buffery and C. Caulfield (Wales: University of Wales Press, 2014), 216. 101 Ibid. 102 Bailey, J., The Ultimate Woody Allen Film Companion (Minneapolis: Voyageur Press 2014), 158. 103 Ibid. 24 dangerous, crazy, and suicidal. She is defined as a Femme Fatal.104 She usually speaks in Spanish and yells and fights with Juan. However, at the same time, she is an artist and an intelligent woman. Her beauty is set out in the scene where Cristina is photographing her in front of the graffiti with the cigarette in her mouth. The audience can understand how she gets on Juan nerves, but at the same time, why he cannot resist her and why Cristina cannot either.105According to Juan, she has troubles with the reality as well. Analysing the characters further shows all the characters have their own problems with the reality of life. Juan Antonio, who appears for the first time at the scene in the art gallery, has an exotic appearance with his dark hair and red shirt, which can be symbolic for passion and love. His presence is not unnoticed, and Cristina asks who he is: Mark says, “He had that fiery relationship with that beautiful woman who was nuts” about Juan Antonio, which the audience sees in some scenes later where Juan Antonio is fighting with Maria Elena in Spanish.106 Cristina is immediately attracted to him because of his appearance. This matches the love story of American girls who fall in love with Latin lovers. Juan Antonio is the opposite of the men from the west; he is manly, exotic, creative, and an artist. Even Vicky cannot resist him, not necessarily because of his appearance but rather because of her love for the Spanish culture. She starts becoming deeply interested him. For example, in the scene where Juan brings her to a performance of a Spanish guitarist, Allen’s script reads thus: “Vicky listens intently to the music. Vicky turns and looks emotionally at Juan Antonio. She then looks back at the guitar player”.107 Juan Antonio represents the kind of reckless romanticism that she had long presumed was beyond her capacity.108 Later, Cristina has a passionate relationship with Juan Antonio. His whole life is the opposite of her life in America, where everybody is stiff and stressed; Juan and his friends are all artists, poets, and musicians. They are free. This is representative of the Spanish identify nowadays, the identity after Franco, the identity of freedom. Cristina is in love with the European soul, like the thinkers and artists have, a freethinking view of life. Allen presents the Spanish as if they are all free thinkers and passionate artists who do whatever they want and feel like doing and are happy, which is not considered possible in the American lives of Vicky and Cristina. This fascination with Juan is related to the fact that he can be represented as the exotic Other. Exoticism can be described as the fascination with everything that is different, and that

104 Bailey, J., The Ultimate Woody Allen Film Companion (Minneapolis: Voyageur Press 2014), 158. 105 Ibid. 106 Vicky Cristina Barcelona, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2008; Barcelona: Cineart La Collection, 2008). 107 Ibid. 108Bailey, J., The Ultimate Woody Allen Film Companion (Minneapolis: Voyageur Press 2014), 159. 25 is what Juan and Maria Elena represent. They from another culture and have another lifestyle than that of Vicky and Cristina. By embracing the exotic life, Vicky and Cristina escape from American culture. 109 Therefore, the exotic Other could be indicated as a specific motif in Allen’s storyline and, at the same time, remarkable for Allen’s characters, which are participating only for a brief period in activities that break their moral life code. They are escaping from reality, but for a short period, because after a while they will return to reality. It was, for both Vicky and Cristina, a passing thing that is now over.110 Escapism is, therefore, a theme as well because both characters escape for the real world into love affair with the Spanish artist Juan Antonio, but in different way. Just like Gil in Midnight in Paris, they want to live a dream life in a surrealistic world that does not really exist, which points out the contrasts between American and Spanish cultures. One could relate this the definition of ethnotypes, a discursive commonplace pretending to characterize a certain nation, people, or ethnicity, because ethnotypes concern how countries differ. The escape to the surrealistic world can also be related to the theme of identity crisis, with questions as “Who am I?” and “What do I want?” because that is where Cristina and Vicky find themselves. On the one hand, the film provides the Spanish identity and Barcelona to the audience by Allen’s usage of images, where Barcelona is characterized through its art, culture, and authentic Spanish guitar. On the other hand, it is about themes that lie in the characters; they want to understand and perceive love. In addition to the beautiful pictures, there is a pessimistic picture underneath the story. By the end of the film, Juan Antonio and Maria have split again, Cristina still uncertain about what she wants from life and love, and Vicky stays with her husband in a passionless marriage. Just like Judy chose security over passionate love, Vicky does too eventually. Vicky and Cristina had a trip in the dream world, but then reality returned, just like in real life. This is also similar to the ending of Midnight in Paris, where Gil comes to the same conclusion of reality and the present time: “the present is a little unsatisfying”. The narrator ends the film thus: “…to the house they both finally settled on, and to lead the life she had envisioned for herself before the summer in Barcelona. Cristina continues searching, certain only of what she didn’t want.” 111

109 A. Wilson, “A Broken Mirror? Global-Local Images of Barcelona,” in Barcelona: Visual Culture, Space and Power, ed. by H. Buffery and C. Caulfield (Wales: University of Wales Press, 2014), 216. 110 Ibid. 111 Vicky Cristina Barcelona, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2008; Barcelona: Cineart La Collection, 2008). 26

Chapter 4 Rome: To Rome with Love

When we think of Italy and Rome, we mostly think of the old Rome; the Rome of the Classics, Ancient Rome. Images like the Coliseum, the Pantheon, and the Trevi Fountain rise before us. Names of artists, such as Michelangelo, spring to mind. Thus, when we picture Rome, we almost always think of the cultural heritage that Ancient Rome left behind. But we also have mental images of food like pizza and spaghetti, and romantic adventures with lovely Italian men who barely speak English. And Italy is associated with fashion and style because of their brands as Gucci, Prada and Versace and their stylish furniture and design. It can be said that we associate these images with the city of Rome, and therefore Rome is known as a cultural city. It boasts a great variety of architecture and buildings, many historical sights and museums, a vast array of cultural activities, and a good and varied gastronomy. This is why Rome established itself in the popular imagination as one of the most desirable places for foreigners to visit. To maintain this image, Rome is a famous location for films to be made to further this image. Rome is a city with modern and sophisticated people, as well as people who are very traditional. It attracts numerous visitors, from businessmen to tourists, who all enjoy what the city has to offer. 112 Woody Allen’s To Rome with Love (2012) is a comedy film set in Rome. Allen won financial backing for To Rome with Love from distributors who offered to finance a film for Allen as long as it was filmed in Rome. Allen accepted the offer so he could work in the city. Regarding his film style, he says: “it was the traffic and chaos of Rome that inspired his style in the film: everyone out on the streets, sitting on steps or in cafés. The constant motion… all the romance and emotion – it needed a number of stories”113 He originally titled the film The Bop Decameron, suggesting that the film is related to Boccaccio’s medieval collections of tales that were filmed by Pasolini in 1971.114 The film tells us a few stories: one of a well-known American architect who is reliving his youth; an average middle-class Roman whose life is taking a dramatic turn because suddenly he is a famous person; a young couple drawn into romantic encounters; and a travelling American student who falls in love with a Roman lawyer and flies her parents in to visit. We also see her father, an American opera director who has problems with getting older, has a fear of the dead, and who wants to put a singing mortician on stage.

112 “To Rome With Love: About The Production”, last modified on June 22, 2016: http://sonyclassics.com/toromewithlove/mobile/about.html 113 J. Solomons, Woody Allen Film by Film (London: Carlton Books Ltd, 2015), 236. 114 Ibid. 27

The visual representation of the city: locations At the beginning of the film, we hear Italian music playing. Just as jazz music from the twenties features in Midnight in Paris, and the soundtrack Barcelona of Vicky Cristina Barcelona, the song Volare is heard. But we already know from the title that the film is set in Rome. In the first shot, we see the narrator at the Piazza Venezia. The monument of Vittorio Emmanuele II, the king of Italy, is seen in the background. Through this shot, the national history of Italy is presented. In the second shot we see a young American woman; she is a tourist, lost in finding her way to the Trevi fountain, when she bumps into the Italian man Michelangelo. The Trevi fountain, designed by Italian architect Nicola Salvi and Petro Bracci, is a large fountain situated in the city and one of the most famous in the world because of its baroque architecture.115 It has appeared in many films, such as La Dolce Vita and When in Rome, and is one of the main tourist attractions in Rome. The scene in which John Foy (Alec Baldwin) is at Caffè della Pace with his wife and friends is located on a picturesque corner near Piazza Navona. This cafe has been a popular meeting place for artists and literary figures, people of fashion, politics and entertainment. A few scenes later, when John walks into his old neighborhood, is at Via Margutta. This is Woody Allen’s homage to Roman Holiday (1953), where Gregory Peck’s character lived at Via Margutta 51. 116 We could see some similarities in the storylines of Roman Holiday and To Rome with Love: the characters of To Rome with Love are seeking another life then their own, because they have difficulties to accept reality. Princess Ann (Audry Hepburn) is frustrated with her organized life and wants to escape this as well by living a normal life. When Jack is showing Rome to Monica (Ellen Page), the scene is shot at Piazza del Campidoglio, where the statue of Marcus Aurelius stands in the middle of the piazza. He was one of the Roman emperors. By showing this statue, Allen refers to the age of the Roman Empire. In the scene in which the Coliseum appeared, he also refers to the Roman Empire. We can presume that the national history of Rome and Italy, and their cultural heritage, is presented in its architecture and therefore is shown to the audience. As Leopoldo arrives at a movie premiere with his wife, the scene is shot at the Space Cinema Moderno at the Piazza della Republica where the fountain of Naiads is seen in the background. This square marks the center of the Roman city. The final scene takes place at the Spanish Steps, Piazza di Spagna. The film Roman Holiday (1953) made the steps famous

115 “Trevi Fountain”, last modified on June, 22, 2016: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevi_Fountain. 116 J. Solomons, Woody Allen Film by Film (London: Carlton Books Ltd, 2015), 237. 28 to the American audience, and this may explain why Allen chose this location, besides the historical value and memory of the place. The way in which Allen visualizes Rome is similar to techniques used in Midnight in Paris and Vicky Cristina Barcelona. He is representing the cultural and historical image of Rome, especially in its architecture. Just as in Paris, he only visualized the beautiful side of Rome, so as to ‘sell’ the place to the audience. Allen does not present Rome as city with a multicultural society, and only the old part of Rome is seen. Rome, just like Paris and Barcelona, has branded itself through the buildings of squares, monuments, statues and buildings to emphasize its national history, especially the history that makes them proud; the heritage of the Roman Empire. This is referred to a good deal in the film by choosing these locations, because they are the main attractions for tourists. This is also good for the commercial and economic development of Rome. It also meets the expectations people have when they want to visit Rome, related to the urban mindscape. This is Allen’s purpose, because To Rome With Love was financed by Rome and their aim is to attract tourists. Again, this presents a perfect example of how the movie industry is used as a tool for promotion.

Characters and themes To Rome with Love can be characterized as an omnibus, because it consists of several stories in one, which complies, with the Italian tradition of film productions.117 These had been a feature of the country’s output in the fifties and sixties, and he had already used the genre in another film he directed: Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex (1971).118 To Rome with Love opens with the image of a traffic circle at the centre of the city, according to Karina Longworth “an international symbol of controlled chaos”.119 This symbol is also referring to the four unrelated stories that have only the Roman streets as a concrete link, and to the characters that get lost in them and come out transformed. Two stories are about Americans in Rome, and the other two are about Italians and are completely spoken in Italian. We can therefore compare how Allen has constructed American characters that are visiting Rome as opposed to the Italians. Several themes, such as love, mortality and fame can be seen throughout the stories, but numerous others such as surrealism and nostalgia as well. At the beginning, an Italian narrator is telling us, in very bad English, that he wants to tell us the many stories of Rome. In the second shot we see a young American woman; she is

117 J. Solomons, Woody Allen Film by Film (London: Carlton Books Ltd, 2015), 237. 118 Ibid. 119 K. Longworth, “Woody Allen on His New Film To Rome With Love and Some Very Old Themes”, last modified on June 22, 2016: http://www.laweekly.com/film/woody-allen-on-his-new-film-to-rome-with-love-and-some-very-old-themes-2175352#!. 29 a tourist and is lost in finding her way to the Trevi fountain when she bumps into an Italian man, Michelangelo. A typical scene is set out here, in which the image of an American finding love in Italy is portrayed: “It’s been an unbelievable summer, we read about in all those romantic novels, American goes to Rome, meets handsome Roman at Trevi Fountain.”120 This is a stereotype of the American tourist who goes to Rome and finds love. More stereotypes are set out, for example, the name Michelangelo, referring to the famous artist who painted the Sistine Chapel. The narrator excuses himself because he does not speak English very well, but Hailey is surprised that Michelangelo speaks English very well, although Michelangelo’s parents do not speak English at all. This reflects prejudices and stereotypes about Italians who barely speak English and only want to speak their own language. A stereotype can also be found in Leopold, who is a Roman citizen from the middle class. He is a typical Italian family man, who drives a Fiat; in his family, his wife Sofia is a housewife and he works at a mainstream office. The other stereotypes can be found in the characters of Antonio and Milly, the newly wed couple who came from the provinces to the hectic city of Rome. As already mentioned regarding the locations, Allen relies on images od Rome constructed and recycled in other famous movies, which shaped the audience’s perception of Rome. He does this by presenting the cultural heritage of Italy, but also through the two Italian storylines. Emphasis is placed on the Italian image by his casting Italian actors such as Roberto Benigni: a very famous Italian actor, comedian, director and screenwriter, who is for the audience outside of Italy probably best known for La Vita è Bella (1997).121 By casting him, Allen gives the film Italian characteristics. But not only do the locations and Italian characters emphasize the Italian image that Allen is trying to construct; the use of music plays an important role as well. In the opening scene we hear the famous song Volare from Demenico Mudgno. A recurring song is Amada Mia, Amore Mio from Tito Puccio, a famous Italian pop song. But also traditional Italian music like Ciribiribin, composed by Alberto Pestalozza, is used as well as Mio Dolce Sogno from Giovanni Vicari and, of course, Italian 122 opera. All the songs are from different genres – pop, classic, traditional, opera – but they have in common that they are all Italian, just as all the different storylines have it in common that they are all set in Rome. By using typical Italian music the narratives and images are reinforced, just as we have seen in Vicky Cristina Barcelona as well. Besides reinforcing the Italian image in the city of Rome by using Italian music and

120 To Rome with Love, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2012; Rome: Sony Picture Classics, 2012). 121 “Roberto Benigni”, last modified on June 22, 2016: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Benigni#Life_Is_Beautiful. 122 “To Rome with Love: Soundtracks”, last modified on June 22, 2016: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1859650/soundtrack. 30 characters, Allen is also inspired by the work of the Italian director . The story of Antonio and Milly is based on his film The White Sheik (1952)123. In Fellini’s story Ivan, the husband, is looking for his wife while at the same time he wants to impress and entertain his uncle’s family. In the story of Woody Allen, the character of the husband is Antonio, played by Alessandro Tiberi, who has hired a prostitute (Penelope Cruz) to pretend to be his wife for his relatives.124 The influence of Fellini is also seen in the other stories in To Rome with Love, such as a nostalgic attitude towards the past seen in his film (1973). This nostalgic attitude is seen in the story of John, played by Alec Baldwin, who is an architect who wants to relive his youth. Alec Baldwin is an American tourist wandering the streets of the quarter Trastevere, where he lived thirty years ago. He meets a young version of himself; a student, Jack, played by Jesse Eisenberg. Jack becomes entangled in a complex love triangle, and John warns him of the developments that may come out of it. John experienced the same life in Rome when he was a student and romanticizes the past, but at the same time, he wishes he could change it. It is noteworthy that only John seems to see and hear Jack, as if he is a ghost character, or in his imagination. Therefore we see in this storyline that the theme of nostalgia and the genre of surrealism are returning, just as we have seen in Midnight in Paris as well. It is an element that aligns To Rome with Love with other films by Allen, such as and that are influenced by Fellini’s work.125 However, this storyline also typifies Woody Allen’s movies. They are remarkable for switching between the past and the present, slipping into different modes with a narrative precision. Despite these huge leaps of logic, the audience is rarely left wondering what just happened or whether it is a dream sequence. This can be seen in the characters too, who wander into their past and interact with other characters who are not really present.126 Just as his characters will interpose in their own backstory, so too will they swap their reality to disappear into fantasies and fiction. An example of this is when Gil in Midnight in Paris falls in love with a woman from another era, and spend a night in the twenties with the Fitzgeralds and Hemingway. Similarly, Alec Baldwin’s character John becomes a sort of ghost character, who appears suddenly and gives advice to Jack. 127 Leopoldo too, an ordinary Italian man, is suddenly famous and the young married couple find themselves in the midst of strange events as well. Some aspects of the film are memories, and others are fantasies, but according to Allen it is not necessarily important even to know in

123 G. Boitani, “Two and a Half: Nostalgia, Modern Parody, and Fellini in Stardust Memories, Radio Days, and To Rome with Love”, in Referentiality and the Films of Woody Allen, ed. by Klara Stephanie Szlezák & D.E. Wynter, (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2015) 94. 124 Ibid. 125 Ibid. 126 J. Solomons, Woody Allen Film by Film (London: Carlton Books Ltd, 2015), 24. 127 Ibid. 31 which character’s head the scenes are playing out.128Allen’s choice of themes such as surrealism is also inspired by the films of Fellini, who was himself inspired by the post-war period film production also known as Italian neo-realism. As we have seen in Midnight in Paris and Vicky Cristina Barcelona, there are some feelings of dissatisfaction about life present: the opera director who misses his old life because he is retired, John who wants to relive his youth when he lived in Rome, Leopoldo who finds himself famous but is disappointment when he is not any more. As a result, another theme can be seen in the film’s characters; the desire to be appreciated. We can analyse this from the stories of Jerry and Leopold. Jerry is retired, but cannot accept the fact that he doesn’t have to work anymore, and he also fears . This is why he wants to create a new opera performance; he sees the talent that Michelangelo’s father has, and he wants to do everything to bring this talent out so that people will notice he still has it in him, and he can be appreciated. Leopold too, is actually happy with his ordinary life, but once he is famous he feels how it is to be appreciated in contrast to his normal life. We can conclude from this that there is a need to be acknowledged and that this could be the basis of people’s craving for fame.129 This is remarkable in Allen’s work as well. As we have seen in previously analysed films, at the end of the film the characters have to choose between the surrealistic dream life and reality. We could indicate from this that on the one hand Allen represents Italy from the perspective of expectations, so from a touristic view, which can be seen through the locations that are used. This is also apparent in the American characters. On the other hand, he tries to create an image of Italy by using Italian actors, for the Italian storylines, Italian music and is influenced by the films of Italian director Fellini. Unlike his other films, Allen not only uses the perception of the western tourist, but he tries to make an image of Rome according to the Italian perception as well. As a result, Allen has created two images of Rome: one for the tourists, and an authentic image of Rome as well.

128 R. Brody, “Woody Allen’s Roman Holiday”, last modified on June 22, 2016: http://www.newyorker.com/culture/richard-brody/woody-allens- roman-holiday. 129 W. Allen, “Screenplay To Rome with Love”, last modified June 22, 2016: http://sonyclassics.com/toromewithlove/toromewithlove_presskit.pdf. 32

Chapter 5 London: Match Point London has been used frequently as a film setting and, in that way, has been imagined in various ways. There are many historical recreations of London in the Victorian times to emphasize the national history of England. As well romantic comedies such as: Notting Hill (1999) and thrillers as Black Mail (1929). According to Cunningham this is because “London occupies a unique position in England’s – and probably the Anglophone world’s – imagination.130 London is a global city that is represented in its arts, economical development, education, commercial entertainment, fashion, media, and off course in tourism. If one thinks of London as a tourist destination, he or she often thinks of the famous landmarks as the London eye, the Tower Bridge, Buckingham Palace, the Thames, Wimbledon, Big Ben, the financial centre and the Royal family. When one thinks of the inhabitants of London, different national stereotypes are constructed. But the most common is the idea of the English gentleman derived from English literature, who is characterized as morally upright, sophisticated and honest.131 This image is related to the importance of the social classes in England, which is an important subject in the film Match Point. Match Point (2005) was the first in a series of films set in Europe directed by Woody Allen. The script was originally set at the Hamptons in the United States but was eventually transferred to London because Allen received financing for the film there. The film was partly funded by BBC Films, which required Allen to make the film in England with mostly a local cast and crew.132 The film tells the story of Chris Wilton () who is an ex-professional tennis player coming from a modest background in Ireland and is working as a tennis instructor in London. At the tennis club, he meets Tom Hewett (), a young man born in a high-class English family. Chris and Tom become friends, and Chris marries Chloe , Tom’s sister. However, Chris also has a great passion for Nola Rice (Scarlet Johansson), Tom’s American girlfriend. In the end of the film, Chris has to choose between his desire to remain in the upper class and his passion for Nola.

The visual representation of the city: locations American directors who film in London still tend to reference the standard landmarks of London, like those mentioned above. They film London with its main tourist attractions to

130 G. Cunningham, London Eyes: Reflections in Text and Image (New York and Oxford: Berhahn Books, 2007), xi. 131 M. Spiering, “English”, in In Imagology: The Cultural Construction and Literary Representation of National Characters – A Critical Survey, ed. Manfred Beller and Joep Leerssen (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2007), 145. 132 J. Matloff, “Woody Allen’s European Vacation”, last modified on June 22, 2016: http://jasonmatloff.com/selected-articles/woody-allens-european- vacation/. 33 attract people for commerce and economic development, as shown in the other three Woody Allen films. In this film, Allen shows the audience the South Bank, which is why Match Point is seen as essential to promoting London as a modern, international city.133 Also, some of the city’s landmarks, such as , Norman Fosters Gherkin building at 30th Street Mary Axe, Richard Rogers’ Lloyd’s building, the , the , Black friars Bridge, and Cambridge, are seen in the film.134 Therefore, the image that Allen sets out is modern and classic at the same time because the film focuses on the upper class of London. The classical image is also seen in the tennis club where Chris Wilton works as a coach when he meets Tom Hewett. The tennis club is the Queens club, named after Queen Victoria. However, it is also seen when Chris goes to Tom’s family’s country estate outside of London. The house symbolizes the wealth of the Hewitt family. The upper class is also symbolized when Chris goes with Tom’s family to the opera at the Royal Opera House. The image of the Royal Opera House can be referred to the upper class of England because, normally, only the upper class went to the opera because the opera was considered an intellectual activity. Actually, the main purpose of this image is mainly its music. The opera music is a recurrent theme in the film that will be discussed in the next section. However, the modern aspect is visualized, for example, when Chris took the job offer from Tom’s father at the Swiss Re Tower, also known as the Gherkin Tower. This building is situated in The City, the financial district of London. On the other hand, London as an art city is visualized as well. At the scene where Chris throws the jewellery at the Thames, Girl With Balloon from the English artist is seen. The galleries at Tate Modern are featured, as well as Cork Street, on the fringes of Mayfair and home to many of London's art dealers. The scenes at a gallery that Chloe opens were filmed here.135 In the scene where Chris and Nola are getting to know each other is at “the Audley”, a pub located at Notting Hill, where other outdoor shots are filmed as well.136 Comparing the images of London to the previously analysed films shows the emphasis is not only placed on the landmarks and tourist attractions. Allen tried to create a modern image of London. London is set out as a metropolis where everything is possible. The emphasis is not necessarily on the authentic places and cultural heritage, but these aspects do come across. Many neighbourhoods are shown, which for a large part, are known to the

133 “The Woody Allen Guide to London”, last modified on June 22, 2016: https://www.theguardian.com/film/2005/apr/08/1. 134 “Match Point Locations”, last modified on June 27, 2016: https://web.archive.org/web/20090109202610/http://www.visitbritain.co.uk/things-to- see-and-do/interests/films/top-film-titles/match-point/locations.aspx. 135 “The London of Match Point”, last modified on June 26, 2016: http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/07/travel/08weblondon.html?_r=0. 136 “Match Point Locations”, last modified on June 27, 2016: https://web.archive.org/web/20090109202610/http://www.visitbritain.co.uk/things-to- see-and-do/interests/films/top-film-titles/match-point/locations.aspx. 34

Londoners themselves, but not necessarily to an audience outside from London. Therefore, there can be indicated, that in Match Point, Allen constructed a more realistic picture of London, unlike the unrealistic images he created from Rome, Barcelona, and Paris in his other films that only meet the expectations of the audience.

Characters and themes Match Point can be characterised as a with several themes and motifs. The film deals with fate and luck and looks at how life can be seen as a matter of chance. The opening scene refers to this theme by showing a tennis ball that hits the top of the net and indicating it could fall to either side, but that it is a matter of chance and luck to which side it will fall. The narrator, Chris, says the following while viewing this shot: “The man who said, ‘I’d rather be lucky than good’ saw deeply into life. People are afraid to face how great a part of life is dependent on luck. It’s scary to think so much is out of one’s control – there are moments in a match when the ball hits the top of the net, and for a split second it can either go forward… or fall back. With a little luck, it goes forwards. And you win. Or maybe it doesn’t … and you lose”. 137 This opening is related to the end of the film, where Chris gets away with two murders because of his luck. Chris is introverted person. Charalompos Goyios described him in his article as “a man whose perception of the world is not direct but mediated, filtered through inner experience and deliberation.”138 At the same time, he is a social climber, who needs a rich friend, Tom and a rich wife, Chloe, to earn a good job and the life of the wealthy upper class of England. He calculated everything to achieve what he wants. The social classes are considered extremely important: If one is not from a wealthy family, he or she has to find another way to obtain a position in the upper class. That is exact what Chris does. He looks up to Tom and his rich family and wants to be part of that life. Tom is the stereotype of upper class English. He plays tennis, has studied, and has a good job, and his parents have a country estate outside of London. It seems that money is an important motif for Chris, for entrance the Hewitt family and, finally, to kill Nola. This is also clarified in the following dialogue between Chris and Henry:

137 Match Point, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2005; London: DreamWorks Pictures, 2006). 138 C. Goylos, “Living Life as an Opera Lover: On the Uses of Opera as Musical Accompaniment in Woody Allen’s Match Point”, last modified on June 22, 2016: http://sensesofcinema.com/2006/feature-articles/match-point/. 35

Chris: “What the hell am I going to do if I leave Chloe? I don’t fool myself that I haven’t gotten use to certain kind of living. Am I supposed to give it all up? For what?” Henry: “Is it for a woman you love?” Chris: “To live how? Where? To work as what?”139

The film’s narrative has similarities and references of ’s Crime and Punishment140. This is seen in the scene when Chris reads Dostoevsky that is referring to the similarities with the anti-hero Raskolnikov.141 However, these similarities are also seen in the moral dilemmas of Dostoevsky’s protagonist, , an ex-student in St. Petersburg who formulates and executes a plan to kill a pawnbroker Alyona Ivanovna for her cash but kills her sister Lzaveta as well.142 Both killers try to cover their crimes by faking a robbery, both are almost caught by a unexpected appearance in the stairwell, and both the detectives have entangled relationships with the suspects.143 However, Raskolnikov is torn by guilt and eventually admits his guilt. Finally he gets redemption from his guilt by the discovery of God and punishment.144 In contrast, Chris, who kills a girl who he loves and who loves him because he finds his interests stand above his morality, knows almost no guilt and avoids punishment because of his luck. Allen could be asserting that there is no God or punishment of love that can provide redemption, unlike Dostoyevsky, and that luck is an extremely important factor to succeed at something bad.145 Some of the themes that Allen used are also seen in the similarities of another film of Allen, (1989). Judas Rosenthal is from the upper class and has an affair with another woman, but when he tries to end it, she starts to blackmail him that she will go to his wife and tell her about their affair. Therefore, he decides to murder her but is entangled with his moral code, like Raskolnikov. In Match Point, similarities are seen in Chris, who also murders his mistress, Nola, because she refuses to have an abortion so he can stay in his upper class life where he desperately wants to be.146 Chris’s motive to murder Nola is money. The importance of the social class can be related to money because, once one has

139 Wynter, D.E., “Darling, have you seen my Strindberg book? Dialogism as Social Discourse in Match Point”, in Referentiality and the Films of Woody Allen, ed. by Klara Stephanie Szlezák & D.E. Wynter,(New York : Palgrave MacMillan, 2015) 172. 140 Bailey, J., The Ultimate Woody Allen Film Companion, Minneapolis: Voyageur Press (2014), 148. 141 C. Goylos, “Living Life as an Opera Lover: On the Uses of Opera as Musical Accompaniment in Woody Allen’s Match Point”, last modified on June 22, 2016: http://sensesofcinema.com/2006/feature-articles/match-point/. 142 Bailey, J., The Ultimate Woody Allen Film Companion (Minneapolis: Voyageur Press 2014), 149. 143 C. Goylos, “Living Life as an Opera Lover: On the Uses of Opera as Musical Accompaniment in Woody Allen’s Match Point”, last modified on June 22, 2016: http://sensesofcinema.com/2006/feature-articles/match-point/. 144 H. Mäkelä, “Player in de Dark: Mourning the Loss of the Moral Foundation of Art in Woody Allen’s Match Point”, in Turning Points: Concepts and Narratives of Change in Literature and Other Media", ed. By edited by Ansgar Nünning, Kai Marcel Sicks (Boston: De Gruyter, 2012) 259. 145 V. Canby, “ Review: Crimes and Misdemeanors”, last modified on June 22, 2016: http://www.nytimes.com/movie/review?res=950DE6DA1F31F930A25753C1A96F948260 146 A. Jacobs, “Match Point Review”, last modified on June 27, 2016: http://www.bbc.co.uk/films/2005/12/19/match_point_2005_review.shtml. 36 obtained his or her position in the upper class, he or she is finally part of the wealthy ones. The narratives and themes can also be seen in the music. The soundtrack of the film is an opera piece, sung by .147 Allen has used opera before, such as in (1992), to indicate social class as mentioned in the previous paragraph.148 In Match Point the opera has several meanings. Firstly, to symbolize the upper class; secondly, it refers to Chris. He is characterized as an opera lover who is remarkable because normally opera is only intended for the upper class, and Chris is not from the upper class. This indicates that something is different from what is normally expected, which can be related to his morality and the life of luck and chance resulting from the crimes he has committed. Thirdly, some of the opera parts give some commentary on the characters, and give away some developments of the narrative of Match Point.149 This is seen, for example, in the aria Una Furtiva Lagrima, from L’ elisir d’amore from Geatano Donizette. This aria is about jealousy, desire and wealth, which can be related to Chris’ character. Another aria is that from , Desdemona, from the opera Othello. This is heard when Chris is murdering the two women, and is referring to Othello murdering Desdemona.150 Eventually, although Chris is not punished for his crimes, he is confronted with the ghosts of the women he killed. Nola tells him, “Prepare to pay the price, Chris. Your actions were clumsy. Full of holes. Almost like someone begging to be found out”.151 Hanna Mäkelä says about this scene: “when confronted in his dream by the ghosts of his victims and asked by Mrs Eastbay why see to was murdered, Chris invoked the rhetoric of the pre-conversation Raskolnikov: The innocents are sometimes slain to make way for a grander scheme. You were collateral damage.”152 He replies his crimes where necessary, maybe to feel some kind of guilt before he went on with his life in the upper class and the Hewitt family. This is also seen at the personage Rosenthal from Crimes and Misdemeanors. The audience does not know for sure whether the ghosts are real or whether he is seeing them in his dreams. He is making it up in his mind, and because of that, it seems surrealistic. Additionally, Banner has a dream where he sees Chris kill them, but eventually, his partner tells him that they found a drug addict murdered with Mrs Eastbay’s ring in his pocket. These strange dreams can be related to the theme of surrealism because of their complex relationship between reality and the

147 C. Goylos, “Living Life as an Opera Lover: On the Uses of Opera as Musical Accompaniment in Woody Allen’s Match Point”, last modified on June 22, 2016: http://sensesofcinema.com/2006/feature-articles/match-point/. 148 Ibid. 149 C. Goylos, “Living Life as an Opera Lover: On the Uses of Opera as Musical Accompaniment in Woody Allen’s Match Point”, last modified on June 22, 2016: http://sensesofcinema.com/2006/feature-articles/match-point/. 150 Ibid. 151 Match Point, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2005; London: DreamWorks Pictures, 2006). 152 H. Mäkelä, “Player in de Dark: Mourning the Loss of the Moral Foundation of Art in Woody Allen’s Match Point”, in Turning Points: Concepts and Narratives of Change in Literature and Other Media, ed. By edited by Ansgar Nünning, Kai Marcel Sicks (Boston: De Gruyter, 2012) 259. 37 dream world, as in Midnight and Paris and To Rome with Love, which is typical of Allen’s work. If we analyse Chris’ character further, we can discover that the city’s identity is shaping Chris’ identity. This is seen in England’s obsession with social class. Chris is falling prey to this obsession. Eventually London changed him into a class-obsessed person, who prefers his life in the upper class over that of his love for a woman. Noteworthy is that the image that Allen tries to convey of London is different from the images of Rome, Paris, and Barcelona. In those films, the constructed images were from the perception of the tourist, images of expectations. Additionally, the main characters in all three films were American tourists, except the two Italians in the storyline in To Rome with Love, who lived up to the Italian stereotype. In Match Point, the protagonist is of Irish descent, and Allen’s main purpose here is to create a picture of a social class: the upper class of London, that is seen in the locations as well. In addition, Allen wants to convey the importance of the social classes in London. Only one character is from American origins: Nola. However, Match Point’s characters are unlike the characters in the other films, who are tourists, and Nola lives and works in London to build a career. She tries to fit in with the upper class as well. The focus is, therefore, on presenting a social class rather than to represent the image of touristic expectations of London.

38

Conclusion This thesis has endeavoured to examine how stereotypes and images of European cities are revisited and challenged in the films of American director Woody Allen. To this end we have set out a theoretical framework in the first chapter, to clarify how the study of imagology researches images, and how images can be defined as a totality of impressions, beliefs, ideas, expectations, and feelings connected to a place over time. In addition, we have examined what kind of influence images have on human perception. Subsequently, the relationship between images, film and the city has been examined and explained, because a city has, just like a nation has, a character that consists of cultural features, which together construct the city’s cultural identity. In the chapters afterwards, four films by Woody Allen are analysed that are set in European cities, Midnight in Paris, Vicky Cristina Barcelona, To Rome with Love and Match Point, in order to give answers to the research question of this thesis. It can be concluded that the first three movies have many similarities in how the locations are used and visualized, and also in the themes, characters and narratives. As previously stated, in Midnight in Paris all the tourist attractions are shown to the audience. This is done in Vicky Cristina Barcelona and in To Rome with Love as well. In these three movies, the European city is presented on the one hand as a cultural city with a rich history, presented in its architecture and also related to famous artists like Gaudi and Monet. On the other hand, they are represented as a tourist destination, because one of the aims of the film is to attract people to visit the city. Therefore we see only the beautiful side of the city, and this image that is set out here is not a realistic one, but an idealized one that meets the expectations of the audience. The cultural and political problems are left out in this romanticized picture. Allen presents a distorted picture of the city that does not meet reality. We can infer from this that the image Allen has created is made up of the expectations of the audience, his own perception and an American perception. That is seen in the fact that, in all three films, almost all of the main characters are American tourists who are visiting Europe and have a stereotypical and general image about the city they visit. Allen does not present cultural differences within the country itself, but is constructing a general image of the country that is related to the European city. Just as we have seen in Vicky Cristina Barcelona, there is a major difference between the Catalan identity and Spanish identity for the inhabitants of Barcelona, yet from an American perception this is not seen. Furthermore, we could suggest that it is sometimes more about the American fascination with a European city, than about the city itself. This is especially seen in Midnight in Paris, where almost none of the characters in the film speak French, and most of the people 39 who Gil meets are Americans who are escaping American society and reality, just like Gil does. In Vicky Cristina Barcelona we see a bit more of Spanish society through the characters of Juan and Maria Elena, but the main characters are once again American tourists who are searching for the exotic Other, only to find out that they are living a fantasy and have to go back to reality. Meanwhile, in To Rome with Love, the image of Rome is set out from an American perception, but here Allen has also tried to construct an image through the eyes of Italian by using Italian actors and Italian music. We have seen that the acoustic guitar music also plays an important role in the narrative of Vicky Cristina Barcelona. We could also infer from the characters in these three films that several themes as nostalgia, escapism, exoticism and surrealism are seen. It seems that for Allen, he wants on one hand to make a criticism of American society with his characters, because his characters want to escape current American society and reality by traveling to Europe or back to the past that does not exist any more. But on the other hand, by the end of the film they have to accept reality, even if it is unsatisfying. We can conclude from this that the city’s identity shaped the character’s identity by recycling cultural images of the city into the perception of the characters. Although the first three analysed films have many similarities, the last one, Match Point, contrasts a great deal with the others, both in its representation of London and narrative. Match Point can be defined as a psychological thriller and does not set out a romantic image of the London and its narrative. However, it may still be an idealized one, because the character’s life is in the hands of luck, and Chris gets away with two murders because of this luck. But when analysing the locations that where used in London, we see that this is not necessarily a romanticized image where the sun is always shining as is seen in Vicky Cristina Barcelona, or that the focus is on the presentation of great landmarks. Instead, it is more about presenting the English upper class, which provides the stereotypical image of England as obsessed with social classes. Therefore, it is also interesting that in Match Point it is the upper class, which is presented, while in the other three films the characters can be categorized as people from the middle class. In addition, the main character here is of Irish descent instead of being a tourist from America, escaping from society. Otherwise, this is seen in Nola who is from America and is seeking a new life in London through the Hewitt family. Further differences between the films are seen in Chris’ character in contrast to the other characters. Chris is prepared to do anything to remain in his ideal world, even murder, while the other characters at the end of their movies come to their senses and realize that they cannot stay in their dream world and have to face reality. 40

However, there are also similarities seen between Match Point and the other three films. This is especially evident in the themes of the narratives. Like the other characters, Chris is not satisfied with his life and tries to enter another world. Furthermore, the theme of surrealism is seen in all four films. Sometimes it is not certain whether the characters are in a real world or if we are seeing their fantasy of thoughts, as in the scene with Chris in which he meets the ghosts of the women he murdered. As was mentioned above, this is remarkable for Allen. Another similarity is seen in Allen’s use of music. The music plays an important role in the image of the city, and in the narrative of the films as well, like the use of jazz music in Midnight in Paris to denote the twenties, or the acoustic guitar music to emphasize the exotic sense related to the Spanish identity, in Vicky Cristina Barcelona. The different Italian music styles in To Rome with Love are intended to put forward an Italian image, and the opera music in Match Point is related to the protagonist and the narrative of the film. With reference to the research question, it can be concluded that on the one hand Allen tries to shape and construct an image that meets the expectations of the audience, and therefore resembles through his representation, the city’s images and stereotypes. This is due to his use of locations, characters and music, which give a distorted picture of reality. But there can be indicated that Allen criticizes the naivety of the American perception, and criticizes the current American society by presenting these images. And on the other hand, Match Point represents certain stereotypes as well, but Allen is using other characteristics and images that are not mainly constructed from the American perception, and is therefore an exception in contrast to the other three films. However, the films can be seen as a perfect example of how mental images and constructed stereotypes influencing each other and stay alive.

41

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Cinematography

• Match Point, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2005; London: DreamWorks Pictures, 2006). • Midnight in Paris, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2011; Paris: Sony Picture Classics, 2011). • Vicky Cristina Barcelona, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2008; Barcelona: Cineart La Collection, 2008). • To Rome with Love, DVD, directed by Woody Allen, (2012; Rome: Sony Picture Classics, 2012).