SPORT AS AN INSTITUTION FOR STEREOTYPE CHALLENGE AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT: A REFLECTION ON NIGERIAN ELITE SPORTSWOMEN AT THE OLYMPICS

Dr. Ifeanyichukwu C. Elendu and Dr. Tammy T. Orunaboka

ABSTRACT

This paper is a documental research based on literary review on the role of sport in challenging gender stereotype and serving as an institution for women empowerment in . Women are always looking for how to address certain social issues and problems that affect them. Women empowerment is a social issue which women all over the world are clamoring for. Women have initiated and are still initiating movements geared towards ensuring that they have control over their socio-economic and political lives. Women have adopted several strategies including education to ensure that they achieve their goals. One of the strategies that could be used for women empowerment is sports. Sport is an empowerment avenue for all. Sport has also challenged gender stereotype that women are weak and inferior in social organizations. Among the areas that reflect one's empowerment are physical, economic, and social lives of the individuals. Sport empowers its participants including women physically by enhancing their strength, endurance, flexibility, power, agility; economically through salaries, match allowances as officiating officials and match commissioners, endorsement fees, and socially through interpersonal relationships, self-efficacy, friendship, among others. Among the challenges facing women empowerment through sports in Nigeria that were discussed include sexual harassment of women in sports; poor media coverage of women in sports; inadequate, substandard, and poor condition of sports facilities and equipment for women; poor funding of women's sports; inadequate motivation of women in sports; societal negative attitude towards women participation in sports, among others. Recommendations were made to improve the sports atmosphere for women, which will ensure women's maximization of the opportunity of being empowered through sports.

Keywords: Women empowerment, Sports, Gender stereotype.

INTRODUCTION sport, meaning of empowerment and This paper is a documental women empowerment, levels of research based on literary review of empowerment, and Nigerian elite the role of sport in challenging gender sportswomen at the Olympics. The stereotype and serving as an paper is equally subdivided into the institution for women empowerment role of sport in physical, social and in Nigeria. The subdivisions of the economic empowerment of women, paper are introduction, meaning of and problems confronting women gender, stereotype and gender empowerment through sports in stereotype, gender stereotype and Nigeria (poor media coverage of

57 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 women in sports; sexual harassment Hargreaves (1999), argued that sport of women in sports; inadequate social is an oppressive activity instead of an support for women sports; gender empowering activity for individuals inequity and inequality in sports in the minority group (such as leadership positions; inadequate, women), many sports scholars substandard, and poor condition of (Blinde, Taub, & Han, 1993; Blinde, sports facilities and equipment for Taub, & Han, 1994; Pohl, Borrie & women; poor funding of women's Patterson, 2000) maintained that sports; inadequate motivation of women personally can make sport or women in sports, and societal other physical activities a very negative attitude towards women empowering experience. participation in sports). Empowerment, according to In a patriarchal society, gender Czuba and Nanette (1999) is a multi- dominance, discrimination and in- dimensional social process that helps equity are encouraged. Patriarchy people gain control over their lives. relations manifest in heterosexual Sport sociologists have affirmed sport women’s economic dependence on as a tool for empowerment. Realizing men (Hartman, 1997). The worldwide the empowerment potentials of sport, women's movement over the past Fasting (1996) noted that some thirty years has emphasized that women of all ages pursue their females be treated as human beings interest in sports. Sports, in sport when they have opportunities to sociology perspective, according to develop their intellectual and physical Coakley (1998), are institutionalized abilities (Fasting, 1996). Women's competitive activities that involve struggle for empowerment could be vigorous physical exertion or the use seen in their series of conferences, for of relatively complex physical skills instance, the fourth world women by individuals whose participations conference held in Beijing China, from are motivated by combination of 4 - 15 September, 1995. physical enjoyment and external rewards. Women always anchor on Sports scholars like Nelson (1994), the outstanding performances of Kane (1998); Pohl, Borrie, and sportswomen at international Patterson (2000) rightly observed that competitions to contest and argue one issue concerning women and gender stereotype in the traditional sport has been sports ability to society. Commenting on women deconstruct traditional gender sports performance, Dada (2005) stereotyping, norms, and behaviours stated that Nigerian women athletes through the empowerment of have won more medals than their women. As Birrell and Richter (1987); male counterparts. Women medal 58 Sport as an Institution for Gender Stereotype profile at international sports compe- Meaning of Gender, Stereotype and titions such as Olympics which Gender Stereotype challenges the gender stereotype where women are seen to be weak, According to Igbuzor (2006), independent, emotional, and non- gender is the socially and culturally competitive. constructed roles for men and women. Stereotype refers to a fixed The feminist scholars advocate for idea or image that many people empowerment in the personal have of a particular type of person qualities gained by women to aid in or thing, but which is often not true betterment of their lives at individual, in reality (Hornby, 2005). Hence, group, and societal level. Personal or gender stereotype is a fixed idea or individual empowerment is a image that people have about men prerequisite for group and societal or women which is not often true. It empowerment. Pensgaard and Sore- is the socio-cultural expectations nsen (2002) noted that empowerment from men and women in a given in sport has mostly been studied at the society. Highlighting the stereo- individual level. This could be because typical expectations of men and empowerment at individual level is women, Fiebert and Meyer (1997) foundation for empowerment at other stated that women are expected to levels. Even at the sports sector, be gentle, sensitive, emotional, and individual sportsmen and women are talkative; while men are to be empowered before the group and competitive, independent, unemo- societal empowerment. Empower- tional, and objective. ment easily reflects on physical, economic, and social lives of The Nigerian society is not an individuals including women. Gibson exception in gender stereotyping. In (1991) noted that the development of the society, women are seen to be qualities such as positive self-esteem, weak, incompetent, unskilled, perceived competence, self-efficacy, an unintelligent, too emotional, not internal locus of control, personal objective for public social positions satisfaction, a sense of connectedness, but only good at domestic activities and an improved quality of life in the family and home. Due to facilitate empowerment at the gender stereotyping, according to personal level. This paper therefore Tavris (1994) women have been express how sports had challenged known to feel inadequate, worth- gender stereotype and discussed the less, trapped, and overall have low role sports can play in physical, self-esteems. This situation necessi- economic, and social empowerment of tated Nigerian women and their women in Nigeria. colleagues worldwide to strive 59 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 towards violating and disproving to be aggressive, competitive, and the societal norms. Nigerian confident, and so forth to be successful. women's popular saying that "what There is a link between successfulness a man can do, can do it and empowerment. better" is geared towards showing Sport experts (Blinde, Taub, & that they are not weak and inferior Han, 1993; Nelson, 1994) noted that even in the area of sports. stereotypes of women as less Gender Stereotype and Sport capable, less physically skilled, weak, helpless, and lack decision In the sport context, societal making skills that are necessary for norms are challenged and violated for organized physical activity lead women to be successful and many women to ignore sport or to empowered. Sport is an empowering believe that they were not institution for athletes irrespective of physically able to participate. In gender. Sport is a ground that has sport, women were able to display, been used to disagree with the what at the time were considered societal stereotyping norms as many inappropriate gender behaviours women have gone outside the limits such as aggression, competitiveness, of the norms. Many women have and independence. Women were proved to be objective, competitive, allowed to sweat, get dirty, get hurt, and independent at national and be muscular and physically fit while international sports competitions participating in sport. Sport served such as National sports festivals and as a place where women could Olympics. For an athlete (male or transgress from the strict and rigid female) to be successful or gender norms (Blinde, Taub & Han, empowered, certain traits, charac- 1993; Kane 1998). teristics, and behaviours must be present. This is in line with Tuffey's Meaning of Empowerment and (1995) statement that the charac- Women Empowerment teristics of a successful athlete reflect the necessary characteristics of The definitions of empowerment successful athlete, regardless of sex or by scholars are different but related. gender. This is not far from Anshel Rappaport (1987) viewed empower- (1994), and Cote and Salmela (1996) ment as a process by which people idea that to be a successful female gained mastery over their lives. athlete, it is necessary to possess the Blinde, Taub and Han (1993) same traits, characteristics, and defined empowerment as the behaviours as male athlete. According process by which individuals in a to them, successful female athlete needs disadvantaged social group develop

60 Sport as an Institution for Gender Stereotype skills and abilities to gain control intrapersonal empowerment is how over their lives and to take action to one sees himself or herself which improve their life situation. manifests in a perceived control and Wallerstein and Bernstein (1988), self-efficacy, motivation to control, and Gutierrez (1990) noted when an mastery, personality, cognitive, and individual becomes empowered, he motivational aspects of perceived or she becomes proactive and takes control. The interactional empower- personal responsibility in impro- ment provides a bridge between ving his or her life situation and perceived control and taking action to wellbeing. In the context of this exert control, encompassing how paper, empowerment is the social people think about and relate to their process of enabling women to social environment. The behavioural discover, develop, and strengthen component of individual empower- their skills and resources which are ment refers to actions taken to directly geared towards gaining power and influence outcomes in one's environ- control over their lives through ment. sports. This paper also discusses Group empowerment refers women empowerment as the process to a group's perception of influence of making women self-reliant, and control within a larger independent, confident, strong- community (Wallerstein, 1992). This minded and have total control over is a situation where the group may their lives through sports. control the actions of members of the group. Bandura (1997) affirmed Levels of Empowerment that a strong belief in a group's self- Empowerment is a multi-level efficacy may override a weaker construct. According to Rappaport personal self-efficacy. Empower- (1987), and Zimmerman and Rappa- ment at the community level is port (1988), empowerment occurs at connected with empowerment at individual or psychological, group, and the individual and organizational community levels. Zimmerman and level (Wallerstein, 1992). Comm- Rappaport, (1988) viewed psycho- unity empowerment (Bandura, logical empowerment as the connection 1997) assumes that people strive for between a sense of personal and desire political influence. Sherill competence, a desire for, and a (1998) explained that community willingness to take action, in the public empowerment represents a global domain. Individual empower-ment, structure, which focuses on the according to Zimmerman (1995), advancement of a certain group into comprises intrapersonal, interactional, positions of societal or political and behavioural components. The power in society.

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Nigerian Elite Sportswomen at the elite sportswomen to compete and won Olympics medals is a challenge to the societal

History has it on records that assumption of women as weak, non- Nigeria first participated in the competitive, and emotional.

Olympic Games in 1952 at Helsinki The Role of Sport in Physical from July 19 - August 3. Women have Empowerment of Women been participating in Olympics and Nigerian women are not left out in Women who were traditionally Olympic history. For instance, the relay perceived to be less capable, less team of , Christy physically skilled, helpless and Opara-Thompson, Mary Onyali, and weak (Nelson, 1994) are empowered Faith Idehen at 1992 Barcelona Game through physical qualities, which won bronze in 4 x relay. In are required for self control in one's the 1996 Atlanta Games, Chioma daily living. Such physical values Ajunwa won gold medal in long lump, and attributes which sports could and Olabisi Afolabi, , contribute to women sport partici- , won pants include improved muscular silver medal in 4 x relay. In strength, cardio-vascular endurance, the same 1996 Atlanta, Mary Onyali cardiorespiratory endurance, agility, won bronze medal in , with flexibility, power, improved reac- Falilat Ogunkoya also winning bronze tion time, speed among others. medal in 400 metres (Wikipedia Sport empowers women by deve- Foundation, 2009). loping their strength to run, walk, jump, to cater for their daily needs, At Sydney in Australia 2000 and escape from dangers in the (Sept. 15th to Oct. 1st) Olympic hostile environment. Games, Ruth Ogbeifo won silver in weightlifting. In the same 2000 Researchers have reported that Sydney Games, Glory Alozie made active sportswomen possess imp- a record in 100 metres women roved physical attributes (strength, hurdles by winning silver medal. In endurance, flexibility, agility, speed, the records of 2008 Beijing Olympic etc.) than inactive sportsmen. It is Games, had no doubt that for female athletes bronze medal to show for her like , Blessing participation in , with Okagbare, Glory Alozie, Mary Franca Idoko, Gloria Kemasuode, Onyali, among others to make Halimat Ismalia, and Oludamola historic marks in Olympics, they Osayomi who won bronze in 4 x 100 must have been empowered with metres relay. Olympics Games are physical fitness attributes through highly competitive and for Nigerian sports. 62 Sport as an Institution for Gender Stereotype

The Role of Sport in Social Em- interact with other social powerment of Women environments outside their homes. For instance, Nigerian elite female Blinde, Taub, and Han (1994), athletes have socialized themselves Nelson (1994); Pohl, Borrie and in Barcelona, Atlanta, Sydney, and Patterson (2000) noted that sport can Beijing due to . serve as a social networking arena Sport expands one's social environ- that allows women to come in ment. With sports, women who are contact with other women. in the past felt trapped, now feel Women's feeling of low self-esteem free in their social relationships. and inferiority in the past seems to With the view of athletes being have changed. Today, Nigerian agents of socialization, the social women thrive and win medals in value of sportswomen increases. sport which demands competitive- Many people, and corporate bodies ness and aggressiveness. The self or organizations establish friendship identity of female athletes has been with sportswomen. Government improved in modern sports world. also partner with sportsmen and Sport has exposed women to sportswomen in inculcating right establishing social relationship with values to its citizen. They are now other athletes, sport associations, seen as agents of social change in sport officials, fans, spectators, sport the society. Elite sportswomen have managers and administrators. had the opportunity of meeting Theberge (1987) opined that with the presidents of nations of the traditionally, contact with other world (Tavris, 1992). women has been limited, for most of The Role of Sport in Economic the women's work has revolved Empowerment of Women around the family and home. The author further emphasized that both Unless women's economic security team and individual sports have is strengthened, it will be difficult to provided women with the oppor- eliminate poverty, and achieve gender tunity to come together and work equality or realize genuine progress on together towards common goals. the United Nation's Goals (Negash, This simply means that sport has 2006). According to Negash (2006), served as an extension of women increased income controlled by social environment which was women gives them self-confidence, traditionally taken to be limited to which helps them to obtain a voice the family and home. Sport mobility and vote in household decisions, has made female athletes to tour economic decisions, fertility decisions, many countries of the world to and land use and conservation

63 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 decisions. Elite athletes including workers in sport facilities, equip- female athletes are sometimes ment and supplies manufacturing rewarded with millions of dollars or industries, are opportunities that pounds. They are paid endorsement have economically empowered in- fee for associating their names or dividuals including women. performance with some products. Problems Confronting Women Em- Some manufacturers associate them- powerment through Sports in selves with athletes to market and Nigeria promote their products. For instance, sports wears, t-shirts are designed A lot of problems confront using an elite athlete's identity, women in sports and tend to thereby attracting endorsement fees discourage them from sharing with for the athlete. Sport has contributed the empowering experience and to economic empowerment of athletes potential of sports. The problems and female athletes are not exempted. include:

Poor media coverage of women in sports Women economic dependency on men may be ameliorated through Media coverage of good perfor- sports. Athletes including female mance of athletes is a way of athletes are among the highest motivating and marketing the income earners in the world, thus athletes to the sports world. portraying economic empowerment Athletes including female athletes ability of sport. Sport as an feel more delighted to continue international career has made it participating in sports. Sports infor- possible for elite female athletes to mation is made available to the be paid with foreign currencies. public through print and electronic Sportswomen receive financial means of the media. There has been allowances for competitions either a difference in the way media from their nation, club side, team or personnel, and sports commentators association. Apart from getting report or speak about female economic and financial entitlement athletes which are different from the as a female athlete, other women way they report male athletes. The assume positions in sports commentators attribute male industries which economically em- athletes' outstanding performances powered them. Sport positions like as a mark of their athletic skills, coaches, sport referees, sport overall dedication and remarkable organizing secretaries, sport marke- amount of courage and that of the ters, sport analysts, sport officials, female athletes' performances to sport journalist (sport reporters, luck or the guidance of a strong sport announcers or commentators), male influence (Eastman & Billings, 64 Sport as an Institution for Gender Stereotype

1999; Eastman & Billings, 2000). Inadequate social support (parents, Wensing and Bruce (2003) reported siblings, friends, peers, role models) that there is less coverage of for women sports women's sports than their male Sportswomen expect support counterparts. Male athletes are more from their social environment. These glorified by media than the female sportswomen expect some encoura- athletes. In most cases, male athletes gements and cheering from their are praised and female athletes parents, siblings, friends, peers. Some criticized. Women's sports are not parents and other social groups with given due coverage by the Nigerian their negative attitude towards media. A review of Nigerian women participation in sports do not national newspapers and magazines give these sportswomen their shows biasness and poor coverage consent. This discourages sports- of women sports, and this does not women, as those who are already encourage women to continue their involved in sports may be left with no participation in sports. option other than to pull out, and Sexual harassment of women in sports those yet to participate cease to think Sexual harassment is a violation about it. of . Sexual harassment is a social problem that thrives in Gender inequity and inequality in sports leadership positions every human organization including sports. Women are mostly Sports leadership positions are the victims of sexual harassment dominated by men with very few which is often perpetrated by men. women. Sports policies and deci- Supporting this, Elendu (2009) sions are taken by these leaders. reported that southern Nigerian More women are likely to be universities female athletes mostly involved in sports when they see for experience sexual harassment, and instance retired elite sportswomen is mostly perpetrated on them by who serve as their role model in male athletes, sports administrators, sports leadership position. The and spectators. This ugly experience sports leadership positions are of sexual harassment by women in dominated by men. the course of their participation in sport has made some of them to Inadequate, substandard, and poor cease from participation. Sexual condition of sports facilities and equipment for women harassment of sportswomen has forced many women back to their Athletes need not just sports homes, and never to engage in facilities and equipment, but ad- sports outside their homes. equate and standard ones that are in 65 The Shield (ISSN-1991-8410) Vol. 06, 2011 good condition. Most of the available Societal negative attitude towards sports facilities and equipment are women participation in sports substandard, and in poor condition. Training with these facilities and Though the societal negative equipment exposes athletes to a lot of attitude towards women partici- injuries. Injuries as a result of poor pation in sports in Nigeria is condition of facilities and equipment gradually changing, but women's scare some women from sports. On sports have not been given the other hand, men show their proper attention. Sports are still dominating power by driving women seen as a masculine activity. Most away from sports facilities when they Nigerians still perceive sport as (men) want to train. This embarra- an activity that makes women ssment makes some women to retire muscular, affects a woman's from sports. menstruation, and other physio- logical changes that endangers Poor funding of women's sports the reproductiveness of women. The society expects women to Sports require huge amount of concen-trate on child rearing, and money for the payment of athletes', other domestic activities than to coaches' and officials' allowances, be involved in sports. This does procurement of sports equipment, not encourage women who have construction and maintenance of sports interest in sports to participate. facilities. In Nigeria, women's sports do not attract financial support like their Conclusions and Recommendations male counterparts both at national and international competitions. Sport has challenged the gender stereotypical assumptions Inadequate motivation of women and expectations of the public. in sports Women should consider using Sportswomen are not properly sport as one of their empower- motivated, as could lead to their ment strategies as it has been drop-out in sports. This has earlier affirmed to be an empowering been expressed by Nikos, Anne- experience. In order to sustain the Marte, Chris, and Katie (2004) that empowering opportunities in lack of motivation in sports or sports for women and to encou- exercise context will make rage more women to participate, individuals not to take part in the following recom-mendations sports. Motivation is needed for are made based on problems individual to participate or continue discussed on this paper facing to participate in sports. women's sport in Nigeria. 66 Sport as an Institution for Gender Stereotype

1. There should be zero tolerance covering sports irrespective of of sexual harassment of women the gender.

in sports settings. Sexual 8. Proper and adequate motivation harassment prevention policies should be provided for women should be made and imple- who participate in sports, such mented throughout the country. as cash rewards, scholarship, job 2. Adequate and standard sports offer, and recognition should be facilities and equipment should given to sportswomen.

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