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Culture, Stratification, and Body Modification

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Culture, Stratification, and Body Modification TRANSIENT BODIES, PLIABLE FLESH: CULTURE, STRATIFICATION, AND BODY MODIFICATION DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Joshua R. Adams, M.A. * * * * * The Ohio State University 2007 Dissertation Committee: Approved By: Professor Vincent Roscigno, Adviser Professor J. Craig Jenkins ____________________________ Professor Steven Lopez Adviser Sociology Graduate Program ABSTRACT Body modification practices have become increasingly common in contemporary American society. In 2005 alone approximately 3.5 million individuals underwent some type of cosmetic surgical procedure. Similarly, it is estimated that twenty-four percent of Americans between the ages of 18 and 50 years-old have tattoos, while fourteen percent have body piercings. Drawing upon Shilling’s (1993) notion of the “body project” which suggests that within capitalist, consumer society, the body has become an object to be worked at as a means of accomplishing individual identity, this research endeavors to understand how and why individuals navigate the cultural norms and ideals pertaining to physical (aesthetic) appearance in relation to their own sense of personal identity. I explore more specifically the structural, socio-demographic, and ideological differences and similarities between individuals who engage in socially transgressive practices (tattooing, body piercing) and those who engage in socially sanctioned and increasingly legitimate practices (cosmetic surgery). These questions, and the comparative analyses I undertake, both cross-cut and are rooted in broader sociological concerns regarding questions about the body, social stratification, cultural conformity, and deviance. First, using TextAnalyst, I analyze mainstream media accounts of both cosmetic surgery as well as body ii piercing and tattooing. This provides a backdrop for understanding modification practices are understood and received within the broader society. Second, I conducted in-depth interviews with members of two specific populations: respondents who have modified their bodies through tattooing/piercing and those who have done so through cosmetic surgery. These qualitative chapters speak to the role of the body and its manipulation within consumer culture, the decreasing stigma attached to all types of modification, and the stratification and status- oriented processes evident among people who engage in modification. Moreover, my results highlight how: (1) traditional associations between modification and social class status have become somewhat less salient over time; (2) gendered expectations, while less constraining and overt, figure prominently in how individuals choose to engage in their respective body projects and respond to the projects of others; (3) social connections often directly influence whether or not one decides to engage in modification practices; and (4) processes traditionally associated with the lower-class, such as tattooing, have diffused throughout the population more quickly than those more associated with, and legitimated within, upper-class stratum. iii Dedicated to Theresa iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my advisor, Vinnie Roscigno, for the support and guidance he has provided throughout this entire process. His insights and recommendations have helped me to refine and focus my work and have made me a better sociologist. I am also grateful that Vinnie has been supportive of my research interests, which have at times deviated from the mainstream. I appreciate that he understands that there are many aspects of society from which we can gain knowledge, if we only take the time to look. I want to acknowledge and thank Craig Jenkins and Steve Lopez for their support, both as members of my general exam and dissertation committees. Their expertise has been a valuable asset to my experience and development here at Ohio State. I need to thank Panera Bread. Many of my interviews were conducted in their fine establishments and their free-refill coffee policy fueled many hours of writing and research. Finally, I want to thank Theresa. She has been supportive though this whole process. She read and commented on multiple drafts of chapters and provided helpful insights even when she was tired and I was irritable. She had faith in me when I wanted to give up and encouraged me when I most needed it. Thank you for your love and your friendship v VITA March 15, 1979……………Born - Murfreesboro, TN December, 2000……………B.S., Sociology, Middle Tennessee State University June, 2003…………………M.A., Sociology, The Ohio State University PUBLICATIONS 1. Adams, Josh and Vincent Roscigno. 2005. “White Supremacists, Oppositional Culture, and the World Wide Web.” Social Forces 84:757-776. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Sociology vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract……………………………………………………………..……..………ii Dedication…………………………………………………………..……..………v Acknowledgments…………………………………………………….……….…vi Vita……………………………………………………………………………....vii List of Figures………………………………………………….……………..….xii Chapters: Introduction…………………………………………….………….………………1 The Body in Contemporary Society……………………….….……...…...4 Stratification and Body Modifications………..………….……………….7 The Chapters Ahead………………………..………………….………….9 1. Corporeality and Culture: The Modified Body as Social Fact…….…….14 The Role of Social Facts………………..………………….…………….15 Social Facts and the Body ……………………………….…………..17 Body Modification as an Integrating Process………..………….……….18 Types of Societies and the Role of Body Modification……..….………..20 Body Modification in Mechanical Societies…………………..….……...21 Tattooing………………………………………………………...……….22 Scarification/Cicatrization……………………………………...………..25 Piercing…………………………………………………….…..………...26 Modeling Body Modification in Mechanical Societies………...………..28 Body Modification in Organic Societies………………….….…………..29 Types of BodyModification…………………....……….…….…….……31 Medical Modifications……………………………….……….………….32 Non-Medical Modifications…………………………….…….………….36 Modeling Body Modifications in Organic Societies……….……………40 Comparison………………………………………………….…………...40 Conclusion………………………………………………….……………42 vii 2. Manipulated Embodiment: The Modern Development of Modification Processes…………………………………………………………………44 What Does Body Modification Mean ………………………..…….…....45 Medical Modification – The Evolution of Cosmetic Surgery…..……….48 Professionalization in the Field of Cosmetic Surgery……….…..….……50 Non-Medical Modifications – (Re) Introducing Tattooing and Piercing in the West………………………………………………………………….53 Oddities and Entertainers…………….……………………………….….55 Professionalization in the Fields of Non-Medical Modification….…..….57 Current State of Body Modification Practices……………………..…….59 Transitioning Demographics of Body Modification Projects…….…..….60 Gender and the Modified Body…………………………………….….....61 Race and Ethnicity……………………………………………………….65 Motivations for Modifying the Body…………………………………….67 Conclusion……………………………………………………………….70 3. Data and Methods………………………………………………………..71 Media Analysis…………………..………………………………………72 TextAnalyst…………………….………….……………………………..72 In-Depth Interviews and Analysis…….…….…………………………...74 Analytic Strategy………………………………..……………………….75 Coding…………….……………….….………………………………….78 Sample Size……….……………….….………………………………….78 4. Media Analysis of Body Modification Practices………………………...80 Mass Media and Framing.....................................................................…..81 Media Accounts of Body Modification Practices…….…..……….…….83 Tattooing, Body Piercing, and Mass Media…….......…………….……..84 Cosmetic Surgery and Mass Media……………....……………………...87 Representations of Tattooing and Body Piercing in Newspaper Articles…………………………………………………….………..……91 Framing Tattooing………………………..……………………………...91 Health and Wellness……………………..………………………………94 Framing Body Piercing……………….……………………………….…96 Representations of Cosmetic Surgery in Newspaper Articles….….….....99 Conclusion……………………………………………………….……..103 viii 5. “Not Just for Rich People Anymore”: An Analysis of Cosmetic Surgery………………………………………………………………….107 Motivations and Meaning………………………..……………………..108 Assessing Others………………………………..………………………115 Satisfaction and Outcomes……………………..……………………….118 Countering Normative Expectations………..…………………………..121 The Economics of Cosmetic Surgery……..……………………………123 Health and Wellness………………..…………………………………..128 Conclusion…………………………..………………………………….129 6. “I’m just trying to accessorize”: An Analysis of Tattooing and Body Piercing…………………………………………………………………132 Meaning and Motivations…….……….………………………………..133 Inscription of Memory……….……….………………………………...136 Assessing Others……………….……….………………………………139 Conflicting Interpretations……….…….……………………………….143 Rites of Passage……………….………….…………………………….145 Connection and Interaction…….………….……………………………148 Navigating Stigma……………….……….…………………………….150 Conclusion……………………….………….………………………….152 7. Summary and Synthesis………………………………………………...155 Theoretical Underpinnings…….……….……………………………….156 Empirical Foundation………….……….……………………………….157 Substantive Findings…………….….…………………………………..158 Parallels and Connections……….….…………………………………..163 Theoretical Implications…………..……………………………………168 Conclusion…………………………..……………………………….... 171 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………173 Appendix A: Figures for Chapter 1…...………………….…………………….188 Appendix B: Figures for Chapter 2……………………………………………..191 Appendix C: Figures for Chapter 3………………………………………….… 195 ix Appendix D: Figures for Chapter 4...…………………………………………..197 Appendix E: Figures for Chapter 5……………………………………………..201
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