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Università Degli Studi Di Napoli Federico II Pre-Supernova Alert

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Università Degli Studi Di Napoli Federico II Pre-Supernova Alert Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN FISICA Ciclo XXXIII Coordinatore: prof. Salvatore Capozziello Pre-Supernova Alert System for Super-Kamiokande with Gadolinium Settore Scientifico Disciplinare _____/______ Dottorando Tutor Lucas NASCIMENTO MACHADO Prof.ssa Gianfranca DE ROSA Prof. Vittorio PALLADINO Anni 2018/2021 Declaration of Authorship I, Lucas Nascimento Machado, declare that this thesis titled, ‘Pre-Supernova Alert System for Super-Kamiokande with Gadolinium’ and the work presented in it are my own. I confirm that: ⌅ This work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research degree at this University. ⌅ Where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated. ⌅ Where I have consulted the published work of others, this is always clearly attributed. ⌅ Where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work. ⌅ Ihaveacknowledgedallmainsourcesofhelp. ⌅ Where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself. Signed: Date: 1 UNIVERSITA` DEGLI STUDI DI NAPOLI FEDERICO II Abstract (English) ”Ettore Pancini” Physics Department Doctor of Philosophy by Lucas Nascimento Machado The current phase of the Super-Kamiokande experiment, SK-Gd, is character- ized by the addition of gadolinium sulfate to the water Cherenkov detector, which improves the detection capability of thermal neutrons. For low energy events, the main detection channel for electron anti-neutrinos is the Inverse Beta Decay interaction, which has, in its final state, a positron and a neutron. The neutron thermal capture by gadolinium emits an 8 MeV gamma-ray cascade, improving the identification of the products of this process. This improved identification reduces the background for low energy events, allowing the analysis of neutrinos with en- ergies below the usual Super-Kamiokande thresholds. One possible detection by SK-Gd is the neutrinos coming from pre-Supernova stars, which correspond to the last evolutionary state of massive stars before core-collapse Supernova. Dur- ing this stage, pair annihilation and beta decay processes are the main cooling mechanisms of the massive stars, emitting high fluxes of electron anti-neutrinos. Their detection could provide an early warning for core-collapse Supernovae. The techniques for the development of the pre-Supernova alert system for SK-Gd are presented in this thesis. UNIVERSITA` DEGLI STUDI DI NAPOLI FEDERICO II Abstract (Italian) Dipartimento di Fisica ”Ettore Pancini” Dottore in Filosofia di Lucas Nascimento Machado L’esperimento Super-Kamiokande ha recentemente iniziato una nuova fase sper- imentale, SK-Gd, caratterizzata dall’aggiunta di solfato di gadolinio al rilevatore Cherenkov, migliorando cos`ıla capacit`adi rivelazione dei neutroni termici. Per eventi a bassa energia, il canale di rivelazione principale per gli anti-neutrini elet- tronici `eil processo di decadimento beta inverso, che ha, nel suo stato finale, un positrone e un neutrone. La cattura termica dei neutroni in gadolinio emette una cascata di raggi gamma di 8 MeV, migliorando l’identificazione dei prodotti di questo processo. Questa migliore identificazione riduce il background per eventi di bassa energia, consentendo l’analisi di neutrini con energie al di sotto dei liveli fino ad oggi accessibili in Super-Kamiokande. In SK-Gd `epossibilie la rivelazione di neutrini da pre-Supernova, che si prevede siano emessi nell’ultimo stato evolutivo di stelle di massa maggiore di otto masse solari, prima del collasso. Durante questa fase, la produzione di coppie neutrini e antineutrini e i procesi di decadimento beta sono il principale meccanismo di ra↵reddamento e ci si aspetta un flusso intenso di anti-neutrini elettronici. La rivelazione di questi anti-neutrini elettronici potrebbe fornire un preallarme per collassi di Supernovae. In questa tesi vengono presentati i sistemi di allerta pre-Supernova per SK-Gd. UNIVERSITA` DEGLI STUDI DI NAPOLI FEDERICO II Resumo (Portuguese) Departamento de Fsica ”Ettore Pancini” Doutor em Filosofia por Lucas Nascimento Machado AfaseatualdoexperimentoSuper-Kamiokande,SK-Gd,´ecaracterizadapela adi¸c˜aode sulfato de gadol´ınio`a´aguado detector Cherenkov, o que melhora a capacidade de detec¸c˜aode nˆeutrons t´ermicos. Para eventos de baixa energia, o principal canal de detec¸c˜aode anti-neutrinos de el´etrons ´ea intera¸c˜aode Decai- mento Beta Inverso, que tem, em seu estado final, um p´ositron e um nˆeutron. A captura t´ermica de nˆeutrons pelo gadol´ınio emite uma cascata de raios gama de 8 MeV, melhorando a identifica¸c˜ao dos produtos deste processo. Esta identifica¸c˜ao aprimorada reduz o background para eventos de baixa energia, permitindo at´e mesmo a an´alise de neutrinos em energias abaixo dos limites usuais do Super- Kamiokande. Uma poss´ıvel detec¸c˜ao pelo SK-Gd ´ea de neutrinos vindos de es- trelas pr´e-Supernova, que correspondem ao ´ultimoestado evolutivo de estrelas massivas, logo antes do colapso do n´ucleo da estrela. Durante este est´agio,os processos de aniquila¸c˜aode pares e decaimento beta s˜aoos principais mecanismos de resfriamento da estrela, emitindo altos fluxos de anti-neutrinos de el´etrons, cuja detec¸c˜ao poderia fornecer um alerta precoce de explos˜oes de Supernovas. As t´ecnicas para o desenvolvimento de um sistema de alerta de pr´e-Supernova para o SK-Gd s˜aoapresentadas nesta tese. Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Gianfranca De Rosa. From the very first day she has supported me in every single aspect during the PhD period. She helped me establish my research goals and assisted me in every step of the way until they were achieved. In these three years of PhD her professional and emotional support kept me going. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my studies. Also a special gratitude to Vittorio Palladino for all the help and incentive and to all my colleagues in Naples. IwouldliketoexpressgratitudetotheSuper-Kamiokandecollaborationfor accepting my participation and contribution to the SK-Gd project. I have learned a lot of fundamental physics and data analysis. Each meeting, discussion, workshop and email exchange was valuable. My sincere thanks to Mark Vagins, LLuis Marti- Magro, Alex Goldsack, and all the Gadolinium group members for the treasured advices that were very significant in shaping my research methods and critiquing my results. Also to Charles Simpson for introducing me to the pre-Supernova neutrino analysis and supporting me to continue his incredible work. I also appreciate the encouragement from my friend Guido Celentano. Not only he made my life easier, resolving all the bureaucracies I had for living abroad, but he always had a word of advice and care. My appreciation goes out to my family in Brazil. To my mother, Maria Ol´ımpia, and my father, Marcelo, for the moral and emotional foundation in my life. To my siblings Hugo, Guilherme, Mariana and Gabriel for their friendship and caring and my sisters in law, Gabriela e Poliana. To my grandparents and my aunts Rosi and Magda, for always keeping me in their heart and prayers. And to my niece Manuela that has already filled our lives with purpose and hope. The realization of this PhD would have been impossible without the support from my friends. Even living in di↵erent continents they were always there for me, giving me incentive and optimism along the way. My special gratitude goes to B´arbara, Luana, Pedro, Matheus, Rafaela, Let´ıcia, Gabriel, Allan, Andressa 5 6 and Paulo. Also to my friends Rodrigo, Rachel, Murilo, Carla, Bruno, Eduardo, Guilherme, Juvenal, Matheus, Paulo, Pedro, Yuji, Beatriz, Isabela and Patr´ıcia. Finally, I have been beyond fortunate to meet amazing people after moving to Italy. Living abroad is never easy, but their company and a↵ection gave me strength and courage to continue my journey. I am deeply grateful to Daisy, who has followed closely and daily every single step of the way, giving me advice and motivation to overcome obstacles and never give up. Many thanks to Brurya, for her constant caring and presence. I also wish to thank Mirko, Andy, Carol, Ally, Kelly, and so many others for believing in me more than I believe in myself. Contents Declaration of Authorship 1 Abstract (English) 2 Abstract (Italian) 3 Resumo (Portuguese) 4 Acknowledgements 5 List of Figures 11 List of Tables 17 Abbreviations 19 Introduction (English) 24 Introduzione (Italian) 27 Introdu¸c˜ao (Portuguese) 30 1 Neutrinos 33 1.1 Neutrino Oscillations in Vacuum .................... 34 1.2 The MSW E↵ect ............................ 38 1.3 Neutrino Sources ............................ 39 1.3.1 Atmospheric Neutrinos ..................... 39 7 Contents 8 1.3.2 Solar Neutrinos ......................... 43 1.3.3 Reactor Neutrinos ....................... 45 1.3.4 Accelerator Neutrinos ..................... 47 1.3.5 Astrophysical Neutrinos .................... 48 1.4 Neutrino Interactions .......................... 50 2 Supernova and Pre-Supernova 54 2.1 Supernova Neutrinos .......................... 54 2.1.1 Supernova ............................ 54 2.1.2 Supernova Burst and Neutrino Emission ........... 57 2.1.3 SN1987A ............................ 62 2.2 Di↵use Supernova Neutrino Background ............... 63 2.3 Pre-Supernova
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