BEN- GURION UNIVERSITY OF THE NEGEV FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES
Comparative Messianic Thought in Islam
THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS
DINA GOLDIE DAVIS
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF: NIMROD HURVITZ
BEN- GURION UNIVERSITY OF THE NEGEV FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES
Comparative Messianic Thought in Islam
THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS
DINA GOLDIE DAVIS UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF: NIMROD HURVITZ
Signature of student: ______Date: ______
Signature of supervisor: ______Date: ______
Signature of chairperson of the committee for graduate studies: ______Date: ______
Table of Contents
Chapter One Introduction 1
Chapter Two Background on Sunni Messianic Theory 11
Chapter Three Background on Shi‘ite Messianic Theory and the
Events Leading up to the Arrival of the Mahdi 17
Chapter Four Bada‘ and The Human Element in Divine Actions 40
Chapter Five How Ahmadinejad Fits In 51
Chapter Six Tying It Altogether 78
Chapter Seven Bibliography 97
Abstract
This research project intends to examine the similarities and differences between
messianic thought in Imami Shiite Islam versus Sunni Islam -- and to some extent -- the
role that history played in their development. In addition, this work would like to
examine the way in which messianic thought in Imami Shiite Islam plays a role in
specific world events today.
The main point of contrast discussed in this work will be the arrival and
personage of the Mahdi in Sunni Islam with that of Imami Shiite Islam. To some extent,
the discussion will address the political and religious baggage inherent in the existence of
this concept. The discussion will also address the role performed by eschatological
thought in Imami Shiite Islam -- as it exists today – and how it is at least partially
responsible for Iran’s confrontation with the rest of the world.
The research will examine the relationship between Ahmadinejad’s expression of belief in the coming of the Mahdi and his actions. The examination of the political structure, history, and current political situation of the Islamic Republic of Iran is an attempt to understand the possible success – or lack thereof -- of Ahmadinejad’s suspected motives. I hope to tie together the applicable research for the purpose of understanding the relevance and possible potency of Ahmadinejad’s actions and rhetoric.
I Introduction
This research project intends to examine the similarities and differences between
messianic thought in Imami Shiite Islam versus Sunni Islam -- and to some extent -- the
role that history played in their development. In addition, this work would like to
examine the way in which messianic thought in Imami Shiite Islam plays a role in
specific world events today.
There exists a basic debate that began with the death of the prophet Muhammad
over the right to rule the Muslim nation. The question that moved continents and spilled
the blood of multitudes was whether the cousin and son-in-law of the prophet and his
descendents had the right to rule or whether the right was actually held by the
descendents of the tribe of Quraysh.1
The stakes for power got higher when larger numbers of Muslim adherents got
involved and when the grandsons of Muhammad were killed by their foes – a new
sect/religion was born. Since then, the Shiites have suffered and expanded the concept of
martyrdom within their version of Islam.2 Part of the developing religious theories within
Imami Shiite Islam -- that largely culminated with and was organized by the Imam
Ja’afar al Sadiq -- was the concept of the Mahdi3 and his messianic and hidden nature.
Another messianic concept put forth by the newly organized and centralized Imami Shiite
sect was the terms under which the hidden Mahdi is expected to reappear.4 His
1 Moojan Momen, An Introduction to Shi’i Islam; The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi’ism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985) 11. 2 Ibid, 21-33. 3 Mahdi comes from the root verb h-d-y – which means to guide. It is the name given to the primary messianic figure in Islam. 4 Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina, Islamic Messianism; The Idea of the Mahdi in Twelver Shiism (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1981) 8-18.
1 appearance is expected to be made when the world is in a state of chaos and he will come
to save his Shiite loyalists.5 First he will fight and kill the evil oppressive regimes, the enemies of the ahl al-bayt6, and all those who do not accept his kingship. Then he will
establish a pure Islam throughout the world and create a state of faraj (joy/ deliverance)
for all those who follow him.7
In the case of Sunni Islam, the ideas regarding messianism are far less elaborate –
something that perhaps can be explained by it being less of a factor in the basic existence
of the sect in religious practice, and religious and political survival. As Sunni Islam in
almost all cases was in the position of power, they did not have as large of a need for a
culture of martyrdom and messianism as did their Shiite counterparts.8 There are,
however, theories of eschatology that are based on the Quran and the Sunna of the
prophet.
The basic idea of eschatology within Sunni Islam surrounds the concept of the
Yom e- Din (Day of Judgment). In short, the Mahdi will be a man from the family of the
Prophet.9 He will arrive at the lowest point of humanity to strengthen Islam and institute the most pure form of justice – a necessary prerequisite for the arrival of the Day of
Judgment.10 All the Muslims will follow him and he will bring Islam to all the world. At that point, there will be an evil false messiah, called the Masih Dajal (literally ‘the false messiah/ the imposter), who will be fought by the Masih. The Masih is represented by
5 Ibid, 152. 6 Literally means ‘people of the house’ and refers to the direct offspring of the prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and cousin ‘Ali. 7 Ibid, 159-166, 168-169, 173-174. 8 Ibid, see discussion on political struggle and the development of the theory of the Shiite Mahdi as a consequence on pages 2-9. 9 Jane Idleman Smith and Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1981) 70. 10 Ibid, 67.
2 Jesus and he will win the fight.11 Several more events must take place at this point –
including the natural deaths of the Mahdi and the Masih.12 Only then, the Day of
Judgment will arrive – a time when every man will be judged for his deeds. The dead
will be resurrected and everyone will be subject to the mercy of God. There exists in this
theory the well-known concept of heaven and hell, although in Islamic texts, the
descriptions are quite vivid and go beyond any assertions by the other monotheistic
religions. All the people of the world, not only Muslims, will be judged on this day.
While everyone will be judged based on his deeds during his lifetime, Muslims will have
the added benefit of their belief in the oneness of God and the intercession of the
Prophet.13
The main point of contrast discussed in this work will be the arrival and
personage of the Mahdi in Sunni Islam with that of Imami Shiite Islam. To some extent,
the discussion will address the political and religious baggage inherent in the existence of
this concept. The discussion will also address the role performed by eschatological
thought in Imami Shiite Islam -- as it exists today – and how it is at least partially
responsible for Iran’s confrontation with the rest of the world.
The works preceding mine on the issue of messianic theory in Islam are enormous and all-encompassing. For primary sources on messianic theory in Sunni Islam, one can turn to the Quran and the hadith collections of al-Bukhari’s Sahih Bukhari14, al-Muslim’s
11 Abu Zayd Abdu-Rahman Ibn Muhammad Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. Translated by Franz Rosenthal (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958) 156. 12 Ibid, 70. 13 Ibid, for full discussion see pages 70-96. 14 Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari; Afflictions and the End of the World, Volume 9, Book 88, Number 181, Translated and published by USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts
3 Sahih Al-Muslim15, and the Sunan Abu-Da’ud of Sulayman Ibn Ash`ath al-Azadi al-
Sijistani Abu-Da’ud16. These are the sources that offer the details that Sunni Islam conclusively provides on messianic and eschatological theory. They are integral to this thesis for their authoritative information – without which there would be no theoretical basis for messianic theory in Sunni Islam. For a detailed historical and explanatory perspective, one can turn to the famous work of Tabari; The History of Al-Tabari17, the
work of Abu Zayd Abdu-Rahman Ibn Muhammad Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An
Introduction to History18, and the work of Muhammad Ibn Rasul al-Husayni al-Barzinji,
Al- Isha’a Li-ishrat al-sa‘a19 – which specializes in the signs of the hour to be expected
before the end of days. Each of the previously delineated works, while they do not offer
enough information on their own -- when they stand together -- a very comprehensive
and authoritative picture of the issues can be built.
For secondary sources on Sunni messianic theory in Islam, one can begin with
works such as those written by Jane Idleman Smith and Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, The
Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection20, which covers all the different issues
in Sunni eschatological theory and compares the approaches of various primary sources
on these topics. The explanations offered can go into extreme depth and no stone is left
15 Imam Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih al-Muslim; The Book Pertaining to the Turmoil and Portents of the Last Hour, Book 41, Number 6961, Translated and published by USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts
4 unturned in the discussion of eschatology as far as Sunni Islam is concerned. Then there
is the work of Ignaz A. Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law21 -- which is a very basic introduction to Islam as a religion and her historical developments.
Goldziher’s work is integral to a straightforward overall understanding of Islam and is an obligatory preliminary read for all students of Islam. For a very comprehensive piece on the history of Islam, one can turn to Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam:
Conscience and History in a World Civilization22. Hodgson’s work is far from
remarkable but is essential in that it offers pieces to the puzzle that may be missing in
other works. This list is by no means representative of the secondary sources that exist
on the subject matter -- as the library on messianic thought in Islam is vast and the list is
nearly endless.
For primary sources on Shiite theology, one can read A Shiite Theology by
Allamah Sayyid Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai23 -- who takes a very philosophical approach -- and Al-Babu L-Hadi’ashar: A Treatise on the Principles of Shiite Theology by Hasan Ibn Yusuf Ibn ‘Ali Ibn Al-Mutahhar al Hilli24 – who takes a simple informative
approach. One scholar’s works that cannot be neglected for proper research on the
subject matter are those of Shaykh al-Mufid; Kitab al-Irshad; The Book of Guidance into
21 Ignaz A .Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic theology and law, translated by Andras and Ruth Hamori, (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981). 22 Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, (Chicago Illinois : University of Chicago Press, 1974). 23 ‘Allamah Tabataba’i, “The Imams and the Imamate,” Shi’ism; Doctrines Thought, and Spirituality. Edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Hamid Dabashi, and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1988) 160 -161. 24 Hasan ibn Yusuf ibn ‘Ali ibnu’l-Mutahhar al-Hilli, Al-Babu ‘L-Hadi ‘Ashar: A Treatise on the Principles of Shi’ite Theology. Translated by William McElwee Miller (London: The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britian and Ireland, 1958) 66.
5 the Lives of the Twelve Imams25 and Al-Fusul al-Mukhtara min al-‘Uyun wa al-
Mahasin26. His works are so completely informative about the historical and theological
perspective of Shi’ite Islam, that this research study would not be complete without it. In
the theology department, one must examine as well the works of Tabataba’i, ‘Allamah.
“The Imams and the Imamate,” Shi’ism; Doctrines Thought, and Spirituality27, and that
of Tabataba’i, Muhammad Husayn. Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an. For more primary
sources of contemporary Shiite works, there is the theological and somewhat political
writings of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in one of his works, Tawzih al-Masa’il28 and
the website The Imam Reza Network that offers a contemporary and political perspective
on Shi‘ite literature and theology.29 Each of the above works approach messianic theory
from very different perspectives – as delineated above. And while no single work
provides sufficient information for a comprehensive discussion on the topic – together
they form a highly informative read.
For secondary sources on Shiite law and theological history, one can read the
work of Moojan Momen – titled An Introduction to Shi’i Islam.30 His work is not extraordinary in any particular way but if offers much detailed information from a very wide range of sources. One cannot properly cover the relevant issues of Shi’ite messianic theory without the works of A.A. Sachedina, Islamic Messianism: The Idea of the Mahdi
25 Shaykh al-Mufid, Kitab al-Irshad; The Book of Guidance into the Lives of the Twelve Imams. Translated by I.K.A. Howard (London: Balagha Books and the Muhammadi Trust, 1981) 131 -132. 26 Muhammad Ibn Muhammed al-Nu’man al- Mufid, Al-Fusul al-Mukhtara min al-‘Uyun wa al-Mahasin, Two Volumes. (Najaf: Al-Matba’at al-Haydariyya, 1962). 27 Tabataba’i, ‘Allamah. “The Imams and the Imamate,” Shi’ism; Doctrines Thought, and Spirituality Edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Hamid Dabashi, and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1988. 28 Ayatollah Ruhollah Mousavi Khomeini, A Clarification of Questions : An Unabridged Translation of Resaleh Towzih al-Masael translated by J. Borujerdi ; with a foreword by Michael M.J. Fischer and Mehdi Abedi (Boulder, Colo. : Westview Press, 1984). 29 The Imam Reza Network
6 in Twelver Shi’ism31 and “Activist Shi’ism in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon.”32 In the former
of the two works, Sachedina covers all the main issues of Shi‘ite eschatological and
messianic theory and the Imamate – among so much more. In the latter of the two, he
discusses the ways in which Shi‘ite theology developed, and affected on a political level,
the status quo in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon. The research in this piece could not have been
completed without Sachedina’s works. There are very few English language works that
include such a wide and important variety of authentic original sources such as
Sachedina’s and they should be required reading for any discussion on Shiite Islam.
There is a vast literature dealing with the issues delineated above, and while only a few
are covered here, they are representative to some extent of some of the research that
exists.
The contemporary element that I intend to discuss involves Ahmadinejad, is quite
new, and therefore goes unresearched to a large extent. There is some very recent
secondary source material written by David Menashri titled, “What Lies behind
Ahmadinejad’s Hate Speech?”33 and Mehdi Khalaji, “Apocalyptic Politics; On the
Rationality of Iranian Policy.”34 Menashri offers an academic argument, albeit short and
far from complete, in favor of the notion that Ahmadinejad’s foreign policy and public
rhetoric are symptoms of an extreme messianic ideology. And Khalaji, while he lacks the
academic authority and political objectivity, builds a great picture of what is really going
on in Iran’s political and religious life. He also illustrates quite well the various factions
31 A.A. Sachedina, Islamic Messianism; The Idea of the Mahdi in Twelver Shiism (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1981). 32 Abdulaziz A. Sachedina, “Activist Shiism in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon,” In Fundamentalisms Observed, Chapter 7, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). 33 David Menashri, “What Lies behind Ahmadinejad’s Hate Speech?” Tel Aviv Notes; An Update on Political and Strategic Developments in the Middle East, No. 155 ( Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 2005). 34 Mehdi Khalaji, “Apocalyptic Politics; On the Rationality of Iranian Policy.” Policy Focus #79. Washington Institute for Near East Policy (2008).
7 that play a role in the Iranian political and messianic spheres and their rivalries or
alliances. This is an invaluable bit of information that one can receive only from an insider.
I do believe, however, that most of my research will consist of primary sources.
These consist of the statements and letters written by Ahmadinejad himself and his mentor Ayatollah Mesba Yazdi. Ahmadinejad’s statements can be found on his official website at the address of www.president.ir35 and within the Persian media outlets. The expressions of Yazdi that are included in this work can be found on www.mesbahyazdi.org.36 I will also be including for primary sources press reports on the
actions and declarations of various actors in Iran as is relevant to this work of research.
Due to the limitations of the research available on this more contemporary
section, I am confined to using mainly internet sources and translations of the rhetoric of
the subjects involved. While I do believe that there is far better information available in
original Farsi documents and the Farsi press, the medium with which I am working is
legitimate and helpful as well. It is important to note that I am aware of the limitations
and political biases of many of these sources and have attempted to create some form of
balance by sourcing information from all ends of the political spectrum. For example, I
have used Memri on some occasions – which stands as a highly western, anti- Iranian,
politically right-wing source. In the same vein, I have quoted roozonline quite often –
also anti-clerical and somewhat pro-western. But I have also brought sources from the
Islamic Republic News Agency and the Jomhouri-ye Eslami – whose approach to politics
35 Islamic Republic of Iran’s Presidency Website
8 is quite the opposite. I have also directly quoted Ahmadinejad and Mezbah Yazdi from
their personal websites – giving them a direct voice in the picture portrayed.
This thesis will partially employ the methodology of content analyses in a
comparative setting. The above-mentioned historical and theological sources, among
many others addressing Islamic messianic theory and history in Sunni and Imami Shiite
Islam, will be examined for the purpose of engaging in the comparative content analysis
required for this research topic. I hope to find and discuss the differing messianic
theories themselves through theological texts published by leading scholars within Sunni
and Imami Shiite religious communities. I hope to examine and address as well the way
in which these scholars came to the specific conclusions espoused in their works. For
example, I hope to address the famous debates over the stories such as that of Al Qalim
we Al Qirtas37, the development of the issue of the bab (gate), the event of Muhammad’s
family taken under his cloak, and the relative importance attributed to the Ahl al-Bayt
within Imami Shiite Islam in contrast with its minimized role within mainstream Sunni
Islam. The importance of some of these traditions is inherent in their use as proof in the
Shiite debate -- both internal and external -- over the right to rule the Muslim nation.
In addition, I hope to bring out the textual sources and proofs that each side uses
in defending their positions on messianic theory. I then hope to specifically delineate the
mainstream messianic theories from both sides and highlight their differences. I also hope to show through the examination of contemporary analytical works, the weight accorded to the issue of eschatology by present-day mainstream Shiite Islam.
To examine how messianic concepts are relevant in a modern context --I would
like to specifically address the Iranian political confrontation with the world. I intend to
37 Literally means ‘the pen and parchment.’ Story to be given in detail in a later chapter.
9 research and examine this section with a discourse analysis of Ahmadinejad’s statements.
I will directly quote his statements and writings and then analyze them in the context of
Imami Shiite messianic theory, Shiite traditions and political practices, and the politics of
Iran over a period of more than thirty years. The research conducted in this manner will allow me to address his stated interest in the coming of the Mahdi. The research will also examine the relationship between Ahmadinejad’s expression of belief in the coming of the Mahdi and his actions. The examination of the political structure, history, and current political situation of the Islamic Republic of Iran is an attempt to understand the possible success – or lack thereof -- of Ahmadinejad’s suspected motives. I hope to tie together the applicable research for the purpose of understanding the relevance and possible potency of Ahmadinejad’s actions and rhetoric.
10 Background on Sunni Messianic Theory
While this work deals mainly with concepts relevant to Shiite messianic theory, it seems that Sunni messianic theory deserves a mention – if only to serve as part of a comparative introductory background. Hence, the following material will serve as a brief and simple discussion on the standing of a messianic figure within Sunni Islam.
Unlike Shiite messianic theory, the role of the Mahdi is a relatively minor one – one which factors into the greater events taking place to form the concept of the end of days in Sunni Islam. The basic concept behind Sunni Messianic theory is that of a savior ending the lowest period in Islamic history and serving to bring about the event of the day of judgment and hence, the very fundamental Islamic concept of human accountability.
The period preceding the arrival of the Mahdi will be one of moral degeneracy and prevailing human suffering.38 This period is described within the Quran as such
When the sun shall be darkened, When the stars shall be thrown
down,
When the mountains shall be set moving, When the pregnant
camels shall be neglected,
When the savage beasts shall be mustered, When the seas shall be
set boiling,
When the souls shall be coupled, When the buried infant shall be
asked for what sin she was slain,
When the scrolls shall be unrolled, When heavens shall be stripped
off,
38 Jane Idleman Smith and Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1981) 67.
11 When hell shall be set blazing, When paradise shall be brought
nigh, Then shall a soul know what it has produced.39
The descriptions of the isharat al-sa’a (signs of the hour) are numerous – some of the
more famous events are the arrival of Yadjuj and Madjuj, the Masih Dajjal, the return of
Isa (Jesus), and the rising of the sun in the West. The signs are divided into three
categories; historical events such as some of those delineated above are the first period of
signs. Then will come a period of moral decadence such as publicly performed sex, wine
drinking, adultery, and homosexuality. And lastly, there will be the signs of the closeness
of the hour – of which primary importance is the arrival of the Mahdi and the changes he
will implement.40
The Sunna on the signs are numerous and will not be discussed in detail in this
section. Exclusive, however, of the sign of the hour that is the main subject of this piece
– that of the Mahdi. The Mahdi is a figure present along with all the other events
preceding the hour – whose very existence is a sign of the closeness of the hour. His role
is to destroy bid‘a (innovation), bring on a period of prosperity, peace, justice, and
sharia‘ (literally – the path) before the hour itself.41
The personage of the Mahdi represents a symbol of a better and more just
future.42 While all the sources are consistent on the tradition that he will be a descendant
of the family of the prophet, the situation is quite the opposite as to the details of how
39 Quran, 81: 1-14 (Riyadh: AbulQasim Publishing House, 1997) 865. 40 Muhammad Ibn Rasul al-Husayni al-Barzinji, Al- Isha’a Li-ishrat al-sa’a (Cairo, A.H. 1384) 70-75. As referred to by Smith and Haddad, 66-67. 41 Ibid. 42 Smith and Haddad, 70.
12 long he will live and rule.43 For example, according to some hadith (traditions), the
Mahdi will rule for seven years and his facial characteristics are described to be that of a broad forehead and a prominent nose.44 However, there are many more ahadith that offer
differing and sometimes conflicting information on the details of the actions and
characteristics of the Mahdi.45 On the issue of the death of the Mahdi, he along with Isa,
will die of natural causes when their work is completed.46
While the word Mahdi is not actually mentioned in the Quran, traditions ascribed to the prophet himself speak of this phenomenon.47 The following are several ahadith in
the Sahih al-Bukhari (authentic traditions of Bukhari), in which the prophet specifically
speaks of the period preceding that of the Mahdi and the Day of Judgment. Zainab bint
Jahsh narrates that;
The Prophet got up from his sleep with a flushed red face and said, "None
has the right to be worshipped but Allah. Woe to the Arabs, from the Great
evil that is nearly approaching them. Today a gap has been made in the
wall of Gog and Magog like this." (Sufyan illustrated by this forming the
number 90 or 100 with his fingers.) It was asked, "Shall we be destroyed
43 Abu Zayd Abdu-Rahman Ibn Muhammad Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. Translated by Franz Rosenthal (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958) See full discussion on pages 156-200. 44 Sulayman ibn Ash`ath al-Azadi al-Sijistani Abu Da’ud, Sunan Abu Da’ud; The Promised Deliverer (Kitab al-Mahdi), Book 36, Number 4272, Translated and published by USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts
13 though there are righteous people among us?" The Prophet said, "Yes, if
evil increased." 48
And another hadith narrated by Abu Huraira;
The Prophet said, "Time will pass rapidly, good deeds will decrease,
miserliness will be thrown (in the hearts of the people) afflictions will
appear and there will be much 'Al-Harj." They said, "O Allah's Apostle!
What is "Al-Harj?" He said, "Killing! Killing!"49
And on the same note by Abdullah and Abu Musa;
The Prophet said, "Near the establishment of the Hour there will be days
during which Religious ignorance will spread, knowledge will be taken
away (vanish) and there will be much Al-Harj, and Al-Harj means
killing."50
On the characteristics of the Mahdi himself, one can find the following ahadith in the
Sahih al-Muslim. For hadith on the generosity of the Mahdi;
…(Jabir b. Abdullah) kept quiet for a while and then reported Allah' s
Messenger (may peace be upon him) having said; there would be a caliph
in the last (period) of my Ummah who would freely give handfuls of
wealth to the people without counting it. I said to Abu Nadra and Abu al-
48 Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari; Afflictions and the End of the World, Volume 9, Book 88, Number 181, Translated and published by USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts
14 'Ala: Do you mean 'Umar b. 'Abd al-Aziz? They said: No (he would be
Imam Mahdi.).51
And on the same note but more specific as to the timing of the Mahdi;
Abu Sa'id and Jabir b. Abdullah reported that Allah's Messenger (may
peace be upon him) said: There would be in the last phase of the time a
caliph who would distribute wealth but would not count.52
For some of the most descriptive ahadith on the Mahdi, one can turn to the Sunan Abu-
Da’ud. The following hadith discusses the lineage and qualities of the Mahdi;
Narrated Umm Salamah, Ummul Mu'minin:
The Prophet (peace_be_upon_him) said: The Mahdi will be of my family,
of the descendants of Fatimah. Abdullah ibn Ja'far said: I heard AbulMalih
praising Ali ibn Nufayl and describing his good qualities.53
For ahadith on the promise by Allah of a deliverer of justice before the end of days;
Narrated Ali ibn AbuTalib:
The Prophet (peace_be_upon_him) said: If only one day of this time
(world) remained, Allah would raise up a man from my family who would
fill this earth with justice as it has been filled with oppression.54
Narrated by Abdullah ibn Mas’ud:
51 Imam Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Sahih al-Muslim; The Book Pertaining to the Turmoil and Portents of the Last Hour, Book 41, Number 6961, Translated and published by USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts
15 The Prophet (peace_be_upon_him) said: If only one day of this world
remained. Allah would lengthen that day (according to the version of
Za'idah), till He raised up in it a man who belongs to me or to my family
whose father's name is the same as my father's, who will fill the earth with
equity and justice as it has been filled with oppression and tyranny
(according to the version of Fitr). Sufyan's version says: The world will
not pass away before the Arabs are ruled by a man of my family whose
name will be the same as mine.55
And for the last and most colorful of the lot;
Narrated Umm Salamah, Ummul Mu'minin: The Prophet
(peace_be_upon_him) said: disagreement will occur at the death of a
caliph and a man of the people of Medina will come flying forth to Mecca.
Some of the people of Mecca will come to him, bring him out against his
will and swear allegiance to him between the Corner and the Maqam. An
expeditionary force will then be sent against him from Syria but will be
swallowed up in the desert between Mecca and Medina. When the people
see that, the eminent saints of Syria and the best people of Iraq will come
to him and swear allegiance to him between the Corner and the Maqam.
Then there will arise a man of Quraysh whose maternal uncles belong to
Kalb and send against them an expeditionary force which will be
overcome by them, and that is the expedition of Kalb. Disappointed will
be the one who does not receive the booty of Kalb. He will divide the
property, and will govern the people by the Sunnah of their Prophet
55 Ibid, number 4269.
16 (peace_be_upon_him) and establish Islam on Earth. He will remain seven
years, then die, and the Muslims will pray over him. 56
Basically, the Mahdi is a descendant of the family of the Prophet who will appear
at a point of moral degeneracy. His purpose is to institute the pure Islam as it originally
was and pave the way for the Day of Judgment.
Unlike the position of the Mahdi in Shi‘ite Islam, the Sunni version sidelines the
Mahdi’s character – both in everyday religious life and beliefs -- and his centrality to the
arrival of the day of judgment. In contrast, the Mahdi is the most central tenet of Shi‘ite
religion and beliefs – to the point of direct and mutual exclusion. In fact, the main point
of contrast between Sunni and Shi‘ite eschatological traditions -- is the placing and
importance of the Mahdi.
Some attribute the concept of the Mahdi to Judeo-Christian influences within
early Islam57 and others to Shiite influences.58 Perhaps the possibly foreign origin of this
concept can explain the minor role that messianic theory plays in the larger Sunni
eschatological framework in comparison with that of its Shiite counterpart. Still, it must be noted that the information on the personage of the Mahdi in Sunni Islam is far more comprehensive and informative than that contained in this work. Regrettably, the exploration of this discussion must be left for some other place at some other time due to the limitations of this work. At this point, we continue the exploration of messianic
theory with a discussion on its far more comprehensive manifestation in Shiite Islam.
56 Ibid, number 4273. 57 R. A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs, (Cambridge: University Press, 1962) 216; Richard Bell, The Origin of Islam in its Christian Environment (London: Macmillan and Co., 1926) 205- 207; D.S. Margoliouth, “Mahdi,” Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics VIII (1953) 336- 340. As referred to by Smith and Haddad, 69. 58 See W.M. Watt, “The Muslim Yearning for a Savior: Aspects of Early ‘Abbasid Shi’ism,” in The Savior God, ed. S. G. F. Brandon (1963). As referred to by Smith and Haddad, 70, Footnote 22.
17 Background on Shi‘ite Messianic Theory and the Events Leading up to the Arrival
of the Mahdi
Upon examination of Shi‘ite messianic theory, one can find a single prevailing
concept dominating this complex ideology which can be summarized as the following.
There exists a basic underlying hope throughout Shi‘ite messianic theory that a direct descendant of the Prophet through his daughter Fatima -- will end oppression and evil by instituting an improved existence through social justice – and he is known as the Mahdi.
This is also the main cause of the split between Sunni and Shi‘ite Islam.59
The following discussion consists of a brief introduction to Shi‘ite messianic theory and its surrounding institutional and historical context. Shi‘ite messianic theory and the belief in it is central to the Shi‘ite belief system to the point of mutual inclusion.
One cannot be Shi‘ite without making his belief in this phenomenon central to his belief system and existence. The messianic figure within Imami Shi‘ite Islam is that of the
Mahdi. He is the last of twelve Imams who are all direct descendants of the Prophet from his daughter Fatima and cousin Ali. The Mahdi went into occultation because of persecution on the part of the Sunni establishment. This was for the purpose of preventing the deprivation of the Shi‘ite adherents of the divine promise that they will always have a hujja (proof of God) on earth to guide them.60 The Mahdi is considered a
representation of the divine on earth and he has a direct connection to Allah. Recognition
of the Mahdi and his leadership is part of one of the pillars of Shi‘ite Islam.61
59 A.A. Sachedina, Islamic Messianism; The Idea of the Mahdi in Twelver Shi‘ism (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1981) 1. 60 Ibid, 1-3. 61 Ibid, 17-21.
18 This last of the twelve Imams was theologically known to be the manifestation of
truth and justice. He was expected to overthrow the enemies of the ahl al-bayt (family of
the house of the Prophet – Ali, Fatima, and their descendents) and restore Islamic purity.
Because he was known as al-Qaim bi-l jihad (The one who will rise in holy war) - - the
Sunni authorities were looking to kill him. He did not practice taqiyya (the practice of hiding one’s true beliefs for survival) and it was known what his purpose was on earth.
Therefore, he went into occultation which began with a minor period in which the Mahdi communicated with the Umma (Islamic Nation) through his personal representatives – called the abwab (gates). When the abwab died out, the Mahdi went into the greater occultation which will end only with his qiyama (rising) and the arrival of the end of days.62 His title as al-Qaim al-Mahdi accentuates his role as directly connected with the qiyama. His arrival directly precedes the general qiyama (rising of the dead) and he helps to bring it about with the fulfillment of his obligations. His appearance is expected to be
chaos) and he will come to save his) اﻟﺤﺎﺑﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺎﺑﻞ made when the world is in a state of
Shi‘ite loyalists. First he will fight the evil Sunni oppressors and then he will fight the
rest of the world.63 A more detailed analysis of the previous discussion shall commence
forthwith.
Before discussing the doctrine of the raj‘a (return) and its preceding events – one must begin with the historical events that lead up to this theological development within
the development of Shi’ism itself. There exists a basic debate that began with the death
of the prophet Muhammad over the right to rule the Muslim nation. The question that
moved continents and spilled the blood of multitudes was whether the cousin and son-in-
62 Ibid, 103-104. 63 Ibid, 151-152.
19 law of the prophet and his descendents were the only ones who had the right to rule or
whether the right was actually held by the uncles of the prophet and their descendents.
This debate is the creator of the great schism in the Islamic Umma and what came to be
known as Shi‘ite Islam. In an attempt to prove ‘Ali’s right to leadership and the just cause of his Shi’a -- the following ahadith are cited by the Shi‘a as proof that the right of
leadership of the Islamic Umma (nation) are held by the ahl al-bayt.
Early in the leadership of the prophet Muhammad, he invited to dine with him approximately forty members of the Banu Hashim. The meal split apart before its commencement thanks to the sarcastic remarks by one of the members but was organized again for the next day. After the meal, the following is said to have occurred on the authority of ‘Ali:
Then the Apostle of God addressed them saying: ‘O family of ‘Abdu’l-
Muttalib, by God, I do not know of anyone among the Arabs who has brought
his people anything better than what I have brought you. I have brought you
the best of this world and the next. God Almighty has ordered me to call you
to Him. And which of you will assist me in the Cause and become my
brother, my trustee and my successor among you.’ And they all held back
from this while I [‘Ali], although I was the youngest of them in age, the most
diseased in eyesight, the most corpulent in body and thinnest in the legs, said:
‘I, O Prophet of God, will be your helper in this matter.’ He then put his arm
around my neck and said: ‘This is my brother, my trustee and my successor
among you, so listen to him and obey.’ And so the people arose and they
20 were joking, saying to Abu Talib: ‘He has ordered you to listen to your son
and obey him.’64
This aforementioned hadith stands as proof for the Shi‘ites that when ‘Ali was only
approximately thirteen years old, Muhammad had already picked him as his successor.65
The next hadith relates the incident of ahl al-Kisa’ – also known as the incident of
the cloak. It is related by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, on the authority of Umm al-Salama that the
Prophet spoke with Fatima saying:
'Bring me your husband and two sons.' When they had all come together he
spread over them a mantle, and laying his hand over them, he said: 'O God,
these are the people of the House of Muhammad! Let therefore your prayers
and blessings descend upon Muhammad and the people of the House of
Muhammad; for you are worthy of all praise and glory.' Umm Salama
continued: 'I then lifted the mantle to enter in with them, but he pulled it away
from my hand saying, "You too shall come to a good end". 66
This hadith is interpreted as setting apart the family of Fatima from the rest of
Muhammad’s family and the Umma. It is also the source of the titles of ahl al-bayt and
ahl al-kisa accorded to the descendants of Fatima and ‘Ali. This hadith is seen as well, as
proof that Muhammad intended for the leadership of the Umma to continue with ‘Ali and
his sons through Fatima.67
64 At-Tabari, Tarikh, Volume 1, page 1172-1173. As referred to by Moojan Momen, An Introduction to Shi’i Islam (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985) 12. 65 Ibid. 66 Ahmad b. Hanbal, Musnad (Cairo, 1313), IV, 323. As referred to by “Shiite Hadith Sources,” The Imam Reza Network
21 While many more proofs are brought by the Shi‘ites on this matter, only three
more of the most important will be included due to the limits of this work. They are the ahadith of Ghadir Khumm, Hadith i-Thaqalayn, and al-Qalim we al-Qirtas. On the hadith relating the story of Ghadir Khumm, it is a tradition cited for the purpose of showing that once again, the Prophet confirmed the appointment of ‘Ali as his successor.
The Prophet was making his final hajj to Mecca in the last year of his life, when he had the caravan stopped in a place called Ghadir Khumm. The hadith is related as follows:
We were with the Apostle of God in his journey and we stopped at Ghadir
Khumm. We performed the obligatory prayer together and a place was
swept for the Apostle under two trees and he performed the mid-day
prayer. And then he took ‘Ali by the hand and said to the people: ‘Do you
not acknowledge that I have a greater claim on each of the believers than
they have on themselves?” and they replied: “Yes!” And he took ‘Ali’s
hand and said: “Of whomsoever I am Lord, then ‘Ali is also his Lord. O
God! Be thou the supporter of whoever supports ‘Ali and the enemy of
whoever opposes him.” And ‘Umar met him (‘Ali) after this and said to
him: “Congratulations, O son of Abu Talib! Now morning and evening
you are the master of every believing man and woman.”68
The Hadith i-Thaqalayn (The Hadith of the Two Things) is one in which an
incident is related on the authority of Zayd ibn Arqam that the Prophet said; “It seems
that God has called me unto Himself and I must obey His call. But I leave two great and
precious things among you: the Book of God and My Household. Be careful as to how
68 Ibn Hanbal, Musnad, Volume 4, page 281. As referred to by Momen, 15. (It is noted that this hadith can be found in many other locations as well.)
22 you behave toward them. These two will never be separated from each other until they
encounter me at Kawthar.”69 Tabataba’i understands the meaning behind this hadith and
comments as follows. He says that just as the Qur’an will exist until the Day of
Judgment, so too will there be successors to the Holy Prophet. There will never exist a
time period in which there will be lacking an Imam. The aforementioned inheritance of
the Umma will satisfy the complete religious and intellectual needs of Muslims. The
Prophet has made the ahl al-bayt the authorities of knowledge and their words carry his sanction. The Qur’an must not be separated from the ahl al-bayt and no Muslim may remove himself from under their guidance. Allah will always be with those who remain under the guidance of the ahl al-bayt – who are free of sin and are the source of felicity and success of their followers. And finally, the ahl al-bayt consists of ‘Ali, Fatimah,
Hassan, and Husayn, and his direct descendants.70
For the last and most controversial of the ahadith -- but one that is seen as highly
important in its proof that ‘Ali was intended to be the successor of Muhammad – is that
of the incident of al-Qalim we a-Qirtas (The Pen and the Paper/ Parchment). On the
authority of Ibn Abbas, it is related that in the last days of the life of the Prophet, the
following occurred:
When the Prophet’s illness became serious, he said: ‘Bring me writing
materials that I may write for you something, after which you will not be
led into error.’ ‘Umar said: ‘The illness has overwhelmed the Prophet. We
have the Book of God and that is enough for us.’ Then the people differed
69 ‘Allamah Tabataba’i, “The Imams and the Imamate,” Shi’ism; Doctrines Thought, and Spirituality. Edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Hamid Dabashi, and Seyyed Vali Reza Nasr (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1988) 160 -161. 70 Ibid, 161.
23 about this and spoke many words. And he [the Prophet] said: ‘Leave me!
There ought not to be quarreling in my presence.’ And Ibn Abbas went out
saying: ‘The greatest of all calamities is what intervened between the
Apostle and his writing.’71
Although it is not specified anywhere what it was that the Prophet wanted to put on paper, the Shi‘ites believe and use this hadith to prove that Muhammad wanted to establish definitively that ‘Ali was to be his successor.72 A continuation of this hadith consists of the following:
…Then he turned to ‘Ali in Abu Talib, peace be on him, and said:
“Brother, will you accept my testamentary bequest, fulfill my promises,
carry out my religion on my behalf and look after the affairs of my family
after me?” “Yes, Apostle of God,” he replied… He took his ring from his
finger and said: “Take this and put it on your finger.” Then he called for
his sword, his breastplate and all his weapons and gave those to him. He
looked for a turban which he used to wear around his stomach when he put
on his weapons and went out to battle. It was brought to him and he gave
it to the Commander of the faithful, peace be on him. Then he said to him:
“Go, ‘Ali, in the name of God, to your house.”73
This section of the hadith is included for its later significance. Upon the arrival of the time of the zuhur (appearance) of the Mahdi, the Mahdi will use some of these objects to prove that he is indeed the descendant of ‘Ali and the Mahdi. These objects also
71 Al Bukhari, Sahih, Kitab al-‘Ilm, Bab 40, Vol. 1, page 41. As referred to by Momen, 16. 72 Momen, 16. 73 Shaykh al-Mufid, Kitab al-Irshad; The Book of Guidance into the Lives of the Twelve Imams. Translated by I.K.A. Howard (London: Balagha Books and the Muhammadi Trust, 1981) 131 -132.
24 contained special qualities which endowed its possessors (i.e. the Imams) with the
necessary qualities required for their position in the Imamate.
After the death of the Prophet, the Shi‘a of ‘Ali believed that the Prophet already
designated ‘Ali as his successor and the leader of the Umma of Islam. However, a
meeting was organized for the purpose of designating a successor to the leadership while
‘Ali was busy burying the Prophet. By general consensus, Abu Bakr was elected to take
up the position of Caliph and heir to the Prophet.74
The stakes for power got higher when larger numbers of Muslim adherents got involved -- and when the grandsons of Muhammad were killed by their foes – a new sect/religion was born. Since then, the Shi‘ites have suffered from and expanded the concept of martyrdom within their version of Islam. Part of the developing religious theories within Imami Shi‘ite Islam -- that largely culminated with and was organized by the Imam Ja’afar al-Sadiq -- was the concept of the Mahdi and his messianic and hidden nature. Another messianic concept put forth by the newly organized and centralized
Imami Shi‘ite sect was the terms under which the hidden Mahdi is expected to reappear.
The following discussion will address these concepts within the greater historical context of the development of Imami Shi‘ism.
Before coming to the topic of the Mahdi, the last of the Imams, one must first address in the most basic of manners, the significance of and the theological concepts behind the establishment and institution of the Imamate. The idea most integral to Shi‘ite
Islam, one that separates and differentiates it from its Sunni counterpart is one of its five pillars, titled “al-Imama.” The concept and belief in the Imamate is central to belief as a
Shi‘ite Muslim and the Imam is considered designated by Allah Himself. The
74 Momen, 11.
25 designation of the Imams is based on the wasiyya (testament) – that was revealed to the
Prophet, dictated by the angel Gabriel to ‘Ali – sealed and opened later by each successive Imam. Each Imam was required to carry out the instructions contained in the wasiyya.75
The following are the characteristics of and the purpose behind the existence of
the Imam. The Imamate is the ‘ahd (covenant) of Allah with his Prophet and the Imams
themselves. Hence, they are endowed with the same knowledge and authority as the
Prophet himself and are required to administer justice and conduct the religious life of the
Umma. They are the guides of humanity and without the acknowledgment of this
concept – a person cannot obtain guidance in life.76
The Imam is favored with lutf (grace) from Allah which affords him ma’sum
(protection) from sin so he can correctly lead humanity. He is the shahid (witness) of
Allah and His hujja (proof) on earth. The Imam is a witness on the day of judgment to
the revelations of the Prophet and to those who believed and who rejected the Imamate.77
The Imam is the proof of Allah in the manner that he is the only person who stands for
the existence of Allah and his revelation on earth. He also sets an example for humanity
on earth and removes the possibility for one to argue on the day of judgment that there
was no direction given for human conduct on earth.78
It is said as well that the Imam was blessed with the light of Allah which he
inherited from the Prophet. This light brought the people to him with its allure and gave
the Imam qualities similar to that of the Prophet such as: “the tree of prophethood, and
75 Kulayni, Kafi, 2:54ff. As referred to by Sachedina, 19. 76 Kulayni, Kafi, 1:456. As referred to by Sachedina, 20. 77 Kulayni, Kafi, 1:360. As referred to by Sachedina, 20. 78 Kulayni, Kafi, 1:361. As referred to by Sachedina, 20- 21.
26 house of mercy… the keys of wisdom, the essence of knowledge, and locus of
apostleship, the frequenting place of angels and repositories of the secret of Allah.”79
The Imams inherited the weapons of the Prophet (al-silah) as well. These weapons retained the significance of the house of an Imam wherever they were found.
The weapons of the Prophet symbolized the Prophetic knowledge, which must remain together at all times. As the weapons pass from Imam to Imam, so does the Prophetic knowledge. When an Imam dies, he must see his successor and pass on “al-kutub (the books), al-‘ilm (the knowledge), and al-silah (the weapons).”80 With these privileges,
come the specific and unique duties of the Imam, for which he was singled out and
appointed by Allah. They include, but are not limited to, the following tasks: commentary on the Qur’an, the imparting and explanation of religious rulings, replying to inquiries on theology, and the prevention of doctrinal and legal distortions. For this reason, the Imam is invulnerable to error, as he is the representative of Allah and his message on earth.81 So much so, that he carries the title – Guardian of the Law.82 With
this information in mind, we can now turn to the actual historical development and
conditions of the Imamate and its last Imam – al-Qaim al-Mahdi (the rising Mahdi).
For a historical account of the Imamate, one must begin with the civil wars that
broke out after the death of the third Caliph, Uthman, and the beginning of the new
branch of Islam – Shi‘ism – coming from the term “the Shi’a (followers) of ‘Ali.” The
civil wars were fought over the question of the political and spiritual leadership of the
79 Kulayni, Kafi, 1:387. As referred to by Sachedina, 21. 80 Kulayni, Kafi, 1:448ff. As referred to by Sachedina, 21. 81 Ayatollah Ja’far Sobhani, Doctrines of Shi’i Islam: A Compendium of Imami Beliefs and Practices. Translated and edited by Reza Shah-Kazemi (London: I.B. Tauris Publishers and The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2001) 111. 82 Hasan ibn Yusuf ibn ‘Ali ibnu’l-Mutahhar al-Hilli, Al-Babu ‘L-Hadi ‘Ashar: A Treatise on the Principles of Shi’ite Theology. Translated by William McElwee Miller (London: The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britian and Ireland, 1958) 66.
27 Umma. The ultimate question was whether the leadership should be carried by the ahl al- bayt, or as they later called themselves, the ahl al-Sunna. The Shi‘a of ‘Ali fought over what they saw to be the usurpation of the just leadership of ‘Ali by those who were in power at the time. As discussed previously, ‘Ali held an exalted position within Islamic history and the followers of the Prophet, and it was deemed by his followers that ‘Ali was the only rightful leader of the Umma. ‘Ali was also attributed with qualities that later came to be the embodiment of the personage of the Mahdi as the last of the Imams. ‘Ali was considered the restorer of true Islam, equity, and the personification of justice in the face of the evil usurpers of power. Love and devotion toward ‘Ali – the first Shi‘ite
Imam – became the central tenet of belief at that time. This belief would later take its
form in loyalty to the rest of the Imams and much later on – belief in the return,
restoration of justice, and salvation by the Imam al-Mahdi.83
In brief, the line of Imams continued from ‘Ali to his son al-Hasan and then to al-
Husayn. According to Imami Shi‘ite Islam, this would be the first and last succession of
the Imamate from brother to brother. When al-Husayn was martyred with seventy two
followers and members of his family at Karbala, the Imamate passed on to his son ‘Ali.
However, the face of Shi‘ism would no longer be the same. Whereas previously, the split
in the Umma was solely over the political and doctrinal issue of the leadership of the ahl
al-bayt; now a crucial concept entered into the face of Shi‘ite Islam – that of martyrdom and future, unforeseeable salvation in the face of tyranny by a messianic, divine figure known as the Mahdi.84 This event created a revolutionary, opposition spirit within
Shi‘ism and the yearly day of mourning known as ‘Ashura. This day would later hold
83 Sachedina, 4-7. 84 Ibid.
28 doctrinal significance as the day of the return of the Mahdi and final salvation against the usurpers of power.
While much happened over the course of the Imamate, and many new sects based on a charismatic personality split off; for the purposes of this work – we shall discuss only the Imamate of the largest and most prevailing sect—that of Imami Shi‘ism.
The Imami Shi‘ites were the most successful branch of Shi‘ism, simply because they adopted a survivalist attitude. Upon seeing the futility of political action against the main Sunni power base, they adopted the concept of patience and quietism so as to survive until the time of the arrival of a future, messianic figure, one who would restore justice and the rulership of the ahl al-bayt. Until then, the Imams adopted a doctrine of quiet, passive martyrdom and pious suffering.85 This concept became integral to Shiite behavior and would only change in contemporary times – as we shall see in a later discussion.
Until the last and twelfth Imam, the most noteworthy of all the Imams was Imam
Ja’far al-Sadiq (d. 148/765). His accomplishments are numerous but he is mostly noted for his comprehensive organization and formulation of a distinct Shi‘ite doctrine of thought. He was the most aggressive champion of quietism and passivity and he developed the concept of the Mahdi into the concrete form and nature it holds until today.86 His most significant theological accomplishment was the complete refusal of the
Imamate to take any political action until the arrival of “the chief redresser of wrongs” in the unforeseeable future. Only then, would justice and equity be served and until that
85 Ibid, 8. 86 Ibid.
29 point in time, the Shi‘ite adherents must remain passive and quiet in the face of all
injustices.87
The tale of the twelfth Imam characterized just this concept of passivity and
quietism until the correct day of salvation. As the Mahdi was expected to be the savior, and his life was threatened, from his birth he remained in hiding. The theological concept behind his occultation was formulated as follows. It is argued that since Allah has promised that there will forever exist his hujja (proof) on earth, the Mahdi could not be allowed to be killed by the ruling Caliphate. Therefore, the Mahdi would go into hiding and communicate and guide his people from occultation as the khatam al-hujjaj
(the seal of the proofs).88 His occultation existed in two periods – that of the minor
(sughra) and that of the greater (kubra) occultations. There is a report of a hadith in which the Imam Hassan al-Askari told a family visitor of the child Mahdi:
The child is under the protection of Allah and in His custody; He had
concealed him (satarahu) and hidden him (ghayyabahu) until he permits
him [to reappear]. So when Allah hides my face and takes me away and
when you find my followers (shi‘ati) in dispute [about him] then inform
those reliable among them [of what you have witnessed]. But keep this to
yourself, and they too should keep the matter secret. Indeed, Allah will
hide His friend (wali) from the people and conceal him from his slaves,
and no one shall see him until Gabriel brings forward his horse for him [to
87 Ibid, 8-9, 14- 17. 88 Mufid, al-Fusul al-Mukhtara, 258-259. As referred to by Sachedina 58.
30 rise and ride], “for Allah will enact a matter which is destined to take
place.”89
In the first minor occultation, the Mahdi was hidden by his family at a disputed
age. The dispute is over whether he was hidden from when his father died – approximated to be in the year 260/ 873-874 – or whether he was hidden already only a
few days after he was born. The hadith cited above supports the latter argument.90
During the short occultation, the Imam al-Mahdi communicated with his followers
through several agents (abwab) , of which the four most important were: ‘Uthman ibn
Sa’id al-‘Amri (260/ 874-875), Muhammad ibn ‘Uthman al-‘Amri (d. 304/ 916-917), al-
Husayn ibn Ruh al-Nawbakhti (d.326/ 937-938), and ‘Ali ibn Muhammad al-Samarri (d.
329/ 940- 941).91 When the last of the deputies were about to die, the Mahdi sent a
message through him that he was about to enter into the greater occultation, from which
he will return on the day that Allah decides. One of the most important messages the
Mahdi gave to his last agent before he went into the greater occultation -- but throughout
the years it has gone quite ignored – is that his followers are not to believe those who
claim to have met or communicated with the Mahdi.92 Doctrinally, it is held that, at this
point the Shi‘a must passively wait and hope for the return of the Mahdi with only the
jurists to lead them.93 However, when the yaum al-qiyama (day of rising) will arrive, he
will return to fulfill the divine promise of salvation, justice, equity, and the rulership of
the ahl al-bayt on earth.94
89 Tusi, Ghayba, 142, 8:42. As referred to by Sachedina, 82. 90 See discussion in Sachedina, 82 -83. 91 Sachedina, 86. 92 Tusi, Ghayba, p 242ff. As referred to by Sachedina, 96. 93 Sachedina, 100. 94 Nu’mani, Kitab al-Ghayba, 110-111. As referred to by Sachedina 104.
31 The arrival of the Mahdi will be preceded by specific signs and will be delineated in brief in the forthcoming discussion. The signs of the hour preceding his arrival will come during a period of civil strife, political, and social turmoil – which in themselves are part of the signs before the qiyama.95 The signs of the hour are derived from both
Sunni and Shiite ahadith and include such famous signs such as the rise of the sun from the west and solar and lunar eclipses in the middle and end of the month of Ramadan.96
The list is quite long and includes incidents such as the revolt of the Sufyani, the murder of the Hasanid, and the dispute of the Abbasids over rulership. The land will be swallowed up at al-Bayda, the east, and the west. The sun will stay still from the beginning of its decline until the mid-afternoon prayer. A nafs a-zakiyya will be slain on the outskirts of Kufa along with seventy other righteous souls. A Hashemite will be murdered between the station of Ibrahim and the corner of the Ka’aba. Part of the mosque of Kufa will be demolished, Black banners will move forward from Khurasan,
Al-Yamani will revolt, and Al-Maghribi will take over Egypt from the Syrians. Turks will take over al-Jazira and the Byzantines will take over Ramla. A star giving as much light as the moon will appear in the east, and the new moon will curve until its two ends almost meet. Color will appear in the sky and stretch from one end to the other, and a fire will show up in the east and remained suspended midair for three or seven days. The
Arabs will throw over the foreigners and take charge of their respective countries. The
Egyptians will murder their sovereign and annihilate Syria. The Euphrates will overflow until the water floods into the alleys of Kufa. Sixty imposters will come forward claiming prophecy, twelve of which will be from the family of Abu Talib – and all of
95 Sachedina, 152. 96 Ibid.
32 them will profess to be the Imam. An important man from the Abbasids will be burnt
between Jalula and Khaniqin.97
And so the list continues with the overwhelming fear of the people of Iraq. There
will be swift death in Iraq, and the loss of property and harvests. There will be locusts in
season and out of season. Two different foreigners will dispute there and much blood
will be spilled as a result. Slaves will revolt and kill their masters, heretics will turn into
monkeys and pigs, and a voice will call out from the sky and all the people will hear it in
their own language. A face and chest will appear in the center of the sun, the dead will
come out of their graves, and twenty four uninterrupted rainstorms will end this period.
Then blessing will shower upon the earth and the Shi‘a of ‘Ali will be free from illness.
At that point, they will know that the Mahdi is in Mecca and they will go to assist him.98
The theory involving the return of the Mahdi is called raj‘a (return) and constitutes an entire doctrine within and integral to the adherence of Shi‘ite Islam and the belief in the promise of Allah for freedom from grief (faraj).99 In short, it can be summed
up as the belief that prior to al-qiyama, the Mahdi will arise from his occultation with a
group of his followers for the purpose of installing the uncontested just rulership of the
Imam al-Mahdi and taking revenge on the enemies of the ahl al-bayt and the Shi‘a of
‘Ali– namely the al-Umayya.100 Within the Shi‘ite community, the concept of raj‘a
served as consolation for the indefinite delay of the installation of Shi‘ite Islamic rule and
justice.101
97 Mufid, Kitab al-Irshad, 541. 98 Ibid, 542. 99 Tusi, Ghayba, p. 276. As referred to by Sachedina, 158. 100 Sachedina, 151. 101 Ibid, 152.
33 While it is explicitly prohibited to predict the time of the arrival of the Mahdi, there exists an ample number of ahadith doing just that. It is particularly problematic to predict the year, but less so on the issue of the date. The most oft-cited date is that of the tenth of Muharram, the day of ‘Ashura, which would come out on a Saturday in an odd numbered year of the hijra calendar.102 ‘Ashura holds great significance within Shi‘ite
piety as the ultimate day of passion and suffering in Shi‘ite history – as Husayn was
killed that day in Karbala and his martyrdom is seen as a redemption of the Shi‘ites
through his suffering. One of the main tasks of the Mahdi on his return is to avenge this
specific tragic murder of the son of ‘Ali and Fatima and no day would be more
appropriate for his return than the day of ‘Ashura. The martyrdom of al-Husayn
symbolizes not only the suffering and revenge inherent in Shi‘ite adherence, but their
hopes for justice through his descendant in the future as well.103 Prior to his arrival,
however, his name will be called out on the twenty third night of the month of
Ramadan.104 This night holds special significance within all strains of Islam as laylat al-
qadr. This night is considered the night of power and is the night that the Quran was
revealed. It is also the night that the angels reveal the decrees from Allah to al-Qaim al-
Mahdi on the events that are destined to take place during the following year.105
As for the location of zuhur (appearance); while Kufa and Karbala are given importance within the ahadith as locations of events of import after the arrival of the
Mahdi, the zuhur itself is to take place in Mecca.106 The Mahdi will first appear in the
102 Tusi, Amali, 2:33; Mufid, Irshad, page 692. As referred to by Sachedina, 157. 103 Ibid, 157-158. 104 Ibn Babuya, Kamal, 2:366. As referred to by Sachedina, 158. 105 Kulayni, Kafi, 1:463. As referred to by Sachedina, 158. 106 Majlisi, Mahdi-yi Maw’ud, p 979; Tusi, Ghayba, p 273; Mufid, Irshad, p 701ff. As referred to by Sachedina, 160.
34 Ka’ba, between the rukn and makam. This detail is actually a realization of the title of
the Mahdi known as Mahdi al-Anam (Mahdi of the people). This title holds the
significance in that it is an attempt to portray him as the unifier of the adherents of Islam.
He will restore the purity to Islam and call all to follow him, as did the Prophet
himself.107
The traditions are hardly consistent, however, on the details of the exact events.108
One of the ahadith relates the event of the raj‘a as a highly in-depth narrative and describes the event down to the last detail. Most of it shall be included in the following text because of the clarity it imparts regarding this event that is so integral to Shi‘ite messianic theology. However, it cannot be related in its entirety due to the nature of this work.
This hadith is related on the authority of al-Mufaddal ibn Umar and narrates that
Ja’far al-Sadiq tells of the event of the zuhur of the Mahdi. The Imam relates that; “I see him that he has entered the city of Mecca wearing the apparel of the prophet and a yellow turban on his head. He has put on the patched sandals of the Prophet and the latter’s stick is in his hands, with which he is directing some goats before him. In this manner he will enter the Ka’ba without anyone recognizing him. He will appear as a youth.” He will arrive at the Ka’ba alone and will remain there until nightfall.
After the people fall asleep, Gabriel and Michael, among other angels, will descend to earth. Gabriel will turn to the Mahdi and say: “O my master, whatever you say is acceptable and your commands will be carried out.” The Mahdi will caress the face of Gabriel and tell him; “Praise be to Allah whose promise concerning us is fulfilled,
107 Sachedina, 160. 108 Ibid, 160-161.
35 and who appointed us as heirs to the earth and we will settle in the Paradise wherever we
wish to do so. Verily, what a recompense for those who act according to his
injunctions!” At that point, the Mahdi will place himself between the Rukn and Maqam
and loudly and clearly announce; “Oh the chiefs and the people who are close to me! Oh
you who were preserved on earth by Allah in order to help me when I emerge! Come
toward me to obey me! When his voice reaches the people, they will assemble close to
him, having arrived from all corners of the earth and having left their worship and their
sleep.
At that point, Allah will direct the light to arise in the form of pillars. The light
will rise from earth all the way to the heavens so that all the people of the earth will see
it. The light will enchant the believer, who will not know that the Mahdi has arrived, but
in the morning they will all be assembled in the presence of the Mahdi. The number of believers will total three hundred and thirteen, of which fifty will be women – according to one tradition. This number is significant in that it corresponds to the number of fighters who accompanied the Prophet during the battle of Badr.
When al-Mufaddal asks Imam al-Sadiq if the seventy two martyrs of Karbala will arise with al-Husayn – al-Sadiq responds that only al-Husayn will arise. He will be wearing a black turban and will be accompanied by twelve thousand Shia‘ of ‘Ali. There is a dialogue between al-Mufaddal and al-Sadiq regarding the allegiance of the people toward the Mahdi and al-Sadiq proceeds to describe the allegiance in the following manner. The Mahdi will lean against the Ka‘ba and stretch out his hand. A light will emanate from it and he will say; “This is the hand of Allah; it is from His direction and through His command, ‘Surely those who swear allegiance to you do but swear
36 allegiance to Allah; the hand of Allah is above their hands. Therefore whoever breaks
(his faith), he breaks it only to the injury of his own soul.’”109
Gabriel will be the first to kiss his hand in allegiance and will be followed by the other angels and the noble jinns (spirits) and then by the humans present according to their status. At this point, the Mahdi will be announced to all the world by his full name and the name of his father. On sunset of that day, a voice will call to all in the world to follow ‘Uthman ibn al-‘Anbatha the Umayyad in allegiance. This is the voice of al-
Sufyani as the representative of the Ummayyad caliphate. The hypocrites and the disbelievers will do so but the believers will deny the truth of the call.
The Mahdi will reveal the Quran and all the preceding books as they were originally revealed without changes or distortions. Before proceeding to Medina, the
Mahdi will appoint a member of his family to lead the Meccans after they have pledged allegiance to him. He will destroy the Ka‘ba and rebuild it as it was originally in the time of Adam, Ibrahim, and Ishmael. He will rebuild the mosque of Kufa and will destroy any remnants of the oppressive Sunni rule on earth. Upon the departure of the Mahdi from
Mecca, the Meccans will attack and kill the deputy of the Mahdi. When the Mahdi then returns to Mecca, the Meccans plead guilty and repent and the Mahdi will appoint a
Meccan as his deputy and he too will be killed. Finally, the Mahdi sends loyal jinns
(heavenly creatures) to Mecca to punish the inhabitants and not a single person will escape the punishment aside from the true believers.
At this point, the Mahdi continues on to Medina where he receives a heroes welcome and then on to Kufa where he establishes his capitol. Throughout this narrative, the animosity of the Shiites toward the Sunnis is apparent in the details drawn about the
109 Quran, 48:10 (Riyadh: AbulQasim Publishing House, 1997) 725.
37 specific events that will take place during the zuhur of the Mahdi, many of which are not included in this recount of the hadith. At some point, the Mahdi will be requested to show the three symbols of the Prophet in his possession – the ring, the sword, and his
coat of mail – and the Quran compiled by ‘Ali. Al-Sufyani will be killed in Damascus
and al-Husayn will return with his twelve thousand followers and the seventy two
martyrs of karbala. Then ‘Ali will return and will take his position in an enormous tent
and will stand on four pillars stretching from Najaf to the precinct of the Ka‘ba to the hill
of Safa near the Ka‘ba to Medina. All the heaven and earth will be illuminated, all of
humanities secrets will be revealed, mothers shall abandon their nursing infants, and the
Prophet will return with his Ansar and Muhajirun. Those of the disbelievers will return
as well so that their misdeeds will be avenged. ‘Ali and al-Husayn are accorded the
position of installing justice and equity the world over, following the revolution of the
Mahdi.110 At this point, Jesus will return in the location of Afiq with a spear in his hand.
He will kill the Masih Dajjal, pray behind the Mahdi in Jerusalem, kill the swine, break
the cross, and kill all unbelieving Christians. All the Ahl al-Kitab (People of the Book)
will believe in Jesus, at which point, he will establish a just rulership and live for forty
more years. Upon his death, he will be buried beside Muhammad between Abu Bakr and
‘Umar.111
At this point, the Mahdi begins his rule by bringing Islam to all the world,
installing justice, and fulfilling the promise of Allah to the Shi‘a – the promise of faraj.
He will rule for a disputed amount of time, with a disputed number of successors, and his
110 Majlisi, Mahdi-yi Maw’ud, 972-986. As referred to by Sachedina, 161-166. 111 Gulpaygani, Muntakhab, 316-318. As referred to by Sachedina, 171-172.
38 rulership will free the world from oppression and tyranny and pave the way for the day of judgment and the end of days. His period of rulership is described as the following.
All will subjugate to Islam during this time period and the knowledge of Islam will be complete to the point that a woman sitting in her home will be capable of ruling on Islamic law based on the Quran and the hadith.112 He will not be gentle and flexible
as was the Prophet and he will not be benevolent and forgiving as was ‘Ali. He will kill
according to the wasiyya (testament)113 He will imprison his enemies, and there will be
no need for diplomacy, seeing as he is the final ruler on earth.114 He will be known as
sahib al-sayf (Man of the Sword) and he will accept repentance from no one.115 The
followers will learn the Quran as it was originally revealed to Muhammad and the
original qibla (direction of prayer) will be restored. All atrocities and distortions will be
corrected.116 The banner of the Prophet which was last spread by ‘Ali during the battle of the Camel will be once again spread by the Mahdi as a symbol of ‘Alid triumph and supremacy.117 As His rulership will constitute a period of physical and spiritual
gratification -- the Mahdi will create an Islamic utopia. He will be considered the spiritual
and temporal heir to the Prophet Muhammad. As mentioned previously, while it is not
clear as to the length of his rulership or the number of his successors, the requirement of a
hujja on earth will guarantee some sort of Imamate until the yaum al-din.118
Although a portion of the ahadith brought down in Shiite texts are of Sunni origin
– one must acknowledge that Shiite messianic theory is largely quite different from its
112 Nu’mani, Kitab al Ghayba, p 125ff. As referred to by Sachedina, 174. 113 Ibid, 121. Ibid, 174 -175. 114 Majlisi, Mahdi-yi Maw’ud, 944. As referred to by Sachedina, 175. 115 Nu’mani, Kitab al Ghayba, 122 and 170. As referred to by Sachedina, 175. 116 Majlisi, Mahdi-yi Maw’ud, 948-949. As referred to by Sachedina, 175. 117 Majlisi, Mahdi-yi Maw’ud, 953. As referred to by Sachedina, 175 118 Majlisi, Mahdi-yi Maw’ud, 1060-1062. As referred to by Sachedina, 178.
39 Sunni counterpart. Firstly, in contrast with Sunni doctrine, messianic theory plays a far more central role both in Shiite dogma and everyday Shiite religious life. Secondly, the messianic figure of the Mahdi is the final member of the Imamate and belief and hope in his arrival and salvation are concepts integral to Shiite adherence. In contrast, within
Sunni theology, while the Mahdi is a descendant of the Prophet – he is not necessarily a member of the ahl al-bayt and there is definitely no importance attached to the Imamate.
Furthermore, the role attached to the Mahdi as savior from the Sunni oppressors and deliverance from their injustice is entirely lacking in Sunni doctrine while it is quite fundamental in all Shi‘ite texts addressing the matter. Also in Sunni dogma, the Mahdi will be born some time in the future and will live a normal lifetime. In complete dissimilarity, in Shi‘ite doctrine the Mahdi was born in the ninth century and remains in occultation for thousands of years – defying the human life span—before he reappears to bring deliverance to his oppressed followers. And lastly, concepts such as social balance, vengeance, and the near-deification of the ahl al-bayt are inseparable from the doctrine of
Shi‘ite messianic theory while they are almost completely lacking in that of Sunni messianic theory.
Simply put, Sunni messianic theory cannot compete with its Shi‘ite counterpart in its literary development, its nature as integral to religious observance, its color, and its vivid detail. Messianic theory is an interesting point from which to compare and contrast the two largest sects of Islam. For while the messianic concepts put forth in Shi‘ite Islam were integral to its doctrinal and physical survival – quite the opposite remains the case with Sunni Islam and can be observed in the minute role it plays. As such, messianic theory functions as a microcosm of the power struggle and the long history between these
40 two rival factions of Islam. Let us continue with a comprehensive analysis of a vital concept within Imami Shi‘ite Islam as it relates to the ongoing discussion of messianic theory and its relevance in contemporary world events. This concept is called bada‘.
41 Bada‘ and The Human Element in Divine Actions
Upon engaging in the study of Shiite messianic theory and yaum al-qiyama, one comes across a specific hadith that opens up the discussion for a controversial yet basic concept – that of Bada‘. This hadith is attributed to ‘Ali, continues with Imam al-Baqir,
and is narrated as such;
… after the fatal blow of an assassin’s sword, ‘Ali is said to have declared
to one of his disciples, ‘Amr b. al-Hamq, that “in the seventieth year there
will be great trials… (repeating it three times). “The man asked, “shall
there be prosperity after trial?” “Yes,” the Imam answered, “After trial
shall be prosperity.” He then recited the verse, “God effaces and confirms
whatever He wills…” Later a disciple of the fifth Imam, Abu Hamzah al-
Thumali, recalled this tradition to the Imam and added, “Seventy years
have passed and yet they (the Shi‘ah) have not yet seen prosperity.” The
Imam answered, “God had previously ordained a time for this matter, in
the seventieth year. But when Husayn b. ‘Ali was slain, God’s wrath
raged against the inhabitants of the earth. He therefore delayed it for one
hundred and forty years. We then informed you of it, but you proclaimed
it abroad and removed the veil of secrecy. Thus, God has delayed it
indefinitely and did not inform us of its time.” The Imam then recited,
“God effaces and confirms whatever he wills…”119
119 Hashim b. Sulayman al-Bahrani, Al-Burhan fi Tafsir al-Quran, 2nd Edition (Tehran: Chapkhana-i Baradaran-i ‘Ilmi, 1375 A.H.) Volume 2, 300. Referred to by and quoted from Mahmoud Ayoub, “Divine Preordination and Human Hope; A Study of the Concept of Bada’ in Imami Shiite Tradition,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 106, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1986) 631.
42 This hadith discusses the postponement of the arrival of the Mahdi and in doing so, raises
a number of concepts that are discussed in length both in Sunni and Shi‘ite tafsir
(commentaries)-- with origins in the Quran and the hadith.
The first and main concept raised by all in light of the aforementioned hadith is
that of Bada‘. According to the Encyclopedia of Islam, Bada‘ is translated as the
“appearance or the emergence of new circumstances which cause a change in an earlier
divine ruling.”120 While this explanation is rather general, one can find much further
clarification on the matter in almost all the works dealing with this highly controversial
issue. The reason for the controversial nature of Bada‘ is found in its seeming assertion
that there is a limit in Allah’s knowledge and He could not foresee future events which
would force him to change his mind.121 All Shi‘ite theologians argue that this is not the case and reconcile the concepts of Allah’s infinite knowledge and Bada‘ in the following manner.
The basic endpoint of all arguments which address the concept of Bada‘ is that there exists the possibility for the alteration of Divine decrees. However, this in no way means that Allah did not foresee these changes and that His knowledge is limited.122
How the various theologians come to this conclusion varies in their minutiae and logic and will be dealt with in the forthcoming discussion.
AbdulHussein Sachedina, Islamic Messianism; The Idea of the Mahdi in Twelver Shi’ism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981) 152- 153. 120 Ignaz Goldziher, “Bada‘,” Encyclopedia of Islam, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. Van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2007. Brill Online.
43 Al-Mufid argues that Bada‘ has the same meaning as naskh (abrogation). Where
naskh is applied to religious law, Bada‘ is applied to the “occurrence” of events that were
not foreseen in the issue of creation. The only difference between Bada‘ and naskh is its
context of application.123
Tusi confirms and expands on this concept by saying that Bada‘ is to mean
“occurrence” when it is in the context of matters of creation – as in the occurrence of “the
alteration of circumstances.” He agrees as well with al-Mufid on the application of
Bada‘ when it comes to religious law. Tusi brings forth a tradition ascribed to Imam al-
Rida to support his argument; “How can we inform about the future when the verse of the
Qur’an says: ‘Allah blots out and establishes whatsoever He will; and with Him is the essence of the Book.’” With all this in mind, Tusi unequivocally insists that this interpretation in no way means that there is knowledge lacking in Allah. Tusi discusses the hadith on the postponement of the coming of the Mahdi in this context by arguing that
due to a change in circumstances and maslaha (public interest)– the yaum al-qiyama was postponed indefinitely. He further propounds on the issue by saying that there are two kinds of pieces of information. The one that consists of the attributes of Allah, past
events, and promises of reward – cannot be changed. The other is information that because of maslaha or a change in circumstances – the eventual outcome may be
different than that of the original intention. Traditions that discuss future events are
included in this category. The arrival of the Mahdi is a promise from Allah that is a
123 Muhammad Ibn Muhammad al-Nu’man al-Mufid, Awa’il al-Maqalat fi al-Madhahib wa al-Mukhtarat, Edited by ‘Abbasquli Wa’iz Charandani (Tabriz: Rada’i, 1371/1951) 53. As referred to by Sachedina, Messianism, 154- 155.
44 member of the former category, but its timing belongs to that of the latter category.124
The change in circumstances caused by humanity – first in the case of the murder of
Husayn at Karbala and later in the loss of secrecy at the hands of the Shiite believers – directly delayed the arrival of the Mahdi.
The most often used source for the concept of Bada‘ is the Quranic verse; “Allah eliminates what he wills or confirms, and with Him is the Mother of the Book.”125 The
following will discuss the understanding that various theologians take in light of this
verse. Ibn Abbas and Hasan al-Basri argue elimination on the part of Allah refers only to
acts that are in the scope of free will and there is no reward or punishment for these acts.
Confirmation, on the other hand, refers to acts of obedience or disobedience for which
there is a reward or punishment on the Day of Judgment. Sa’id Ibn Jubayr argues that
elimination is referring to the sins of people in the context of favor (fadl) and
confirmation refers to the sins of people Allah chooses to punish in the context of strict
justice (‘adl). Yet still others argue that elimination and confirmation refer to the
sustenance and life spans of men – which Allah can increase or decrease as He sees fit.126
There are many more interpretations of this verse, but the last to be discussed here is that of Sayyid Muhammad Husayn al-Tabataba’i. He argues that elimination and confirmation are referring to the books of destiny. He says, “For every time or term of life, there is with Allah a prescribed end or decree. Allah effaces and confirms these decrees and judgments as He wills. Yet for every time or term of life there is a decree with Allah which is beyond effacement or alteration. This is the mother of the Book.”
124 Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan al-Tusi, Kitab al-Ghayba (Najaf: Maktabat al-Sadiq, 1965) 264-265. As referred to by Sachedina, Messianism, 155-156. 125 Quran, 13:39 (Riyadh: AbulQasim Publishing House, 1997). 126 Abu ‘Ali al-Fadl b. al-Hasan al-Tabarsi, Majma’ al-Bayan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an, Volume 13 (Beirut: Dar Maktabat al-Hayat, 1380/ 1961) 185-186. As referred to by Ayoub, 626.
45 And in rejection of all other views on this matter, he says, “there is no proof that the verse
refers specifically to any of them. It is general.”127
Tabataba’i also expounds on a hadith relevant to this matter that is ascribed to
‘Ali, the first Imam. ‘Ali is reported to have told the fourth Imam, his great grandson
‘Ali b. al-Husayn; “Had it not been for a verse in the Book of Allah, I would inform you
of all that was and of all that is yet to be until the day of resurrection… Allah effaces
whatever He wills…”128 Tabataba’i argues that the hadith serves to let us know that
Allah wants humanity to live in ignorance of the future so that they may live with fears and hopes and thus fulfill their religious obligations. If the future would be known to humanity, there would be no cause for hope and fear, because all would be clear.129
Another hadith incorporating this Quranic verse (13:39) in the context of Bada‘ is that of laylat al-qadr (the night of determination). On the night in question, Allah determines all involving truth, falsehood, and everything to happen the following year.
“In all this, however, Allah has the prerogative of Bada‘ and the will to execute whatever
He wills of the terms of life, measure of sustenance, measures of trial, accidents, and cases of disease. He increases or diminishes in all these whatever He wills. This is then transmitted by the Apostle of Allah to the Prince of the Faithful. The latter then transmits it to the Imams until it reaches the Master of the Age. Allah, however, conditions the
Imam’s (knowledge) by His absolute will to execute or delay whatever He wills.”130
127 Muhammad Husayn Tabataba’i, Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an, Volume II (Beirut: Mu’assasat al-A’lami, 1391/1972) 377. As referred to by Ayoub, 627. 128 Hashim b. Sulayman al-Bahrani, Al-Burhan fi Tafsir al-Quran, 2nd Edition (Tehran: Chapkhana-i Baradaran-i ‘Ilmi, 1375 A.H.) Volume 2, 298. Referred to by and quoted from Ayoub, 627. 129 Tabataba’i, Al-Mizan, 381. As referred to by Ayoub, 627. 130 ‘Ali b. Ibrahim al-Qummi, Tafsir al-Qummi, Edited by al-Sayyid Tayyib al-Musawi al-Jaza’iri, Volume II (Najaf: Matba’at al-Najaf, 1386 A.H.) 290. As referred to by Ayoub, 628.
46 In order to theologically explain the contradiction seemingly inherent in the concept of Bada‘ – that of Allah’s infinite knowledge and his allowance for a change of mind based on external circumstances – we turn to Ayatollah Khu’i for enlightenment.
Khu’i explains that the attributes of Allah are divided into two categories. Knowledge and the will of Allah belong to the category of essential attributes that cannot be changed, increased, or decreased. The second category is that of attributes of the actions of Allah – such as creation, the granting of sustenance, divine determination, and divine decree.
This category is subject to change in accordance with the will of Allah.131
Bada‘ emanates from qada‘ – divine decree – an action which is a member of the second category and is subject to change as per the will of Allah. Even in the realm of
divine decree, there is only one type of decree that is subject to change. Qada‘ can be
divided into three categories of decrees. There is the type of decree which is eternal and
remains in the hidden knowledge of Allah. While Bada‘ can be a member of this
category as a decree that is ordained for the future – the decree itself is not subject to the
phenomenon of Bada‘. The next category of qada‘ is that of Allah’s public knowledge
that He conveys to the angels, prophets, and Imams. While such a decree is subject to
Bada’ – once the information is disclosed to the angels, prophets, or Imams – it is not
subject to change as Allah does not wish for his servants to appear to be lying.132 The
third and last category is that of public knowledge which is conveyed but is made subject
to the condition that the will of Allah has not decided otherwise. This is the category that
is subject to Bada‘ and includes the timing of the arrival of the Mahdi.133
131 Al-Sayyid Abu al-Qasim al-Musawi al-Khu’i, Al Bayan fi Tafsir al-Quran, Volume 1 (Beirut: Mu’assasat al-A’lami, 1394/1974) 406. As referred to by Ayoub, 630. 132 Bahrani, 297. As referred to by Ayoub, 630. 133 Khu’i, 387. As referred to by Ayoub, Bada’, 630.
47 The belief in Bada‘ is an element of faith within Twelver Shiite Islam and as Tusi
pointed out earlier, contains an element of maslaha. Its benefit is imparted to the believer
in that it motivates the Shiite adherents to pray and perform good deeds so that they may
change a divine decree for the better and fulfill their hopes for the future. This concept is found in the Quran – in the verse;
When My servants ask you about Me, I am always near. I answer their
prayers when they pray to Me. The people shall respond to Me and believe
in Me, in order to be guided.134
The following are Quranic verses and hadith which are illustrated to support the concept of Bada’ as an element of faith inherent in both Sunni and Shiite Islam.
Many discussions on the concept of Bada‘ make reference to the story of Musa
when he went up to heaven to receive the Tawrat (the Old Testament). In the Quran, it is written that Musa kept an appointment with Allah for thirty nights and then Allah completed them with ten more.135 This incident is only one Quranic source justifying the
concept of Bada‘ as one that has its origins in the mother of books and is not a later invention created by the Shiites. Another incident of Bada‘ exists in the Quran when
Ibrahim was commanded to sacrifice his son Isma’il – but at the last moment – it was ordered by Allah that Isma’il be ransomed with an animal.136 Another Quranic incident
brought to illustrate this point is that of Yunus and Nineveh.137 The people of Nineveh
were doomed to punishment for their evil behavior but because of their sincere
repentance, the decree was cancelled and they were saved. The last Quranic proof of
134 Quran, 2:186 (Riyadh: AbulQasim Publishing House, 1997). 135 Ibid, 2:51, 7:142. 136 Ibid, 37:102 -107. 137 Ibid, 10:98.
48 Bada‘ to be cited is that of the change of the Qibla.138 Ibn Kathir and Qadi Thanaullah
Panipati Uthmani explain that first the Prophet and his followers had been facing Al-
Quds in prayer but after migrating to Medina – the Prophet was ordered to face Bayt al-
Muqaddas (Ka’aba) during salat (prayers).139 All the above are examples taken from the
Quran that show that Allah reserves the right to change a decree at will. This change of
decree can emanate from reasons ranging from a test for humanity, repentance, or a
change in circumstances.
The following are hadith brought as proof of the legitimacy of the concept of
(ﺑﺪا ﷲ) Bada’. There is a famous hadith that tells the story that “it so appeared to Allah
that he should inflict a trial upon three men: a leper, a bald man, and a blind man.”140 An explanation on this hadith can be found in the Sahih Bukhari. Bukhari basically explains that Allah sent an angel to cure these three men and then later test them to see if they were grateful for their new status and if they would help the angel disguised as a poor man. Only the blind man remembered his previous status and was grateful for his gift from Allah. Allah then went and revoked the newly-found wealth and happiness of the leper and the bald man.141 This is a classic example of Bada‘ and is cited by a number of
sources for this purpose.142 There is another hadith telling that Ibn Mas’ud or alternately
138 Ibid, 2: 142-150. 139 Ibn Kathir, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, (Delhi, India: Farid Book Depot); Qadi Thanaullah Panipati Uthmani, Tafsir Mazhari (Karachi, Pakistan: Darul Isha’at, n.d.). As referred to by “Bada’; Change in Creation’s Destiny by Divine Knowledge,” Answering-Ansar.org, 4-10
49 the Shi‘i Imams once prayed; “O Allah, if you have inscribed me among the people of misery, efface my name from the people of misery and inscribe me among the people of happiness, for You efface and confirm whatever You will and with You is the mother of the Book.”143 This hadith is an example of the concept of Bada‘ ingrained in the theological concept of prayer – that there is almost always room for change in future decrees through the path of prayer. And for another hadith in the same vein, Ja’far al
Sadiq has narrated that the Prophet once said;
A man may perform an act of kindness to his next of kin when there is
remaining of his life only three years. But because of this, Allah may
prolong his life for thirty three years. Another man may decide to
withhold charity from his next of kin when there remains of his life thirty
three years. Yet because of that, Allah may shorten it to three years or
less.144
Another hadith on charity relates that the Prophet foresaw the death of a Jew by the bite of a snake. However, the decree was revoked when the subject in question shared his food with a poor man. On this occasion, the Prophet declared, “Charity averts an evil death of a man from a man.”145 And for the last hadith on charity and Bada‘, it is narrated that ‘Ali asked the Prophet for an interpretation on the aforementioned Quranic verse 13:39. At this point, the Prophet answered, “I shall console your eyes and the eyes of my community after me with its interpretation. Almsgiving, kindness to parents, and
143 Tabarsi, 186. As referred to by Ayoub, 626. 144 Majlisi, Volume 4, 121. As referred to by Ayoub, 630. 145 Ibid, 121-122. As referred to by Ayoub, 630- 631. As a side note, this hadith and the Quranic verse previously mentioned on Yunus and Nineveh – directly contradict a previously discussed argument made by al- Bahrani on the subject of Bada’— see footnote 14.
50 doing good to others can turn misery into happiness. They prolong life and protect against evil happenings.”146
The following are hadith that deal with Bada‘ in the context of the timing of the
arrival of the Mahdi. The eighth Imam is quoted as saying, “The Shi‘ah have been
nurtured on hope for two hundred years.” Majlisi comments on this hadith, that the
Imams stressed Bada’ as a basic element of belief for the purpose of keeping strong the
hopes and faith of the Shi‘ah in the belief in the arrival of the Mahdi. He argues that had
the Shi‘ah known the Mahdi would not come for another thousand years, they would
desert their faith in the Mahdi and the Imams.147 To address the flexibility of the timing
of the arrival of the Mahdi, the following hadith is brought forth. Muhammad al-Baqir is
said to have been asked by one of his followers if there is a predetermined time for the
arrival of the Mahdi. At this he answered, “Those who fix a time tell lies.”148 There exist
many more hadith on the matter that are generally a repetition of the previously
mentioned concepts.
It is most important to make note of the following issue involved in the existence of the concept of Bada‘. One would find great difficulty to come across an argument that
does not view the concept of Bada‘as integral and basic by all streams of Shiite theologians to the religious practice of Shi‘ism. While it may seem that Bada‘ allows for limitations in Allah and herein lies the controversy– this is in fact not the case – and all
Shiite theologians argue against this distortion vehemently. The source of controversy and heresy involved lies not within the concept of Bada‘ itself – but within the
misunderstanding of this critical concept by others.
146 Tabataba’i, Volume II, 380. As referred to by Ayoub, 632. 147 Majlisi, Volume 4, 131- 133. Ayoub, 631. 148 Ibid, 132.
51 One can extrapolate from the previous discussion the following conclusion. As
the cited Quranic verses, hadith, and tafsir have illustrated – a change in circumstances –
some of them caused by humanity – can and have changed future decrees. These human
actions which have allowed for and continuously allow for change in the will of Allah range from prayer to repentance, the murder of a member of the Ahl al-Bayt to the unauthorized revelation of the secret date of the arrival of the Mahdi, charity, or simply ungrateful human behavior. We now move forward to examine what may possibly be a present-day attempt by Twelver Shiite adherents to utilize the concept of Bada‘ for the purpose of influencing the timing of the arrival of the Mahdi.
52 How Ahmadinejad Fits In
Keeping the background discussion on Imami Shi‘ite messianic theory in mind, let us proceed to examine several current world events that are causing quite a stir. We will examine the dynamics of specific events and policies of the President of the Islamic
Republic of Iran with the purpose of investigating a phenomenon that some are asserting is an ongoing attempt to bring on the End of Days and the Mahdi.149 The following material is the preliminary discussion that serves as the evidence for arguments in forthcoming chapters. These pieces of evidence are not meant to serve as the argument in and of itself.
To begin with, it must be made clear that this work will by no means cover all the information that is available on the relevant actions of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. The amount of information is comprehensive and much of it has not been translated into
English. However, working with the information that is available, a clear picture of the issues can be built nonetheless.
For a bit of relevant background on the current Iranian president, one can turn to his official biography furnished by his website. It seems that his political activities began during his studies at The Science and Technology University in Tehran. During this time, he participated in the Islamic Revolution and after the overthrow of the Shah, he founded the Islamic Association of Students in the University in which he studied. Aside from various governorship appointments throughout the country, Ahmadinejad served as the
Mayor of Tehran between the years 2003- 2005. In the ninth presidential election of the
Islamic Republic of Iran, Ahmadinejad won the candidacy and became President on June
149 David Menashri, “What Lies behind Ahmadinejad’s Hate Speech?,” Tel Aviv Notes; An Update on Political and Strategic Developments in the Middle East, No. 155 ( Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 2005).
53 24, 2005.150 Although there is no official mention of Ahmadinejad’s religious and
political relationship and activities involving the Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi Mesbah-
Yazdi, one can find the link between the two in a large number of news sources.151 As
Ahmadinejad is considered to be a pupil of Yazdi, let us begin by examining the ideology of this influential mentor.
To introduce Yazdi, one can turn to the biography provided on his website. He presents his scholarly background and mentions his studies under the Ayatollah
Khomeini. There is mention of his discussions on the role of Islam in society and politics
and his role in the creation of organizations to overthrow the Pahlavi regime. He also
authored an extensive list of works and sat on the administration of the Haqqani School.
In addition, he helped to found the DarRah-e Haqq Institute, the Baqir al ‘Ulum
Foundation, and the Imam Khomeini Education and Research Institute. He authored many works, at least one of which we shall proceed to examine in an effort to introduce his philosophies, ideologies, and teachings relevant to this discussion.152
The work in question is a lecture published on his website titled, “Toward a
Comprehensive Defense of Islam and Islamic Culture.”153 From the very beginning of the lecture, Yazdi makes multiple references to the hidden (Imam) and quite a few open
150 “Biography of H.E. Dr. Ahmadi Nejad, Honourable President of Islamic Republic of Iran,” Islamic Republic of Iran’s Presidency Website
54 references to the coming of the Mahdi. He attributes to present day Islamic scholars the position of carrying on the legacy of the Infallible Hidden Imam. He also makes the logical inference that all the faithful must heed the Umma as they would the Mahdi, as scholars of Islam are the holders of truth and are the guides to the clear path.154 One section stands out as clear evidence of a specific ideology;
we are expected to do our best in actualizing Islamic rulings in our
personal as well as social life, and to establish the Just Islamic System
all over the world in order to pave the way for the reappearance of
Baqiyat-Allah al-a’dham (may our souls be consecrated for him, and
may Allah hasten his auspicious return.)155
He gets more specific as to which countries are in need of conquering and an introduction to the “Just Islamic System” in the following statement,
These obligations are understood by reason alone, without recourse to
religious authorities, and acting according to them is not bound to a
specific time or place. But there is something that gives these duties
double emphasis during this era and especially with regard to us who
enjoy Islamic awareness and the Divine breeze, thanks to the sacrifice of
the pure blood of the martyrs… and gave rise to prospects of more
important victories for the Divine forces and the triumphant party of
God…This factor is the coalition of the forces of infidelity and
hypocrisy, the servants of dollars and euros…156
154 Ibid, 2-5. 155 Ibid, 5. 156 Ibid, 6-7.
55 Yazdi continues his lecture by listing the grievances of the Muslim nations against these enemies and ends his discourse with the command to all the faithful to take up
Jihad – hampered by no methods or boundaries – to vanquish these infidels… surely
Allah will help the patient.157 In summary, this work seems to be calling for the active establishment of Islamic government throughout the world for the purpose of bringing the
Mahdi. There are no methods unusable or borders that will be allowed to hinder this cause and the West is portrayed as the ultimate enemy of Islam.
While the information provided may appear to be nothing more than the philosophy of a conservative scholar of Shiite Islam, one must take all this information into context. Firstly, on Yazdi’s website and in multiple statements noted by various news organizations – he has made clear his devotion to hastening the return of the hidden
Imam.158 Secondly, Yazdi’s championing of Ahmadinejad for presidency and the inclusion of Haqqani159 students in the current administration160 allows for the following inference. It is reasonable to conclude from the information available that Yazdi and his views have considerable influence in the Ahmadinejad government. While one cannot directly credit Yazdi with the ideas disseminated by Ahmadinejad, there is room to allow for a prevailing influence in the matter. Particularly seeing as the rhetoric espoused by both hold a remarkable similarity and both have been linked to a secret society believed
157 Ibid, 8. 158 “About,” The Website of Ayatollah Misbah
56 to be of the ideology that it is necessary to take human action to speed the arrival of the
Mahdi.161
At this point, we shall proceed to examine numerous statements made by the
President of the Islamic Republic of Iran as is relevant to the argument forthcoming. We
shall begin by examining the portrait of Ahmadinejad as he represents himself on his
official website, the Islamic Republic of Iran’s Presidency Website. On every page
opened within this website, there is an ongoing message running through the top of the
page. It says the following; “O, Almighty God, bestow upon humanity the perfect human
being promised to all by You, and make us among his followers.”162 While this prayer is
standard to every Shiite adherent – we shall come across this statement on many more
occasions within Ahmadinejad’s letters and speeches. This prayer will be seen as an introduction to practically every address and letter of an eschatological nature composed by President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and presented heretofore.
Furthermore, as will be seen in the forthcoming discussion, there will be similar statements in a much stronger vocabulary that make it difficult to argue against the assertion that Ahmadinejad’s desires to hasten the arrival of the Mahdi. This understanding is not arrived at through interpretation – rather through a basic rational comprehension of the statements in and of themselves in which he states that it is his desire that the arrival of the Mahdi be hastened. He also states at certain points, that it is
his belief that humanity must act in order to hasten the arrival of the Mahdi. While some
of the following arguments are in fact an interpretation of the evidence – as one of several
161 Said Hajjarian, “Az Anjoman-e Hojjatia ta Madoon-e Anjomaniha,”
57 possible interpretations – the understanding of Ahmadinejad’s statements mentioned previously and similar forthcoming declarations are not in that category; as it cannot be rationally understood in any other way. Let us examine the following pieces of evidence.
On September 17, 2005, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad addressed the United Nations
General Assembly in his capacity as the President of the Islamic Republic of Iran. In addition to discussing the agenda and arguments of the Islamic Republic, its nuclear program and opposition to the West; Ahmadinejad inserted much religious and spiritual language into his discourse.163 While this may not be particularly significant– the notable part of his address came at the very end. The following is a remarkable quote from the address in question:
From the beginning of time, humanity has longed for the day when
justice, peace, equality and compassion envelop the world. All of us
can contribute to the establishment of such a world. When that day
comes, the ultimate promise of all divine religions will be fulfilled
with the emergence of a perfect human being who is heir to all
prophets and pious men. He will lead the world to justice and
absolute peace. O mighty Lord, I pray to you to hasten the
emergence of your last repository, the promised one, that perfect
and pure human being, the one that will fill this world with justice
163 “Address by H.E. Dr. MahmoodAhmadinejad; President of the Islamic Republic of Iran before the Sixtieth Session of the United Nations General Assembly,” September 17, 2005, IslamicRepublic of Iran; Permanent Mission to the United Nations
58 and peace. O Lord, include us among his companions, followers and
those who serve his cause.164
Here, Ahmadinejad has clearly called for the establishment of a just and peaceful world. He calls for all of humanity to assist in establishing such an order. He makes an obvious reference in his call for this establishment as the day when the Mahdi will arrive and bring about this state of affairs. He ends with a prayer to God to hasten the appearance of the Mahdi and expresses his interest in involvement with the abovementioned cause. This is exceptional to his usual spiritual rhetoric for the most basic of reasons. This call for the coming of the Mahdi is taking place in a secular world institution, where all the world is listening, and comes directly after an argument by
Ahmadinejad for the establishment of a much-opposed nuclear program in the Islamic
Republic of Iran.
If the above language is extraordinary, Ahmadinejad takes a step further shortly thereafter in a meeting held with a notable Qom cleric by the name of Ayatollah Javadi
Amoli. It was reported by various news agencies that Ahmadinejad told Amoli regarding a conversation Ahmadinejad held with someone present at the United Nations;
“He said when you began with the words ‘in the name of God,’ I saw
that you became surrounded by a light until the end [of the speech], I
felt it myself, too. I felt that all of a sudden the atmosphere changed
there, and for 27-28 minutes al the leaders did not blink… I am not
exaggerating when I say that they did not blink; it’s not an exaggeration,
because I was looking. They were astonished as if a hand held them
164 Ibid, 10.
59 there and made them sit. It had opened their eyes and ears for the
message of the Islamic Republic.”165
Ayatollah Amoli responded with measured skepticism when he said that “carrying out promises and restraining from fooling people” is the most important obligation (of officials). However, it is not fully clear that he is referring to the abovementioned statement by Ahmadinejad.166
Clearly, in the context of the previous analyses regarding Ahmadinejad’s address
in the United Nations; Ahmadinejad sees himself as the transmitter of a holy message to
the world – an Islamic message. He associates himself with an unnatural aura that
surrounded him – attributing to himself a holy status. Furthermore, he asserts his belief
that there was a supernatural force that compelled the delegates of the nations around the
world to hear this message and did not even allow them to blink. Taken in the context of
the politics and religion of Iran – one is led to believe that Ahmadinejad seems to be
playing on the messianic traditions of Shiite Islam to attach to himself the status of the
Bab. That perhaps he believes himself to be the present-day generation’s connection with
the hidden Mahdi.167 This idea comes about later in the rhetoric of the President of the
Islamic Republic of Iran and will be further reinforced.
165 Golnaz Esfandiari, “Iran: President Says Light Surrounded Him During UN Speech,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, November 29, 2005
60 We now move on to the address given by Ahmadinejad before the Sixty First
General Assembly meeting at the United Nations on September 19, 2006.168 He begins addressing all the world’s delegates to one of the most influential world bodies with a prayer; “…O God, hasten the reappearance of the Imam of the times and grant to us victory and prosperity. Include us among his followers and martyrs.”169 This is a
clear expression of his desire to influence the hastening of the arrival of the Mahdi and
cannot be rationally interpreted in any other manner. He continues with criticism for the
West, the Security Council of the United Nations, the Zionist regime, and the nuclear
weapons of unnamed countries. He goes on to defend his country’s own nuclear program
and calls for equality, justice and tranquility for all. Ahmadinejad begins the ending of
his speech with a thinly veiled threat. He foresees that; “Whether we like it or not,
justice, peace and virtue will sooner or later prevail in the world with the will of
Almighty God. It is imperative, and also desirable, that we, too, contribute to the
promotion of justice and virtue.”170
Ahmadinejad continues sometime later by saying; “I emphatically declare that
today’s world, more than ever before, longs for just and righteous people with love for all humanity, and above all longs for the perfect righteous human being and the real savior who has been promised to all peoples and who will establish justice, peace,
and brotherhood on the planet.”171 He finally ends with a prayer; “O Almighty God…
168 “Address by His Excellency Dr. Mahmoud Ahmadi-Nejad President of the Islamic Republic of Iran before the 61st Session of the General Assembly,” September 19, 2006, IslamicRepublic of Iran; Permanent Mission to the United Nations
61 Bestow upon humanity that thirsts for justice, the perfect human being promised to all
by you, and make us among his followers and among those who strive for his return
and his cause.”172
It is largely apparent that Ahmadinejad makes clear his priorities when opening his address before the world with a call for the Mahdi and a grant of victory. He proceeds to make clear against whom he is in need of victory in his repeated references to the United States and Israel specifically -- and the West in general -- as personifications of all that is crooked, barbaric, and unjust. With this in mind, Ahmadinejad threatens an eventual state of justice173 regardless of our will in the face of the Almighty God. He ends with a statement and a prayer that all the world longs for the perfect and just human
being who will remove injustice (as previously defined) from the planet and would like to
be his followers. Once again, we have established a very public threat for the Day of
Judgment and an unveiled call for the Mahdi who will bring about this day.
We shall proceed to examine Ahmadinejad’s address before the 62nd session of
the United Nations General Assembly. On September 26, 2007, Ahmadinejad stood before the United Nations and proclaimed his wishes for the speedy arrival of the
Mahdi.174 More specifically, he says, “Oh God, hasten the arrival of Imam Al-Mahdi and grant him good health and victory and make us his followers and those who attest to his rightfulness.”175 At this point, he introduces what he intends to discuss --
and between the multiple international issues -- he inserts; “I will also speak to you…
172 Ibid. 173 See significance in the concept of ‘justice’ within Imami Shiite eschatological theory as discussed by Ayatollah Ja’far Sobhani, Doctrines of Shi’I Islam; A Compendium of Imami Beliefs and Practices, Translated by Reza Shah-Kazemi (London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., 2001) 115-116. 174 Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, “President Ahmadinejad addressing 62nd UN General Assembly- Full Text,” Website of the Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran, September 26, 2007
62 about the reappearance of the sublime and beauty, kindness and dignity, justice…and
realization of the promise of God as stated by of all divine prophets and righteous
men.”176 Herein lies another reference to the end of days juxtaposed to a discussion of
the international events of the times.
For most of the remainder of his address, he discusses various issues, some of
which concern Iran. But toward the end, he returns to his usual language of eschatology
and the foreboding of what remains to come. He warns, “Is it not high time for these
powers to return from the path of arrogance and obedience of Satan to the path of
Godliness? Do they not like to be cleansed of their impurities, submit to the will of God
and believe in him?”177 If this does not seem to be a Da’wa message, he continues a few spiritual sentences later to say; “This is the invitation of all divine prophets from Adam to
Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus Christ and Mohammed, the Messenger of God (PBUH). If
they answer to the invitation, they will be saved and if they don’t, the same thing that
befell the people of the past will befall them.”178 At this point, he removes all doubt as to
his intent to impart a Da’wa invitation. But he takes it to the end -- warning the nations
of the world in the most public of forums -- of negative implications if they do not heed
his predictions.
And he continues on this note by quoting from the Quran and expanding the
concept;
“One who does not answer the divine call should not think that he has
weakened God on earth; he has no companion but God and he is clearly
engulfed by darkness.” They have nothing of their own and can not
176 Ibid, 2. 177 Ibid, 11. 178 Ibid.
63 escape from the dominion of the rule of God and his will. In this important
gathering, I have to remind them of the following words of the Almighty
which has been mentioned in the Holy Quran: “Do they not look at the
powers and governments which came before them? If the people of the
past had actually possessed something, they would have kept it and would
not have let you the possess it now. God destroyed them because of
their sins and nobody could protect them against the will of God.”
They have to know that the ways and traditions based on oppression
and injustice will be destroyed. Do they not see the signs of vigilance
and resistance of the world? Do they not notice the imminent fall of
empires?179
Here, once again, Ahmadinejad seems to be calling the western powers to Islam in a
Da’wa message and to threaten unpleasant endings to those who do not heed his
proclamations. If one takes note, Ahmadinejad has mentioned here and in previously discussed pieces of evidence, the concept of signs of the times. This is one of the most
obvious references to the end of days as discussed in Imami Shiite Islamic texts. These
signs are called ashrat al-sa’a in religious discussions and refer directly to the collapse of
the established order, specific predicted events, and chaos that will develop prior to the
resurrection and day of judgment.180
Shortly thereafter, he goes on to seemingly prophecy what will be at the
impending end of days in what can be interpreted as eschatological language. He
prophecies;
179 Ibid, 11-12. 180 Sobhani, Doctrines of Shi’i Islam, 130.
64 It is the divine promise that the truth will be victorious and earth will be
inherited by the righteous… You, who crave for the high values, wherever you are, try to prepare the grounds for the fulfillment of this great
divine promise by serving the people and seeking justice. The age of darkness will end, the prisoners will come back home, the occupied lands will be freed, Palestine and Iraq will be liberated from the domination of the occupiers and the people of Europe will be free of the pressures exerted by the Zionists. The tender-hearted and humanity-loving governments will replace the aggressive and domineering ones. The human dignity will be regained. The pleasing aroma of justice will permeate the world and people will live together in a brotherly and affectionate manner. Striving in this way to give the rule to the righteous and the Promised One is actually the final cure for the wounds of humanity, the solution of all problems, and the establishment of love, beauty, justice and happiness all over the world. This belief and endeavor is the key…Without any doubt, the Promised One who is the final Savior and the last heavenly message will come. In the company of all believers, justice-seekers and benefactors, he will establish the bright future and fill the world with justice and beauty. This is the promise of
God, therefore it will be fulfilled. Let’s have a role in the fulfillment of all this glory and beauty. I wish for the bright future for all human beings and the dawn of the liberation and freedom for all humans and the rule of love and affections all around the world as well as elimination of
65 oppression, hatred and violence. The wish which I think will be realized
in the near future.181
The above quoted text can speak for itself. It has been quoted in its entirety for its eloquence and clarity of purpose. While the aforementioned text is self-explanatory, a few specific issues will be pointed out for its bold nature. The fact remains that
Ahmadinejad is standing before the nations of the world -- and in the most transparent of ways -- is calling them to assist him in bringing about the end of days and the arrival of the hidden Imam, the Mahdi. He promises -- to the extent of a prophecy -- a world situation that he sees as ideal. This seems to be his view of what the end of days will bring about -- and he asks the world to assist him in his efforts. But perhaps most incriminating of all is his stated belief in the connection between human efforts to hasten the arrival of the Mahdi and the Mahdi’s time of arrival.
At the International Seminar on the Doctrine of Mahdism, which took place on
September 6-7, 2006, Ahmadinejad presented his views on the obligations of the believer in his devotion to the Mahdi. In this address, he says,
The Hidden Imam has no tangible presence among us, but he is always
[here], and we must prepare the ground for his speedy
appearance…we must rush towards him and hasten to prepare the
ground for his appearance. [He will not appear] if we sit idly. Mankind
must hurry towards the Hidden Imam in order to reach him. A person
who [actively hastens the coming of the Imam] is different from one who
does not… Today, mankind is proceeding rapidly towards perfection,
181 Ahmadinejad, “President Ahmadinejad addressing 62nd UN General Assembly- Full Text,” Website of the Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran, September 26, 2007
66 truth, justice, love, peace and compassion, and this is possible only under
the rule of the perfect man…182
This statement cannot possibly be more clear as to the intentions of Ahmadinejad to
hasten the arrival of the Mahdi – simply because he states these exact intentions in the
citation above. Furthermore, in this and previous quotes, Ahmadinejad uses the words
“appearance” and “emergence” in reference to the Mahdi. The significance of these words was discussed in the third chapter of this work in connection with Shiite messianic theory as relevant to the Mahdi. One of the most basic words describing the reappearance of the Mahdi is that of “zuhur” – which in Arabic translates as
“appearance” or “emergence.”
And a year later, at the next International Seminar on the Doctrine of Mahdism, which took place from August 25-26, 2007 – Ahmadinejad presented his views on the
Mahdi. He calls for the world to rebel against the oppressors in preparation for the
coming of the Mahdi in the following statement. He says,
The Hidden Imam is heir to everything that has been good and beautiful
throughout history, and the call is a call in the missions of the divine
prophets, in monotheism, and in justice... In these days, humanity longs
for monotheism and justice. With God's grace, the [preparations] for a
flood of compassion, truth and justice will soon be complete... A
message of steadfastness and patience and of resisting the oppressors ; it is
a message of submission and of the pursuit of justice and honor. The
182 Iranian Student News Agency, September 6, 2006. As reported to in A. Savyon and Y. Mansharof, “The Doctrine of Mahdism: In the Ideological and Political Philosophy of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Ayatollah Mesbah-e Yazdi,” Inquiry and Analysis Series – No. 357, The Middle East Media Research Institute, 3.
67 current situation in the world has led the nations to reject in disgust the
rule of the oppressors. Now is the time to invite people to accept the
rule of the righteous, and of the most righteous - the Hidden
Imam...The oppressors and tyrants are responsible for all the difficulties
and problems currently faced by the nations, and the only way to
establish justice is through popular uprising and determined
resistance in the face of these oppressors... [The day] of these
aggressors... who are oppressing and controlling the nations, is now
coming to an end...The time of the righteous rulers will come, and the
most righteous of rulers, will form a government and thereby instate the
monotheism of Abraham. That day is not far away... Our enemies
naturally feel threatened by the call to the Mahdi, for they do not want
people to think about justice. But our reply to them is that the era of the
aggressive has come to an end. We believe that it is time for the
righteous to rule, and for humanity to be properly born out of love,
knowledge, and spirituality.183
In this presentation as well, Ahmadinejad clearly states his opinion as to the importance of active resistance for the purpose of bringing the Mahdi – and thereby the desired state of justice and peace in the world. This is not a form of interpretation, rather a clear comprehension of the basic words that were stated by Ahmadinejad.
183 Islamic Republic News Agency, August 27, 2007. As referred to by Y. Mansharof and A. Savyon, “Escalation in the Positions of Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad – A Special Report,” Inquiry and Analyses Series – No. 389, The Middle East Media Research Institute, 3. < http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=countries&Area=iran&ID=IA38907#_ednref14>
68 We continue with a letter sent by President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to President
George W. Bush dated May 8, 2006.184 In this piece, Ahmadinejad largely leaves out the
End of Days and the Mahdi until the end of the letter; aside from one reference on the
first page to the return and governance of Christ.185 He does however speak the entire
letter of various U.S. government activities and politics around the world. He
continuously implies that these activities are not compatible with the spirit and teachings
of Jesus Christ. Until one reaches the end of the letter, it is hard to visualize what
Ahmadinejad is hoping to achieve. Already in the second half of the letter, Ahmadinejad
begins to make reference to “the promised world, universal justice,” and multiple veiled
threats.186 For example, he quotes a verse for which there is no source given; “A bad
ending belongs only to those who have chosen the life of this world and disobey Him and
oppress His servants… A good end and eternal paradise belong to those servants who
fear his majesty and do not follow their lascivious selves.”187 And then, with a call for
repentance; “We believe a return to the teachings of the divine prophets is the only road
leading to salvation.”188 Ahmadinejad goes so far as to begin to tell Bush what will
happen in the End of Days; “The day will come when all humans will congregate before
the court of the Almighty, so that their deeds are examined. The good will be directed
towards Heaven and evildoers will meet divine retribution.”189
184 Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, “Letter of Islamic Republic of Iran President to American President,” Website of the Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran, May 9 2006
69 At this point, the threats and references to the Last Day come in waves and
Ahmadinejad begins to speak of the signs of the coming of the Mahdi, he calls President
Bush to repent, and predicts the End of Days. He says;
Can one deny the signs of change in the world today...Changes happen
fast and come at a furious pace… Those with insight can already hear the
sounds of the shattering and fall of the ideology and thoughts of the
Liberal democratic systems…We increasingly see that people around the
world are flocking towards a main focal point – that is the Almighty
God…Do you not want to join them? Whether we like it or not, the world
is gravitating toward faith in the Almighty and justice and the will of
God will prevail over all things.190
For the last, most amazing sentence of this letter, Ahmadinejad signs off
“Vasalam Ala Man Ataba’al hoda.” This sentence is translated as “peace be to the one
who follows the true path.” While seemingly benign, this sentence has a layered
meaning. The New York Sun discusses this controversial letter and makes reference to an
Islamic tradition that reports on this very same sentence.191 The editorial states that in the
sixth year of the Hijra, Muhammad used the very same sentence in letters to the
Byzantine and Sassanid emperors warning them to either convert to Islam or face war and
conquest by Muhammad.192 Upon investigation of this editorial, one can confirm the
existence of this very assertion in the Sahih Bukhari, Volume 6, Book 60, Number 75.193
190 Ibid, 8-9. 191 “Iran Declares War,” Editorial by The New York Sun, May 11, 2006
70 This whole concept of an invitation to convert to Islam is called a Da’wa and has its origins in the Quran. In Surat an-Nahl, verse 125, the faithful are commanded to invite others to Islam - - and the command used in the text for the word invite, contains the same root of Da’wa.194 But if one is skeptical that Ahmadinejad had this very purpose in mind in sending this letter, the President of the Islamic Republic of Iran removes all doubt in a press conference held on May 11, 2006 during a visit to Indonesia.
The Islamic Republic News Agency reports that Ahmadinejad stated in regards to this specific letter, "The letter was an invitation to monotheism and justice, which are common to all divine prophets. If the call is responded positively, there will be no more problems to be solved."195
One must ask oneself, what problems does Ahmadinejad intend to solve by inviting President Bush to convert to Islam. Furthermore, how does he intend to solve these problems, if not verbally? And finally, of what can this letter be indicative when - - aside from Ahmadinejad’s usual threatening language - - he uses the very same words that historically have been used by Muhammad in the context of war? And one cannot neglect to note the incorporation of multiple references to the End of Days that are prevalent throughout the second half of the letter in question. Once again, Ahmadinejad places himself in the footprints of the Prophet Muhammad, believes himself the carrier of a message of repentance, and repeatedly threatens the Day of Judgment. Let us further examine the expressions of the President of the Islamic Republic in order to fully appreciate his philosophies.
194 Quran (Riyadh: AbulQasim Publishing House, 1997) 16: 125. 195 “President Says His Letter to President Bush Was Invitation to Islam,” Islamic Republic News Agency, May 11, 2006
71 In a letter dated November 29, 2006, Ahmadinejad sent a public letter to the
American people.196 Firstly, he introduces the letter with “O, Almighty God, bestow
upon humanity the perfect human being promised to all by You, and make us among his
followers.”197 This is clearly a call for the Mahdi -- something Ahmadinejad makes clear
is preliminary in placing and therefore importance, in any conversation he holds.
This letter is basically discussing various current political issues that are at the
forefront of media discussion in the United States. He has chosen issues that have garnered massive opposition to the Bush Administration and describes them as a violation of universal human values and justice.198 Toward the end of the letter,
however, Ahmadinejad discusses a most familiar topic. On the last page of the letter, he
advises the American public what actions will bring them to the promises of the Last Day
when he says; “It is possible to lead the world towards the aspired perfection by adhering to unity, monotheism, morality and spirituality and drawing upon the teachings of the Divine Prophets. Then, the American People, who are God-fearing and followers of Divine religions, will overcome every difficulty.”199 And for more references to what the Americans will receive at the End of Days should they act accordingly: “I am confident that you, the American People, will play an instrumental role in the
establishment of justice and spirituality throughout the world. The promises of the
Almighty and His prophets will certainly be realized, Justice and Truth will prevail and all nations will live a true life in a climate replete with love, compassion and
196 Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, “Message of H.E. Dr. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad; President of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the American People,” Website of the Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran, November 29, 2006
72 fraternity.”200 Ahmadinejad inserts a warning, a call for repentance, and perhaps a
thinly veiled threat for the United States government; “The U.S. governing establishment,
the authorities and the powerful should not choose irreversible paths… injustice and
transgression will eventually bring about decline and demise. Today, the path of
return to faith and spirituality is open and unimpeded.”201
Ahmadinejad removes all doubt as to the veiled meanings of his words when he
ends his letter with the following verse from the Quran; “But those who repent, have faith
and do good may receive Salvation. Your Lord, alone, creates and chooses as He will,
and others have no part in His choice…” This is verse 67 from Surat al-Qasas -- and
upon brief investigation – one finds that it is a verse inserted into an entire section on the
promises and punishments in the End of Days for those who were warned to repent but
did not heed the warnings.202
The above document is characteristic of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. He
publicly addresses an entire nation on present-day issues and conflicts, makes multiple
references and connections to the Mahdi and the End of Days, and includes the threat of
what is waiting for those who do not heed his warnings. He discusses the chaos of current world events and politics and attributes it as usual to the United States government. Ahmadinejad is making direct references to Imamite Shiite theological concepts -- ones that do not fail to contain messianic overtones.
On April 19, 2007, the Islamic Republic News Agency publishes through the official website of Ahmadinejad, a warning voiced by Ahmadinejad to the
200 Ibid. 201 Ibid. 202 Quran (Riyadh: AbulQasim Publishing House, 1997) 28: 67.
73 “oppressors.”203 From the context of the article, one understands that the President of the
Islamic Republic of Iran is addressing the western powers -- more specifically the United
States. He advises on the return to the correct path and to heed his call, or face
unpleasant consequences. He composes a Da’wa message as follows,
I wish to send a message to these oppressive powers… asking them to get
back to the path put before them by the prophets, that is the path of
divine guidance, justice, friendship, and being faithful to the covenants
they have vowed with their nations… Beware! If you do not get back to
this path; if you do not end your oppressive methods; if you do not keep
on looting the other nations and try to keep on imposing your illegitimate
hegemony over other nations, you will face the destiny of the past
tyrants in history, that is none but death, and downfall for yourselves,
and wretched lives for your nations…. Our nation’s advice for you is to
get back to the path of monotheism, justice, and friendship, at least in a
bid to safeguard you own nations’ immediate, and long term interests.204
The evidence comes still - - as we examine the address by Mahmoud
Ahmadinejad in Columbia University as recently as September 24, 2007.205 We shall
proceed to examine the actual speech given - - as publicized by news organizations
worldwide. And we shall also take note of the version of events as publicized by the
official website of the President of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
203 “Ahmadinejad advises Oppressors to Heed Prophets’ Teachings,” Islamic Republic News Agency as referred to by the Website of the Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran, April 19, 2007
74 Mahmoud Ahmadinejad was invited to speak at Columbia University in the name
of freedom of expression and thought. Prior to his address, the dean of Columbia
University addressed the audience explaining the purpose of this much opposed visit. He
openly criticized practices in Iran, rhetoric voiced by Ahmadinejad, and introduced this
event as an exercise in freedom of thought and expression.206 This information is important to note as it places into context the forthcoming speech and question and answer session by Ahmadinejad.
The basic rundown of the address is as such. Ahmadinejad begins by complaining about his treatment at Columbia University and goes right into the spirituality of being an academic, scientist, or religious scholar. He engages in his usual arguments against the West and their bullying nature. He also brings up the Palestinian issue, questionable research on the Holocaust, and the justifications for Iran’s nuclear program. He portrays Iran as a peaceful nation that stands up to the West in the name of justice and closes that Iran loves all nations.207
Now, we will examine the language of the address in question as is relevant to
this discussion. Ahmadinejad opens his address with the call for the speedy arrival of the
Mahdi; “Oh, God, hasten the arrival of Imam al-Mahdi and grant him good health and victory and make us his followers and those to attest to his rightfulness.”208
After several complaints againsts his hosts, Ahmadinejad continues his address with the
discussion of the spirituality of the academic scholar. He says;
206 “Raw Video” 207 Ibid. 208 “President Ahmadinejad’s Speech at Columbia University (full text),” liveleak.com, September 25, 2007
75 Academics and religious scholars are shining torches who shed light in
order to remove darkness. And the ambiguities around us in guiding
humanity out of ignorance and perplexity. The key to the
understanding of the realities around us rests in the hands of the
researchers, those who seek to discover areas that are hidden, the
unknown sciences, the windows of realities that they can open is done
only through efforts of the scholars and the learned people in this world.
With every effort there is a window that is opened, and one reality is
discovered. Whenever the high stature of science and wisdom is
preserved and the dignity of scholars and researchers are respected,
humans have taken great strides toward their material and spiritual
promotion.209
While this may seem to the untrained eye as everyday spiritual language, this is far from the case. One must note the multiple references to the scholars’ ability to shed
light in darkness and the discovery of hidden realities. With a little background on Shiite
history and messianic theory, all of this seemingly vague rhetoric can be fit into a larger
picture. The mention of hidden realities can be directly referring to the Mahdi in his
current state of occultation. There is also extensive discussion within Imami Shiite
eschatological theory on the concept of hidden realities as it pertains to the hidden
Imam.210 As for the scholarly ability to shed light in darkness - - there is a possibility that
he is referring to the current state of darkness for the Shiites but the respect for scholars
209 Ibid. 210 Ibid, 116- 118.
76 will bring about an end to darkness and a state of light211 - - in other words, the end of
days. There is another interpretation possible for this reference to light – as in the light of
God specifically asserted to be possessed by all the Imams, including the Mahdi. This light is said to attract people to the Imams and bring them closer to him.212 And as will
be discussed in a later chapter, attributes of the Imams and their authority will be
inherited by the Jurists. This is actually the theological basis for the form of government
in the modern-day Islamic Republic of Iran – referred to as The Guardianship of the
Jurist. Ahmadinejad makes reference as well to “the key to understanding,” which is also
considered one of the specific attributes endowed to the Imamate as possessors of the
light of Allah.213
With this explanation in mind, one can continue to find numerous references to
the end of days and the coming of the hidden Imam/ Mahdi. Shortly into the speech,
Ahmadinejad states that;
In our culture, the word science has been defined as illumination….
Therefore, according to this definition, science is a divine gift and the
heart is where it resides. If we accept that science means illumination,
then its scope supersedes the experimental sciences and it includes
every hidden and disclosed reality...Realities of the world are not limited
to physical realities and the materials, just a shadow of supreme
reality…. It is - - science is a light. It is a discovery of reality. And only
211 Ibid, 117- 119. 212 Kulayni, Kafi, 1:387. As referred to by A.A. Sachedina, Islamic Messianism; The Idea of the Mahdi in Twelver Shiism. (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1981) 21. 213 Ibid.
77 a pure scholar and researcher, free from wrong ideologies, superstitions,
selfishness and material trapping can discover – discover the reality.214
This section can be seen as referring to the pure scholars’ capability to ‘discover
the reality’ of the hidden Imam and become a bab. He is also referring to the Shiite
metaphysical concept of the parallel worlds of the material and the spiritual. And the
word ‘illumination’ is a description directly given to the hidden Imam in Shiite theology.
In a later reference to the Western powers, Ahmadinejad says, “Regretfully, they
have not been trained to serve mankind.”215 This may be a reference to the special
position that the Imams held in Shiite society as those whose duty and training involved
the leadership of the Shiites and eventually all of mankind. Ahmadinejad continues a bit
later on what it takes to discover the Mahdi, advance the end of days, and establish a world described in Shiite eschatological texts. He says;
Dear academics, dear faculty and scholars, students, I believe that the
biggest God-given gift to man is science and knowledge. Man’s search
for knowledge and the truth through science is what it guarantees to do in
getting close to God. But science has to combine with the purity of the
spirit and of the purity of man’s spirit so that scholars can unveil the truth
and then use that truth for advancing humanity’s cause. These
scholars would be not only people who would guide humanity, but also
guide humanity towards a better future….All researchers and scholars are
loved by God. So I hope there will be a day where these scholars and
scientists will rule the world and God himself will arrive with Moses
214“ Speech” (full text), 2. “Raw Video.” 215 Ibid, 3.
78 and Christ and Mohammed to rule the world and to take us toward
justice.216
From this point until the end of the address, Ahmadinejad refrains from
eschatological language. However, at the end of the question and answer session, before
Ahmadinejad allows the moderator to close - - He says; “I ask Almighty God to assist all
of us to move hand in hand to establish peace and future filled with friendship and justice
and brotherhood.”217 While this statement may seem benign, there very well can be an underlying meaning in the way of Shiite eschatology. This can be construed as a reference to the situation described in Shiite eschatological texts as to the state of the world in the end of days.
For the version of the address posted on Ahmadinejad’s website, we shall only examine the relevant language that was not in the actual address itself. This occurs around halfway through the address as it occurs in reality. In a clear reference to the
Mahdi and the bab, it is written in the transcript of his speech;
The Almighty appointed the pure people and prophets as those who
deserve to be revealed with divine knowledge and wisdom…. If you go
through the history you can see that all the goods revealed to the humanity
have come from pious and pure scholars. These scholars are considered as
those who use their knowledge and wisdom for the sake of the humanity
and those whose prime target is to discover realities in favor of the well
being of human beings…. Usually, all pure and pious scholars have
turned into saviors of human beings…But pure and pious scholars can
216 Ibid, 4. 217 Ibid, 11.
79 bring pious and pure world. Science is a window towards the
Almighty.218
And for the reference to the concept that the scholars of the generations are the abwab to the Mahdi;
In short we shall say that knowledge or wisdom is the most precious gift
of the Almighty given to the human being and justice-seeking nature of
the human being has always made him to be after further knowledge
and discovery of the hidden…. Pure and pious scholar and scientist not
only sheds light to the way of well being of the humanity but will play
role of savior of the human beings as well.219
Ahmadinejad closes this version of the address at Columbia University with the following statement. He says, “We wish for the day when pious and pure scholars and scientist run the world and the pious ruler who shall be divine one rules over the world.”220 One must note, despite specific differences, that the basic eschatological idea behind the two addresses are one and the same. That is, that the scholar is a bab to the discovery of the Mahdi and is capable of helping humanity realize the return of the hidden Imam.
As recently as this year, a cabinet secretary in Ahmadinejad’s government has been quoted as saying, “Ahmadinejad’s era is the prelude to Imam Zaman’s return,” and “The Cabinet Secretary pointed out that just as Imam Zaman’s occultation had a prelude and a main period, his return too has a prelude and a main period, and that
218 “President Ahmadinejad addresses students at Columbia University – full text,” Website of the Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran, September 25, 2007
80 Ahmadinejad’s administration was the prelude to the return.”221 This comes after recent
statements by Ahmadinejad in an address to Elm-O-Sanaat University, where he says; "I
know that short sighted people cannot digest these beliefs but I [at Columbia University] was certain that our lord would come and run the show. I said ‘Imam Zaman! I want to see your artistry,’”222 Hassan Rowhani, a former chief nuclear negotiator for Iran,
responded critically and directly to the abovementioned statements:
What kind of a game is this in which we assume the public to be fools…
Someone [a reference to the President himself] even claimed one time that
the Imam would appear in two years. A few years have passed since that
claim so it is clear that the person is nothing but a liar223
In a speech taking place in February of 2008 for the purpose of commemorating the 1979 Islamic Revolution, Ahmadinejad complained about the actions of members of the government. He specifically protested the expressions by members of the nuclear negotiating team to foreign governments to the effect that his views were not supported by many within the Iranian establishment. Ahmadinejad ended his speech by claiming that his administration was supported by the Hidden Imam and thanking him for his support.224
At this point, with the evidence presented, a forthcoming argument will be
offered. It seems to the observer that Ahmadinejad has made clear in the most public of
forums that he intends to influence the arrival of the end of days and the Mahdi. In
221 Armin Moosazadeh, “Ahmadinejad’s Era is a ‘Minor Occultation,’” RoozOnline, March 18, 2008
81 addition, it appears that he would like the world to assist him in his efforts and hence -- change the world order as it exists today. He sees his vision of the world as it should be, as utopian, and one that would become reality with the arrival of the Mahdi. In conjunction with the discussion on specific concepts within Imami Shiite eschatological theology; it is hoped that the evidence presented – even if taken with a grain of salt -- will allow us to build a clear picture as to what Ahmadinejad may be hoping to achieve.
82 Tying it Altogether
We shall now commence to examine the political situation surrounding the
President of the Islamic Republic. In addition, it is here that we shall sort the evidence in
an attempt to formulate some sort of coherent understanding as to the direction of the
actions and declarations of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. It is also of import to understand
where Ahmadinejad falls in the spectrum of specific forthcoming theological arguments
within Twelver Shi‘ism as they pertain to the matter at hand. And finally, we must
explore the question as to whether the suspected goals of Ahmadinejad are at all realistic
-- given the realities on the ground and the challenges he faces within the local political
and intellectual arena within the Islamic Republic of Iran.
Ahmadinejad was elected to presidency in the ninth presidential election on June
24, 2005.225 At that point, he entered into a complex political system with a level of
political experience no higher than that of the mayor of Tehran. The highest point of power in the Islamic Republic is held by the Supreme Leader, Ali Khameni. After the
Supreme Leader, the government body holding the highest level of power is a twelve-
man council whose place is reserved in the constitution under the title, The Guardian
Council of the Constitution. They supervise all elections, approve or disapprove of
candidates for eligibility of candidacy in the Assembly of Experts, Presidency, and the
Majlis. They also have veto rights on laws passed in Parliament and have sole rights to
interpreting the constitution.226 The post of President and the Majlis cannot necessarily
225 “Biography of H.E. Dr. Ahmadi Nejad, Honourable President of Islamic Republic of Iran,” Islamic Republic of Iran’s Presidency Website
226 “Articles 98 and 99 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran,”
83 be measured in terms of level of power, as factors are highly dependent on many
surrounding conditions. There are also many other power players in the government –
such as the military, the Assembly of Experts, the Expediency Council, and others whose
behind the scenes power is much greater than that of many of the elected positions – such
as the Revolutionary Guards.
Ahmadinejad was voted into power with the help of neo-conservatives in the
Majlis and in the Assembly of Experts – particularly with the help of Ayatollah Mesbah
Yazdi.227 The main alliances challenging the neo-conservatives for power are the reform
alliance and the traditional conservatives. As of late, the traditional conservatives are hitting back on the Majlis level and the reformists made a huge comeback in local elections. These developments are seen as largely due to Ahmadinejad’s inflammatory rhetoric, his exclusion of the traditional conservatives in government, and his failure to
keep his election promises. The way it seems, although it is too early to be certain, the
prize candidate of the neo-conservatives of Iran has set back their popularity in a large way.228
If one is to examine the political situation of Iran today, one must first understand
the underlying system and its supporting concepts within mainstream Shi‘ite Islam. The
Islamic Republic of Iran is called – within the ideological framework of Twelver Shi‘ism
– Wilayat al-Faqih (The Guardianship of the Jurist). Leaving history aside, with the
inception of The Islamic Revolution, came several radical concepts latent under the surface of the traditionally passive mainstream Shiite society. The Wilayat al-Faqih was
227 Laura Secor, “Whose Iran?,” The New York Times, January 28, 2007
84 the greatest of the offspring of activist Shi‘ism -- which is essentially the governing
system of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
Since the Imamate of Ja’far al-Sadiq until the late 1970’s – aside from a few
exceptional occurrences – the reigning doctrine within all matters political in Shi‘ite
Islam was that of passivism. Integral Shi‘ite concepts such as justice and martyrdom
were doctrinally put aside until the arrival of the Mahdi at the end of times.
Sociopolitical conditions forced the line of Imams to declare political activism as beyond
the scope of Shi‘ite believers in a bid for survival. To remain as unthreatening as
possible to the Sunni ruling dynasties, the Imamate declared that justice and righteous
rule was to wait for the decision of Allah to bring back the hidden Imam from his
occultation. This would normally rule out the possibility of the overthrow of the Shah
Pahlavi from his monarchical post in Iran. However, the brainchild of the Islamic
revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini, found the long-dormant concepts within Twelver
Shi‘ism that could legitimize his bid for the overthrow of the secularist monarchy of
Iran.229
While many separate arguments were put forth for the institution of an Islamic
government, the primary concepts responsible for a revolution both in government and in
basic Shi‘ite outlook are those of al-‘Adl, and al-Imama.230 Al-‘Adl is the concept of the
justice of Allah and al-Imama is the concept behind the rulership of the righteous. These
two concepts, while they have taken a back burner for many centuries, are inherently
integral to the establishment of Shi‘ite Islam in both the historical and theological frameworks. They form the basis of separatism of the Shia‘ of ‘Ali from the mainstream
229 Abdulaziz A. Sachedina, “Activist Shiism in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon,” In Fundamentalisms Observed, Chapter 7, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991) 432-33. 230 Ibid, 421.
85 Sunni population. They were the inspiration for the development of the rebellious Shi‘ite
sect and while they have always theologically retained their status – they were put in
suspension until the arrival of the hidden Imam. It had developed in that manner to the
point where any political activity was frowned upon as superseding the limitations of the
human activity into the realm of the decisions of Allah. However, the concepts of jihad,
justice, rule of the righteous, and the position of the murja’ al taqlid – all highly
politically active concepts within Shi‘ite Islam – were to make a revolutionary comeback
with the help of the Ayatollah Khomeini.231
This brings us to the concept that forms the basis of the governmental system of the Islamic Republic of Iran as it stands today. Historically, when the last Imam went into occultation, he left behind deputies to guide the Shi‘ite community.232 This position
was later interpreted to be held by the learned members of Shi‘ite society – who were
considered representatives of the hidden Imam so long as he remained in the greater
occultation.233 In light of this theological development, the position of murja’ al taqlid
evolved in Shi‘ite society. This title was reserved for those who held the place of
religious leadership and whose dictations became binding on their followers.
Theologically, the murja’ al taqlid replaced the Imam -- until the end of occultation – as those responsible for the institution of the rule of the righteous. By virtue of the fact that the religious leadership had the responsibility to institute both al- ‘Adl and al-Imama in their present capacities; it remained binding on the murja’ al taqlid to bring to realization the inherent interdependency within Twelver Shi‘ism of the political and the religious.
This was the focal point of the revolutionary activities of the Ayatollah Khomeini and
231 Ibid, 420- 433. 232 Ibid, 410. 233 Ibid, 412.
86 remains until today the basis for the power structure present in Iran. As such, the
Supreme Leader and the Guardian Council of the Constitution have the last word and unlimited veto powers on all governmental decisions and actions within Iran today.234
Historically, this argument has been made in the past and subsequently refuted by later theologians, depending solely on the sociopolitical circumstances of the time and place.235 However, the case of the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran remains
unique in its realization of this theological interdependency of the political and religious
in Twelver Shi‘ism. Its unique character stems from its nature as the most recent and
most thoroughly realized case in the history of political Shi‘ism.
The discussion carried out as of yet is an attempt to formulate a bit of a political
background so as to better understand the environment and institutions surrounding the
President of the Islamic Republic, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. The previous discussion,
however, is by no means comprehensive and is not intended to be of a thorough nature.
As there is much material to be covered in order to enter an in-depth discussion of the
political nature and circumstances of present-day Iran, we shall leave this matter for
discussion at another time and another place.
We shall proceed to examine the direction of the current President of the Islamic
Republic of Iran – within the confines of the evidence presented in the previous chapter.
The previous discussion on the behaviors and expressions of Ahmadinejad has brought to
light a few simply facts. Based on the publicly spoken words of Ahmadinejad alone, one
can come to the following conclusions. Ahmadinejad would like to, according to his own
words, speed the arrival of the Mahdi and the end of days. He has also repeatedly stated
234 Ibid, 421 & 433. 235 Ibid, 425.
87 his belief in the need for humanity to take actions to make this wish a reality. He has
repeatedly complained as to the present state of the world today and has publicly called
for the nations of the world to assist him to make changes. He has argued as to the lack
of justice in the world today --and in threatening language – warned of consequences of an apocalyptic nature to those who do not heed his warning and those of the prophets.
The above assertions are not assumptions or arguments, they are realities publicly
witnessed the world over.
Upon examining the belligerent and confrontational nature of Ahmadinejad,
coupled with his statements on the Mahdi and the end of days – even if they are to be
taken with a grain of salt; one may form the basic assumption that Ahmadinejad may be
interested in manipulating world events in a certain direction. Given his clearly stated
viewpoint of the world – a number of scholars have asserted the possibility that
Ahmadinejad may be under the assumption that a chaotic world existence can help
realize the predicted signs of the hour and thus bring the Mahdi.236 While this piece
concurs with this particular argument and works to show its merits, one must remain
aware that this is but one possible interpretation of the actions and rhetoric of the
president of the Islamic Republic.
While this kind of theology is highly unorthodox in traditional Shiite circles, the previous discussions allow for an explanation legitimizing this issue. The fact is that the
Islamic revolution renewed the basis in Shiite theology for human activism in installing justice and rulership of the righteous. So, although not that long ago in the history of
236 David Menashri, “What Lies behind Ahmadinejad’s Hate Speech?,” Tel Aviv Notes; An Update on Political and Strategic Developments in the Middle East, No. 155 ( Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 2005); Moshe Sharon, stated in a lecture on “Eschatological Thought in Islam and the Emergence of the Baha'i Faith” Spring 2006, Hebrew University of Jerusalem; Mehdi Khalaji, “Apocalyptic Politics; On the Rationality of Iranian Policy.” Policy Focus #79. Washington Institute for Near East Policy (2008) 32.
88 Shi‘ism, such theology would be considered radical -- as a member of the generation of
the Islamic revolution, it can be seen as a relatively reasonable concept by Ahmadinejad.
This particularly would be the case – seeing as the Mahdi is the sole and ultimate
righteous ruler capable of installing the most ideal form of justice the world over. Taking
this note a step further; the possibility of humans causing a change and thereby bringing
closer the time of the arrival of the Mahdi fits quite well into the previously discussed,
traditionally acceptable concept of Bada‘. More specifically, the concept of Bada‘
expressly allows for human actions to directly change the timing of the arrival of the
Mahdi.
As has been discussed in a previous chapter, Bada‘ is a highly controversial
concept and one that involves technical logical arguments in order to reconcile the lack of
limitations in Allah and His documented contradictory statements. This concept has its
history in the Quran and Hadith – and there exists much tafsir in order to hammer out the
theological implications of this idea. While many of the theologists use different
methods of argument – be it one of abrogation (naskh) or decree (qada‘) – almost all
come to the same conclusion. This conclusion remains that either because of specific
human actions or because of His own change of decision – Allah can change a previous
decision, decree, or statement at will. This in no way implies any sort of limitation on the
part of Allah, rather it simply allows for changes in divine decrees as Allah sees fit.237 As has been discussed in the past chapters as well, there is historical basis in both the Shi‘ite
237 Mahmoud Ayoub, “Divine Preordination and Human Hope a Study of the Concept of Bada in Imami Shii Tradition” Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 106, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1986), pp. 622-624.
89 hadith and the Quran for human actions causing a change in decree on the part of
Allah.238
With this theological background in mind, the possible manipulation of the time
of arrival of the Mahdi is reasonable and allowed for within Shi‘ite Islam.239 This
legitimacy exists for a series of acts which would create a world situation which would be
conducive to the arrival of the Mahdi. Therefore, any kind of plan of installing world
chaos for the accomplishment of this purpose is considered a feasible and acceptable
doctrine within the confines of theological messianic Shi‘ism as it exists today.
With the understanding of Bada‘ as previously delineated – this plan would be a
direct implementation of the theory that human activities can cause a change of decision
on the part of Allah. This concept holds historical precedence and theoretical support in
Shi‘ism and therefore is perfectly legitimate within the context of Shi‘ite theology. To
clarify matters – Ahmadinejad specifically has stated in previous discussions that he
wishes for the hastening of the arrival of the Mahdi and he believes that humanity must
act to bring this wish to fruition. There can exist no doubt as to the link between the
theory of Bada‘ and the beliefs, statements, and possible intentions of Ahmadinejad.
Keeping the previous discussion in mind, one must proceed to examine the
circumstances that would allow for or disallow for the success of Ahmadinejad’s
238 Abdulaziz Abdulhussein Sachedina, Islamic Messianism; The Idea of the Mahdi in Twelver Shi’ism (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press, 1981) 152-156. 239 I have come to this conclusion based on the historical events and the sound and respected explanations of bada‘ brought forth in this work. While it is quite clear that there is room for such an assumption within traditional Shiite theology, there is a contradictory concept brought forth and pointed out to me in email correspondence with Sachedina. This concept states that only Allah can determine the time of the arrival of the Mahdi and humans cannot possibly influence this timing. However, I have clearly shown within the hadith and tafsir, how there is equally contradicting evidence supporting my case. Furthermore, my argument falls into line with the statements of Ahmadinejad stating his belief that humanity must act to hasten the arrival of the Mahdi. For further support of this line of thinking, see Mehdi Khalaji, “Apocalyptic Politics; On the Rationality of Iranian Policy.” Policy Focus #79. Washington Institute for Near East Policy (2008).
90 supposed plans. Firstly, we must start with the disclaimer that in no way is there a factual
assertion that Ahmadinejad is in fact attempting to bring the Mahdi. Rather, for the purpose of clarification; the argument asserts that the attempt to bring world chaos for the above-mentioned ends on the part of Ahmadinejad is a possibility -- based on his actions
and public declarations. Furthermore, it must be noted that this is not the only possible
interpretation of the actions and declarations of Ahmadinejad. There is actually another
line of thought asserting that the rhetoric and actions of the President of the Islamic
Republic stem from an anti-colonialist perspective.240 While this may be a point worth
exploring -- unfortunately due to the constraints of this work – it is a discussion that must be dealt with elsewhere.
On that note -- based on the political circumstances surrounding Ahmadinejad – while I do believe that there is enough evidence to suggest that Ahmadinejad would like to bring the Mahdi through human action – perhaps by creating a state of world chaos; I do not believe that he is capable of achieving these ends. His political power is limited within the bureaucracy of the Islamic Republic of Iran and he is not free to act as he wishes. Furthermore, his popularity is at its lowest, even among those that originally voted for him.241 This is the case to the degree that he is becoming increasingly
unsuccessful in the political arena – even within sectors that were once his strongest
240 A concept put forth by Dr. Haggai Ram -- of Ben Gurion University of the Negev -- in a private conversation held during the Spring Semester of 2008.
91 sources of support. There increasingly exist instances where the religious clergy are
publicly speaking against the politicization of the concept of the arrival of the Mahdi.
On September 13, 2006, Jomhouri-ye Eslami published an article written by a cleric from Qom – protesting the politicization of the Mahdi and the spreading of superstitions by elected officials. In this article, clear reference is made to the disproportionate budget allocated to the Jamkaran Mosque by the administration of
Ahmadinejad. Protest was addressed as well against the spreading of the tradition of sending messages to the Mahdi down the well located in the Jamkaran Mosque – a reference to the pledge of allegiance to the Mahdi that was allegedly sent down the well by officials of the Ahmadinejad administration. The article argues that such behavior poses a danger to Shiites and Shi‘ism. It even goes so far as to say that those who present themselves as being in contact with the Mahdi “destroy religious beliefs” and religious scholars “must step into the ring and launch the difficult battle against the danger of
superstitions.”242
In another article printed in Jomhouri-ye Eslami on October 11, 2006, members of
the clerical establishment expressed reservations -- referring to extreme statements made
by Ahmadinejad. They specifically addressed his claim to being surrounded by a halo of
light by saying, “…[it is] saddening that false and idiotic beliefs have recently received
reinforcement backed by force. Myths like ‘the halo of light’ and claims of esoteric
knowledge and clairvoyance – coming from people who are supposed, as one of their
tasks, to fight these very things – are making the battle [against false beliefs] even more
242 “The Danger of Superstitions: The Task of the Elected,” Jomhouri-ye Eslami, September 13, 2006. As referred to in A. Savyon and Y. Mansharof, “The Doctrine of Mahdism: In the Ideological and Political Philosophy of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Ayatollah Mesbah-e Yazdi,” The Middle East Media Research Institute, Inquiry and Analyses Series – No. 357, May 31, 2007, 7-8.
92 difficult…”243 There are many more articles of this nature published by Rooz, The
Iranian Student News Agency, and various other news sources.244
There also have been confirmed reports on parallel negotiations with Europe on the nuclear issue coming from emissaries of the Supreme Leader – directly undermining those of Ahmadinejad.245 Some analysts actually argue that as far as the Supreme Leader is concerned -- maslaha overrides Islamic theology in the Islamic Republic of Iran – and therefore the chances of his allowing extremist actors to dominate the political decision- making are quite slim.246
Criticism coming from the Majlis and the Iranian public is openly being leveled at
Ahmadinejad as well on the issue his handling of the gasoline crisis247 – one that has already sparked riots in Tehran.248 Another source of tension and criticism is
Ahmadinejad’s handling of the nuclear issue. There are reports of criticism ranging from
243 “Take This Warning Seriously,” Jomhouri-ye Eslami, October 11, 2006. As referred to in in A. Savyon and Y. Mansharof, “The Doctrine of Mahdism: In the Ideological and Political Philosophy of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Ayatollah Mesbah-e Yazdi,” The Middle East Media Research Institute, Inquiry and Analyses Series – No. 357, May 31, 2007, 8.
93 conservative circles to those of reformists -- and there exists public criticism from members of the current and previous governments.249
As of March 2008, there is a newly elected Majlis. Even with the latest Majlis elections seen as a victory for the hardliner camp - - there exists a strong oppositional force to the current administration from within the victorious Principalists.250
Furthermore, the traditionally conservative clergy are openly criticizing Ahmadinejad’s policies, actions, rhetoric, and the administration of the latest elections.251 In addition, one must take into consideration the position of the elected reformists as the opposition camp within the Majlis. And lastly, the widespread public recognition of the lack of transparency and fairness in the administration of the election completely undermines any public legitimacy this election holds.252 With that said, while on paper it may appear as though Ahmadinejad holds majority support in the Majlis – and thus political support for his ambitions – it is not necessarily the case.
For the purpose of reinforcing the concluding argument, the following information will attempt to delineate some of the more prominent allies and opponents of
249 Y. Mansharof, “Iranian Domestic Criticism of Iran’s Nuclear Strategy,” The Middle East Media Research Institute, Inquiry and Analyses Series – No. 317, January 24, 2007, 1-7.
94 Ahmadinejad. On the question of allies, one must begin with the primary ally and champion of Ahmadinejad – that of Muhammad Taqi Mesbah Yazdi. The connection between the cleric and the politician has been referred to on numerous occasions in the press and in this work as well. Yazdi is said to be the spiritual mentor of Ahmadinejad and Ahmadinejad is seen as Yazdi’s representative in government.253
It is argued as well that followers of Ahmadinejad have connections with influential elements at least partially responsible for the nuclear program within the
Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.254 It is also reported that the main power base of
Ahmadinejad is in the traditional rural areas – which has actually been declining due to the critical economic situation and Ahmadinejad’s failure to keep his campaign promises.255
For the last of Ahmadinejad’s allies to be mentioned here, we turn to the coalition of supporters of Ahmadinejad within the Majlis. They are called the United Principalist
Front and they represent themselves as supporters of the current administration.256 One of their members was the previous speaker of the Majlis and his name is Gholam-Ali
253 Mehdi Khalaji, “Apocalyptic Politics; On the Rationality of Iranian Policy.” Policy Focus #79. Washington Institute for Near East Policy (2008) 14. “Iranian President Paves the way for Arabs’ Imam Return,” Pars Times, November 17, 2005
95 Haddad-Adel.257 This faction is said to hold a majority of the seats within the Principalist
faction which in itself comprises 69 percent of the Majlis258 -- the actual number however
varies from source to source and therefore will go without mention.
For the political opposition of Ahmadinejad, we shall begin with the question of
the Supreme Leader Khameini himself. Khameini is a complicated subject because –
while he is connected theologically with messianic elements in Mashhad – he is the
leader of a government whose primary interest is promoting human and earthly clerical
governance rather than that of the Mahdi.259 He carries on the legacy of the Ayatollah
Khomeini who was adamantly opposed to emphasis on Mahdism – as he believed that it was imperative that humanity establish an Islamic government on earth rather than wait for the governance of the Mahdi. This was the case to the point that Khomeini persecuted the Hojjatiyeh society for its belief in the necessity of separation between politics and Islam and the importance of waiting for the establishment of the Mahdi’s government.260 Furthermore, Khamenei was endowed with the power to override Islamic
law for the promotion of maslaha (i.e. political stability) when relevant.261 And finally,
as previously mentioned, Khamenei has shown himself to be politically pragmatic even
in the face of contradicting his own ideology.262 So while it is argued that Khamenei
holds apocalyptic views, he has also shown himself to be a political pragmatist and
prefers stability to any sort of ideological chaos.263 Therefore, while Khamenei and
257 “Haddad-Adel Says Ready to Accept Speaker Post,” MehrNews.com, April 30, 2008
96 Ahmadinejad may be ideological allies -- when it comes to political reality – their paths
diverge.
Another opponent of Ahmadinejad would be the Hojjatieh society. While Yazdi
and Ahmadinejad hold very similar views to the Hojjatieh society – there are crucial
differences that not only remove this possibility but also create for a direct conflict of
interest. The basic Hojjatieh concept relevant to this argument is that the Shiite
worshipper must wait for the Mahdi and refrain from any political action either to speed
the Mahdi’s arrival or for establishing an Islamic government. In fact, they were seen as
directly opposed to the revolution and government of Khomeini for this reason. Their
interests diverge directly from those of Ahmadinejad in that Ahmadinejad is an active political member of the government of the Islamic Republic and is holds the view that it
is necessary to take action to speed the arrival of the Mahdi. Hence, one can rationally
conclude that despite the similarity of their beliefs – Ahmadinejad and the members of
the Hojjatieh society remain opponents.264
Another set of opponents of Ahmadinejad are the clerical establishment in Qom.
Aside from several instances reported previously in this chapter making this opposition
apparent – the following will give a bit of a background explanation as to why this is the
case. It is asserted by some that Ahmadinejad belongs to a secret society in which there
exists the ambition of using modern means of technology to speed the arrival of the
Mahdi. Aside from its almost complete lack of clerical members, this particular ideology
stands in direct contradiction to the interests of the traditional clerical establishment. In
general, the traditional clerics have always marginalized apocalypticism as an extreme
trend. This is possibly the case simply because the members of the clerical establishment
264 Ibid, 10-14.
97 are considered the representatives of the Hidden Imam in his absence. Once the Imam
returns, they no longer hold any status or power.265 The only known cleric from Qom to hold this strain of messianic belief is Muhammad Taqi Mesbah Yazdi and he remains politically isolated for this reason. Another idea generated by this movement is that they represent the authentic spirit of Islam in contrast to the clerical establishment who only formally interpret the religious texts. This causes a deep distrust on the part of the traditional clerics as they are held by the apocalyptic movement to have digressed from the true path of Islam and are no longer worthy of leadership.266 Therefore, aside from the clerics themselves being openly opposed to the leadership of Ahmadinejad; their followers in the political establishment hold this view as well and represent them in government.
Another important opposing figure in the political establishment is Ali Akbar
Rafsanjani. He was defeated by Ahmadinejad in the 2005 presidential elections and remains his opponent. He has been elected as speaker of the Assembly of Experts in the last elections – a move that is seen as a sign of the declining popularity of Ahmadinejad
and his supporters. The Assembly of Experts holds the power of electing the Supreme
Leader if the post becomes vacant and the election of Ahmadinejad’s opponent as its
speaker is seen as a clear indication of their opposition to him and his policies.267
Another body of opponents to Ahmadinejad hold a numerical majority in the
Majlis. Firstly, there are the reformists who are his natural opponents. And while they
are not a majority thanks to the broad disqualification of their candidates, they remain a
265 Ibid, VII-VIII. 266 Ibid, 14. 267 Ibid, VIII.
98 vocal source of opposition.268 But more importantly, within the conservative Principalist camp which holds a majority of 69 percent in the Majlis269, there is a massive bloc which opposes Ahmadinejad.270 They are called The Broad Principalist Coalition and their leaders are the Mayor of Tehran Mohammad Baqer Qalibaf, the once Islamic
Revolutionary Guards Corps Chief Mohsen Rezaie, and the previously primary nuclear negotiator Ali Larijani.271 Ali Larijani was elected to the Majlis as the direct representative of the clerical establishment in Qom272 and is seen as the leading conservative opponent of the current administration.273 This point makes apparent the opposition of the clerical establishment in Qom to the administration of Ahmadinejad.
Larijani has now tentatively become the current Speaker of the Eighth Majlis by a vote of
161 to 50. His opponent, Gholam Haddad-Adel, was a supporter of Ahmadinejad’s administration and is seen as the representative of the United Principalist Front.274
Obviously, this aforementioned list of allies and opponents of Ahmadinejad is far from complete; but, it stands to create a general picture of the more influential figures
268 “Reactions to Elections in Iran; Contradictory Numbers,” RoozOnline, March 25, 2008
99 involved in this political power struggle. It is the researchers general impression that while there are large numbers of powerful players on both sides of the divide, the opponents of Ahmadinejad are more numerous and increasingly influential.
It is reported that Ahmadinejad’s actions on the international level, his rhetoric both at home and abroad, and his failure to keep his promises on the national level have fortified his opponents’ positions both within the traditional conservative parties and the reformist parties.275 His controversial statements -- both in politics and on the Mahdi -- have turned some of the religious clergy against him, in the most public of platforms, as well. As one can observe from the previous discussions, the religious clergy and many political players have directly criticized his unusual statements on the Mahdi and openly supported his opponents in the Majlis. Given Ahmadinejad’s political limitations, this work concludes that he does not carry the influence or the capability to carry out plans of such nature and grandeur.
275 Laura Secor, “Whose Iran?,” The New York Times, January 28, 2007
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Yazdi, Ayatullah Muhammad Taqi Mesbah. “Toward a Comprehensive Defense of Islam and Islamic Culture.” February 2006. http://www.mesbahyazdi.org/english/speeches/lectures/lectures1.htm. 109 תקציר מחקר זה מתכוון לבחון את הדמיון והשוני בין החשיבה המשיחית באיסלם השיעי האימאמי אל מול האיסלם הסוני – ובצורה מסויימת – את התפקיד ששיחקה ההיסטוריה בהתפתחותם. בנוסף, עבודה זו תבחן את הדרך בה החשיבה המשיחית באיסלם השיעי האימאמי שיחקה תפקיד באירועים מסוימים בעולם של היום. הנקודה העיקרית של השוואה בעבודה זו תהייה ב-הגעה והדמות של המהדי על פי האיסלם הסוני אל מול הגישה של האיסלם ה השיעי. בצורה מסויימת הדיון יכוון למטען הפוליטי והדתי הטבוע בקיומה של תפיסה זו. הדיון יכוון בנוסף לתפקיד הרעיון האסכטולוגי באיסלם השיעי אימאמי – כפי שהוא קיים כיום – כיצד הואו אחראי לפחות בצורה חלקית לעימות של אירן עם שאר העולם. העבודה תבחן את הקשר בין הבעותיו של אחמדיניג'ד לגבי אמונתו בביאת המהדי לבין פעולותיו. הבחינה של המבנה הפוליטי, ההיסטוריה , ומצבים פוליטיים עדכניים ברפובליקה האיסלמית של אירן היא נסיון להבין את האפשרות של הצלחה או – כשלון של המניעים החשודים של אחמדיניג'ד. אני מקווה לקשור ביחד את כל הממצאים ממחקר זה במטרה להראות את הרלוונטיות והעוצמה הפוטנציאלית של הדיבורים והמעשים של אחמדיניג'ד . . I תוכן עניינים פרק ראשון הקדמה 1 פרק שני רקע אל תיאורטי המשיחית בסוני איסלם 11 פרק שלישי רקע על התיאוריה המשיחית בשיעי האיסלם והמאורעות שהובילו להגעת המהדי 17 פרק רביעי בדע 40 פרק חמישי אחמדיניג'ד – כיצד הוא קשור 51 פרק שישי קישורים בין הפרקים 78 פרק שביעי ביבליוגרפיה 97 אוניברסיטת בן- גוריון בנגב הפקולטה למדעי הרוח והחברה המחלקה ללימודי המזרח התיכון השוואת תאוריות משיחיות באיסלם חיבור זה מהווה חלק מהדרישות לקבלת התואר "מוסמך למדעי הרוח והחברה" (M.A) מאת: דינה ג. דייוויס בהנחיית: נמרוד הורביץ חתימת הסטודנט: ______תאריך:______ חתימת המנחה: ______תאריך:______ חתימת יו"ר הועדה המחלקתית: ______תאריך:______ אוניברסיטת בן- גוריון בנגב הפקולטה למדעי הרוח והחברה המחלקה ללימודי המזרח התיכון השוואת תאוריות משיחיות באיסלם חיבור זה מהווה חלק מהדרישות לקבלת התואר "מוסמך למדעי הרוח והחברה" (M.A) מאת: דינה ג. דייוויס בהנחיית: נמרוד הורביץ תשרי תשס"ט October 2008