Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture Volume 29 (2010) No. 2

IN THIS ISSUE Communication in Latin American Contexts

AQUARTERLY REVIEW OF COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

ISSN: 0144-4646 Table of Contents Editor’s Introduction ...... 3 Communication Research Trends Volume 29 (2010) Number 2 A Brief History of the Latin American http://cscc.scu.edu Academy of Communication ...... 4 Octavio Islas and Amaia Arribas Published four times a year by the Centre for the Study of 1. Background ...... 4 Communication and Culture (CSCC), sponsored by the 2. Formation of the Latin American California Province of the Society of Jesus. Community for communication study ...... 5 Copyright 2009. ISSN 0144-4646 3. Conclusion ...... 13 Editor: Emile McAnany Research on Colombian Cinema ...... 15 Editor emeritus: William E. Biernatzki, S.J. Jerónimo León Rivera Betancur Managing Editor: Paul A. Soukup, S.J. 1. A Look Back: A Brief Account of Audiovisual Production in Colombia ...... 15 Subscription: 2. The Study of Colombian Cinema ...... 16 Annual subscription (Vol. 29) US$50 3. Research Interests ...... 18 4. Academic Research ...... 20 Payment by check, MasterCard, Visa or US$ preferred. 5. Professional Associations of Researchers ...... 22 For payments by MasterCard or Visa, send full account 6. Conclusion ...... 22 number, expiration date, name on account, and signature. Regulatory Implications of the Adoption Checks and/or International Money Orders (drawn on of Digital Television in Chile ...... 25 USA banks; for non-USA banks, add $10 for handling) Sergio Godoy Etcheverry should be made payable to Communication Research 1. The Context ...... 25 Trends and sent to the managing editor A. The importance of television ...... 25 Paul A. Soukup, S.J. B. Digitization ...... 26 Communication Department C. The television business model ...... 26 Santa Clara University 2. Evaluation Parameters ...... 27 500 El Camino Real A. The Curran and Seaton Model ...... 27 Santa Clara, CA 95053 USA B. The model of public service television . . . . .28 C. Parameters of quality television ...... 29 Transfer by wire: Contact the managing editor. Add $10 3. Evaluation of the Pending Broadcast Legislation 31 for handling. A. Context of the proposal ...... 31 B. The amendment of Law No. 18,838 ...... 31 Address all correspondence to the managing editor at the C. Major criticisms of the proposal ...... 32 address shown above. 4. Conclusion ...... 33 Tel: +1-408-554-5498 Communication Education in Mexico: Fax: +1-408-554-4913 Overall Trends ...... 35 email: [email protected] María Antonieta Rebeil Corella, Jorge Hidalo Toledo, and Luis Alberto Luna Rayes The Centre for the Study of Communication and Culture A. Introduction ...... 35 (CSCC) is an international service of the Society of Jesus B. Communication programs in schools established in 1977 and currently managed by the and universities in Mexico ...... 35 California Province of the Society of Jesus, P.O. Box 519, C. The universe of communication Los Gatos, CA 95031-0519. programs in Mexico ...... 36 D. Conclusion ...... 38

Book Reviews ...... 40

2— VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Communication in Latin American Contexts

The set of four articles in this review reminds us Jerónimo León Rivera Betancur from Colombia that the field of “communication research” is a new- and Sergio Godoy from Chile illustrate both national comer to university tradition. The first study program and common concerns for their colleagues in other under the name “communication” in a university set- countries. Rivera has provided one of the first serious ting is said to have been that inaugurated by Wilbur efforts to draw together the history of film in his Schramm at the University of Illinois in September, country, arguing that this effort is important in any 1948 (Rogers, 1994). Since that time there has been an country wishing to understand the place of this medi- exponential growth of such programs in almost every um in telling the story of its society. His efforts are a country around the globe. Latin America is no excep- beginning, and a useful beginning, of what should tion. In these four articles we find the authors provid- grow into deeper study. It is also a study that can be ing some sense of the growth and depth of research in shared across borders. Godoy, on the other hand, communication in this region. As in the U.S., study of looks ahead in Chile at the introduction of digital tel- communication in Latin America has advanced as the evision for its open broadcasting system, a task that practice and use of technologies have transformed soci- faces a number of countries in the region. His analy- eties over the last 50 or 60 years. Today, communica- sis of the consequences for society and for regulation tion has become a central activity and concern for the in Chile will stand as a model for others. He argues world and has helped usher in the phenomenon of glob- that the proposed legislation for the five year transi- alization itself. tion to digital is not comprehensive enough and will As Octavio Isalas and Amaia Arribas argue in the demand a process of both research and debate over first article, Latin America followed the trend for estab- what consequences digital television could have for lishing communication as a field of theory and research Chile, and by analogy for other countries who are fac- in universities in 1959 with the establishing of univer- ing a similar transition. sity programs of communication in Mexico, Venezuela, Maria Antonieta Rebeil Coralla and colleagues and Argentina. Following a paradigm from the out- from Anahuac University in Mexico present a short standing Brazilian researcher, Marques de Melo, the report on a national survey completed in 2009. The authors suggest that in the first period of a decade or import of the report again has implication for other more Latin American was influenced by models from Latin American countries and, indeed, for other coun- the U.S., but that by the 1970s they had defined heir tries around he world: rapid growth in communication own approach that reflected the reality of their societies programs but without proper oversight for quality con- better. The point that they make is that from early on in trol. Of the more than 1,000 communication studies their development, communication programs began to programs they found, less than 10% had been approved collaborate with other Latin American universities and by educational authorities, suggesting that quality more that that collaboration resulted in not only national than quantity should be the criterion. A suggestion that associations of researchers but in 1978 and 1981 in the all of us might be thinking about. founding of two international regional based associa- —Emile McAnany tions, ALAIC and FELAFACS. These have greatly Editor strengthened the growing national programs and encouraged an interchange that makes the sharing of Reference research across borders more common and beneficial Rogers, E. (1994). A history of communication study: for the region. A biographical approach. New York: The Free Press.

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 3 A Brief History of the Latin American Academy of Communication1 Octavio Islas and Amaia Arribas Tecnologico de Monterrey Autonomous University of Barcelona Campus Estado de Mexico Spain

This essay in no way attempts to completely ana- As residents of the periphery, our narrative and lyze the main objects of study or even the uniqueness interpretation differ from the vaunted heroic assump- or relevance of the theoretical and methodological tion about who recounts and describes the script and imagination that we have designated as the “Latin names the protagonists of the story. Our position American academy of communication.” Instead this towards Latin American programs of communications essay responds to a far more modest concern—to is also critical, and the critique, as rightly pointed out describe specific episodes of relevance to our troubled by the Mexican Octavio Paz—the smartest of the 20th historiography of the Latin American academy of com- century—“consist[s] as much or more as in the knowl- munication, understanding that it definitely can not be edge to free us. Criticism displays a possibility of free- understood as an essence but as a story. dom and it is an invitation to action” (Paz, 1970, p. 12). Beyond the description of certain events, it is The maturity of Latin American communication pro- essential to understand that the history of Latin grams depends on the strength of their institutions, not American programs of communication results from the the charisma of their leaders or the intricate interests of actions and commitments of some groups which, over some of the powers that actually have managed to sub- the years, have become the powers inside the Latin ordinate the interests of the academy to their particular American programs of communication and from the interests. Perhaps future generations of scholars and unquestionable “charisma” of certain leaders. It could researchers of communication are able to act with not be otherwise. The Latin American programs of greater generosity, noting the actual benefit of the Latin communication simply reflect and to some extent American programs of communication, apart from the reproduce the historical inevitability of Latin America. interest groups. In the deep history of our troubled region, national chiefs and leaders have taken on key roles and 1. Background: The Latin American appealed to constitutional goals. This situation has hin- dered the healthy development of our institutions. academy of communication before Something similar has happened within the Latin CIESPAL American academy of communication. In the vast José Marques de Melo (2007), a leading Brazilian majority of associations, councils, and federations, communication researcher argues that since the late which should specifically promote the study and 19th century we find evidence of Latin American stud- research of communication, the democratic and institu- ies on certain phenomena of communication. María tional life still presents a major unresolved subject. In Cristina Gobbi (2006), a researcher at the Methodist these days, however, the hegemony which a remark- University of Sao Paulo, Brazil, where Marques de able historical generation of scholars and researchers of Melo works, said that in the 1930s the economic and communication has sustained over three decades has political problems arising from the First World War, gradually vanished. These main leaders are Jesús compounded by such phenomena as the development Martín-Barbero (for the Latin American Federation of of the industrialization process, fascism, national Faculties of Social Communication: FELAFACS), and socialism, and abrupt urbanization, among other José Marques de Melo (for the Latin American things, significantly extended the objects of study of Association of Communication Researchers: ALAIC). the social sciences. Such an excited context, of course, favored the development of journalism, advertising, 1To Edgar Jaramillo. With sincere gratitude and appre- and propaganda, encouraging further implementation ciation. of the first studies on U.S. public opinion, which soon

4— VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS after began to be applied in Latin America. (In 1930 Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization George Gallup published a summary of his doctoral (UNESCO) undertook the study, “Current research on thesis on public opinion in Journalism Quarterly; in media” [“Recherches actuelles sur les moyens d’infor- the 1940s the Brazilian Institute of Public Opinion and mation”], which generated great interest in the study of Statistics—IBOPE—began.) The 1930s also saw the media in the region. Second, on October 9, 1959, again first offerings of degrees in journalism in some Latin urged on by UNESCO, the Central University of American universities. In 1934, the Universidad Ecuador and the Ecuadorian government kicked off the Nacional de La Plata (UNLP) and the Graduate School activities of the International Center for Studies in of Journalism in Buenos Aires—connected with the Communication for Latin America (CIESPAL) located Institute for Writing [Instituto Grafotécnico]—in in Quito, Ecuador. (Also on the initiative of UNESCO, Argentina, offered their first bachelor’s degrees in jour- a center similar to CIESPAL began operations in nalism in the region. Later, journalism schools were Strasbourg, France in 1959.) opened in Brazil (1935), Cuba (1942), and Mexico (1949)—in Mexico’s Federal District, at the School of Journalism Carlos Septien Garcia. 2. The formation of the Latin American According to Marques de Melo (2007), in the community for communication study 1950s the development of radio, the beginnings of tel- Marques de Melo (2004) argues that the Latin evision, and the diversification of advertising stimulat- American community of communication “can be ed some research regarding the impact of those media viewed through three periods labeled in accordance in certain countries in the region. These include with the language of the Cold War: a) the battle for hegemony; b) the battle for survival; c) the battle for the research that the Brazilians Salvyano reconstruction” (p. 13). In our brief historical review, Cavalcante de Paiva and Alex Vianny undertook on the cinema and the work that Saint-Clair Lopes the starting point is the chronology proposed by made on broadcasting in Brazil, and the publica- Marques de Melo. However, we will make reference to tion in Argentina by Mouchet and Rafaelli about certain events that we believe will be particularly rele- the artistic rights of collective media. But there vant in understanding the development of the Latin were continuing studies on the analytical tradition American community of communication scholars. of propaganda, such as by the Brazilian Genival Rabelo and the Chilean Alfonso Silva Délano, in A. The battle for hegemony: The early years the same way that Mexico’s Salvador Borrego, The first period reported by Marques de Melo the Bolivian Gustavo Adolfo Otero, the began with the creation of CIESPAL and continued Venezuelan Julio Febres Cordero, and Brazilians until the founding of the Latin American Association of Luis Beltrán or José Leao would advance on the Communication Researchers (ALAIC) in November, interpretation of peculiar phenomena in the trans- mission of news and the communication of the 1978 at the Central University of Venezuela in Caracas. press. (2007, p. 342) Marques de Melo (2007) recognizes the important role CIESPAL played in the teaching of communication Gobbi, Marques de Melo’s student, considers these research in Latin America: “before the International studies irrelevant: Center for Studies in Communication for Latin The available literature on communication in America (CIESPAL), communication research in Latin Latin America in the late 1950s was practically American countries consisted of episodic activities, negligible. It was often translated work or results occasionally” (p. 311). CIESPAL, says Marques de of local research. The work was based mainly on Melo, deserves the credit for forming the first genera- American functionalism, the investigation of tion of effective communication researchers interested communication based on the Chicago School in analyzing communicative phenomena in the region: and on information science of the Paris School. (2006, p. 62) The germinating seeds were planted in the fertile soil of CIESPAL in Quito, which aspired to the In the late 1950s two events of particular rele- condition of a dominant core. Consolidated during vance in the gestation of the “Latin American commu- the ’70s, the international center that initially nity of communication” (as Marques de Melo put it) worked on the campus of the Central University of occurred. First, in 1957 the United Nations Ecuador stimulated the professional organization

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 5 of former international students in their courses, etc., subordinating them to the perspective of a science creating a flow of diffusion of ideas through degree in communication. According to José Sánchez Chasqui magazine (first phase). (2004, p.13) Villaseñor, cited by Prieto, the curriculum of the In the mid 1970s, CIESPAL began to project itself as a “Bachelor of Science in Communication,” responded to hotbed of the thought of Latin American communica- the purpose of “forming a true professional, capable of tion, just as the leading researcher, Ecuadorian journal- combining an organic core of humanistic knowledge and ist Edgar Jaramillo points out, who until March 2009 a harmonious set of techniques that allow the judicious served as president of CIESPAL: and effective public exercise of this knowledge, in which they are intertwined, hierarchically, in science and tech- In the mid-70s, CIESPAL began to manifest nology, practice and theory” (Prieto, 2008, p. 9). itself as a seedbed of its own communication According to the prominent Mexican researcher thinking—“with a significant counterpoint to both the sociology of American mass communi- Claudia Benassini, the 1960s serves as a kind of hinge cations and to European critical sociology, to the between the analogue and the digital, between moder- point that it replaced on its own initiative the nity and postmodernity, and between global and local. term Communication for that of Journalism”— During this time only a small number of countries in and its goals expanded to include not only jour- the region had civilians at the head of government. To nalists but also all the media and all areas where prevent the replication of the Cuban example, the U.S. communication is done. (Jaramillo, 2004, ¶6) government decided to support military dictatorships in An act of unquestionable importance that Marques de the region. Faced with this adverse scenario, one can Melo failed to mention in his chronology took place in easily understand the behavior of the emerging Latin Mexico City in 1960. That year the Universidad American community of communication research, which decided to adopt the “Dependency Theory” as Iberoamericana (UIA), which belongs to the Society of the basis of Latin American thought on communica- Jesus, began offering a degree in information science. tion, showing also a particular interest in scientific (It is difficult establish with full assurance that the materialism or Marxism. Universidad Iberoamericana began offering the first In the 1970s, various academics and communica- Bachelor of Science in Communication in Latin tion researchers in Latin America theorized the “science America, as the University of Zulia, located in of communication” from the perspective of scientific Venezuela, is said to have offered the BA in materialism. A group of academics and communication Communication Sciences since 1959.) In this regard researchers affirmed the thesis of the French Marxist Prieto (2008) says: Louis Althusser (1981)—on the role of the ideological The course was established at the Universidad state apparatus in advanced capitalist formation—as Iberoamericana by a Jesuit of Sayula, José authentic dogmas of faith. According to such radical Sánchez Villaseñor. The original name followed interpretations, the media serve the bourgeoisie to the intention of the founder, although he was ensure the effective expanded reproduction of the dom- forced to change it because for the officials of inant ideology, contributing as well to ensure the the Secretariat of Public Education the title expanded reproduction of qualifying a diversified work- “communication science” referred to engineer- force. In the most advanced capitalist formations, the ing issues. This circumstance caused the degree to be named as “Science and Technology of media have collectively achieved the status of a hege- Information.” (p. 9) monic ideological apparatus, displacing family back- ground and efforts in school to ensure the expanded Most schools and universities that immediately reproduction of the dominant ideology and the expand- began to impart a degree in the science of communica- ed reproduction of the workforce (Esteinou, 1979) tion over the years adopted a model imposed by the In Chile, the Socialist government of Salvador Universidad Iberoamericana, to which researchers such Allende (1970-1973) encouraged the development of a as Felipe López Veneroni have agreed to designate as a stream of intellectuals, a “Latin Europe” inspired by “multipurpose model” because it intended to transcend Althusser, whose leader, according to Marques de the relative autonomy of independent professions asso- Melo (2007), was Armand Mattelart. Members of this ciated with the “science of communication,” such as group included Héctor Schmucler, Hugo Assmann, advertising, public relations, journalism, photography, Michèle Mattelart, Mabel Piccini, and Ariel Dorfman.

6— VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS The most emblematic book of that trend, Para leer al will exceed the ideological implications that it Pato Donald. Comunicación de masa y colonialismo has. (p. 92) [How to Read Donald Duck: Imperialist Ideology in In these revolutionary days, the study of public rela- the Disney Comic], by Ariel Dorfman and Armand tions, organizational communication, advertising, mar- Mattelart (1971), largely summarized the arguments keting, information technology research, and many made by Althusser’s followers against the United other subjects that today can be considered as perfect- States and “mass culture.” “To be expelled from the ly indispensable in any curriculum for all undergradu- Club Disneyland” come these lines: ates in communication sciences, were then systemati- Those responsible for the book will be defined cally disqualified by several academics and researchers as obscene and immoral (while the Walt Disney of communication in Latin America because they were World is pure), as complicated and confused in considered lower-ranking subjects in theoretical reflec- sophistication and refinement (while Walt is sin- tion and contemporary critical communications. cere, open, fair), members of an embarrassed In some universities it even got to a point of label- elite (while Disney is the most popular of all), as ing public relations and organizational communication political agitators (while Disney World is inno- as “functional concerns,” a situation that automatically cent and it harmoniously gathers together all transformed them to irrelevant subjects in the training around that have nothing to do with partisan interests), as calculating and bitter (whereas process of truly “critical” communications specialists. Walt D. is spontaneous and emotional, and In such revolutionary days “theorization” prevailed—a makes you laugh). (Dorfman and Mattelart. term proposed by Daniel Prieto Castillo to designate 1972, p. 15) intellectual work, fundamentally ideological. In this respect, the prominent Mexican scholar Enrique Besides the Althusserian Marxism and the Frankfurt Sánchez Ruiz (1994) says: tradition—which is recognized as the direct heir of the tradition of political economy of communication Certain dogmas and certain absolute truths were spread throughout the region—the Christian-Marxist taken which prevented a particular investigation. analysis of Paulo Freire (Brazil) sought to lay the In the ’60s and ’70s, many Latin American groundwork of an effectively and original Latin researchers forgot to treat with rigor their theo- American Marxist thought, attentive to the realities and ries, methodologies, and research techniques. Therefore they elaborated a very polished dis- contradictions of the region. course, sometimes with factual backing, but it In the 1970s, a number of communication aca- was still a discourse. (p. 35) demics and researchers incurred criticism for objec- tionable excesses. Raúl Fuentes Navarro (1992), a According to Marques de Melo, the first stage in the prominent Mexican scholar, talks about it, referring to development of Latin American academic communica- some passages from the thesis of Daniel Carlos tion—the battle for hegemony—ended with the found- Gutierrez Rohan: ing of the ALAIC. Marques de Melo (2004) states that only since 1972 can we locate the first initiatives to Within the scientific practice of communication create an organization capable of integrating the major- study, research is accepted when it works for the ity of communication researchers in Latin America. In general system, adapting to the rational objec- November, 1978, during a meeting at the premises of tives already set when they fulfill the role of reproducing society and concealing in the rela- the Institute of Communications Research (ININCO) tions of production within the capitalist system. in Caracas, Venezuela (part of the Central University of . . . Only in cases where scientific practice pro- Venezuela), the Latin American Association of duces theoretical constructs that can be used by Communication Researchers (ALAIC) was created. marketing, election campaigns, the changing of Marques de Melo (2004) states that the foundation of attitudes (just to mention three examples) is the ALAIC when they are given a scientific validity. . . . So, when communication study no longer conceals was aided by four national academic associa- the conflicts and contradictions produced in cap- tions in operation: ABEPEC (Brazil), AVIC italism and addresses them as they really are (Venezuela), AVIC (Colombia), and CONEICC (examining their causes, from their origins to (Mexico). It also added two professional associ- their results and effects), communication study ations: FELAP (based in Venezuela) and ILET

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 7 (Mexico). UNESCO also participated in the ment of communication theory in Spanish universities foundation. The researcher Mario Kaplun joined and the holder of the chair of communication in the personally. . . . In total, 10 men of the founding Department of Sociology in the School of Information assembly participated (Alberto Ancizar, Science of Complutense University in Madrid and the Venezuela; Eleazar Diaz Rangel, Venezuela; father of the theory of social mediation) served first as Enrique Oteiza, Venezuela; Fernando Reyes vice president of the ALAIC. However, when Anibal Matta, Chile; Josep Rota, Mexico; Luis Anibal Gomez, Venezuela; Luis Gonzaga Motta, Brazil; Gomez resigned the presidency, Martín-Barbero took Mario Kaplún, Uruguay; Oswaldo Capriles, office. Frankly, the communication academics and Venezuela; Rafael Roncagliolo, Peru) and two researcher members in ALAIC seemed unaware of or women (Patricia Anzola, Colombia and indifferent to the change. Therefore, under the chair- Elizabeth Safar, Venezuela). (p. 15) manship of Martín-Barbero and within the framework In his valuable chronology, Marques de Melo of the Second ALAIC General Assembly (July-August omits a fact that we consider of particular relevance. In 1980), the group decided to amend the statutes to find 1976 Universidad Iberoamericana began offering the a role for national associations “The statutes were first graduate program in communication sciences in altered to emphasize the national associations of Latin America. Again other universities, first in Mexico researchers, with the exception for some personal and then throughout Latin America, opened their memberships” (Marques de Melo, 2004, p. 16). In respective graduate programs in communication, repli- 1982, with Patricia Anzola (Colombia) the president of cating the curriculum of the Masters in Communication the ALAIC and Elizabeth Fox the vice president of the from the Universidad Iberoamericana. association, ALAIC received funding from the International Development Research Center, an organ- B. “The battle for survival”: ization supported by the Canadian parliament, in order The adolescence stage to publish six volumes and to set up a new account for the ALAIC finances which had recorded losses. In the second stage of the chronology proposed In his valuable chronology, Marques de Melo by Marques de Melo—“the battle for survival” (what fails to mention that in 1980 UNESCO published the we term “the difficult adolescent stage of the Latin report of the International Commission chaired by Sean American communication research and study—which MacBride, Many Voices, One World [Un solo mundo, covers the period from 1979 to 1988, the main charac- voces múltiples]. The report—now considered almost ter is the Latin American Association of Communi- reverently by many academics and communication cation Researchers (ALAIC). During this period, five researchers in Latin America—responded to the need scholars chaired the ALAIC: Luis Aníbal Gómez of diagnosing the main problems of information and (Venezuela), Jesús Martín-Barbero (Spain-Colombia), communication in order to outline the need for a new Oswaldo Capriles and Alejandro Alfonzo (both information order. With respect to the relevance of the Venezuela), and Patricia Anzola (Colombia). report, Raúl Fuentes Navarro (2005) says, “In placing According to Marques de Melo (2004) this period man- that famous text in the framework for moving towards ifested great instability for the ALAIC: a more new and just world order in information and communication, the McBride Commission explained to The obstacles faced by the vanguard of ALAIC to implement the decisions taken in Caracas the world the necessity of democratizing communica- were difficult to overcome. . . . The Directors of tion, recognizing the important role of participation as ALAIC held three meetings, Lima, Quito, and a right of all people in determining the organization and Mexico in conjunction with international meet- fate of social life” (p. 12). ings sponsored by various organizations to Another important event in the development of which some of its members were invited. . . . The the Latin American communication academy missed ALAIC functioned less as a professional body by Marques de Melo occurred with the creation of the and more as a service-providing agency, specify- Latin American Federation of Faculties of Social ing professional opportunities for its partners. Communication (FELAFACS) in October, 1981. This (pp. 15-16) took place in Melgar del Castillo, Colombia, thanks to Martín-Barbero, the most outstanding disciple of the initiative of a group of academics and researchers Manuel Martin Serrano (the founder of the first depart- in communication, most of whose colleges were affili-

8— VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS ated with the Society of Jesus, such as the countries in Latin America in addition to the 21 coun- Iberoamericana University, the University of Lima, and tries represented in our federation, in addition to Spain, the Javeriana [la Universidad Iberoamericana, la the United States, and Canada become affiliated” Universidad de Lima, la Universidad Javeriana], (Quiroz, 2006, ¶ 2). among others. On the foundation of FELAFACS, During the 1980s, which some scholars have des- Teresa Quiroz (2006), its current president, noted: ignated as “the lost decade for Latin America,” while the ALAIC literally faced a battle for survival, The first meeting of scholars from six Latin American countries at the University of Lima in FELAFACS grew to over 300 affiliated schools and 1979 led to the idea of founding a federation that colleges of communication. In 1987 UNESCO recog- grouped the faculties and schools of communi- nized FELAFACS as an international organization, cation in Latin America, without any distinction with headquarters in Lima, Peru; the Peruvian govern- for their leadership or character (public, private, ment recognized it as an “International Technical secular, or religious). An organizing committee, Cooperation Agency.” In 2010 FELAFACS will move also at the University of Lima with the assis- its headquarters to Cali, Colombia. FELAFACS has tance of two countries, called a second meeting. made significant contributions to the study of commu- That took place in October, 1981, in the city of nication in the region, with the publication of Diálogos Melgar in Colombia, and there FELAFACS was de la Comunicación, an on-line journal, Cuadernos founded and Joaquin Sanchez, S.J., of the Pontifical Javeriana University became its first Diálogos. president, with Walter Neira as its Executive C. “The battle of reconstruction” Secretary, who has served until today. (¶ 1) The period designated by Marques de Melo as On the foundation of the FELAFACS, the federation’s “the battle of reconstruction” begins with the founding website records the following information: of the ALAIC in Brazil in 1989 and continues until In March, 1979, in Lima, the deans and profes- today. During this period, the Latin American academy sors from 27 Schools of Social Communication, of communication became a kind of disputed franchise. mainly from the Andean countries (Bolivia, ALAIC Colombia, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela) and some universities in Argentina, Brazil, and In 1988, as part of the Biennial Conference of the Mexico met. It was thus possible to make the International Association for Mass Communication First Latin American Meeting of Faculties of Research (IAMCR) held in Barcelona, Spain, leading Social Communication, where a group of Latin American researchers Rafael Roncagliolo, Luis prominent scholars exchanged experiences for Peirano, Jesús Martín-Barbero, Anamaria Fadul, the first time and looked for ways of dialogue Fatima Fernandez, and Joaquin Sanchez took the ini- and common action. However, the mechanisms tiative to convene an open meeting to discuss the future that could facilitate what was already felt neces- of the ALAIC, ending a recognition of the need for a sary—integration and horizontal cooperation— revamping. The group assigned that responsibility to were not yet clear. (FELAFACS, n.d., ¶ 1) Brazil, through INTERCOM (the entity representing To avoid the financial deficit, which since its the academic community devoted to the study of com- foundation had weighed on ALAIC, FELAFACS munication in Brazil), which designated José Marques obtained from its beginning the generous support of the de Melo as the ideal person to do so. The involvement Konrad Adenauer Foundation of Germany, an organi- of communication researchers, mainly from Brazilian zation interested in promoting the development of and Mexican associations, played a key role in the res- Christian Democracy in the region. Through the urrection of the ALAIC, as Marques de Melo (1992) Program of Media and Democracy of the Konrad recognizes: Adenauer Foundation, with a base in Buenos Aires, The proposal was well received by participants Argentina, Frank Priess (the Foundation representa- in the 11th Brazilian Congress of Communic- tive) decided to provide financial support for ation Researchers (meeting in the city of Vicosa, FELAFACS, which during its early years affiliated MG, in September, 1988), mainly thanks to with more than 150 colleges or schools of communica- Professor Margarida Kunsch, president of tion in 16 countries. Shortly after, “Entities in five Intercom, which basically ensured the private

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 9 support of the committee in charge of restructur- Through 22 thematic groups, ALAIC promotes ing ALAIC. . . . In December, 1988 representa- communication research in Latin America: Communi- tives of leading Brazilian and Mexican institu- cation, Technology and Development; Communication tions operating in the area of communication and City; Communication and Media Policy; Political (INTERCOM; ABECOM, UCBC, AMIC, Economy of Communications; Reception Studies; CONEICC) and the regional body OCIC/AL Journalism Studies; Ethics and Communication Law; met in the town of Embu Guacu, to sign a docu- Popular Communication; Communication and Educ- ment convening the Assembly of Reconstituting ALAIC. Margarida Kunsch (INTERCOM), ation; Communication and Health; Speech and Com- Enrique Sánchez (AMIC), Antonio Carlos de munication; Organizational Communication and Public Jesús (ABECOM), Luis Núñez (CONEICC), Relations; Advertising Communication; History of Francisco de Assis Fernández (UCBC), and José Communication; Media and Citizens Community; Soap Tavares Barros (OCIC-AL) signed this docu- Operas and Drama; Theory and Methodologies of ment. (1992, p. 97) Communication Research; Internet and the Infor- The Board of Reconstruction of ALAIC met in 1989 in mation Society; Intercultural Communication; Com- Florianopolis, Brazil, at the Annual Congress of INTER- munication and Socio-Cultural Studies; Media, Child- COM. José Marques de Melo assumed the presidency of ren and Adolescents; and Communication for Social Change. The large number of research groups in ALAIC ALAIC from 1989 to 1992. Between 1979 and 2009, 11 show marked differences in the degree of commitment scholars and researchers have served as presidents of the and participation. In recent ALAIC Congresses, organ- ALAIC: Luis Aníbal Gómez (Venezuela), 1979-1980; izers have found it necessary to invite alternate coordi- Jesús Martín-Barbero (Colombia), 1981-1982; Oswaldo nators due to absence of the group leaders. In most Capriles and Alejandro Alfonzo (Venezuela), 1982- cases, many note the lack of resources to meet the costs 1984, Patricia Anzola (Colombia), 1984-1989; José of attending the congress. Presently, the organization Marques de Melo (Brazil), 1989-1992; Enrique Sanchez has discounted the possibility of conducting a virtual Ruiz (México), 1992-1995, Luis Peirano (Perú), 1995- congress. Additionally, despite the large number of pro- 1998; Margarida Krohling Kunsch (Brazil), 1998- 2005; fessional fields that the new digital media have opened, Erick Torrico (Bolivia), 2005-2008, and Cesar Bolano ALAIC has rejected the possibility of opening new (Brazil), 2009-2012. research groups over the last six years. Since 1992, ALAIC has organized nine academic Since July 2004, ALAIC has published an inter- conferences and five workshops: national scientific journal, Revista Latinoamericana de 1992 I Congress Sao Paulo, Brazil Ciencias da Comunicación. So far eight issues have 1994 II Congress Guadalajara, México appeared. In the editorial of the first issue, Margarida Krohling Kunsch (2004), the editor of the journal, set 1996 III Congress Caracas, Venezuela out the objectives of the publication: 1998 IV Congress Recife, Brazil With a monthly periodical and international scope, this publication aims primarily to pro- 2000 V Congress Santiago de Chile, Chile mote the diffusion, democratization, and 2002 VI Congress Sta. Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia strengthening of the Latin American Commun- ication School of Thought. We also propose to 2004 VII Congress La Plata, Argentina extend the dialogue with the worldwide academ- 2006 VIII Congress Sao Leopoldo, Brazil ic community and to contribute to the integral development of society on the continent. (p. 8) 2008 IX Congress Monterrey, Mexico The 30th anniversary of ALAIC took place during the 1999 Seminar I Cochabamba, Bolivia group’s ninth congress, attended by over 1,000 partici- 2001 Seminar II La Plata, Argentina pants in Monterrey, Mexico. To mark the anniversary, Maria Cristina Gobbi, a leading Brazilian researcher, 2003 Seminar III Sao Paulo, Brazil published the book A batalla pela hegemonia comuni- 2005 Seminar IV La Paz, Bolivia cacional na América Latina. 30 anos da ALAIC (2008), 2007 Seminar V Caracas, Venezuela which offers a detailed account of the relevant contri-

10 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS bution of ALAIC to the development of Latin essential to move from a “battle for reconstruction” American communication study. towards building a genuinely democratic and institu- Some academics and researchers involved in the tional life. ALAIC have assumed the role of “contenders” in an imaginary “war” for hegemony of communication in FELAFACS Latin America. Gobbi’s book (2008) deals with the The sustained growth achieved by FELAFACS “soldiers” of Latin American communication study, during the 1980s largely resulted from the work done willing to fight against “others.” Some questions by some of its founding members, those performing immediately arise for us: “Who can claim interest in teaching, administrative, and research duties in schools the communicational hegemony in Latin America and and faculties of communication in some of the leading why?” and “Against whom do they compete for infor- universities of the Society of Jesus in Latin America, mation hegemony in Latin America?” like the Universidad Iberoamericana, the Instituto The identity of Latin American communication Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Occidente research inevitably defines boundaries, separating, (ITESO), both in Mexico, the Universidad Javeriana dividing, and segregating those considered “out” with (Colombia), and the University of Lima. (Peru). respect to some insiders—a particularly delicate situa- Over the years, the founders of FELAFACS, who tion when you realize that the “importation of knowl- also participated in the founding of some national associ- edge” is considered a contrary practice to the spirit of ations, also influenced these, just as had previously academic work in the region. Such a sectarian vision occurred with at least three of the nine national associa- denies the universality of knowledge. But this affirma- tions of communication in schools and universities affil- tion in no way questions the affirmation of the singu- iated with FELAFACS: the National Council for larity of Latin America communication research. What Teaching and Research in Communication Sciences is questionable is the political project that makes the (CONEICC) in Mexico, the Colombian Association of teaching and research of communication in the region Faculties of Social Communication (AFACOM), and the a tight explanatory system in which the chief authors Peruvian Association of Schools of Social Communica- taught are the leaders of the same Latin American acad- tion (APFACOM). (The remaining national associations emy of communication. affiliated with FELAFACS are the Argentine Association The caudillo—a tragic figure in the imagination of Schools of Social Communication (AFAC), the of Latin American political development—is by no Brazilian Association of Schools of Social means exhausted in the sphere of politics. Within our Communication (ABECOM), the Dominican Associ- institutions, including those involved in academics and ation of Departments and Schools of Social Commun- research, one may find the presence of certain chiefs ication (Adecom), the Panamanian Association of Higher and leaders, as well as clientelistic practices which Education in Social Communication (ASPECOM), the allow them to maintain their influence and, worse, to Puerto Rican Association of Academic Programs for validate and extend this phenomenon of dominance. Social Communication (APPACS), and the Venezuelan Despite efforts made by ALAIC to promote the Council for Teaching and Research.) The influence of development of a Latin American community of com- those associated with the Jesuit schools helped to pro- munication teaching and research, the number of com- mote a Jesuit priest—Joaquín Sánchez from Colombia— munication scholars and researchers that regularly par- as president of FELAFACS from 1990 to 1993. ticipate effectively in its activities is very low. Several In 1992, the seventh meeting of FELAFACS had Latin American researchers have objected to the incip- the theme of “Communication, Identity, and Latin ient internal democracy of ALAIC. Even in the recent American Integration.” In the days prior to the meet- elections conducted at the Fifth Seminar of ALAIC in ing, CONEICC also met, with both meetings organized Caracas, Venezuela (2009)—which should have by Luis Núñez Gornés, the director of the Universidad occurred in 2008 at the Ninth Congress—only 150 Iberoamericana (Mexico), who, based on his planning members voted (the majority via the Internet) and for a work and with the strong support of the “founders” of single ticket. Unfortunately, ALAIC postponed a cru- FELAFACS, easily won the presidency of the federa- cial self-criticism. Now, the potential for generational tion, assuming its duties in 1994. During his term change is minimal. Caudillism prevented the transition (1994-2003) Núñez faced two crisis that rocked to an indispensable stage of institutional maturity. It is FELAFACS: first, the distancing of outstanding

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 11 Brazilian researchers, such as José Marques de Melo, Canarias-América (in Cartagena de Indias). In 1997 Margarida Krohling, and Mary Inmacolata; and sec- the First Biennial meeting Iberoamericana de ond, the reduction of funding by the Konrad Adenauer Comunicación occurred in Cartagena de Indias, Foundation. The withdrawal of the Brazilians occurred Colombia, with the theme, The public media on the during the planning of the October, 2000 meeting in threshold of the 21st century. Subsequent biennial Sao Paulo. Currently only one Brazilian university— meetings took place at the University of La Laguna, the Methodist University of Sao Paolo, Brazil— Spain (1999); Universidad de Las Americas, Mexico remains affiliated with FELAFACS. The results from (2001); El Salvador (2003); Tecnológico de Monterrey, that difficult meeting influenced the directors of the Mexico (2005); University of Rosario, Argentina Konrad Adenauer Foundation, who decided to gradual- (2007); and Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua, ly reduce the grant awarded to FELAFACS. Dr. Karla Mexico (2009). Spon became program director of the Media and On the initiative of some graduates of the doctor- Democracy in Latin America program replacing Frank al program at the University of La Laguna, as part of Priess, who took a senior post in the office of the the fifth Biennial (2005), the Iberoamericana Academic Foundation in Mexico. FELAFACS represented only Network of Communication was created which will one of Spon’s priorities, who allocated considerable offer doctoral programs in communication with some resources to the Program for Media and Democracy in of the major Latin American universities. Latin America, a network of expert consultants in ASICOM American propaganda. Carlos Fernandez Colado, Mexico’s leading com- In adverse conditions Teresa Quiroz, Peru’s most munications expert and former rector of the University outstanding researcher who works at the University of of Celaya (Mexico), is president and chief sponsor of Lima, became the president of FELAFACS. Quiroz the Iberoamericana Communication Association implemented a plan to meet the demands of new times. [Asociación Iberoamericana de Comunicación] (ASI- FELAFACS, not exactly accustomed to austerity with COM). The Association collaborates in the Masters in the generous contributions of the Konrad Adenauer Communication and New Technologies with the Foundation, had to adjust. It moved the journal University of Oviedo in Spain and has recently con- Diálogos de la Comunicación to the Internet and relo- cluded an agreement with the university and the cated the facilities of FELAFACS to the University of Mexican newspaper El Universal to offer a Masters in Lima. FELAFACS has organized 13 Latin American Cyberjournalism (http://www.asicom.info/index.html). meetings, most recently in October, 2009 at the University of Havana in Cuba, where Alvaro Rojas, CIAC dean of the Faculty of Social Communication at the In 2009, at the Ninth Latin American Congress of Universidad Autonoma de Occidente, Colombia, Communication (IBERCOM), Latin American repre- became chairman of FELAFACS for 2010- 2013. sentatives of various agencies dedicated to communi- cation research and teaching founded the Iberoameri- Other Agencies can Confederation of Associations of Communication In the mid 1980s, José Manuel de Pablos, a well Science [Confederación Iberoamericana de Asocia- known Spanish professor in the Faculty of Information ciones Científicas de Comunicación], CIAC. Various Sciences at the Universidad de La Laguna, located in associations participated at the founding assembly of Tenerife and the editor of Revista Latina de this new entity: the Iberoamericana Communication Comunicación Social (http://www.ull.es/publica- Association [Asociación Iberoamericana de Comuni- ciones/latina) coordinated a group of faculty from cación] (ASSIBERCOM), ALAIC, FELAFACS, and Spain who taught the first doctoral programs in com- the Lusófona Federation of Communication Sciences munication for students from Latin America, mainly [Federación Lusófona de Ciencias de la from Mexico, Colombia, and Argentina. In 1996 on the Comunicación] (LUSOCOM). In addition, representa- initiative of a group of Latin American doctoral stu- tives of other communication associations participated, dents at the University of La Laguna and from the rec- including the Argentina Federation of Communication ommendation of the first Jornadas Canarias-América (FADECCOS), the Bolivian Association of two projects emerged: the Revista Latina de Communication Researchers (ABOIC), the Brazilian Comunicación Social and the second Jornadas Federation of Scientific and Academic Associations of

12 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Communication (SOCICOM), the Spanish Association 3. Conclusion: A strange paradox of Communication Researchers (AE-IC), the Mexican Several Latin American communication scholars Association of Communication Researchers (AMIC), and researchers have aspired to extend their political- and the Portuguese Association of Communication administrative career at the International Association for Sciences (SOPCOM). Mass Communication Research (IAMCR). At the orga- José Marques de Melo was named president of nization’s 40th anniversary meeting (in Oaxaca, this new partnership, which began with full support of Mexico), the meeting’s planner, Carmen Gomez Mont, a the presidents of the various Latin American organiza- leading Mexican researcher and then Director of the tions such as Erick Torrico (ALAIC). The headquarters School of Communication at the Universidad Ibero- of CIAC will be located in Sao Paulo, which will also americana, sought a leading position in the IAMCR. host the “First World Conference of Latin American Notwithstanding the planning work and the substantial Communication Research” and the “First Iberoameri- budget for the Congress, Gomez Mont failed to secure cana Forum for Graduate Communication Study,” election to the managers of the IAMCR, composed activities planned for the 2010-2011. mainly of U.S. and European scholars and researchers. Publications The Brazilian researcher César Bolano, current president From the mid-1980s, FELAFACS sponsored a of ALAIC, served as treasurer of the IAMCR in recent network of Iberoamericana journals, which brings years, but without access to accounts and funds of that together some of the major Latin American print publi- organization. The most recent conference at the IAMCR cations specializing in communication issues, such as (Mexico, 2009), aimed to position certain Latin Oficios Terrestres, Intersecciones/Comunicación, American leaders—those identified with the “political Nexos de la Cultura Bahiense, Temas y Problemas de economy of communication” study—in the group of la Comunicación (Argentina); Punto Cero, Aportes de decision-makers who will determine the future direction la Comunicación y la Cultura (Bolivia); Comunicação of the IAMCR. Regardless of the interests of those par- e Sociedade, Comunicação e Educação, Bibliotecono- ticular researchers, one should ask what benefit will the mia e Comunicação, Pensamiento Comunicacional promotion of those academics and researchers from Latino-americano, INTERCOM—Revista Brasileña de Latin America within IAMCR have for the larger Latin Comunicação, Comunicación UPB (Brazil); Signo y American academy of communication. Pensamiento, Ojo de Buey (Colombia); Arandu, Today the emerging Latin American academy of Chasqui (Ecuador); Comunicar: Revista de Educación communication is undergoing a profound transition to en Medios de Comunicación, Analisi, Comunicación y the digital present. The uncertain outlook has definite- Sociedad (Spain), Convergencia, Comunicación y ly caused great confusion in the older generations of Sociedad, Revista Mexicana de Comunicación, scholars and researchers of communication, who fear Estudios sobre las Culturas Contemporáneas, that they have lost the authority to diversify and multi- Tecnología y Comunicación Educativas, Versión, ply the sources of knowledge. The crisis definitely will Estudios de Comunicación y Política (México); not be solved by creating new associations with the Diálogos de la Comunicación, Contratexto (Perú); same people and leaders, replicating the same patterns. Comunicación: Estudios Venezolanos de Comunica- The crisis can be solved if and only if the Latin ción, Revista Predios, Revista de Literatura Hispano- American academy of communication undertakes an americana, Anuario ININCO (Venezuela); and In- indispensable self-criticism. That is, without a doubt, mediaciones de la Comunicación (Uruguay). Most of the first step. these magazines have disappeared and some, such as Diálogos, are now only published online. The first web magazine in Iberoamerica dedicated References and Additional Reading to communication is Razón y Palabra, which a team Althusser, L. (1981). La filosofía como arma de la revolu- from the Tecnologico de Monterrey Campus Estado de ción. México: Cuadernos Pasado y Presente. Mexico has published on the Internet (www.razonypal- Biscal, M. (2001, julio). La nueva escena y el comunicador abra.org.mx). The second web magazine is Latina, by social. Diálogos de la comunicación, No. 62. Lima: José Manuel de Pablos at the Universidad de La Laguna FELAFACS. in Tenerife (http://www.ull.es/publicaciones/latina/). CONEICC. (1986). Diagnóstico de la enseñanza de la comunicación social en México. México: CONEICC.

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 13 Dorfman, A. (1980). Reader´s nuestro que estás en la tierra: López Veneroni, F. (1989). Cinco puntos para una crítica de Ensayos sobre el imperialismo cultural. México: la ciencia de la comunicación. Revista Mexicana de Editorial Nueva Imagen. Comunicación, No. 8. México. 1989. Dorfman, A., & Mattelart, A. (1971). Para leer al Pato Marques de Melo, J. (1984). La investigación latinoameri- Donald. Comunicación de masa y colonialismo. cana en comunicación. Chasqui, 11. Ecuador: CIES- México: Siglo XXI. PAL. Esteinou, J. (1979). El estudio materialista de la comuni- Marques de Melo, J. (2002). La reconstrucción de una cación de masas. Cuadernos del TICOM, No. 1. sociedad latinoamericana. Diálogos de la México: UAM Xochimilco. Comunicación, No. 34. Lima: FELAFACS. Esteinou, J. (1980a). Aparatos de comunicación de masas, Marques de Melo, J. (2004). Los tiempos heroicos: La for- Estado y puntas de hegemonía. Cuadernos del mación de la comunidad latinoamericana de ciencias TICOM, No. 6. México: UAM Xochimilco. de la comunicación. Revista Latinoamericana de Esteinou, J. (1980b). La sobredeterminación social de los Ciencias de la Comunicación, No. 1. Brasil: ALAIC. aparatos de consenso de masas. Cuadernos del Marques de Melo, J. (2007). Entre el saber y el poder. TICOM, No. 4. México: UAM Xochimilco. Pensamiento comunicacional latinoamericano. Esteinou, J. (1981). El surgimiento de los aparatos de comu- México: UNESCO. nicación de masas y su incidencia en el proceso de Martín Barbero, J. (1978). De los medios a las mediaciones: acumulación de capital. Cuadernos del TICOM, No. comunicación, cultura y hegemonía. México: Gustavo 10. México: UAM Xochimilco. Gili. Esteinou, J. (1983). Los medios de comunicación y la con- Mattelart, A. (1977). Multinacionales y sistemas de comuni- strucción de la hegemonía. México: Nueva Imagen. cación: los aparatos ideológicos del imperialismo. Esteinou, J. (1984). Las tecnologías de información y la con- México: Siglo XXI. fección del Estado ampliado. Cuadernos del TICOM, Moragas, M. (1997). Las ciencias de la comunicación en la No. 30. México: UAM Xochimilco. sociedad de la información. Diálogos de la comuni- FELAFACS. (1982). La formación universitaria de comuni- cación, No. 49. Lima: FELAFACS. cadores sociales en América Latina. México: Paz, O. (1970). Posdata. Siglo XXI [México]. FELAFACS-ITESO. Prieto, D. (1984). Sobre la teoría y el teoricismo en comuni- FELAFACS. (n.d.) Historia. Retrieved March 30, 2010 from cación. In F. Fernández, & M. Yépes (Eds.), http://www.felafacs.org/felafacs_historia.php?rg= Comunicación y teoría social: Hacia una precisión de Fuentes Navarro, R. (1992). Un campo cargado de futuro: el referentes epistemológicos. México: UNAM. estudio de la comunicación en América Latina. Prieto, F. (2008). 48 años de las escuelas de comunicación en México: FELAFACS-CONEICC. el mundo. Códigos. Revista de Ciencias de la Fuentes Navarro, R. (2005). El campo académico de la Comunicación, No. 1, tercera época. México: comunicación en México como objeto de análisis Universidad de las Américas. auto-reflexivo. In J. C. Lozano (Ed.), La comunicación Quiroz, T. (2006). 25 años de FELAFACS. Retrieved en México: Diagnóstico, balances y retos. México: October 12, 2009 from http://www.portalcomunica- CONEICC/ITESM. cion.com/ESP/dest_felafacs_1.html Gargurevich, J. (1999, March). De periodistas a comuni- Sánchez, E. (1988). Investigación y comunicación en cadores. Diálogos de la comunicación, No. 54. Lima: América Latina en tiempos neoliberales. Tres comu- FELAFACS. nicólogos debaten. Revista Mexicana de Gobbi, M. (2006, June). Aportes pioneiros: Um breve res- Comunicación, No. 37. México. gate da comunicação na América Latina. Revista Serrano, M. (2007). Teoría de la comunicación. La comuni- Latinoamericana de Ciencias de la Comunicación, cación, la vida y la sociedad. España: Mc Graw Hill. No. 4, 54-75. Brazil. Serrano, M. (2008). La mediación social. Edición conmem- Gobbi, M. (2008). A batalla pela hegemonia comunicacional orativa del 30 aniversario. España: Akal. na América Latina. Brasil: Universidade Metodista de Sao Paolo-UNESCO. The editors of COMMUNICATION RESEARCH Jaramillo, E. (2004). CIESPAL. 45 años de influencia pio- TRENDS would like to thank Fernando Gutiérrez nera y fecunda en el mundo de la comunicación. Cortés, Departamento de Comunicación, Tecno- Chasqui, 86. Retrieved October 7, 2009 from http://chasqui.comunica.org/86/jaramillo86.htm lógico de Monterrey, Campus Estado de México for Krohling, M. (2004). Editorial. Revista Latinoamericana de his help in soliciting the manuscripts and Cristiana Ciencias de la Comunicación, No. 1. Brazil: ALAIC. Alvarez of Santa Clara University for assistance López Veneroni, F. (1989). Elementos para una crítica de las with the translation. ciencias de la comunicación. México: Editorial Trillas.

14 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Research on Colombian Cinema

Jerónimo León Rivera Betancur Universidad de La Sabana Director of the Iberoamerican Network for the Study of Audiovisual Narratives

1. A Look Back: A Brief Account of of state policies on archives and document conservation, policies that took form only in 1986. Audiovisual Production in Colombia Between the first years and the 1940s, Colombian An investigation into Colombian cinema bears a cinema dedicated itself to designing an idealized image strong resemblance to the cinema production of that of the country through a nostalgic cinema featuring country. Both are marked by a general unfamiliarity rural values, traditional customs, and folklore. Between with what preceded them; both are incipient but more 1922 (the year of the first production) and 1940, important than the general public estimates; and both Colombian cinema released 13 movies featuring these lose their impact when fragmented or not communicat- themes alone. From the 1950s only five productions ed to others. remain, none of them representative of the national National cinema has always been subject to the film history; only in 1965 did the first milestone in ebb and flow of cultural politics of a state that goes national film making occur, with the exhibition of the from little support for the film industry to not support- movie El Rio de las tumbas (Julio Luzardo, 1965), a ing it at all, and back again to providing some help. The political film of good technical quality and storytelling. promotion of the industry has not been enough, even This movie preceded another big production Pasado el though we must recognize that in the last years this sit- meridiano (José María Arzuaga, 1967), which accord- uation has improved a little thanks to Law 814 in 2003 ing to many critics, marked a pivotal point for the his- (the “Cinema Law”), which for the first time regulates tory of Colombian cinema. and promotes cinema activity in the country. In the 1960s and 1970s the influence of interna- The public and Colombian cinema have under- tional movements such as Italian Neo-realism, the gone a relationship marked by encounters and dis- French New Wave, and the Brazilian Cinema Novo agreements, mutual convenience and the ongoing com- became evident in Colombian cinema. A committed and plaints of audiences facing the combination of cinema activist film movement, with Marxist political influence reality and violence that appears in Colombian cinema. and a greater tendency to documentary, introduced a This has led to the public’s inability to connect with the new group of young filmmakers educated abroad. They stories that the national cinema presents. brought to the big screen “complaint stories,” inspired In the first half of the 20th century, Colombian cin- by internal conflicts and social inequalities. ema took inspiration from Colombian literature. This The 1980s manifested the need in Colombia to gave it characteristics similar to that literature: bucolic, build a national film industry, even over the objections local, romantic, with high doses of nostalgia for the of a wide range of critics and aesthetic concerns. Some countryside (especially in the transition from rural to good movies had to share space with a variety of films urban areas, which began in the fifties with a massive of the so-called “popular cinema,” which sought to reach migration to the cities). These characteristics clearly the public with light products, ranging from the purely appear in works of literature such as María by Jorge entertaining to the grotesque. Its main purpose was to Isaacs; in 1922 this became the first movie in Colombian build up a Colombian film tradition that a mass audience cinema (Máximo Calvo, director). In these early years, would enjoy, through a simple narrative technique with other movies that claim the “campesino” style include low technical costs—a cheap film that would achieve Alma Provinciana (Félix Rodríguez, 1925), Allá en el good results. Some Mexican movies of great commer- trapiche (Roberto Saa, 1943), and Flores del valle cial impact in Latin America such as Sor Tequila, (Máximo Calvo, 1941). Unfortunately for the history of Capulina, and La India María compounded this phe- Colombian cinema, many of the early movies were lost nomenon by highly influencing the Colombian industry. or have deteriorated in family or personal archives, and The Mexican industry’s success generated similar stories today none of these copies are conserved due to the lack in Argentina and Brazil (pornochanchada). The big dif-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 15 ference for Colombian cinema against other Latin 2. The Study of Colombian Cinema American output was a very tentative initiative to It is important to clarify, first of all, that the infor- include sexual ingredients in a conservative society. mation presented below does not constitute a “state of In the 1990s the number of films produced in a the research” done in Colombia and other countries on year decreased considerably. This was in part due to the Colombian film, but rather a description of some of closure of FOCINE (the state enterprise dedicated to works published on this issue, intersected, obviously, the promotion of the film industry in Colombia). by government policies of research encouragement and However, this low production coincided with the pro- support. This provision could serve as input for a study duction of some of the best movies in the history of the of these things, which not only identify which and how country such as La estrategia del caracol (Sergio many studies have occurred but also report the results Cabrera, 1993), La gente de la Universal (Felipe and the methods used to address the study objectives, Aljure, 1993) and Confesión a Laura (Jaime Osorio, as well as the main topics studied. Such a report would 1990). (One should not seek a causal link between help to avoid the repetition of similar works, which these events.) Since the launch of the new law regard- often take no account of their direct antecedents. ing cinema, the film industry in Colombia has experi- There has been little research on film in enced a boom characterized by the production of more Colombia, in fact less than what academics might than 10 movies a year, with more public assistance to think, though, in recent years, interesting initiatives to movie theaters and an increase of film premieres on tel- compile what has been achieved in this way have evision. This latter increase arises from the support that emerged. It is frustrating to discover almost a com- private TV channels give to Colombian films. RCN, for monplace in research projects that “in Colombia noth- example, created a division called RCN Film dedicated ing has been done in audiovisual research.” to investing in the executive production of films. This (Personally, when I serve in juries in competitions at has benefitted the film industry in terms of marketing the local or national level for assessment of undergrad- and promotion, though it has not proven as beneficial uate and master’s theses, I note that the citations used to film narrative, which has been affected by an aes- usually refer to international authors, some Latin thetic of television drama. However, this rate of pro- American, but only a couple of Colombian authors. duction, speaking in terms of the industry, is still fairly The research projects undertaken in Colombia rarely paltry compared with other countries in the region such appear as background for future national research on as Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina. Ticket sales are com- similar topics.) The responsibility for this lack of pletely inadequate since, for example, Colombia’s knowledge about what has been achieved in research highest-grossing films in history barely reached a little does not rest solely on the researchers, but also on the more than a million viewers and since 1996 (the year of (increasing) efforts in classifying the material in launch of the industry) only 19 films reached the mini- Colombia—the results of investigations which could mum audience of 200,000. A look at 2006, which is the find publication in books and articles. most successful year so far for Colombian films, shows In recent years, however, there have been some that the national cinema box office reported 2,807,000 good and important initiatives to promote audiovisual viewers out of a total of more than 20 million total cin- research and raise awareness about what has been done. ema viewers, or only 13.8% (according to data to 2007 We should acknowledge the work that entities such as from the Fundación Proimágenes en Movimiento, the Ministry of Culture and the Mayor of Bogotá have which administers the cinema law). In the same period done. Similarly, we have inventories of the the work of we find more dramatic cases, such as in 1997 and 1999, institutions like the Muséo Nacional de Colombia and where the box office for local films did not constitute the Bogotá District Cinematheque, as well as the pres- 1% of the total cinema admissions, a situation similar entation of the 12th Annual Ernesto Restrepo Tirado to the consistent figures before 1990, although there is History Lecture, which in 2008 had the theme “ver- not much hard data about this issue. sions, subversions, and representations of Colombian Recent years have generated much optimism and, cinema: Recent investigations.” Similarly, we find the certainly, the film industry in Colombia is growing lit- important database of “Colciencias” (Departamento tle by little; yet we must be realistic in affirming that Administrativo Colombiano para el Fomento de la we have only changed the diapers to enter a period of Ciencia y la Tecnología) which lets you view the titles early childhood in Colombian film. of research in all fields of knowledge in the country. For

16 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS this review, we conducted a thorough search of the of cinema in Colombia. In this last category its ranking research on Colombian film in areas of communications of the critical periods in Colombia and their relation- and the arts. The database does have a major drawback: ships to newspaper reports, film appreciation, literary it only mentions the names of the projects, without any criticism, and scholarship stand out. The film chronicles possibility of knowing the contents and results of these of Hernando Valencia Goelkel (1974), one of the most studies. Magazines like Extrabismos and Kinetoscopio important film critics of the country, provides a bench- have also carried out reviews of research into film in mark that appears frequently in later studies. It provides Colombia. All of them were taken as the basis of the not only the chronicles but also important documenta- information in this text. tion about the cinema of the period in which it was writ- One of the major difficulties in a review such as ten, taking into account the important career of its this arises with the thin line between film criticism and author, who began this task in the early 1950s. history, since many of the most important books on the The work of these authors is very important, but subject of national cinema and its history do not rest on unfortunately many theoretical investigations on the research but on criticism or film appreciation, which subject of Colombian cinema do not go beyond these slightly reduces the scientific impact. In addition to references, and it is clear that each new project does not addressing the major international theoretical issues know much about its direct antecedents, which has led which deal with related subjects of film studies and the to repeatedly addressing the same issues regardless of visual image, one could say that the vast majority of the findings of similar initiatives. This situation has film studies in Colombia are based on two emblematic generated a great ignorance of what is researched at authors who have addressed the issue of film history in various institutions as well as a general feeling that Colombia: Hernando Martinez Salcedo Pardo and nothing has been done on film research in Colombia. Hernando Silva. The vast majority of the works probed Apart from the books mentioned before, we must have as a reference the works of these important consider other less widely used texts such as Valverde authors, whose work was essentially between the (1978), with its important testimonial collection of 1970s and the late 1990s in examining the different some of the most important figures of the Colombian periods of Colombian cinema and understanding a lit- film, and Laurens (1988), which makes some important tle better whether we can speak of a Colombian film contributions from the historiography of the period but style in the strict sense of the word. mainly from criticism. Several compilations of texts of In 1978 Hernando Martinez Pardo published important Colombian critics have appeared, such as the Historia del Cine Colombiano, which first compiled three volumes of Alvarez (1988, 1992, 1998), which the main Colombian milestones and has become an include chapters collecting some of his work published indispensable book for those who wish to draw differ- in the newspaper El Colombian, on the issue of ent historiographies of national cinema. That noted, Colombian cinema. Other important compilation books we cannot ignore the major French film critic Georges are Ramos (1982) and Osorio (2005). Both works col- Sadoul (1973) who briefly referred to Colombian film. lect articles already published by their authors; in the The work of Martinez Pardo is the most important his- second case it is very important to acknowledge the torical record of hits in national filmography. It consti- author’s intention to take an historical approach to the tutes an important analysis of the development and selection of certain articles so that it is not just a com- evolution of cinema in Colombia, so much so that pilation text. The compilation of major articles by more than 30 years later a work that updates or sup- Caicedo (1999), a novelist and film critic of the caleño plements the tracking and analysis that Martinez did film, deserves a special mention as well. He has has not yet appeared. become a cult author, who throughout the 1970s direct- Meanwhile, in the early 1980s, Hernando Salcedo ed the magazine Ojo al cine and whose work of film Silva (1981) offered an interesting collection and analy- criticism was picked up by friends and filmmakers Luis sis of the Colombian silent cinema period, tracing it Ospina and Sandro Romero. From a thematic point of from the first signs of cinema in the country (two years view, one can find books such as Sanchez (1987) on after the invention of the cinema), through the first fea- film violence, which does not constitute an analysis of ture films in the 1920s, reaching the late 1940s. His the topic, but provides an important resource for work combines anecdotes about the film activity in the research by presenting the transcripts of the original country with an interesting approach to a periodization scripts of four of the most important Colombian films

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 17 on the subject. Despite its nascent state, we must rec- tors, as well as to the efforts of early exhibitors, high- ognize that what has appeared contributes much more lighting among others the figure of Camilo Correo, the than what people have usually estimated. We should founder of the oldest cinema chain that still exists in also recognize a great evolution between the first aca- Colombia, Procinal. demic papers, which are very akin to the critics where Along the same line we find some texts that aim data alternates with opinions, and the later ongoing to go beyond the storage of important archival materi- investigations, with their greater scientific rigor and al to propose more careful analysis; cultural or educa- more appropriate methodologies for the study of tional institutions (national or regional) primarily spon- national film culture, drawing on disciplines as diverse sor these studies. In this regard we have work by as history, sociology, literature, linguistics, and com- González and Nieto (1987) examining 50 years of munication, among others. “talkies” from the Acevedo archive; by Nieto and According to the Colombian historian and critic Oswaldo Osorio, it could be said that “what has been Rojas (1992) on the Olympia film group and the Di written about the film in the country does not even cor- Domenico family, a work funded by the Colombian respond, as it would be logical, to the slow and episod- Film Heritage Foundation; by Atehortúa (1999) on the ic dynamics of film production, but its process has been larger cultural impact of early film experience; by even more sluggish” (2008a, p. 6). López (2008) examining the mixed background of the culture of “Manizales,” a work sponsored by the insti- 3. Research Interests tute for Culture and Tourism of Bogota; and by Cadavid (2006) on the visual memory of Colombia in Clearly, however, a renewed interest in research related to national cinema has now emerged, fueled by film, released by the University of Antioquia press. growing interest in film production in Colombia and by On the period of the “surcharge law” [basically, the rise of Colombian professionals studying for their the 1970s, named for a 1972 law that affected film Masters and Doctorates in this field at (mostly foreign) company organization and production policies — universities. According to Pedro Adrián Zuluaga “If in ed.], a number of books analyze the audiovisual the ’60s the practice of cinema in Colombia was hit by products made under the policies of FOCINE: an the return of directors formed outside their country, edited volume by Cinemateca Distrital (1982) specif- something will happen, or is already happening in the ically on the effects of the law and Restrepo (1989) field of audiovisual studies” (Osorio, 2008a, p. 4). on the short- and medium-length films of the period. Reviewing the titles of the studies that we have inven- On the cinema of the 1980s one finds fewer research toried in the aforementioned collections, we find a studies; among them it is interesting to point out the large interest in the topics of (a) periods of Colombian autobiography of Gustavo Nieto Roa, Una vida de film, (b) the relationship between film and industry in película (1997). The book provides an inside look at Colombia, (c) the work of auteurs, (d) the documen- a kind of autobiography often overlooked in the tary, and (e) film criticism and film societies. country, with a focus on commercial and popular cin- ema, whose main representative is the author of the A. Periods of Colombian cinema book and whose accomplishments are so important Perhaps the most studied period in the history of that we speak of nietorroismo to refer to the Colombian cinema is the pioneer one. Scholars from Colombian comic film directed to the general public. disciplines such as history, communication, and soci- Of the approaches to this issue, perhaps the most ology have taken this approach, which obviously con- important as an input for researchers in the field is stitutes a crossing of interesting paradigms, seen often the collection assembled by the Fundación in interdisciplinary studies. In addition to the texts by Patrimonio Fílmico Colombiano (2005), Largo- Laurens (1988), Valencia (1974), Salcedo (1981), and metrajes colombianos en cine y video 1915-2004, an Ramos (1982), we see other initiatives that study par- important compilation that includes not only refer- ticular periods. As noted, the first pioneers of cinema ences to documentary and fiction films in the history receive the most attention, without a doubt. This sub- of Colombia but also synopses, some data concerning ject interests Edda Pilar Duque (1988, 1992). In these production, and brief critical comments on some of texts, Duque explores the beginnings of Colombian the films. Here we see a beginning of work from the cinema with reference to the activities of film direc- universities by research groups.

18 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS B. The relationship between cinema and industry This is why we can find studies of his work published in Colombia in Venezuela (Dunno Gottberg, 2003), as well as two interviews made with Gaviria (2002; Driver & This subject is also outlined in some texts. Some Jennings Tweddell, 2008). In addition there are studies books refer to the subject of legislation on cinema. such as the doctoral thesis by Jácome (2006) and the Besides the brochures and information on the law of analytical work on the issue of the “disposable human cinema, Suárez (1988) specifically discusses condition” made by Jáuregui and Suárez (2002) start- Colombian legislation on cinema; more economic detail ing from the analysis of the characters in three appears in the studies published in Convenio Andrés Colombian films, where issues such as the objectifica- Bello/Ministerio de Cultura/ Proimágenes en Movi- tion of the individual and the loss of their human dig- miento (2003). Rey (2003) examines cultural policies nity in the term “disposable” is explored. Wilson and trends in cinema in Evocar la vida: Contextos y (2007) explores Gaviria’s film, Rodrigo D No Futuro variaciones en el cine latinoamericano reciente, a piece and offers a comparison between the film Umberto D based on a conference given at the Museum of Fine Arts by the Italian neorealistic director Vittorio De Sica and in Houston in September, 2003. the film by Víctor Gaviria. Despite the absence of many books on the sub- On the cinema of violence in Colombia, as well ject, this topic appears over and over in the calls for as touching the work of Gaviria, Kantaris (2008) pub- research conducted on the subject of film and in thesis lished an article on urban cinema and violence in programs in communication and economics. Along Colombia, and Quintero (2007) investigates Gaviria’s these lines, Acosta (2008, p. 34) found 13 papers relat- work in his doctoral thesis at Wayne State University. ed to this issue in the country. Along with the projects Other auteurs who have received academic attention related to the history of Colombian cinema (19 proj- relate more to the subject of the documentary, which I ects) such research addresses the more common inter- will mention in the next section. ests in Colombia, many of them having a very strong presence of conflict issues, violence, and cinema. This D. The documentary interest appears more strongly in studies from the U.S. The theme of the documentary is particularly academy where we can find over a dozen papers on the important for Colombia, since these films are particu- topic of violence in Colombian and Latin American larly important in the 1970s, starting from the interest cinema. The studies made by American universities of the filmmakers to denounce the country’s social show very important details about Colombian film problems and to make an important contribution to from an outside perspective; these include the work of community support. The documentary of the 1970s is Suarez (2005, 2008a, 2008b), Caro (2006, 2008), characterized, as already mentioned, by the political Kantaris (2007, 2008) and Lopez (2000, 2003). tendencies of the left and the almost militant position in support of the communities affected by social problems C. The work of auteurs in Colombia. When it comes to the work of auteurs, the films of It is important to note that, unlike film, documen- Victor Gaviria, with their neo-realistic character and tary production is not centralized in Colombia. The quasi-documentary nature, strongly related to contem- most important schools of documentary filmmakers in porary urban violence in the country, receive a great Colombia have emerged in Cali in the 1970s and deal of interest. The historical, social, and stylistic rel- Medellín in the 1980s Important initiatives have also evance has captured the attention of researchers; there- emerged with projects from the Colombian Caribbean fore, we can find interviews and analysis of his films in coast, and of course, from Bogotá. The development of Ruffinelli (2002) which, according to the critic the documentary in recent years has also been strength- Oswaldo Osorio “is the most complete treatment that ened by the appearance of film schools like the has been done on the Antioquian director, addressing National University in Bogotá and the impetus given his visual universe, literary themes, and methods from by the school of documentary filmmakers from Cali several perspectives: Criticism, analysis, interviews, that has grown under the School of Social and testimony of its employees” (Osorio, 2008b). His Communication at the Universidad del Valle. work has a powerful attraction to researchers from U.S. Gender has also received support from regional universities who have discussed the issue of and national television, and in this regard we find proj- Colombian cinema—for a list, see Suárez (2008b). ects of documentary series such as Yuruparí (promoted

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 19 by Audiovisual, the state capital firm in the 1980s), research from the social sciences or from the arts, Rostros y rastros of the Universidad del Valle de Cali because it channels its support primarily towards tech- and Muchachos a lo bien of the Regional Corporation nological innovation, towards experimentation in the and the Social Foundation in Medellin. These projects, hard sciences, and towards the neuralgic problems of among others, have not only had a major impact on the the country where they have identified strategic inter- momentum of the documentary, but also in recording ests. Communication is obviously absent in the big pic- the history and stories of the country and its regions. ture and film is only a little less so. In the order of ideas, research on documentary A review of the GroupLac database, without has also gained great significance and has received doing an exhaustive check of the existence of the pub- greater interest in research projects in the country. lished results of the studies, shows projects related to Among the works we find books such as Gutiérrez and Colombian film from the faculties of arts, communica- Aguilera’s (2002) study of the Colombian documentary tion, and social sciences. To search for what was inves- and more than a dozen graduate theses related to the tigated in the film area, we conducted a search of the topic. It should be noted that from the research groups research groups that relate to communication, sociolo- registered in “Colciencias” several projects relate to the gy, history, and visual arts, finding a total of 445 theme of the documentary, although the number is research groups. In communication 95 groups appear probably bigger than what has been reported. in Colciencias, of which only 26 are recognized and grouped by Colciencias in categories A, B, and C, E. Film criticism and film societies according to their level of expertise and intellectual Critics and film clubs in Colombia have not been production. Of the 95 groups, only five have some limited to their everyday work and, given the great level of output related to the subject of the study of film importance of both movements in the country, have from some perspective, although more than 10 declare published some work on their craft, and the signifi- film in their statements as their object of study. cance and limitations of what they do in a country like The research group on Colombian communica- Colombia with its major problems of cultural policy tion, culture, and citizenship of the National University and management. The memories of film critics’ meet- of Colombia reports a research line in film history in ings in Pereira appear in Ossa (1999); short stories and the 1970s and two projects related to the theme of film, essays by film clubs promoted by the National but curiously none of them in relation to the 1970s. The Association of “Cineclubes,” in Colmenares (2003); products are an article published in the journal Signo y works on and about journalistic film criticism, in Pensamiento (Acosta, 1999) and a book published by Posada (1996) and Restrepo (1997). Goliardos (Mora, 1999). The Javeriana University of Bogotá has a group 4. Academic Research working on communication, media, and culture; it has a line of investigation in culture and media narrative To the panorama above we can add projects fund- and one which produced studies on narration in ed by the universities of the country. These appear mar- Colombian film from 1950-2000 (Alba & Ceballos, ginalized by many of the compilations due to their low 2002) and two articles by Arias: “Cine y vida cotidiana profile and little impact, resulting in a limited number of en la Bogotá de los años veinte” (2007a) and “Glauber books and articles available for search. Colciencias, the Rocha: una estética (polítca) del cine” (2007b). The main government agency responsible for the promotion group also presented a paper on nationalistic discourse of research in Colombia has a database to register pro- in recent Colombian cinema at the Twelfth Annual duction research groups called GroupLac. GroupLac Lecture of History Ernesto Restrepo Tirado in 2008. assembles lists of researchers, projects, products, and Similarly, we find listed the doctoral thesis of Maritza research groups by areas of knowledge and universities. Ceballos of the Autonomous University of Barcelona If the registration of titles of research appears in the Puesta en escena de las pasiones en el cine. Tesis de database, though, it will only mention that they have doctorado; 1998 – 2005,” [Staging the Passions at the been made or were made, but without further references Movies, 1998-2005]. Published in TDX (Theses and to these studies we can only assume that the files will be Dissertations Online) in 2006, it forms the basis for two on the shelves of universities with limited access. To articles Ceballos, 2006a, 2006b). this situation we must add the fact that Colciencias At the University of La Sabana we find listed the Colombia lists very little in regards to the promotion of Media Research Center, which declares a line of

20 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS research that focuses on mass culture and cultural documentary as a text in representing the city, a chapter industries with a study project called “Narratives of the of the book resulting from the journeys of investigations conflict set up in Colombian cinema” developed by of the University of Medellin. Sandra Ruiz Moreno and Jerónimo Rivera Betancur The communication research center at the between 2007 and 2009. The publications of the group University of Manizales has presented three film proj- include articles on armed conflict and Colombian cine- ects: “Tropología del Cine. Metáfora, metonimia, ale- ma (Ruiz, Escallón, Niño, Romero, & Rueda, 2007), goría y símbolo en el cine de autor” [Film Tropology. characters in Colombian films (Rivera, 2007a), the his- Metaphor, metonymy, allegory and symbol in the art- tory of Colombian cinema (Rivera, 2007b), and cinema house] (2008) and “Trabajo de analisis poético y retóri- as entertainment (Rivera, 2008). co de tropos al interior del cine de autor contemporá- In the city of Medellín the research group IMAGO neo” [The work of poetic analysis and rhetorical tropes has developed two projects related to film. In the first, within the contemporary auteur cinema] and “Mitos y Jerónimo Rivera, Uriel Sánchez, and Jhon Jaime Osorio arquetipos en el cine contemporáneo occidental” have conducted research on the consumption habits and [Myths and archetypes in contemporary Western cine- preferences of the students of the first semester of com- ma] (2007). The center has also published features on munication in relation to the cinema and the contribu- the productions written by Carlos Fernando Alvarado tion of the former to their skills prior to their college for the newspaper, Pagina, which from their titles entrance. The second project, undertaken by Ernesto could be criticism or movie reviews rather than Correa and Jerónimo Rivera. was about the characters, research texts. the actions and the scenarios of the Colombian film Out of all the research groups from history between 1990 and 2005. Among the projects listed departments, we found one that relates history to visu- appear papers for the meetings of the Latin American al sources from the National University of Colombia in Federation of Faculties of Communication (Felafacs, Medellin. This group presents a tutorial on Italian neo- Bogotá, 2006), the Film Festival “Feria de las Flores de realism and a project planned to create a basis for con- Medellín,” the VII Conference on Research at the sultation of audiovisual materials and theoretical liter- University of Medellín, and the 10th anniversary of the ature on image, film, and video to structure a line of Faculty of Communication of the Catholic University research in history and film. However, we do not know de San Antonio in Murcia, Spain in 2007. We also find in what state the project is, which was dated for 2006. articles on the film consumption patterns of students It is worth noting that, although there are groups with (Rivera, Osorio, & Sanchez, 2006a), images and sound topics that could be studied by way of film such as (Rivera, Sanchez, & Osorio, 2006), villains in identity and cultural memory, we did not find any proj- Colombian movies from 1990 to 2005 (Lopera, 2007), ects listed from studies related to film and history. the fragmented continuity between cinema fact and fic- Finally, I have the feeling there is a large under- tion (Correa, 2002), anecdotal cinema (Velez, 2007), count in the area of the arts. Out of 145 groups regis- and the fictional treatment of local events (López, tered in Colciencias, only 16 groups appear recognized 2005). From the same center comes a book on film nar- and updated. Some names of the groups suggest an rative (Correa, Rivera, Caminos, & Ruiz, 2008). It was interest in cinema and audiovisual research, but one published under the imprint of the University of cannot know the details of their academic approaches. Medellín with the participation of research groups in At the same time, we must recognize that the format Colombia, Argentina, and Spain and came about as a established by Colciencias favors scientific research result of the VIII Conference on Research at the and many research groups in the area of film mix aca- University of Medellín. demic research with artistic work. This explains why Also at the University of Medellín, the they probably will not appear in light of the measure- Communication and Identity group conducted a research ment rubric applied to them. In this regard, researchers project related to the topic of cinema: the representation in this area have complained in several academic sce- of identities of Medellin in a documentary about the city narios where Colciencias has previously made its pres- between 1994 and 2005. Derived from this project and ence. However, we must recognize the existence of other works of the group, C. López (2008) wrote about some projects that come from the area of arts. First, the identity and industry in Colombian film, based on uni- research group, “Reflections on the production of versity practices, while A. López (2008) reports on the audiovisual material” at the Manuela Beltran

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 21 University of Bogota presents three research projects exchange of research projects and output of different on audiovisual production which has products related researchers and groups, including the exchange and to the theme of film. These include the “Painted sce- circulation of publications, the creation of discussion narios of expressionist cinema” by Ricardo Guerra in forums on policy issues of communication and culture, the seminar, “Let there be light: a journey through the the realization of joint research projects, and the pro- history of cinematography photography” (2008) and motion of events and possible academic programs. “the use of film and audiovisual as a source for histor- In the Iberoamerican area, the Iberoamericana ical research” by Juana Rubio in the Audiovisual Audiovisual Narrative Research Network (INAV) has, Festival of “El Cerro de Guadalupe” (2008). There are since 2005, promoted research and academic exchange also some degree projects related to the topic of cine- among media professionals of Latin America with a ma. Some groups with names and lines of research that common interest in the study of visual narratives. are very interesting appear yet they do not provide any Among its main objectives, it looks to increase the pres- information on projects. This is the case of the groups ence of the study of audiovisual narratives in the meet- “Documentary Colombia” and “Kinos, perpetual ings of communication faculty and researchers in Latin motion”” of the National University. This last one only America, promoting the development of research in mentions the completion of a study in 2006 on film Latin American countries and generating common technology. This situation also occurs with the research methodologies through discussion of research method- group “History of the Colombian film” of the ologies in visual narratives. The network has 79 research University “Nueva Colombia,” which has no informa- members from Spain, the USA, Mexico, Puerto Rico, tion recorded. The research group “Estudios de la ima- Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile. gen de la Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano de Bogotá” presents research in Colombia, 2007–2008, which has 6. Conclusion no related information that has been published. We know that beyond the borders of Colombia, Much remains to be done but the road traveled some research dedicated to the theme of Colombian has already begun. It is clear, however, that the efforts cinema exists. Yet there also exists a great ignorance in have not been few but have been widely dispersed. The the country about it, indicated by the small number of first task should be, in the spirit of this article, the clas- references to this work—only some texts from master’s sification and categorization of research made in and doctoral study on literature or Latin American Colombia on the various aspects related to films from studies from universities in the U.S. and Europe. different sectors involved in the issue: state agencies and academic and independent researchers. Such a review should, of course, set aside the projects imple- 5. Professional Associations of mented in other countries (mainly in the United States) for researchers interested in the Colombian and Latin Researchers American cinema. If research in the field of audiovisual communi- Anyway, we must recognize that this picture is cation, and particularly in the field of cinema, is emerg- probably just an illusion because we know the titles of ing, much more has the intention of researchers to val- research projects, papers, and books but we do not have idate similar studies or share knowledge with col- much information on their content. Similarly, it is very leagues and peers from other universities. Here, then, possible that there are many other projects not includ- we must highlight the efforts (most of them isolated) of ed here since they are only known in the institution that some groups of researchers who have tried to build a sponsored them. So, after joining forces, the scientific community around the topic of communica- researchers in the field should agree on certain lines of tion research. investigation that permit them to develop this field of First, we must mention Redicom, an association study and exercise pressure for the support and promo- of communication researchers convened from the tion of policies to fund research, which from the state Pontificia Universidad Javeriana. Its main objective is are still very insufficient. to strengthen the academic field of communication In conclusion, let me emphasize the words of through research, development, and management; Pedro Adrián Zuluaga, Colombia’s leading film critic through the production and circulation of knowledge in “This wave of scholars is the call to produce new communication and culture; and through the ongoing knowledge about a cinema like Colombia’s that has

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24 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Regulatory Implications of the Adoption of Digital Television in Chile

Sergio Godoy Etcheverry, MBA PhD Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile

Introduction pared with only 90% of Chileans with mobile tele- The present study offers an assessment of the reg- phones. In contrast, an estimated 48% of people access ulatory implications of the adoption in Chile of digital the Internet (one of the highest rates in Latin America) terrestrial television (DTTV, i.e., open digital televi- and 30% of households receive pay TV. At the rate of an sion), particularly following the November, 2008 sub- average of about three hours of viewing per capita per mission in Congress of the draft presidential reform day, TVA provides the foundation of the notions of law to regulate all television (No. 18,838) and after the “reality” in the minds of the average Chilean. This adoption of the Japanese ISDB standard in September, occurs not only through news programs, but in the mod- 2009 in line with Brazil, Argentina, and Peru. This els and stereotypes in the genres of entertainment, as study applies to this vision of the entire television sys- well as the advertising messages that finance the entire tem, including its public policy, economic, industrial, package. Because of its massiveness and immediacy technological, and social dimensions. In addition I will (which makes it very effective), TVAhas attracted more give priority to the public’s perspective as to how digi- advertising for decades: according to the Chilean tization may enable them to access (or not) more and Association of Advertising Agencies (ACHAP), in better television, at a reasonable cost, with more and 2008, it captured half of the advertising pie ($933 mil- better content developed locally. lion), one of the highest ratios in history. This work has three parts. The first outlines the TVAis “open” because of the characteristics of its context of television in Chile, in terms of its social rel- transmission medium, the electromagnetic spectrum. evance and the changes in the business and production First, the spectrum as a natural resource is freely avail- models due to digitization. The second part presents able. The sender needs only an antenna to transmit and, three models of analysis that help manage the regulato- before digital technology, could not charge people who ry discussion: liberalism/restrictions (Curran & Seaton, had receivers; they, in turn, are accustomed to receiv- 1997), public service television, and parameters of ing television content for free. Thus, broadcasters had quality television for the various social actors and ana- to find finance by third parties: advertisers, govern- lytic levels. Each of these applies to the present as well ments, or sponsors. Second, the spectrum is finite: as the historical reality of the legal frameworks of there is no room for an unlimited number of broadcast- Chilean TV. This section also refers to the British sys- ers, unlike what happens with other media, like print. tem of DTTV—Freeview—whose success has much to Third, when not regulated, the use of the spectrum do with a consistent and updated regulatory frame- leads broadcasters to interfere with each other work, one of which targets the common good. The third (McQuail, 1998; Wood, 1992). part analyzes and assesses, based on the models and For all these reasons, the received wisdom holds detailed background in the previous sections, the legal that the electromagnetic spectrum serves as a national reform project of the government to allow DTTV. asset for public use, franchised by specific criteria to individuals or organizations selected by some mecha- nism, hopefully (but not always) unbiased. Countries 1. The Context often require certain compensations to the concession- aire in return for this privilege, which vary from coun- A. The importance of television try to country (McQuail, 1998). In Chile, among other Along with the radio in 2008, almost 100% of things, television broadcasters must allow a segment of Chilean households receive broadcast televison (TVAin electoral advertising at election time and ban obscene its Spanish acronym, referring to terrestrial broadcast- or violent contents, subject to penalties by the National ing, not to be confused with satellite distribution), com- Television Council (CNTV).

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 25 B. Digitization ship based on a general audience, and advertising estab- TV receivers in Chile cannot capture both analog lished to raise finance. The amount and type of audience and digital signals, unless they add an adapter to con- attracted, as measured by a survey (electronic, in this vert from one format to another. But digital video case: the people meter) by a separate company, already exists in the forms of DVDs, pay TV (which Time/Ibope, serves as the basis for advertising alloca- requires a decoder or set top box), and the Internet. tion. The need to attract mass audiences encourages TVA channels require a legal change to transmit with operators to imitate each other, with the consequent loss new digital technology, since the public needs to of program diversity and sense of few alternatives from change their receivers or get a decoder. And contempo- the audience (Ishikawa, 1996; Godoy, 2000). rary societies assume that universal free access to TV TVA filled seven channels (2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, and has become an acquired right, something that applied 13) in the VHF band, with each license given to a dif- to neither the Internet nor cable. ferent operator since the existing law prevents the con- But apart from the change in the reception equip- trol of more than one channel per operator. This variety ment, the digital formats amend the premises on which of operators (one state, three universities, and three pri- the industry built the conventional TV model. vate, although one university licensee ceded operations Digitization encodes images, sounds, and text using the to a business, controlled by the newly elected presi- protocols of computers, thus not only allowing one to dent, Sebastián Piñera) ensures reasonable levels of mix previously separate media (like news, music, TV, editorial quality and diversity, considering the limited or movies) but also telecommunications, because wire- possibilities of a middle-income small country like less and cable networks can transmit any kind of bina- Chile (Godoy, 2006, 2000, 1999). The law has pre- ry data. This process of technological convergence lies vented the concentration of ownership that exists in at the heart of the switch from analog to digital, which other countries and media sectors; it also requires sta- correlates today to mergers and acquisitions. tions to compete fiercely with each other for a share in This means, first, that analog TVA no longer pro- the advertising pie, with ratings based per minute (this vides the only type of television. Digital protocols allow prevented the development of analog UHF channels recourse to a wide range of delivery mechanisms and during the 1990s—there was almost no interest for /or combine them. Thus, there are TV direct-to-home licensing analog television in the UHF band available satellite systems (DirecTV and Sky, for example), cable since 1990 because of difficulties in financing it: each systems (VTR, Zap, Telefónica), conventional terrestri- license requires the operator to compete and sell adver- al broadcasting (TVA or open television), and broad- tising in isolation without being able to merge channel band Internet. In some respects, they complement each operations, Godoy, 1999). other; in others, they replace network television. To dis- Along with this traditional set-up, pay-TV also tinguish it from the “other” digitized television, we operates in Chile, funded largely by direct charge to the speak of digital terrestrial television (DTTV), which is user (and also marginally by advertising sales). As in open digital TV, transmitted using antennas located on many countries, a single large company dominates pay planet Earth (as opposed to transmission by satellite TV (VTR concentrated 71% of subscribers in 2007); mounted antennas floating in space). The distinction the company provides subscribers with dozens of chan- between DTTV and other television matters because nels, both general and specialized, with different pay- they involve different viewing experiences for the pub- ment options depending on level of service for each of lic and also various operational and business models, them (basic signals, Premium, and pay per view). The although they often share the same screen at home. VTR subscription revenues, totaling some $360 mil- lion in 2007 (equivalent to almost 80% of the revenues C. The television business model: Deep change of all broadcast channels together) have the added The business model of the TVA and its regulatory bonus that subscriptions are more stable than advertis- framework is old. It is actually very similar to AM ing sales. broadcasting in the 1930s to the 1950s, with relatively Like Telefónica, VTR (Chile’s subsidiary of few licensees (four nationwide, three in the regional cap- Globalcom) gets additional revenue through links to ital, Santiago). In general, channels developed most of Internet telephony and broadband, and will add mobile the content they broadcast, the programming arranged in phone service during 2010. This triple pack of telepho- a grid, the spectrum distributed through a grant relation- ny, Internet, and television is the core business of these

26 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS companies, and the relationship of television income creating content for mass appeal in Chile. And by act or with respect to telephony and the Internet is about one omission, the regulatory framework defined for DTTV to ten. And while pay TV still has a theoretical ceiling affects that. of 65% to 70% of Chilean homes that have not yet signed, broadcast or network television has nowhere to 2. Evaluation Parameters grow: There are no new homes to gain, and a couple of This section discusses policy and analytic models decades ago the advertising pie reached the GDP ratio that help to frame the legal reforms under discussion. observed in developed countries (Godoy 2000; Tironi The first model, adapted from Curran and Seaton & Sunckel, 1993). (1997), characterizes the broadcasting system accord- At the same time, despite the trend towards merg- ing to the degree of liberality or restriction on the two ers and acquisitions, the television value chain is main areas that comprise regulatory action. The second becoming more complex and fragmented (Godoy model follows the principle of public service televi- 2007, 2006; Aris & Bughin, 2005). The typical Chilean sion, a concept showing European influence in Chile, broadcast channel creates and packages content (pro- which justifies television regulation for the common gramming) and distribution systems but is not involved good. The third model spells out the parameters of in providing hardware (which now includes television quality television, according to the different players sets, phones, PCs, notebooks, iPods, and other and levels, in order to visualize the different legitimate devices). Although there are specific examples of soap interests, which it must reconcile to achieve or regulate operas and program formats exported or licensed to a television system. third parties (some companies in Mexican, Brazilian, and Venezuelan television), the main Chilean channels A. The Curran and Seaton Model: normally produced programming solely for their own The liberal-restrictive axis use. Only recent years have seen consistent efforts to The model of Curran and Seaton (1997) provides break that trend with new reality shows, soap operas, two essential regulatory axes that are usually regulated and drama series. But today telecommunications and in all or most media systems: the content and the eco- the Internet let you jump from one to another of these nomic/corporate interests (that is, the conditions for links: YouTube, for example, does not require a pro- media companies’ operations and finances). Both axes grammer/distributor like TVN, HBO, or Cinemax for range from a restrictive to a liberal pole, defining four the videos to reach the public. Moreover, these tools quadrants according to the scenario combining more or also enable new dynamics within each step, building less regulatory restrictions on one or other axis. In on the dynamics of Web 2.0 (that is, an Internet with Chile, the system is mainly regulated by the National active users exchanging material, not just as a reposito- Television Council Law No. 18,838 (which regulates ry of documents, BCG, 2008). television), the Law on National Television in Chile In the field of professional television, this envi- (TVN) No. 19,132, and the General Telecommunic- ronment allows more flexible models of production, ations Law No. 18,168. The regulatory bodies consist such as “360 degree production,” in which content can of the National Television Council (CNTV), an be exploited through different and complementary win- autonomous and collegial constitutional body dedicat- dows, such as cinemas, DVDs, premium signals, gen- ed to monitoring content and promoting quality pro- eral cable, and network TV. It also draws on the support grams, and the Undersecretariat of Telecommunic- of technologies such as cell phones and the Internet to ations (SUBTEL), a technical body devoted to manag- abstracts or lighter versions of the programs, polls, pro- ing the broadcast spectrum. motions, synopses, discussion areas, and the like. At all In their critique of the British media system dur- stages the producer can more actively integrate the ing the Thatcher period, Curran and Seaton showed a audience through interactive features, which digitiza- strong contradiction between economic liberalism and tion facilitates and also allows the capture of direct editorial restrictions, a scenario similar to Chile’s after payments from the public (Aris & Bughin, 2005). the military coup of 1973. The freedom to develop a Thus, the convergent scenario increases competi- modern and dynamic British media industry also pro- tion but also creates new opportunities. Even though duced a strong concentration of ownership that impov- their business model seems outdated in several erished the diversity of editorial views and ideological respects, the TVA operators have the most expertise in systems, whatever the increase in channels and media.

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 27 In parallel, the Conservative government restricted emerged the year after the opposition victory in the information on labor along political lines (Curran & presidential referendum of 1988, when there was no Seaton, 1997). further point in the political control of the media. To Following this model, the evolution of the regula- this was added the surprise sale of the frequencies for tory framework of Chilean television from its origins to channels 4 and 9 (controlled by the state network TVN) the present day moves from the restrictive to the liberal to business supporters of the outgoing government quantrants (see Godoy, 2007). Decree Law No. 7039 of (Acuña, Gutiérrez, & Puentes, 2007). However, the 1958 was liberal on both dimensions: as with radio, TV entire economic system had been converted to the neo- would be a private business without special control of liberal paradigm during the previous decade, which content. But that never happened. Only three university involved the modernization and privatization of the channels were authorized, and they were forbidden to media system and its financing through advertising sell political advertising. As in radio, the President of (Tironi & Sunckel, 1993). the Republic granted concessions at his discretion after After the restoration of democracy, the govern- a technical report by the then Department of Electrical ment amended Law No. 18,838 only in 1992; it Services. Although for different reasons, neither Jorge remains in force, persisting in controlling content Alessandri (independent right, 1958-1964) nor Eduardo through the control of the CNTV, which is more loose- Frei (centrist Democrat, 1964-1970) wanted to allow ly applied to pay TV. This is just one example of the private television: Alessandri hated television, while obsolescence of the regulatory framework. Frei tried to monopolize the glory of a modern televi- The emphasis on controlling content through this sion network and focused on creating the public TVN law is embodied in Article 1, which defines a “proper (Hurtado, 2007, 1989). functioning” of television in terms of a vague code to The subsequent Law No. 17,377 of 1970 imposed deliver desirable content. Unable to formulate these restrictions on both dimensions, under the paternalistic desirable norms, in practice the CNTV sanctions unde- principle “to educate, inform, and entertain” first sirable content defined in a separate Regulation (pri- declared in 1923 by the BBC. Like Decree No. 7089 of marily pornography, excessive violence, and involving 1958 and Law No. 18,838 of 1989 (still in force), the minors in acts opposed to good morals, Acuña, law was passed at the last minute by the outgoing gov- Gutiérrez, & Puentes, 2007). In contrast, groups did ernment seeking to hinder its successor (in this case, reach consensus on the usefulness of the CNTV com- the socialist Salvador Allende). That law also created petitive fund for quality programming (Donoso, 2008; the TVN public network (which de facto began the year Godoy, 2005, 2007, Sierra, 2006). before) and the content regulator, the CNTV. This manifests the contradiction of such an The military coup of 1973 involved heavy restric- arrangement: a more liberal economic system coupled tions on content, but the neoliberal economic model with a more controlled content, where an elite con- imposed by Augusto Pinochet deregulated economic troller (like the BBC in 1923) assumes that it knows aspects, specifically businesses such as advertising better than the public what it can see. Although corpo- sales (an increase that offset losses from reduced state rate issues are less regulated than in the past, TVA subsidies to televison, first established in 1970). From licensees face several hindrances in contrast to radio this period dates a couple of interesting instruments: broadcasters: remarkably, they cannot operate more the mandatory “cultural strip” (whereby the channels than one channel per service area. And it is difficult to decided what to show and the state did not spend one lease or transfer the license to third parties. That does peso) and the CNTV competitive fund for quality pro- not happen in radio, where the broadcasters do not suf- grams. The problem with this novel mechanism was fer these restrictions, nor are they supervised by CNTV. that it had very little money: it exceeded one million dollars only in 2005. (During the 1980s, a British par- B. The model of public service television liamentary committee, the Peacock Committee, seri- The second model, public service television, has ously considered replacing the BBC by a similar mech- had considerable influence in the Chilean system. anism, Godoy, 2000). Although open to debate, its principles (even though The military regime promised private television not expressly mentioned) have emerged in various in the Constitution of 1980, but took nine years to aspects of regulatory design. This section examines the accomplish that: the respective law (No. 18,838) concept and its relevance in the Chilean context, and its

28 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS role in articulating strong public policy objectives for the emerging Web 2.0), and the different actors the change to digital television. involved. The scenario also implies flexibility to adapt The notion of public service TV in Chile. In or exclude institutions that will become obsolete. For short, this concept of European origin (and in force in example, the British system merged all of the broad- countries such as Japan, Canada, Australia, Israel, casting and telecommunications regulatory bodies, India, and throughout Southeast Asia and the European which before operated separately. The result is a con- Union) means a system of television oriented to the verged regulator, the Office of Communications common good, to the quality of life of the population (Ofcom), which restated the notion of public service (including entertainment), and to democratic coexis- television around complying with a series of overarch- tence, in contrast to sole control by the market and/or ing purposes rather than maintaining a set of institu- an authoritarian political power. This system offers the tions. In this regard, and based on relevant internation- widest variety of programs on national channels freely al experiences (see Brown & Picard, 2005; Iosifidis, available to all (Godoy 2007, 2000). While Chileans Steemer, & Wheeler, 2005, Ofcom, 2005), the change often assume that public television comes only from to digital should tend towards two main objectives in the public TVN network (following the old cliché of Chile, formulated from the perspective of the user/citi- “educate, inform, and entertain”), in practice there are zen (Godoy, 2007): a number of institutions that have public service aims: • More and better television for Chileans: in tech- • The channels are national in scope, with free nical terms, this means access to all applications access to all the inhabitants of the country; they of digital technology at a reasonable cost and offer a reasonable range of different program without discrimination: more channels, a sharper types (not all but several of which contribute to the image, mobile reception, interactive applications. democratic functioning and improved quality of Regarding programming contents, this means life of the public) ; ensuring a system that guarantees universal free • There is editorial and corporate diversity among access to the widest possible diversity of content, the operators (universities, both private and ideological and editorial opinion, different geo- autonomous public); graphical realities beyond Santiago, and ensuring • All operators must observe certain positive princi- the supply of relevant, reliable contributions to ples of programming, outlined under the term “cor- democracy, peaceful coexistence, and a national or rect operation” in Article 1 of Law No. 18,838; local identity, as appropriate. • All television operators are subject to the control of • More and better local content production: the a regulator, the CNTV; plan recognizes that the digital era requires a lot of • The CNTV operates a competitive fund for quality content production to fill the different platforms programs (which reached a record high $7.9 mil- and emerging distribution channels and, as audi- ences prefer the local, the plan should meet that lion in 2009), open to any producer who has an demand with national talent. It involves a mode of agreement with any broadcaster with an affiliation production of exportable content; content that is with TVA; adaptable, flexible, and open to co-production with • Only televison falls subject to these special partners around the world; content that is innova- arrangements. tive and original; content that appeals to and chal- Although we might expect the TVA to move to lenges the public; content that rescues national and the liberal/liberal quadrant defined by the axes of local identity; and content that generates employ- analysis of Curran & Seaton, the experience of coun- ment and local expertise in the industry. tries like Britain suggests that the concept of public service TV typically moves to an increasingly frag- C. Parameters of quality television mented, commercialized, and convergent scenario. As Even if one rejects the idea that television should with public works concessions in Chile (which have be governed by principles of public service, the third multiplied exponentially the construction of roads, air- model of analysis helps to clarify the interests that must ports, and similar works), it is important not to lose be reconciled. This model allows one to compare stan- sight of the overall goals of the common good and to dards of quality television as social actors and levels of have the common sense to accomplish them, taking analysis; it adapts the work of authors such as McQuail advantage of market logic, the new citizen media (with (1998), Ishikawa (1996), and Rosengren, Carlsson, and

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 29 Business: Legislators Broadcasters Journalists, The Public Producers Uses and gratifica- tions at both intellec- tual and affective “Public interest,” Survival of the business, Professional stan- levels; sense of System based on ideologies, editorial freedom, effec- dards, ethics, techni- belonging, citizen embodied in laws tive messages cal standards media, representa- tion of everyday problems Access to various media pluralism, value-based content, Operations, conditions Freedom to act, stability working environ- child protection, Media of operation, expected of operations, protection ment free from pres- reinforcement of roles of the media. of broadcast sector sure, employment, identity, access to working conditions citizen media. Protection of vulnera- Programming ble groups, prohibition Sense of belonging of harmful content Table 1. Matrix of parameters and levels of media preference Based on McQuail (1998) and Rosengren, Carlsson, & Tagerud (1996) Tagerud (1996) to the Chilean reality (in Godoy, 2000). mere aggregate of individual opinions, the other as a Table 1 shows the model as a matrix that groups society collective and mutually reinforcing social bond) con- as four major social actors, each with its own interests tested between an elitist view (reflected in the “proper and performance standards applied in three overlapping functioning” language of the Law No. 18,838) and a levels: the complete television system, that of a specific view which defines television as a mass medium medium (from TVA channels to pay TV operators), and financed by popular preferences. The contradictions individual efforts (for example, of program critics). also appear among paradoxical opinions of the The legislative actor (which may be a politician Constitutional Court, which on the one hand, require or analyst) normally acts on behalf of the public inter- broadcasters to issue information and electoral infor- est to define its own ideology, and seeks to legislate in mation and, on the other, recognize that the law, among this sense: on the right, to deregulate the system to let other things, allows them to refuse to publish news or the market operate at its maximum (see Sierra, 2006, information because of editorial freedom (Peña, 2007). LyD, 2009); on the traditional left, to act in solidarity In either case, the system requires a healthy democrat- with the disadvantaged groups and promote a more ic and institutional system, one transparent and with lit- active role for the state (see Donoso, 2008). The latest tle corruption. proposals from the ideology of social solidarity stress At the level of the system, the legislature defines strengthening the “third sector” of citizen media as a the intended function of television, who should operate counterweight to the exaggerated roles of the market it, under what conditions, how to finance it, and how to and the state in contemporary systems (Saez, 2008a, protect vulnerable groups such as minors or ethnic 2008b). McQuail (1998) and Rosengren, Carlsson, and minorities. For regulatory discussion that interests us Tagerud (1996) synthesized these views with different we will stay at the system level, but keep in mind that “theories of the press” (authoritarian, free press, social this “actor model” also encompasses broadcasters and responsibility, communist, social development, partici- /or content specific to current standards and obligations patory democracy), while Peña (2007) offers an inter- (implicit or explicit) at the level of the media and the esting analysis of ideological contradictions present in programming. the Chilean system. The contradictions noted by Peña The rationale of the broadcaster corresponds to appear in two implicit concepts of democracy (one as a that of the owner of the media. Large or small, or non-

30 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS profit, ad supported or state funded, conservative or lib- two proposals to Congress: one to amend Law No. eral, its purpose is the survival of the organization and 18,838 dealing with National Television Council, and the maintenance of maximum freedom to do what it the other to amend Law No. 19,132 regarding TVN. pleases and to make the message or content effective Despite the technological changes involved, the pro- (either to make money, maximize social influence, posals did not touch the General Telecommunications attract audiences, reinforce the brand, or persuade the Law No. 18,168 or attempt to integrate the various reg- public). In contrast, the rationale of the media profes- ulatory agencies. sional depends on ethical and proper technical stan- This article deals only with the draft amendment dards. For example, journalistic ethics requires the pub- to Law No. 18,838 of CNTV, because it focuses on the lication of an important story even if it means offending change to digital. But before going on, we need to the sponsors, which is why many prestigious media out- include three additional facts. First, the proposal was lets “shield” reporters from the business management. sent to the Chamber of Deputies, a more diverse body In the case of producers or filmmakers, their interest in and thus more difficult to coordinate than the Senate, innovative and creative programs often collides with the which means that the process can take years. Second, fear of management about new content whose appeal the CNTV protested at not having been consulted has not been proven and can scare off advertisers. (though its chairman is appointed by the President of The public, meanwhile, differs from the other the Republic) and at ignoring content and other rele- three actors. First, several authors recognize people’s vant subjects as criteria for assigning the new digital right to access a wide variety of programs as a basic cri- concessions (CNTV, 2009). Third, until this reform terion of performance of a media system (Ishikawa, takes place, there will be no DTTV although the 1996). Exposure to certain content is explained by the Executive did decide to adopt the Japanese ISDB tech- uses and gratifications that the public makes of them, nical standard. whether emotional or intellectual in nature. Often con- B. The amendment of Law No. 18,838 to allow tradictory, these very human motivations can differ from the introduction of digital terrestrial television program preferences shown in ratings measurements (see CNTV, 2008a). Besides the typical features of The proposal focuses on four aspects, of which entertainment and information passively consumed, the the first is the most important: new licenses for DTTV. public also appreciates the sense of belonging to a group, The others are secondary: public campaigns, some and the opportunity to be heard and to complain about adjustments to the role of the CNTV, and the transition everyday problems (which is usually very well to digital broadcasting. addressed by participatory radio programs—see On new licenses for DTTV: The first innovation Winocur, 2002). The possibilities offered by digital tech- is to define licenses for “intermediate services” in addi- nology in terms of increased channel availability, flexi- tion to traditional television or “free reception” (Art. bility of use (for example, mobile reception, delayed or 15º and 31º). The former allows transmission; the other skipped commercials), and interactive features become is tantamount to a license to create content (that is, the particularly appealing, provided they come at a reason- owner of a license to broadcast “free reception” cannot able cost and are easy to use (Brown & Picard, 2005; distribute programming to the public if it has not also CNTV 2008b; Godoy, 2005; Goodwin, 2005a, 2005b; received a grant for intermediate services for itself). Iosifidis, Steemer, & Wheeler, 2005). This allows licensees to distribute signals generated by In short, an adequate regulatory framework third parties, something that today is not allowed on should balance the interests of these stakeholders in the television or radio. Although not mentioned in the draft best possible way to maximize the collective welfare. law, the provision allows SUBTEL to offer new digital licenses that would add a total of 30 channels in the UHF band (Godoy, 2007). 3. Evaluation of the Pending Broadcast TVA’s current licensees will automatically gain Legislation the two types of grants to continue digital broadcasts of their current contents. In order to prevent concentration A. Context of the proposal of ownership, these operators are prevented from accu- mulating more than one grant of intermediate services, After several postponements, at the end of 2008 but additional ones can be obtained for free reception. the government of Michelle Bachelet (2006-2010) sent (The ISDB standard allows the broadcaster to provide

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 31 a signal to mobile telephony and two high definition must cover at least 85% of the population within its channels or eight standard definition channels.) service area; 100% of coverage should be completed A second innovation is to establish national, within a maximum of eight years. The legislature regional, local, and community licenses (Art. 15º), as assumes that these goals should be met even if viewers in Spain and other countries. The last two do not are not interested in obtaining digital receivers. require intermediate service licenses, which lowers the cost of maintaining transmission and antenna systems. C. Major criticism of the proposal (The community license has the same coverage as the From a liberal economic perspective, the Libertad local one—less than 50% of a region—with the differ- y Desarrollo (LyD) think tank indicates that the text ence that private nonprofit organizations, incorporated exceeds the title as the amended substantive aspects of in Chile and engaged in civic and social objectives, are the licensing scheme were not justified by the simple eligible). The proposal states that at least 40% of technological change (LyD, 2009). In particular, LyD licenses must be regional, local, and community. criticizes the fact that operators cannot concentrate With regard to the conditions to obtain and main- only on a grant of intermediate services, and believes tain the licenses, Art. 31º sets a 20 year renewable term. that this restricts their ability to compete (in this case Articles. 23º and 31º provide only technical criteria to correctly) and further believes that there is no risk of govern these. Whoever offers the best conditions of concentration of ownership in television given the transmission and efficiency of spectrum use, deter- increased availability of channels (in this case, incor- mined by SUBTEL (the CNTV simply sends along the rectly, as suggested by the national and international background of the applicants), gets the award. As in experience in various media). current law, there are no requirements concerning the LyD also states that the term of 20 years for programming contents offered. This is unlike what licenses is inconsistent with the 30 years set out in the happens in radio, where two competing projects with General Law of Telecommunications for telecommuni- similar technical merits and equal financing go in a cations intermediate services and the 25 years for sealed envelope to the SUBTEL to settle. broadcast licenses (ibid.). The figure is also inconsis- Public campaigns and some changes in the role tent with Law No. 19,131 amending Law No. 18,838 in of the CNTV: Art. 12º provides free broadcast cam- 1992, which established indefinite licenses for televi- paigns for the public good or public interest by TVA in sion channels available prior to that date, and 25 years order to “protect the population and promote respect for new ones (Sierra, 2006). and the rights of persons” (Art. 12m), and provides that Although LyD rejects indefinite licensing, arguing any one campaign may take no more than five weeks a that holders must apply to renew their licenses in the year and not more than 90 seconds for each transmis- interests of their proprietary rights, it does not dare to sion. The General Secretariat of Government decides recommend the final privatization of the spectrum as on these campaigns, subject to the approval of the Sierra has done (in Godoy, 2005) although it insists on CNTV (who could disapprove). Television licensees talking about concessions (licenses), which by definition may determine the form and content of the spot repre- are finite and renewable, as has the CNTV (2009). From senting the campaign, but the CNTV should verify an opposite ideological position, Donoso (2008) high- compliance with the plan. lights that New Zealand has a 20 year limit on licenses; Additionally, the CNTV receives new powers to Italy and England, 12; Spain and France, 10, and the limit the proportion of advertising that is broadcast dur- USA and Australia, eight and five. For the Chilean case, ing productions financed by the development fund for the author suggests a 15-year concession to the applicant programs of high quality (Arts. 12 and 12 bis). As in and a preferential right to renew its license. the draft amendments to the TVN Act, it also set norms If the issue of time promises to be controversial, to which licensees can be held accountable for their the criterion for allocating the grants could be even management once a year before the Senate (and, as more difficult especially given the ideologized Spanish with TVN, it is unclear what happens if the Senate experience, where the governments of Aznar (Popular rejects the statement submitted). Party, right) and Zapatero (Socialist) favored their Transition to digital broadcasting (art. 1 tran- respective supporters (Bustamante, 2008). While LyD sient): Establishes a minimum period of five years so and current TVA licensees prefer only technical crite- that, from the entry into force of the law, each licensee ria, this has been strongly criticized by the CNTV

32 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS (2009) who, like Donoso (2008), feels it is essential to SUBTEL, TVN, and the industry supporting TVAwith- consider the content offered by the licensees (free, but out acknowledging that the environment is changing responsibly) as a discriminatory factor. The CNTV also radically. Pay television is a key player (and a monop- claims that, ultimately, SUBTEL should settle things oly) in the equation, but is not considered. Nor did the and not the Board, an independent public body with new law consider attempts to integrate other public ini- constitutional status (in contrast, SUBTEL is a techni- tiatives that promote different digital technologies from cal-administrative body subordinate to a ministry). other ministries, such as Digital Strategy, the Innova- Another area of disagreement has to do with the tion Council, and the Plan Enlaces. support that is given to the “third sector” on television. The change to digital television equals the change While LyD regrets positive discrimination in favor of inaugurated by the railroad or the automobile. People local and community licensees, such as reserving 40% still travel from Santiago to Valparaiso in a mechanized of licenses or receiving favor in the competitive funds, vehicle faster than they did in a wagon, but trains and those from the opposite position (Saez, 2008a, 2008b, cars are very different. Similarly, people will continue and Donoso, 2008) argue that this ensures public access to watch news, soap operas, movies, trade shows, and to grants of TVA, assuming that their community-based so on through a screen called “television.” But digital and nonprofit nature provides real independence from technology allows far more versatility than that offered the state and private commercial media that now domi- by “Television,” which until recently was synonymous nate the system unchecked. Government public interest only with broadcast television. The bills sent to campaigns that the project proposes would replace the Congress are similar to those to amend the law of rail- media producers and, for different reasons, LyD also ways: the rail monopoly (EFE) perhaps might work rejects these campaigns (LyD, 2009). better than before, but that does not stop cars, trucks, and buses standing in for the train. 4. Conclusion After examining the contemporary significance References of television in Chile, the changes in its business model Acuña, F., Gutiérrez, S., & Puentes, A. (Eds.). (2007). Los as a result of digital convergence, and the theoretical primeros 50 años de la televisión chilena. Santiago de models applied to the current system, we conclude that Chile: Facultad Comunicaciones UC/VTR/El the legal reform proposed by the government seems Mercurio/Canal 13. well intentioned, but poorly designed: the amendment Aris, A., & Bughin, J. (2005). 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Communication Education in Mexico: Overall Trends María Antonieta Rebeil Corella Jorge Hidalgo Toledo Luis Alberto Luna Reyes

Research Center for Applied Communication University Anáhuac México Norte [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

A. Introduction B. Communication programs in schools and The teaching of communication in Mexico has universities in Mexico taken surprising directions in recent years. Both a pro- Throughout almost 50 years of formal teaching of liferation of different approaches to schools of com- communication in the country (taking as reference the munication and a decline in the quality of their pro- founding of the first degree in Communication grams has accompanied growth in the programs. We Sciences in 1960), communication programs have see this in the most recent statistics generated by the grown in number. They have taken different names Research Center for Applied Communication (CICA) according to their approaches, with an emphasis or pre- in its study, “Regional Map of Communication specialization set according to their needs. This study Education in Latin America,” a study sponsored by the identified 1,006 communication programs, with differ- Latin American Federation Faculties of Social ent names related to the discipline. These fall into four Communication (FELAFACS) and UNESCO. As an categories: Communication, Marketing, Design, and overview of communication education, we present the Journalism, with several subgroups: highlights of the report along with some thoughts • Communication includes communication study about the direction that the teaching of communication itself as well as communication joined with in Mexico has taken. other disciplines related to broader social The first question that comes to mind when one issues such as culture, education, social com- examines the outlook for teaching communication in munication, and so on (75%). Mexico is this: What is the universe of communication • Marketing includes the areas of corporate or programs in Mexico composed of? organizational communication, often market- The world of education and training in communi- ing and advertising, organizational communi- cation in Mexico and elsewhere includes everything cation, marketing and public relations, corpo- related to communication taking place in educational rate communication, image building, among institutions. Furthermore, it involves training activities others (19%). and instruction outside formal education that occurs in • Design incorporates degrees such as audiovi- consulting firms or producers of integrated communi- cation for organizations (advertising, public relations, sual design, multimedia, digital imaging, and and organizational communication). others (2%). The data reported here refer only to those activi- • Journalism includes itself, as well as related ties that occur within educational establishments or in areas such as journalism and public image, courses that occur as a part of school programs. All journalism and public opinion, etc. (4%). other training activities in communication (courses, The vast majority (75%) of programs name them- seminars, or training) do not appear her but will be selves in a manner explicitly related to communication published in future investigations. itself. Sometimes these appear with the name of anoth-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 35 er discipline that often deals with broader social refer- Number of Percent of Federal entity ents such as the mass media, social groups, cultural programs total studies, education, among others. Another 19% employ Aguascalientes 9 .89 names more directly related to businesses or organiza- Baja California Norte 97 9.64 tions. This portion manifests a concern for the proper functioning of organizations and businesses in the Baja California Sur 10 0.99 country; with a fifth of the programs, this indicates a Campeche 14 1.39 growing interest in organizatinonal communication. Chiapas 14 1.39 One can conclude that Mexico remains at the Chihuahua 6 0.59 beginning of training in digital design, with only 2% of Coahuila 56 5.56 communication programs using that term. However, Colima 2 .19 many of the other, general communication programs Distrito Federal 199 19.78 most likely include specific materials designed to train young people in interactivity and digitization, whose Durango 18 1.78 importance continually increases in society. Finally, the Estado de México 127 12.62 category of journalism has only 4% of the total. The Guanajuato 50 4.97 journalistic tradition in Mexico dates from 1949, when Guerrero 11 1.09 the “Carlos Septien Garcia” School of Journalism Hidalgo 33 3.28 began as the first school of journalism in the country. Jalisco 19 1.88 However, the discipline of journalism as an exclusive area of concentration has not grown; communication as Michoacán 31 3.08 a discipline has taken the lead, at least in quantitative Morelos 20 1.98 terms. It has incorporated teaching journalism among Nayarit 11 1.09 other areas of study. Nuevo León 31 3.08 C. The universe of communication programs in Oaxaca 9 0.89 Mexico Puebla 45 4.47 This report presents statistics from a database Querétaro 28 2.78 developed by 33 researchers who collected data on Quintana Roo 14 1.39 1,006 programs of communication, journalism, public San Luis Potosí 14 1.39 relations, marketing and/or audio-visual design. In pre- Sinaloa 8 0.80 vious studies, the National Association of Universities Sonora 29 2.88 and Institutions of Higher Education [la Asociación Tabasco 6 0.60 Nacional de Universidades e Instituciones de Educ- Tamaulipas 25 2.48 ación Superior] identified 349 undergraduate programs with a total of 72,663 students (2005). More recently, Tlaxcala 8 0.80 in 2007, that number rose to 462 undergraduate pro- Veracruz 48 4.77 grams and a total number of 72,224 students. The 2009 Yucatán 8 0.80 figure shows another drop in the total number of stu- Zacatecas 6 0.59 dents. (See Table 1 for programs by state and region.) The current database information produced by the Table 1. Communication programs by location. Research Center for Applied Communication (CICA) West Central shows that the distribution of communication studies Northwest programs is concentrated in three regions: nearly 20% Northeast Southeast Gulf in the Federal District, 13% in the State of Mexico, and Valle de Mexico 10% in Baja California Norte. Other significant per- centages, approaching 5%, appear in the states of Coa- problem of competition among the different institu- huila, Puebla, and Veracruz, followed by 3% in tions in their states. Information centers that provide Hidalgo, Michoacan, Nuevo Leon, and Queretaro the discipline of information or a related field com- (Table 1). The states mentioned above have a number pound that problem. We should also mention that the of important programs; their concentration presents a maximum number of programs in a given region is 199

36 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS (the Federal District), while the minimum, two pro- Southeast Gulf Region grams, occurs in Colima. The Southeast Region includes 10 Gulf states and As for the regions, we established five divisions has a total of 177 communication programs, of which for the country. Clearly, the Valley of Mexico region over half are found only in two states: Veracruz with 48 contains most of the programs, with 379 (almost 38%). and Puebla with 45. The most important components Next comes the Southeast Gulf Region, 177 (almost from a quantitative point of view, then, are these two 18%), followed by the West Central Region, 170 states. Veracruz has many programs due to its high (almost 17%). The Northwest region contains 162 population (though more than 40% of its population (16%), followed by the Northeast Region with the live in rural areas). The dominant economic activities fewest programs, 118 (not quite 12%). are the communal, the social, and personal; here the West Central Region population figures possibly indicate people’s desire for The West Central Region has nine states with social mobility through education. Hence the prolifera- almost one third of the programs in communication in tion of educational services. the state of Guanajuato. Michoacan and Queretaro Puebla also has a high percentage of rural popu- come next, followed by the state of Colima, which as lation (almost 30%) with a relatively high level of non already noted has the fewest number of communication Spanish-speaking rural dwellers (12%). The labor mar- programs. ket has a very different composition from Veracruz, making it prominent in manufacturing. The high popu- Northwest Region lation density in both states explains the need for hav- The five states of the Northwest Region ing many educational institutions. (Sonora, Sinaloa, Durango, Baja California Norte, In contrast, the state of Oaxaca has an average and Baja California Sur) present an area of high con- population but with an indigenous population of 35%, trast in terms of communication programs. On one with 5% non Spanish speakers. The low demand for hand, we find Sinaloa with only eight programs and, educational opportunities can be explained by the fact on the other, we see Baja California Norte with 97 that 35% of the population is rural. The also may programs, the third highest in the country. Thus, explain the fact that this state has fewer communication more than half of the 162 programs in the region are programs. concentrated in Baja California Norte. This state has Region Valle de Mexico the highest population of its group, 2,844,469 inhab- The region Valle de Mexico poses sharp contrasts itants. It is also the most urbanized with 93% of the with the Federal District and the State of Mexico hav- people living in urban centers. Employment is main- ing 326 out of the 379 communication programs in the ly in trade, restaurants, and hotels; they produce a area. This Region is highly centralized, with a large larger proportion of the Gross Domestic Product concentration of educational activities, which is also (GDP) than the other four states in the same region reflected in its economy, politics, culture, and other (3.6%). These factors, coupled with the closeness areas of national development. that they have to the United States, may explain the The Federal District contains nearly nine million phenomenon of the explosion of communication people (8.4% of the total population) virtually all urban schools in the state. dwellers. It also has the highest index of formal educa- Northeast Region in Mexico tion in the nation with an average of 10.2 years of edu- Of the four states in the Northeast Region, cation (indicating upper secondary education). Coahuila has 56 of the 118 communication programs in Community, social, and personal services give the the region. Of the four states Nuevo Leon is the most District a 21.8% share of National GDP. This explains densely populated, while Coahuila is the least populat- why they can afford the large number of 199 schools or ed. As for economic activity the maquila provides the programs in the territory. most important industry in Coahuila; in Nuevo León On the other hand, the State of Mexico has a pop- social, community, and personal services dominate. ulation of over 14 million people, and 13.6% of all Nuevo Leon contributes the largest share to national communication programs in the country. Although GDP with 7.5%, while the others (Tamaulipas, much of the population lives in urban areas, still 13% Chihuahua, and Coahuila) contribute less than half of live outside the urban areas. Their average level of that (3.3%). schooling is 8.7 years of formal education (almost fin-

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 37 ishing high school) and 3% speaking indigenous lan- that apply to teaching the discipline of communication, guages. The main industry is manufacturing, specifi- including categories related to: cally the manufacture of metal products, machinery, • Communication itself coupled with social issues and equipment. It contributes 9.7% to the national such as culture, media collectives, or communica- GDP. These conditions, plus the proximity to the tion and education; national center of Mexico City, make the state of • Business or organizational communication that Mexico a state that can support many communication relate to disciplines such as marketing, public rela- schools or programs. tions, advertising, and corporate communications; Communication Programs in Urban Areas • Design that has to do with digital audiovisual More than half of the communication programs design, computerized moving images, the creation identified in the survey are located in the capital cities of video games, among others; and of the states. The rest appear in cities of second and • Journalism, the study of public communication, third importance. There are virtually no communica- public opinion itself, and so on. tion programs in rural areas. This urban concentration The regionalization of programs in Mexico of programs points to the fact that training in commu- indicates considerable concentration in some cities, nication, or any of its related disciplines, appears as a with almost 40% of programs in the Valley of Mexico need arising from the concentration of populations and with an additional concentration in Baja California an increase in the professional activities that have to do Norte, which has grown very significantly, setting it with industrialization and services. apart from the rest of country with 97 communication programs. One possible explanation for this may be Universities/schools with communication programs the closeness of this state to the United States of The system of universities or schools in which America, as well as its population and the kind of communication programs operate in Mexico is pre- economic activities carried out in addition to its high dominantly private. Out of 1,006 programs, 802 (80%) urban concentration. belong to the private sector, leaving only 204 in pub- The evidence for the presence of communication lic universities. Communication education therefore programs in urban areas points to the fact that they arises mainly from private initiatives and, in quantita- arise in the midst of population centers and from eco- tive terms, has achieved an exponential growth nomic activities associated with industrialization and unmatched in other Latin American countries. Many the provision of services of all kinds. of these initiatives have been established and devel- Finally, we should highlight the fact that 80% of oped outside the framework of educational laws and these programs appear as private sector initiatives. regulations and quality control by government agen- While many of these are clear examples of success sto- cies and academic accreditations. Proof of this is that ries and offer high quality education, these constitute the Accreditation Council of Communication very few of the total. The vast majority of the programs (CONAC) has accredited only 16 programs in com- have developed outside of legal and institutional munication nationwide and that CONEICC lists only frameworks, licensing and supervision by the Ministry 74 school members of communication. of Public Education (SEP), and its quality control, both Indeed the figures we refer to throughout this in their curricula and in their faculties, guidelines, man- essay reveal the level of quality that some communica- agers, systems assessment, and certification. This tion programs have in Mexico. The proliferation of marks the whole sprawl of an industry that best resem- units or campuses with the designation communication bles a business formed to obtain easy profits, rather and its affiliated programs in the country as well as the than strengthening education and training in communi- fact that they do not have any certification by the cation for the country. Ministry of Education are matters of high priority for Researchers participating in this study the country. Below are the names and institutions that participated D. Conclusion in this effort: Dr. José Eduardo Borunda Escobedo of the Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua Ciudad Juarez This study of Mexico found 1,006 communica- Campus; Dr. Casas Pérez Maria de la Luz of the Instituto tion programs taught in the context of formal educa- Tecnologico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey Campus tional institutions. There are a variety of designations Cuernavaca; Mtra. Ivone Castro Cota at the University of the West, Unit Los Mochis; Dr. Chong Lee White at the

38 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS Autonomous University of Coahuila Torreón Unit; Mr. De la nos de utilidad social? Códigos, Revista de Ciencias de Rocha Ledezma at the Jorge Benavente Lasallian University, la Comunicación, 1(1). [Tercera Época, Año 1]. SC; Mtra. Delgado Sánchez Yulieth of the University of México: Universidad de las Américas Puebla. Central Mexico; Mr. Durazo Jesus Moreno of the Fuentes, R., & Hernández, F. (2009). Historia de la Universidad Kino, AC; Dr. Figueroa Romeo of Veracruzana Comunicación, historias de los medios y del campo University; MSc. Joaquín Gutiérrez of Mateo Sanguino académica: reflexiones sobre el futuro de la investi- Campechano Institute; MC Jacinta Pérez Hernández at gación en México. In A. Vega Montiel (Ed.), La Juárez Autonomous University of Tabasco; Dr. Lucila Comunicación en México: Una agenda de investi- Hinojosa of Cordova Autonomous University of Nuevo gación (pp. 185-196). México: Universidad Nacional León; Alejandra Islas, Professor of the Universidad Anahuac Autónoma de México, centro de Investigaciones Oaxaca; MSc. Gerardo Barrios Leon of the Autonomous Interdisciplinarias en Ciencias y Humanidades, University of Baja California, Tijuana Campus; Mtra. Maria Posgrado en Ciencias Políticas y Sociales, Universidad de Lourdes Lopez Gutierrez of the Universidad del Valle de Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Universidad Autónoma Mexico Campus Tlalpan; Mtra. Ruth Lopez Landeros de Baja California, Asociación Mexicana de Ildebranda at Loyola University of the Pacific; Mr. López Investigadores de la Comunicación. Vázquez Victor Hugo at the Universidad Anahuac Cancún; Fuentes Navarro, R. (2005). La configuración de la oferta MSc. Alfredo Gonzalez Lugo, Michoacan Institute of nacional de estudios superiores en Comunicación: Education Sciences “José María Morelos”; Mr. Mejia Ortega Reflexiones analíticas y contextuales. In J. A. Calles of Isabel Victoria Campechano Institute; Mtra. Erika Santillana (Ed.), XII Anuario de Investigación de la Mining, Institute of Technology and Higher Studies of Comunicación CONEICC (pp. 15-40). México: Monterrey Campus Estado de Mexico; Mtra. Vanessa Consejo Nacional para la Enseñanza y la Investigación Amezcua of Carmen Muriel Autonomous University of de las Ciencias de la Comunicación. Queretaro; MSc. Malpica Nieto Jorge of the Universidad Nosnik Ostrowiak, A. (2008). 1948-2008. 60 años de Autonoma de Tamaulipas, Tampico Campus; MSc. Stefano enseñanzas y aprendizajes en Comunicación. Códigos, Serrano Niro from Universidad Anahuac Mexico Norte; Mr. Revista de Ciencias de la Comunicación, 1(1). Roche Mauricio Ortíz, Autonomous University of Hidalgo [Tercera Época, Año 1]. México: Universidad de las State; Mtra. Eva Maria Perez Castrejon, Popular Américas Puebla. Autonomous University of Puebla State; MSc. Duran Juan Prieto, F. (2008). 48 años de las Escuelas de Comunicación Carlos Perez of the Universidad del Altiplano; Mtra. Ana en el mundo. Códigos, Revista de Ciencias de la Karina Gomez Robles, University of Colima; Mtra. Irazoqui Comunicación, 1(1). [Tercera Época, Año 1]. México: Yadira Robles, University Atemajac Valley; MSc. Subías Universidad de las Américas Puebla. Gordillo Rafael of the Universidad del Valle de Mexico Rebeil Corella, Ma. A. (2006). Introducción. In Ma. A. Campus Querétaro; Mtra. Marisol Rodriguez Tello, Anahuac Rebeil Corella (Ed.), XIII Anuario de Investigación de University Mayab; Mtra. Yazmin Gutierrez Vargas of the la Comunicación CONEICC (pp. 19-27). México: Universidad Autonoma de Baja California Mexicali Consejo Nacional para la Enseñanza y la Investigación Campus; Mr. Vera Lopez Juan Antonio of the Universidad de las Ciencias de la Comunicación, Universidad Autonoma de Aguascalientes; and Mtra. Victor Victoria, Anáhuac México Norte, Universidad Autónoma de University Atemajac Valley. Coahuila, Campus Saltillo, Universidad Iberoameri- cana Ciudad de México, Universidad Iberoamericana, Sources Campus León. Rebeil Corella, Ma. A. (2007). Introducción. In Ma. A. Calles Santillana, J. A. (Ed.). (2005). XII Anuario de Rebeil Corella (Ed.), XIV Anuario de Investigación de Investigación de la Comunicación CONEICC. la Comunicación CONEICC (pp. 21-32). México: México: Consejo Nacional para la Enseñanza y la Consejo Nacional para la Enseñanza y la Investigación Investigación de las Ciencias de la Comunicación de las Ciencias de la Comunicación, Universidad Chong, B. (2008). Los retos en la formación de los comuni- Anáhuac México Norte, Universidad Autónoma cadores en México. Códigos, Revista de Ciencias de la Metropolitana, Universidad de Monterrey, Univer- Comunicación, 1(1). [Tercera Época, Año 1]. 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COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 39 Comunicación, 1(1). [Tercera Época, Año 1]. México: tion of security initiatives is a given “good,” integra- Universidad de las Américas Puebla. tion of national, regional, and international security Unesco & Felafacs. (2009). Mapa Integral de la enseñanza standards is a new imperative. Yet this is a complex and de la Comunicación en América Latina. Retrieved complicated business, both at the technical level, as the October 14, 2009 from www.felafacs.org/unesco. authors point out, and at the level of defense, especial- ly as it pertains to terrorism, as the fourth to sixth chap- Book Reviews ters of the book detail. In a post 9-11 world, scrubbing defense secrets, and legislation such as the Patriot Act Cavelty, Myriam, Victor Mauer, and Sai Felica and the UN Security Resolution 1373 were designed to Krishna-Hensel (Eds.). Power and Security in the protect against terrorist threats. As the global culture of Information Age: Investigating the Role of the State in information exchange develops, a growing culture of Cyberspace. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2007. Pp. xiv, cybersecurity in advanced countries cannot overlook 167. ISBN: 978-0-7546-7088-9 (hbk.) $29.99 (online: the challenges that are simultaneously growing in the $26.99 at www.ashgatepublishing.com). developing economies of the world as well. In five central chapters, introduced by a lucid and The volume concludes that the central security far-reaching preface and a dense and ambiguous “con- policy today is to protect society from “asymmetri- clusion,” this co-edited, co-authored volume published cal” threats that arise from the information revolu- in December 2007 raises the specter and the difficulty tion. Security requirements are increased not only by of analyzing the threats and risks in cyberspace to the the inseparability of basic civil systems such as trans- relationship of the Internet with the notion of the cyber- portation from the military; by the globalization state, particularly its ability to control information processes that result from the opening up of the mar- about its citizens, infiltrate enemy systems, monitor ketplace to liberal, democratic forces; and by the free protections, and reach across borders to learn about exchange of news, information, opinion, private, and new information. The role of countries in both over- public data. All of these at once stimulate cross bor- seeing and cultivating the range of information sys- der exchanges and cross national infrastructures, but tems—financial, civil, governmental, and military— the widespread access to telecommunications net- are, to understate the matter, of sufficient complexity works exacerbates the need for security requirements that the best minds of the generation must address globally. So where does that leave the State, the them. Despite the difficulties of a multiple edited, mul- Nation accustomed to dominating the news, ideolog- tiple authored text, involving professors from ically? It must position each state in a newly aggres- Switzerland, the U.S., and Ireland, this book advances sive posture, at once defensive, self-protective, and the argument in important ways. It is best suited for a pointedly into surveillance. New forms of warfare, as reference library, graduate students in political science the authors point out, have emerged from the strate- and international relations, and less so for the under- gic minds that transcend the marketplace, commerce, graduate communication classroom. information flow, and news. The complexity of the In her preface, Auburn University Professor Sai infrastructure and concentration of information Felicia Krishna-Hensel outlines the main challenges thrusts the Nation State into a role of unprecedented facing governments and policy professionals: (1) the importance. The question, it would seem, is for the Internet is being used in criminal modes; and (2) democratic order to temper the urge to self-protect controlling criminality undermines the “freedoms” with the allure of collaborative, shared risk that that informed the development of the web. The might diminish the threats to any one international simultaneous tension between the free flow of infor- actor. At the same time, and from the opposite end of mation and the potential for terrorism is more than the ideological spectrum, precision militarism, based any one country can control or pretend to oversee, on precise information about the enemy, is the new and as a result the need for cooperation among gov- world order that needs to be addressed by liberal ernments has never been greater, if mainly for their democracies dedicated to the freedom of ideas, news, collective defense. information exchange, science, and public opinion in As chapters 1-3 outline, the debates and implica- the global mediated public square. It would seem that tions for public policy are interconnected, ideological- one or the other tide must prevail, but the irony and ly and technically, and challenging. While standardiza- the interest of this book is to suggest that both might

40 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS co-exist: one system on the surface and readily acces- Although sociobiological arguments have been sible; the other hidden, surreptitious, and equally occasionally used [as proof of racial inferiority] available. this type of criticism [of sociobiology] is not The volume includes a reference list and an only analytically weak but is often very counter- index. —Claire Badaracco productive. First, any systematic theoretical Marquette University attempt to explain the motives of human behav- ior is open to misinterpretation, simplification, political manipulation, and general misuse. If we Malesevic, Sinisa. The Sociology of Ethnicity. hold Darwin responsible for racism and sexism, London: SAGE Publications, Ltd. 2004. Pp. 200. ISBN we can, with equal vigor, hold Thomas Aquinas 978-0-7619-4041-8 (hbk.) $106.00; 978-0-7619-4042- responsible for the Spanish Inquisition, 5 (pb.) $53.95. Rousseau for the Jacobin Reign of Terror . . . . [It is] pointless to condemn or prevent academic Formulating a definition for the term “ethnicity” inquiry on the grounds of its potential misuse. has vexed scholars across disciplines, resulting in a con- (pp. 86-87) ceptual potpourri reeking of ideological factionalism. This is a good sample of the quality of the author’s For example, a somewhat facile stance—bordering on thinking and the fair-mindedness of his commentary. the facetious—dismisses ethnicity as a social construct Malesevic’s chapter on Elite Theory—which fea- invented by anthropologists to ensure they find what tures Cohen’s work—is notable on two counts: (1) its they seek. One of the more radical definitions rejects pertinence to the present-day global crisis created by classifying people along primordial racial lines in favor unregulated Wall Street machinations; and (2) its show- of viewing ethnicity as an “informal political organiza- ing the difficulty of attempting to place certain thinkers tion.” Thus, London stockbrokers constitute an “ethnic in paradigmatic boxes; the ideas subsumed under Elite group” because they collectively strive for material Theory—as in other chapters—are multidisciplinary. spoils—and, for good measure, they also tend to marry This is apparent in the adage “ethnicity is politics,” into their own class. So thought Abner Cohen, whose which describes Elite Theory’s foundational position much lauded anthropological field studies likened stock- (p. 111). States Cohen: brokers to Hausa traders—in cattle and kola nuts—in Ethnicity in modern society is the outcome of Nigeria because both groups derived their identity from intensive interaction between different culture commerce rather than from racial or tribal origins. groups and not the result of a tendency to sepa- Cohen’s theories are among the more salient sur- ratism. It is the result of intensive struggle veyed by Sinisa Malesevic in The Sociology of between groups over new strategic positions of Ethnicity, an attempt to systematize and critique the power within the structure of the new state thicket of ideas grown dense around ethnicity—a term places of employment, taxation, funds for devel- coined in 1953 by the sociologist David Riesman, best opment, education, political positions, and so on. known for his treatise on conformity, The Lonely (p. 116) Crowd. Malesevic manages his task through selectivi- The writers classed as Elite Theorists discount ty, limiting his analyses to the eight research para- nominal differences among political and social sys- digms he deems the most influential. These he labels tems. Regardless of the appellation—democracy, Neo-Marxism, Functionalism, Symbolic Interaction- monarchy, socialism—a minority always dominates ism, Sociobiology, Rational Choice Theory, Elite the majority. Just as in pre-modern times, social order Theory, Neo-Weberianism, and Anti-foundationalism. is shaped by an oligarchy’s incessant attempt to impose This classification scheme structures the book. A its will upon the masses. Although technology and chapter is devoted to each paradigm, which Malesevic other factors have precipitated increased mass political unfolds by summarizing the seminal writings of like- participation, “in reality social structures remain res- minded thinkers. Malesevic does more than simply olutely hierarchical, and change is little more than a broker ideas, however. He critiques, adjudicates, and camouflage for the elite’s tighter grip on political defends. Take Malesevic’s defense of sociobiology, a power” (p. 112). Essentially, power is acquired and favorite target of those “socially conscious” critics held through a blend of symbol manipulation and brute who fear implications that ethnic superiority is geneti- force. Malesevic traces the roots of this stance to cally determined: Machiavelli. By placing symbol manipulation at the

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 — 41 center of political and economic life, Elite Theory Brass shows the flammability of cultural markers such steers social analysis into the realm of psychology or as the Urdu language, sacred cows, and Shari’a law. the investigation of the “irrational.” These markers were manipulated by competing Hindu A chief proponent of the irrational nature of social and Muslim elites. These factions, however, used only action was Vilfredo Pareto, the Italian thinker who for- the most expedient symbols—rather than those central mulated the “80-20 principle.” The principle states that to each religion—subtly distorting their meanings. For 80% of any given outcome derives from 20% of the example, the inversion of the statement “‘Hindus possible causes. (Pareto had noticed that 20% of the revere the cow’ into ‘those who revere the cow are Italian population owned 80% of the nation’s land.) In Hindus’ illustrates an elite’s power to transform the explaining how the few manage to dominate the many, existing cultural markers into forceful political sym- Pareto revived Machiavelli’s metaphoric dictum that bols for ethno-mobilization” (p. 119). holding power requires the combined characteristics of The weakest chapter in The Sociology of Ethnicity the lion and the fox: The lion possesses determination is Malesevic’s concluding attempt to examine the 1994 and frightening brute strength, but is susceptible to the Rwandan genocide through the lens of each of the eight cleverly laid traps that the fox evades through natural paradigms. This exercise feels forced and lends itself to cunning. Applied to the human domain, fox-like cun- unwitting reification. For example, “The neo-Marxist ning represents the manipulation of symbols: slippery explanation would focus on the colonial strategy of persuasive stratagems whose successful deployment divide and rule pursued by both German and Belgian plays upon the irrationality of human behavior. Pareto colonizers” (p. 160). This explanation, of course, is termed the “non-logical” motives that govern human entirely Malesevic’s hypothetical extrapolation, which beings “residuas.” These “are deeply rooted sentiments he imputes to an imaginary and monolithic tribe called and impulses” that “are the paramount and stable the neo-Marxists. Hence the reification. source of individual action” (p. 112). However, to Stumble though he might, Malesevic is always maintain enough social order to enable societies to compelling. He evenhandedly fulfills his stated pur- function, these irrational impulses or residuas must be pose of surveying the leading theories on ethnicity. In given a rational veneer. This involves “encoding and doing so, Malesevic introduces the reader to a vast formulating” residuas as “reasoned and rational.” Thus range of first-rate thinkers. Implicitly, The Sociology of residuas are transformed into intellectual constructs Ethnicity also demonstrates the artificiality of attempt- called “derivations,” which are rational justifications ing to grasp the complexities of the social world for deeply irrational motives. Official elite claims, through academic divisions. such that they struggle “to safeguard democracy,” The book includes references (pp. 185-194), a “to protect the Islamic way of life” or “to preserve name index (pp. 195-196), and a subject index (pp. socialism,” amount to nothing more than justifi- 197-200). —Tony Osborne cation of the personal or group drive to hold or Gonzaga University acquire power. In this process more successful elites are able, through the use of supple deriva- Schiller, Dan, How to Think about Information. tions, to intensify mass residuas. The popular sup- Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2007. port of leaders is reflected in a ruler’s ability to Pp. 288. ISBN13: 978-0-252-03132-8 (hbk.) $35.00; meet mass sentiments. (p. 112-13) 978-0-252-07755-5 (pb.) $25.00. In agitating mass sentiment, the notion of ethnic- ity is a useful tool. The familiar ploy, as Malesevic It is a tribute to the power of this book’s insights explains it, involves dressing up particular interests as that when reading it you find yourself reverting to your essential to universal well-being. This ruse becomes dog-eared copies of other important books: Empire and evident during power struggles between political elites Communications by Harold Innis; Communication as who use ethnic rituals and symbols to mobilize the Culture by James W. Carey; and The Political masses. “The emotional appeals to potent symbols Economy of Media by Robert W. McChesney. And to such as the common ethnic ancestry or ethnic hero works by Herb Schiller, this author’s father. worship is the most expedient device for elites in However, Dan Schiller, located like several of the achieving their ends” (p. 117). In The Production of above scholars at the University of Illinois, has a paper Hindu-Muslim Violence in Contemporary India, Paul trail of his own to be proud of. His previous works

42 — VOLUME 29 (2010) NO. 2 COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TRENDS include Digital Capitalism: Networking the Global During the 1980s and especially the 1990s, the Market System; Theorizing Communication: A Histor- largest and fastest reorganization of productive ical Reckoning; Telematics and Government; and assets in world business history took place, Objectivity and the News: The Public and the Rise of loosely synchronized to make-over what had Commercial Journalism. been a (typically inadequate) public service into So we embark on this culture and information a corporate-commercial function. (p. 41) technology journey guided by previous scholarship in Schiller concludes, “The digital divide is, most pro- the United States and abroad; Raymond William and foundly about the distribution of social power to make Stuart Hall appear regularly in Schiller’s writings. We policy for the production and distribution of Infor- are asked here to reflect on “how to think about infor- mation resources. Unless the power is broadly shared, mation”—is it a resource for individual and global democracy itself is threatened” (p. 57). development or a product, a commodity to enrich cor- Chapter 4 gives an informative and useful porate profits? Much of the book deals with examining overview of U.S. telecommunication system develop- commodification: ment by business users, much of it for their own inter- [I]t is helpful to focus not on the commodity in nal use. Colorful terms begin to appear such as “infor- itself but rather on the commodification process. mationalized capitalism,” “broadbandits,” “cybernetic An uneven but ongoing process of commodifi- capitalism,” and “Republic of information.” Chapter 5 cation is foundational to capitalist development; gives stark data about the telecommunications melt- its historical generalization throughout the infor- down in 2001 and 2002, providing “a grim lesson in mational sphere constitutes a landmark of the information-age economics.” (It would be interesting contemporary political economy. (p. 21) to compare these data with the reality of the global The Preface notes that “in this work, ‘information’ financial crisis almost a decade later.) operates as a kind of shorthand to include the converg- In Chapter 6 Schiller explores the commodifica- ing fields of culture, media, and telecommunications.” tion of the culture industry—books, music, films, Chapter 1 is a slightly revised version of blockbusters, star personalities, mass publicity, wide Schiller’s essay in The Political Economy of distribution, and market tie-ins, for example. The battle Information, (edited by Vincent Mosco and Janet is detailed between U.S. “cultural imperialism” and Wasko, 1988). Here he frames contemporary thinking global struggles for diversity. Again, it would be inter- about information in the context of political economy. esting to have this story updated, especially in the light “We suggest that the Information commodity has of a new President and administration and Federal become the prime site of contemporary expansion— Communication Commission in Washington. such as it is—within and for the world market sys- Chapters 7 and 8 provide useful details about the tem” (pp. 16-17). impact of advertising and mobile telephone technolo- Schiller examines the overlaps and differences gy—with data that reach up to about 2005. Both fields between information and culture in Chapter 2. He have changed since those years, but the figures here are emphasizes that “often supported by telecommunica- both informative and dramatic. tions infrastructures, Information has become an The final chapter of this valuable book focuses on increasingly significant factor of production across all “China, Information and the World Economy.” With economic sectors, including agriculture and manufac- China v. Google headlines greeting us today, it’s help- turing as well as high-tech services” (p. 24). Moving ful to review recent data on China’s reintegration into beyond Daniel Bell and the postindustrial theorists, the global capitalism, with emphasis on the ICT sector. author notes that “information-commodity theorists Many of these chapters are updated reprints of begin with capitalism . . .” where “a commodity is a Schiller’s work previously published elsewhere. resource that is produced for the market by wage However, it is valuable to have all these topics linked labor.” He calls upon Ithiel de Sola Pool, Raymond and integrated into this volume. Sixty pages of notes Williams, and Stuart Hall to enrich his analysis of the and an index add to its value. relations of cultural and informational production. —Frances Forde Plude Chapter 3 tracks the expansion of information and Notre Dame College, Cleveland communication technologies (ICTs).

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