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262 GOLD V REPORT Middle East and West Asia Regional chapter

Bahrein (photo: AlejandroVN, bit.ly/2M4hk6e).

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 263 1. Introduction Page 265

2. National and local institutional frameworks West for the implementation Asia of the SDGs Page 268

2.1. National frameworks

2.2. Local and regional government institutional frameworks

2.3. Multilevel governance mechanisms and trends for stakeholder involvement Middle East 3. The contribution of local Asia and regional governments to the localization of the SDGs Page 282

3.1. Promoting local ownership to localize the SDGs

3.2. Local initiatives in line with the 2030 Agenda

4. Conclusions Page 290

Middle East West Asia Asia

Bahrain Afghanistan Iraq Iran Jordan Kuwait Lebanon Oman Qatar Saudi Arabia State of Palestine Syria Turkey United Arab Emirates Yemen

264 GOLD V REPORT 1. Introduction

The Middle East and West Asia (MEWA) region While the discovery of oil in the 20th century presents distinct and significant challenges with gave Iraq and Iran substantial wealth that allowed regard to the involvement of local and regional them to develop an industrial base, the economic governments (LRGs) in the achievement of the base of Afghanistan, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). With Syria and Yemen has been unable to keep up with a historical record of strong centralization and population growth, and urban unemployment authoritarian regimes, the region has in recent has generally risen. In some countries, Jordan years felt the impact of extensive conflicts and Palestine in particular, the remittances of in Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan and Yemen, and expatriate workers in Gulf states and Western experienced high population growth and rapid Crowd in İstiklal Caddesi, urbanization. Istanbul, Turkey (photo: © Jaume Puigpinós Serra). With around 364 million inhabitants, the MEWA region is one of extreme heterogeneity.1 Thanks to their oil wealth, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) monarchies — Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) — are among the wealthiest countries of the world with a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, purchasing power parity, ranging from USD 50,526 to USD 154,008. The State of Palestine, Yemen and Afghanistan, meanwhile, are among the poorest (USD 4,885, USD 2,150 and USD 1,981 respectively). With the exception of Afghanistan and Yemen, the region is highly urbanized: 67% of its population live in cities. Jordan and the GCC countries are the most urbanized with nearly 84% of their populations living in urban settlements; Afghanistan and Yemen are the least urbanized with 27% and 35% respectively of their populations living in cities. Israel is not included in this analysis. Large-scale migration from rural areas and the massive influx of refugees has accelerated urban growth, with a current annual growth rate of 2.6%).2 This has led to overcrowding of existing built areas and the growth of informal settlements. Climate change, in the context of fragile natural systems, has exacerbated access to basic services problems, particularly with regard to access to water, and thus the ability to provide an essential service. Over 50% of the population are under 25 and young workers aged 15-25 account for 20% of the labour force.3

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 265 displacements of vulnerable populations. Even Despite recurring conflicts, political though most of the 4.3 million people that fled to Iran and Pakistan have since returned, their need turmoil and civil unrest, most countries for shelter, services and economic integration is had made significant economic progress. placing huge pressures on the local economy.4 In Iraq, the 2003 war caused widespread destruction in most cities, including Baghdad, Basrah and Mosul, and severe damage to the civilian Europe have financed a rapid urbanization. Oil infrastructure. The 2014 invasion of the Western wealth has allowed the GCC countries to embark part of the country by Da’esh fighters resulted in on ambitious development programmes and chaotic conditions, and cities as well as smaller urban megaprojects that rival western models. towns and villages suffered extensive physical Since the beginning of the century, a succession damage and devastation. of wars and sectarian conflict have afflicted While Syria’s civil war shows signs of winding large parts of the MEWA region. The State of down, the destruction of national infrastructure Palestine (West Bank and Gaza) is still under and of urban areas has been massive. Refugees Israeli occupation and/or blockade. The civil war fleeing the conflict have moved to neighbouring in Afghanistan caused massive destruction and countries with approximately 3.6 million refugees

266 GOLD V REPORT in Turkey, 1.1 million in Lebanon, 630,000 in devastated Syria but also affected Iraq, Jordan, Jordan, 245,000 in Iraq, and 118,000 in Egypt.5 Lebanon and Turkey, as displaced populations In Jordan and Lebanon, most refugees are living sought refuge and traditional regional economic in densely settled urban areas, driving up housing ties were severed. costs and placing stress on available public Jordan has borne much of the brunt of services. One of the two poorest countries in the the crises at its borders. Wars and conflicts in region, Yemen has been in the throes of a civil war neighbouring countries have resulted in waves since 2014, and over 22 million people — three- of refugees and displaced persons, imposing quarters of the population — forcibly displaced serious economic challenges and fuelling an in multiple waves are in desperate need of aid increase in poverty, unemployment rates and and protection. An estimated 13.5 million people stresses on infrastructure and services. Jordan’s (including six million children) have been in need population in 2015 was 9.5 million, nearly 40% of of one form or another of humanitarian aid: food, whom were refugees, displaced by the four Arab- potable water, sanitation and waste disposal. Israeli wars and granted Jordanian citizenship. In Despite recurring conflicts, political turmoil and spite of the negative effect of regional conflicts, civil unrest, most countries had made significant Jordan made remarkable progress towards economic progress before the outbreak of the meeting the Millennium Development Goals Syrian civil war in early 2011. The conflict not only (MDGs). The absolute poverty rate dropped from approximately 21% in 1990 to 14.4% in 2010. It is a similar story in Lebanon. Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, Lebanon was second only to Jordan as a country of destination for Palestinian refugees, 504,000 of whom are currently registered by the United National Relief and Works Agency for Palestine (UNRWA).6 As a result of the Syrian civil war, more than a million people displaced by the conflict have found refuge in Lebanon. The government estimates that the country now hosts 1.1 million refugees; this includes nearly one million Syrians registered with UNHCR, 31,000 Palestinians displaced from Syria, and 35,000 Lebanese returnees from Syria. Based on this framework, this chapter provides a broad description and analysis of the challenges and opportunities for the implementation of the SDGs by LRGs in the MEWA region. The first part of the chapter describes the engagement with the SDG agenda at the national level, the participation of LRGs and the institutional context for SDG implementation, including recent trends regarding (de)centralization and the governance frameworks of LRGs, particularly as regards decision-making. The second part of the chapter focuses on the specific efforts of LRGs across the region to contribute to the SDGs, as well as those of local civil society and those supported by external actors. The analysis takes a comprehensive view of these initiatives, considering not only those explicitly identified with the SDGs, but also efforts whose outcomes are directly related to the SDGs, even if no explicit linkage to the framework is established in their formulation. The last section presents the main conclusions and potential next steps.

Kids playing and resting in in UNRWA Training Center in Sibling, Lebanon (photo: Silvio Arcangeli, bit.ly/2Mn9Iuo).

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 267 2. National and local institutional frameworks for the implementation of the SDGs

268 GOLD V REPORT 2.1 National frameworks

The MEWA region countries share a tradition of for indicators are lacking and, since over half centralized systems of governance that inevitably of government expenditure is dedicated to influences the SDG implementation process. All security, the country’s capacity to implement SDG countries in the region have similar multi-tiered policies remains limited. The 2017 VNR mentions governance structures: governorates, districts the importance of SDG localization, while also and municipalities in urbanized areas, and highlighting that this can only be achieved after governorates and villages in rural areas.7 This adoption at the national level. multi-tiered system of governance is reflected In Iraq, the government has divided the in the institutional structures that are being 17 SDGs into eight socio-economic sectors: created in each country for the implementation security, education, health, governance, of the SDGs. With the exception of Syria and infrastructure, social protection, agriculture and Yemen, SDG principles have been incorporated rural development, and economy. It has identified in current national development strategies 169 specific national targets and 217 indicators. A (NDSs), with some modifications that reflect the Social Fund for Development has been established Islamic values that prevail in many countries. to support the implementation of the SDGs at the Twelve MEWA countries submitted their local level.10 Moreover, the central level has created Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) to the High- an SDG National Coordination Commission, SDG Level Political Forum (HLPF) in the 2016-2019 Secretariat, Technical Coordination Committees, period.8 Almost all countries share the same Technical Working Groups, and an SDG High-Level mechanisms of follow-up and implementation Board to ensure smoother implementation. The of the SDGs: a high-level council of ministries; a Global Initiative Towards a Sustainable Iraq (GITSI) national coordination committee; or a national is a further acknowledgement of the importance of commission for sustainable development, including LRGs in the process. formed by various ministry-level representatives The government of Iran has not yet declared and usually led by one ministry in particular, when it will report to the HLPF. SDG stakeholders often the one in charge of territorial or urban include the Sustainable Development planning. Consultation processes and partnership Steering Council, the national legislature, local methods are not always well-defined, even governments, academia, civil society, and the when a consultation process has been explicitly private sector.11 mentioned in the VNR. The participation of local In the GCC countries, the implementation governments is often determined by their legal of the SDGs is primarily the responsibility of position in the country's political system, but mostly it is limited or even non-existent. In Afghanistan, the primary SDG implementing agency is the Ministry of Economy, through its In the MEWA region, the participation SDG Secretariat (SD). While the SD’s mission of local governments is often determined is to ensure a broad national participation and promote a sense of ownership among national by their legal position in the country's stakeholders, all sub-national administrative political system, but mostly it is limited entities are institutionally and financially dependent on the central government.9 Accurate or even non-existent. data for setting baselines and annual targets

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 269 Table 1 National strategies for integrating SDGs, coordination mechanisms and LRG participation

Afghanistan Saudi Arabia National Peace and Development Office), National Higher National Saudi Vision 2030, National Framework (2016-2021) and Committee for Sustainable Transformation Programme 2020 integrated in 22 National Priority Development (created in and sector-specific strategies (e.g. Programmes (NPPs). Coordination: 2002, headed by the Minister National Environmental Strategy, High Council of Minister (policy of Planning and International etc). Coordination: Council of guidance), Executive Committee Cooperation), Coordination Ministers (high-level political on the SDGs (in the Office of the Committee (oversees EDPs). direction); Minister of Economy Chief Executive – the President's and Planning (coordination Office, and co-chaired by the Kuwait entity); Council of Economic and Ministry of Economy), National Kuwait Vision 2035 and Kuwait Development Affairs (tasked with Coordination Committee National Development Plan the implementation of Vision 2030), (inter-ministerial, include multi- (2015-2020). Coordination: Strategy Committee (proposes stakeholder engagement) Technical National Sustainable Development strategies for achieving Vision 2030). Coordination Committee. Committee, co-led by the General Secretariat of the Turkey th th Bahrain Supreme Council for Planning and 10 and 11 National Development Government Plan of Action Development and the Ministry of Plans (2014-2018 and 2019- 2015-2018. Coordination: National Foreign Affairs (MoFA), National 2023) and Annual Programmes. Information Committee (chaired by Observatory on Sustainable Coordination: Presidency of the Minister of Cabinet Affairs). Development and Anticipation of Strategy and Budget (PSB), under the Future (multi-stakeholder). the Turkish Presidency; Department of Environment and Sustainable Iran Development (DESD) under PSB Iran has still not presented its Lebanon coordinates follow-up, monitoring VNR. It prepared the 6th National National Physical Master Plan and reporting. Turkstat produces the Five-Year Development Plan of the Lebanese Territory required data. 2017-2022, and other sectoral (2009) but does not yet have a plans (e.g. Climate Change national integrated sustainable Plan, Health Transformation development framework. United Arab Emirates (UAE) Plan), and will prepare a national Coordination: National Committee Vision 2021 (adopted in 2005), Vision sustainable development strategy. for the SDGs, headed by the Prime 2071 (UAE Centennial Strategy), Coordination: National Committee Minister (multi-stakeholder). launched in 2017, Emirates' own for Sustainable Development (but national development plans (for five a new mechanism will be created). out of seven emirates), National Key Oman Performance Indicators aligned with th 'Oman 2040' and the 9 the SDGs. Coordination: National Iraq Development Plan 2016-2020. Committee on SDGs (chaired by the Iraq Vision 2030, National Coordination: National Committee Minister of State for International Development Plan 2018-2022 for the SDGs, created under the Cooperation and by the chairwoman and Poverty Reduction Strategy. High-Level Council on Planning. of the Federal Competitiveness and Coordination: National Commission Statistics Authority). for Sustainable Development Palestine (State of) (chaired by the Ministry of National Policy Agenda 2017-2022. Planning), SDG Secretariat, Coordination: National SDG Team Technical Coordination Middle East (headed by the Prime Minister), Committees, Technical Working supported by 12 SDG working and West Asia Groups, and an SDG High-Level groups (multi-stakeholder). Board, Monitoring Committee headed by the Ministry of Planning (multi-stakeholder, Qatar consultative body), Governorate Qatar National Vision 2030 and Committees for SD. National Development Strategy 2018-2022. Coordination: Council Jordan of Ministers (oversight), Ministry of Development Planning and Statis- Jordan 2025, Executive tics (coordination entity). Development Programmes

(EDPs, 2016-2019), Roadmap for SDG Implementation, thematic strategies (e.g. Economic Growth Plan 2018-2022). Coordination: Sources: UNDESA, 'Compendium of National Higher Steering Committee Institutional Arrangements for the SDGs (headed by the Prime Minister's 2016-2017 and 2018'; VNRs; UCLG surveys.

270 GOLD V REPORT national ministries. Qatar has aligned the SDGs with its own Qatar National Vision 2030. The In MEWA countries, with the exception Ministry of Development, Planning and Statistics (MDPS) is in charge of implementing both the of Syria and Yemen, SDG principles National Vision 2030 and the SDGs, and has have been incorporated in current incorporated the 2030 Agenda in different sectors and established various dedicated task national development strategies with teams. At least eight municipalities have drafted modifications that reflect the Islamic spatial development plans.12 In Bahrain, SDG implementation is based values that prevail in many of them. on a government Plan of Action, under the responsibility of the National Information Committee, chaired by the Minister of Cabinet Affairs and designed to bring together all units implementation of the SDGs (with the broad of the central government involved in SDG aim of reducing poverty to 8% by 2015 and implementation, reporting through the National 7% by 2030), including consultations with Statistical Office.13 The consultation process stakeholders. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Planning has involved community groups, civil society and International Cooperation is in charge of organizations (CSOs), and private sector, although reporting progress. In Lebanon, a national there is no reference to the engagement of the committee to implement the SDGs was formed in country’s five governorates. While governorate 2017, with members including ministerial officials, councillors are in fact elected, governors are and representatives from CSOs and the private appointed by the monarchy: the Bahraini VNR, sector. This is chaired by the Prime Minister. consequently, considered governorates as an Sub-committees monitor the implementation extension of the national government. of each thematic component. While workshops Saudi Arabia reported in 2018 by adapting were held for central government agencies, its Saudi Vision 2030 to the SDG framework. the private sector and CSOs, none was held for Implementation efforts are led by the Ministry of LRGs.15 Although Palestine has incorporated Economy and Planning, which is also the body the SDGs in its national strategy and submitted in charge of reporting and data collection from a VNR in 2018, little progress has been achieved other ministries and relevant stakeholders. The because of limited resources and the continued Saudi VNR puts emphasis on the private sector’s Israeli occupation of the West Bank and blockade engagement in the SDG process as part of a trend of Gaza. No specific SDG-based consultative of economic diversification. The role of LRGs in process with local governments has yet been the process, however, is not clear: the consultation established.16 process was given no visibility, except for the Turkey was the first MEWA country to submit a Future Saudi Cities Programme, linked to the VNR in 2016 and again in 2019. Turkey’s national Saudi Vision 2030. development plan (NDP) was prepared by the Kuwait’s approach to the SDGs has been Ministry of Development (MoD). The government, guided by the ‘Kuwait Vision 2030’ and however, has since been restructured in the mainstreamed through the Kuwait National framework of the amendment of the Turkish Development Plan (2015-2020). The National Constitution (2017). The Presidency of Strategy Sustainable Development Committee provides and Budget (PSB) under the President’s Office is overall strategic leadership, with the collaboration now the focal point for sustainable development. of the General Secretariat of the Supreme Council The Department of Environment and Sustainable for Planning and Development; the Ministry Development (DESD) under PSB coordinates of Foreign Affairs; and the Central Statistical follow-up, monitoring and reporting, supported Bureau. A National Observatory on Sustainable by the Turkish Statistical Institute (TurkStat). Development and Anticipation of the Future Different ministries ensure coordination for each also plays a coordination role in follow-up, and SDG.17 The 2016 VNR granted little space to local was involved in the preparation of the VNR. governments. For the preparatory process of the It is expected to ensure the involvement of 2019 VNR, however, the national local government government entities, civil society, the private association (LGA), the Union of Municipalities of sector and other stakeholders.14 In Oman, a Turkey (UMT), was nominated to coordinate and National Committee for the SDGs was created collect information from LRGs. under the High-Level Council on Planning, and the SDGs were integrated in the long-term 'Oman 2040' plan and the 9th Development Plan 2016-2020. Jordan’s Higher National Steering Committee provides overall strategic guidance for the

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 271 2.2 Local and regional government institutional frameworks

As mentioned throughout this chapter, the the political system but not of the governmental countries of the MEWA region are characterized structure. In spite of the calls for more by a high degree of centralization, with only decentralization in the country's third NDP (2001- very few exceptions. This also applies to the 2005), decision-making for local infrastructure various tiers of local government: provincial planning and public services has generally been governors tend to have substantial powers top-down:22 many basic services are managed over municipal governments, either through directly by their respective ministries, and the the direct appointment of local authorities or authority of local governments is easily overridden the delivery of local services, or even both in by the Ministry of Interior. Villages are in general many cases. not granted sufficient resources or competences Afghanistan is still a primarily rural country: only to fulfil service-related tasks, and are thus reduced 27% of its population were classified as urban in to consultative bodies.23 2015. Its structure is organized into 34 provinces, Iraq’s 2005 Constitution established a federal 399 districts, 150 municipalities and about 40,000 state system, followed by a dedicated law on local villages (see Table 2). Tribal councils (jirgas), authorities (2008), which gave formal autonomy moreover, play a governance role across various to the country’s 18 governorates, three of which levels. Provincial governors are still appointed by (Erbil, Dohuk and Sulaymaniyah) subsequently the central government almost in spite of existing associated to form the Kurdistan Regional laws that already establish their electability.18 Local Government (KRG), based on article 199 of the elections have generally not been held since the Constitution. The KRG in fact is the only regional end of the Afghan wars: one in five municipal posts government that benefits from a high degree of is currently vacant.19 Municipalities implement autonomy. Elections to the governorate councils national plans and policies. The Independent were held in 2009 and 2013, but responsibilities Directorate of Local Governance (established have yet to be fully transferred to them, with in 2007 as a governmental entity) works as a central ministries still managing water, electricity, ‘compulsory’ LGA and theoretically provides and sanitation. Governorate budgets rely opportunities for citizen participation through the on redistributed oil revenue through budget establishment of Provincial Councils, Community allocations from the central government and, in Development Councils (CDCs) and District some cases, on their own petroleum revenues Development Assemblies. The latter two entities, or fees. The priorities determining the allocation both of which are part of the National Solidarity of resources are still set at the ministerial level.24 Programme (NSP) structure, assess community Governorate councils, 69 cities (baladiyah) with needs at the local level and design development more than 10,000 inhabitants and 120 districts projects accordingly.20 (qadaa) have elected local councils, which in turn Iran is organized into 31 provinces (ostan) choose their own executives.25 The governorate and 324 municipalities (shahrdarihah) — which councils have extensive power over the lower include cities (10,000 inhabitants or more), towns, local councils within the same governorate in the districts and villages. Provinces, cities, towns and execution of local projects. The capital Baghdad villages have directly elected councils (shora). At itself is a discrete territory. At the same time, the national level, a Higher Council of Provincial municipalities locally represent the Ministry of Councils was established in 2003. Provinces are Municipalities and Public Works. Inevitably, the headed by a governor appointed by the Ministry resettlement of internally displaced persons and of Interior, and municipalities by a mayor elected the improvement of security are two key issues by the local councils. The appointment of mayors facing local authorities. is subject to the Minister of Interior’s approval.21 In a very different context, all six countries From a legal point of view, municipalities and in the GCC are centralized monarchies and town councils are defined as ‘non-governmental, essentially, with the exception of Saudi Arabia, public organizations’. They are considered part of city-states. Their local councils, composed of

272 GOLD V REPORT both elected and appointed members, are urban policy. Although local councils prepare local primarily advisory bodies. Ministries set national, master plans and monitor their implementation, regional and local urban policies, while the power ministries still have the power to overrule local of municipal authorities is generally restricted. decisions. Similarly, central government transfers Kuwait has endowed sub-national authorities with still account for 70% of local expenditures. some executive powers: the Kuwait Municipality In Yemen, conversely, most local councils — now enjoys decision-making powers related to perceived as a continuation of the previous regime licensing, health and safety in workplaces, and the — have been inactive since the outbreak of conflict planning and approval of infrastructural projects. in 2015. In the country’s northern territories, Bahrain is divided into five governorates, each however, local tribes are de facto local bodies, headed by a governor, in charge of development- and tribal councils have remained active. As of related economic and social regional policies.26 In 2000, Yemen had three levels of government: the 2002, moreover, Bahrain held its first local elections national government, governorates at the regional since 1957. Governorate councils are elected level, and districts at the municipal level. Their but governors are still appointed by the central organization is mandated by the Local Authority government. In October 2011, the Sultanate of Law, which came into force in 2000. However, Oman announced the establishment of municipal even though the text of the law imposes the direct councils (wilayah) in all of its 11 governorates. election of district and governorate councillors, Until then, only the capital city of Muscat had had these posts have always been appointed by a council — whose members were however all national governments. Ultimately, studies show appointed. Local elections were eventually held that the current regulation of local government is in December 2012, although via the expression now either in conflict or redundant with at least of nominal preferences, since national law forbids 80 other pieces of legislation covering a range of the establishment of political parties.27 At the different issues.31 regional level, governorates are led by appointed Similarly, since 2011, Syria has experienced walis (governors), who report directly to the one of the worst and most heavily documented Ministry of the Interior. As the Ministry of Regional conflicts in the world. Traditionally, and formally Municipalities and Environment maintains control at least since 1963, the country adopted a over municipal budget and administration, Omani strictly centralized form of state. Nonetheless, municipalities enjoy very limited autonomy.28 and with the support of the European Union in Qatar’s elected Central Municipal council, particular, the country was able to begin the created in 1999, is purely advisory. In the UAE, a slow yet major modernization of its municipal number of federal and local regulations have been administrative system. With the start of the implemented in recent years. The membership of civil war, the ensuing collapse of an effective the Federal National Council, on the other hand, is political system has engendered a multiplicity of half-elected and half-appointed. The first council administrative systems in the areas not controlled elections were held in 2006. Local administrations by governmental forces. Military or civilian each have an executive council, which reports to leaders in different zones are retaining control the Ruler’s Court of each specific Emirate. The over territorial organization, thus fostering — to a capital Abu Dhabi has its own executive council, certain extent — the emergence of more localized currently chaired by the Crown Prince. initiatives, also with the support of tribal, religious The largest country in this group, Saudi Arabia, and family-clan leadership in certain areas.32 has a more conventional territorial organization: The situation with territorial organization and it includes 13 provinces, led by governors; (re-)centralizing trends is quite different in the municipalities report to governors for the delivery other countries of the Levant. Jordan is divided of local services.29 Over the last ten years, there into 12 governorates, each headed by a muhafez has been evidence of the role of local authorities (governor) reporting directly to the Ministry of expanding somewhat.30 The country’s shift Interior.33 Since the 2007 Municipal Act, 93 local towards more administrative de-concentration includes the establishment of regional authorities (amanat) and the enhancement of the institutional capacity of local agencies. Elections — limited to The countries of the MEWA region half the membership of local councils — were held in 2005, 2011 and 2015. The local councils have are characterized (with only very been given nominal planning and development few exceptions) by a high degree responsibilities and are specifically responsible for public health, the management of public space, of centralization, including direct and the issuance of building permits. However, appointment of local authorities and they do not enjoy comparable financial autonomy: the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs has delivery of local services. dominated the formulation and implementation of

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 273 municipal councils are elected for a mandate and programmes to strengthen their financial of four years, with the exception of the Greater management capabilities. It has channelled Amman Municipality, whose mayor and half the significant funding from international donors for municipal council are appointed by the Cabinet. municipal infrastructure, capacity development, Municipalities are ruled by elected officials but and other municipal activities. still placed under the supervision of the Ministry of Turkey, a founding member of the Council of Municipal Affairs. Since August 2015, members of Europe and an active member of its Congress the governorate councils have also been elected, of Local and Regional Authorities, is the most but governors remain appointed.34 Jordan’s 2015 decentralized country in the region. In 2004, the Decentralization Law, on the other hand, sought Turkish parliament adopted a comprehensive to mobilize more inclusive participation. Women, decentralization reform as part of its process for example, are guaranteed 20% of the seats on of integration with the European Union. Local municipal councils.35 Citizen participation in local authorities enjoy both financial and administrative governance, however, is still limited even though autonomy. There are three types of local the government has started to engage civil society government: villages, municipalities and special and solicited input on national policy through provincial administrations (SPAs). Following the formal dialogues, in an attempt to strengthen civil 2014 Metropolitan Reform, the number of local society’s role as a policy-making partner. governments with greater powers fell from 2,930 In Lebanon, the Taif Agreement — which to 1,398, especially in the case of metropolitan the Lebanese parliament approved in 1989 municipalities.37 As of December 2014, Turkey and marked the end of the Lebanese civil war also comprises 18,362 villages as the lowest tier — resulted in an extensive decentralization of local administration. The new presidential form process. The country today is divided into eight of government (following the referendum of April administrative governorates, 26 sub-regions 2017) has not affected the local government (Qadaa) and 1,018 municipalities. These can system. Central oversight issues remain, which associate in Municipal Unions (currently 51 of can affect the clarity of the relationship between them exist). New legislation enacted in 2014 has the local and central levels of governance. decentralized urban governance even further: accordingly, municipalities are now financially Evolution of key functions independent, although their activities must be and responsibilities of LRGs coordinated with the Ministry of Municipal Affairs. Actual capacity to implement the SDGs locally Central transfers, on the other hand, still account is inevitably linked to the distribution of for 40% of municipal revenues. An additional 14% responsibilities, power and resources between is received as a loan from the Cities and Villages national and local governance levels. Many Development Bank. Citizen participation in local countries of the MEWA region are disadvantaged governance is still minimal, even in spite of the by a legal and administrative framework that fails recent governmental efforts to engage more with to address the lack of transparency and clarity in civil society. Beirut, the capital city, has a unique the allocation and way in which tasks and labour system, in which the (elected) mayor retains are distributed among central, local and private certain policy-making powers while sharing the actors and sectors. executive power with an (appointed) governor.36 This lack of clarity about responsibilities and The unique geographic and administrative relationships between the central government, structure of Palestine is the consequence of its municipalities and other related local departments, particular history and status. It is divided into has generally resulted in institutional competition two main geographical units: the West Bank and duplication. In Lebanon, for example, the and the Gaza Strip. This spatial configuration Municipal Law devolves planning competences to has led to a relative autonomy in terms of municipalities, while at the same time the Urban municipal authority, also considering the impact Planning Code gives them only a consultative role of territorial fragmentation as caused by the Israeli in the implementation of plans and the national occupation. Today urban governance is largely Directorate-General for Urban Planning prepares decentralized and elected local authorities are or reviews all urban master plans.38 Moreover, responsible for the provision of basic services while the 1977 municipal reform (Law 118) gives and planning, managing growth within their municipalities a broad range of tasks, nearly 70% boundaries, providing basic services (e.g. water, of the country’s 1,108 municipalities are small power) and granting of building permits. In 2005 towns with structurally limited capacity to ensure and 2006, there was a rise of agglomeration basic service provision.39 Thus, most functions into joint councils for shared service provision related to urban development and infrastructure and development planning. At the national project implementation are supervised by a district level, the Municipal Development and Lending commissioner (qa’im maqam). Pooling resources Fund (MDLF), established in 2005, provides and enhancing decisional and implementation municipalities with grants and loan guarantees capacity are incentives for many small Lebanese

274 GOLD V REPORT Table 2 Local and regional governments (LRGs) by tier

Country System Number of LRGs

34 Provinces (wilayet) 399 Districts Afghanistan Presidential Islamic Republic 153 Municipalities Roughly 40,020 Villages

Bahrain Constitutional Hereditary Monarchy 5 Governorates (muhafazat)

31 Provinces (ostan) Iran Islamic Republic 324 Cities (shehristan)

Iraq Parliamentary Republic 18 Governorates (muhafazat)

Constitutional Monarchy 12 Governorates Jordan with Representative Government 100 Municipalities

Kuwait Constitutional Emirate 6 Governorates

8 Governorates (muhafazat) Lebanon Parliamentary Democratic Republic 25 Districts (qadaa, qaza) 1,108 Municipalities (baladiyya)

Oman Absolute Monarchy 11 Governorates

Qatar Emirate 8 Municipalities (baladiyya)

13 Provinces Saudi Arabia Unitary Absolute Monarchy 60 CentresLatin (markaz America) for each province 43 Secondaryand theGovernorates Caribbean (muhafazat) for each province

State of Palestine 187 Municipalities

Syrian Arab Republic Unitary 14 Provinces

1,398 Municipalities Turkey Presidential Parliamentarian System 51 Provincial Administrations 18,362 Village Administrations

UAE Federation of 7 Emirates 7 Emirates

22 Governorates 333 Districts Yemen Multi-party Parliamentary System 2,210 Municipalities 38,234 Villages

Source: UCLG MEWA Report on Country Sheets, 2018.

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 275 municipalities to establish municipal unions, as The status of competence allocation and mentioned above. devolution in West Asia is more varied. The Recentralizing trends have hindered Afghan Government introduced a Sub-National competence devolution in Jordan over the past Government Policy (LRGSP) in 2010, which few years. Even though the current regulations aims to devolve certain central powers to local of the Municipal Act do assign a diverse range authorities. This document includes roles and of competences to the local level, the central responsibilities of Afghan local governments in government has tended to either centralize or various fields, such as justice, security, roads, even privatize some municipal competences such water, sanitation, natural resources management, as water and electricity provision, school and infrastructure, agriculture, education and health systems. Joint Service Councils have been energy, among others.40 The Ministry of Urban established from the top down by the Ministry of Development, however, has planning oversight Interior to coordinate service provision in clusters of local administrations’ decision-making. of municipalities and villages — with the aim of In Iran, on the other hand, municipalities achieving economy of scale and making certain enjoy both direct responsibilities and shared services (and waste management in particular) responsibilities with higher levels of governance. more efficient — such as in the Petra region or Locally however, municipal offices and mayors special economic zones such as Aqaba. The have a limited or no role in the provision of many gubernatorial level maintains coordination basic services. In the case of urban planning, among local governments, and has the power to for example, municipalities are generally intervene in municipal affairs and decisions. tasked with the development and follow-up of The territorial and administrative fragmentation projects that are usually defined and designed of the State of Palestine described above is seen directly by the Ministry of Housing and Urban in the inconsistent distribution of competences Development. Finally, in Iraq, district (qadaa) and powers to local authorities across the state’s and sub-district (nahiya) councils have taken on territory. Following the Oslo Accords of 1993 and several responsibilities of public service delivery 1995, the Palestinian territory in the West Bank to respond to local needs and interests, but most was ultimately divided into three Areas: A, B, and C. services remain under the central government’s Area C territory is de facto under Israeli control, control. Following the country’s structural not only in terms of its political administration and political reform, governorates now manage and security, but even as far as urban and territorial deliver most of the tasks related to the urban zoning and planning are concerned. It accounts system. Accordingly, overlapping of authority for about 60% of the whole of the West Bank. and responsibility is still a fundamental problem All this considered, the Local Authorities Law in the relationship between federal and local of the State of Palestine identifies a wide range governments, as well as a hindrance in terms of of tasks that are the Association of Palestinian transparency and resource allocation. Local Authorities' (APLA) responsibility. Some The centralized nature of task and competence municipalities have even taken on additional distribution in the Gulf countries has led to tasks, such as providing emergency services and a relatively unusual picture in the sub-region. the construction and maintenance of schools. Emirati municipalities are in charge of daily urban Between 2005 and 2006, several joint councils service management but only as part of an ever- were created to guarantee more effective service tighter distribution of tasks within the federal provision and development planning. However, system, which remains largely in the hands of due to the limited capacities of most local each Emirate’s government-. In Oman, municipal governments in the area, CSOs have played an councils have no specific competence other than important role in supplying health, education, and providing recommendations for the delivery of relief services, especially to the poorest groups of urban services. Over the last few decades, several the population and those affected by the conflict. municipal responsibilities in Kuwait were in fact re-centralized, although municipal councils are still responsible for certain services — including roads, urban planning, sanitation, garbage Lack of clarity about relationships disposal, food safety, licensing, environmental protection, and housing.41 Yemeni municipalities between the central government, traditionally had little leeway when it came to municipalities and other related local local powers and responsibilities. A process of decentralization began in 2001 with the entry into departments, has generally resulted force of a law on local authorities, which devolved in institutional competition and most administrative tasks and competences to the local level. An amendment to the law was a duplication. step forward also in terms of the democratization of the appointment and accountability of

276 GOLD V REPORT local representatives. However, the President’s in terms of the spending capacity of their local office, as early as 2011, overturned most of governments. Countries such as Iran, Iraq, Jordan these arrangements, returning the lion’s share and Lebanon are lagging behind in this regard, of policy control from the local level to central while Gulf countries are as a rule so centralized government.42 Finally, with the onset of the civil that sub-national finance still depends largely war in 2014 and the Saudi-led invasion of 2015, on national decision-making. In most MEWA Yemeni municipalities found themselves in the countries, however, the current institutional unprecedented position of abandoning most framework does not invest local governments with local policy-making and focusing primarily on their own adequate revenues (be they taxes, fees guaranteeing the supply of food and medicine to or charges), making them unable to autonomously their communities. fund their expenditures. Increasing urbanization, In Turkey, on the other hand, municipal on the one hand, has put even more financial competences include an extensive range of pressure on local governments. Meanwhile tasks and responsibilities, with the exception obsolete institutional and regulatory frameworks, inevitably of several basic national competences on the other, have made it even harder to recover such as border security, justice and compulsory their fair share of public services’ operating costs or education. The Turkish system, however, still has offset the impact of rising property value in urban certain overlaps in labour distribution between contexts. This has ultimately most benefitted the local governments and sectoral ministries. There private sector. Moreover, and generally across the have also been some instances of competence entire MEWA region, an inadequate regulatory devolution by central government to local framework has limited local governments’ access authorities, who have in turn rejected this due to to alternative sources of funding and finance. bureaucratic difficulties in managing these tasks. Most MEWA local governments cannot legally Municipalities larger than 50,000 inhabitants, issue municipal bonds, implement land-value for example, have a legal obligation to provide capture models, Public-Private Partnerships sheltered housing for women and children: (PPPs), value-based zoning mechanisms, or many however, even after building the infrastructure other financial options which would require a step (and thus complying with the law), and due forward in financial decentralization for these to to their limited capacity and the process’s be accessible locally. complexity, many municipalities are transferring Similarly, local taxes and fees have so far the management and maintenance of shelters played a minor part in the financing of local back to the Ministry of Family and Social Affairs. governance, systematically hindered by inefficient Similarly, in an attempt to rationalize their tasks, collection mechanisms. Very few countries in many municipalities have resorted to creating the MEWA region really enjoy any degree of municipal unions, entities supported by specific autonomy in the management of their own local national legislation: 789 such unions exist, sharing revenues. Although municipalities in Iran, Jordan, competences in a diverse range of fields, from Turkey and Palestine are in fact able to generate geothermal energy production, to health and income through property taxes, their share of tourism.43 local revenues (with the exception of Turkey) is still Finally, urban legislation and regulations may limited.44 On the other hand, real-estate tax rates have a very important role to play in preparing in Turkey, for example, are still set centrally by MEWA countries for the introduction of the SDGs the Council of Ministers, with no engagement of and the New Urban Agenda in an otherwise slowly municipalities. There are some positive examples, evolving system. However, most urban planning however: the city of Şanlıurfa, for example, and management laws, rules and regulations doubled its tax revenue in one year by monitoring remain obsolete and have not been able to collection with improved IT systems.45 respond adequately to the needs (and challenges) Although municipal revenues in Iran increased of local governments willing to take on this task. eight-fold during the period 2006-2013, these came mostly from land sales and building permits. Local and regional Meanwhile, over the past 45 years, the share of governments finance own revenue in the income of Tehran Municipality Inadequate access, delivery and provision of fell from about 40% to 20%.46 Iranian cities have basic services and infrastructure have obstructed accordingly faced significant financial constraints a real opportunity to achieve the SDGs and their in their ability to support the implementation of targets in the MEWA region. A thorough revision the SDGs.47 Similarly, in Iraq, even though Iraqi of financial resources and their allocation across governorates were granted the right to levy taxes, levels of governance is essential to overcoming a judicial action has suspended this prerogative, this challenge. There are many obstacles in the leaving them highly dependent on central way of LRGs’ finance systems across the region. transfers. The system of tax collection, moreover, Generally speaking in the MEWA region Turkey is strongly centralized. Specifically, in the case of and Palestine are probably the most decentralized the Iraqi economy, the Ministry of Finance has

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 277 been trying to retain control of the local budget, face budget deficits, mostly due to the inability which has been spent entirely on reconstruction. to compensate for expenditure on salaries and The current situation is even starker in the Gulf local infrastructure maintenance (e.g. transport, countries, where municipalities have basically roads and waste management). In the State of behaved as implementing agencies for National Palestine, on the other hand, local governments Urban Policies (NUPs). With few exceptions, local have maintained a certain degree of control over governments in the Gulf have no direct taxing both the tax rate and the tax base. Inevitably, or borrowing powers and are dependent on however, the current military occupation, the central transfers for funding infrastructure and territorial fragmentation and the lack of actual public service provision. Inevitably, any initiative control over border security and functioning have to implement the SDGs needs to be centralized, vastly affected the ability of local governments top-down, and an integral part of the national to collect a stable amount of own revenue, and development strategies. In Bahrain, for example, they have relied extensively on foreign aid.52 At the budget allocated to governorates is agreed the national level, the MDLF, established in 2005, at the central level and managed as part of the provides municipalities with grants and loan overall budget of the Ministry of Interior.48 In many guarantees, as well as programmes to strengthen Gulf countries, moreover, the wealth engendered their financial management capabilities. In Turkey, by oil and hydrocarbons has allowed national finally, local taxes and fees represent around 30% governments to adopt single-handedly a specific of local revenues.53 model of urban planning and development, based With regard to the remaining components of mostly on ambitious megaprojects that rival — local budgets, local governments in most MEWA though more in appearance than function — a countries ultimately depend to a high degree on stereotypical image of the Western metropolis. transfers from central governments: 70% of local This model of top-down urban development revenue in Turkey come via grants, about 40% leaves the city, to a certain extent, devoid of its in Jordan. Palestine and Afghanistan are the own main primary functions. In Saudi Arabia, for only exceptions: in the former, the mechanism example, business licence and advertising fees of grant and transfer has been inefficient due and building permits are the only real source to the systemic issue in the organization of the of income for local governments, while only a country; in the latter, centre-to-local transfers handful of cities — Riyadh, Jeddah, and the holy are not established, and local governments are cities of Makkah and Madinah — are granted the structurally without their own financial sources.54 capacity to manage local finance and maintain a The centrality of transfers for the sustainability of local budget. Some cities, however, are seeking local finance also highlights the importance of the revenue from municipal land property to raise criteria according to which national governments additional financial resources, and have been allocate resources via grants — as well as any experimenting with PPPs to attract private flexibility that LRGs have to use these funds. investment. In an apparent acknowledgement of Several countries have traditionally adopted pre- the urgency of this issue, Saudi Arabia’s national set allocation formulas: Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon Vision 2030 plan is now specifically addressing and Turkey. The other governments in the region, municipal finance.49 however, define these criteria via centrally led In Lebanon, local governments cannot create national negotiations in which LRGs are generally additional taxes nor can they make changes to the not included.55 In Iran, on the other hand, where tax base since they only have limited control of transfers are allocated on a yearly basis, 60% of fee levels. While they collect up to 36 different development transfers are earmarked for specific kinds of fees, the cost of the collection process projects, and only 40% are left discretionary has been higher than the income obtained (direct for the recipient.56 In Iraq, central transfers fees represent around 40% of local revenues).50 are still essential for the sustainability of local In Jordan, revenues raised by municipalities government. They are allocated, however, in a represent 43% of total local revenues. highly unbalanced way: the four governorates Municipalities have some control of some fees (e.g. included in the Kurdistan Regional Government waste collection, building permits), and property (KRG) — due to the particular status of this union tax.51 Most Jordanian municipalities, however, as the country’s only autonomous region — receive about 17% of the national budget via grants; the remaining fifteen governorates combined only receive about 5%. Clearer allocation criteria and formulas are There are many obstacles in the way of not necessarily conducive to more effective local and regional governments' finance local finance. In most cases, metropolitan areas have been benefitting more than intermediary systems across the region. cities or smaller towns from intergovernmental transfers. More specifically, because of the

278 GOLD V REPORT extreme conditions imposed by the Syrian financing is more difficult to obtain in non-oil conflict on the whole region, transfer schemes producing countries in the region. Loans from and criteria have failed to take into consideration international institutions require sovereign the sudden and dramatic change brought about guarantees and carry foreign-exchange risks. by the refugee crisis. In Turkey, for example, a Moreover, borrowing from multilateral banks or large city such as Gaziantep — on the Turkish- international financial markets is often hindered Syrian border, hosting over 400,000 refugees by the lack of quality data and transparency in the with a local population of about 1.5 million — financial system, which increases credit risks to an receives transfer allocations about 14 times lower unsustainable level. In most MEWA countries, the than Kocaeli, on the Marmara Sea, with a similar existing legislation does not allow for the issuance population but a much lower impact of refugee of municipal bonds and attempts to instate this fluxes.57 At a much lower scale, but with similar have been sporadic. In Turkey, the city of Antalya dynamics, transfer schemes also penalize affected did plan a municipal bond initiative, but this was territories and communities — one way or the frustrated by the bureaucratic requirements of other — by growing commuter flows among the process. On the other hand, Iran’s experience cities. Lebanese municipalities have met with the has been relatively positive, in this regard: both same set of challenges, as they have come to host Tehran and Tabriz have implemented municipal over 1.4 million Syrian refugees.58 The country’s bond initiatives successfully.59 Independent Municipal Fund, a governmental Lack of financial autonomy, transparency and agency in charge of fund allocation, has often alternative options have curbed the capacity of been criticized for unpredictable transfers and MEWA LRGs to fund themselves, their activities inadequate criteria, hindering territorial equality. and — inevitably — also their mobilization for Consequently, municipalities across the MEWA the SDGs. In fact, the extensive reliance on region have tried to find alternative sources of short-term funds, has led to a general financial financial support. The simplest option for most weakness, and many national governments in the local governments is borrowing from domestic region have used this to leverage more municipal banks or special purpose funds. Jordanian amalgamation. In Jordan alone, over 300 cities, for example, have made up 14% of their municipalities were joined into 93 municipalities.60 budgets through loans from the Cities and In 2014, Turkey amalgamated 2,950 municipalities Villages Development Bank (CVDB). Longer-term into 1,398.

Women walking with kids, Syria (photo: Charles Roffey, bit.ly/2MsZR6v).

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 279 2.3. Multilevel governance mechanisms and trends for stakeholder involvement

The historical legacy of centralized administration Although many countries in the region have has remained solidly embedded in the political established a separate ministry addressing system of the MEWA countries. It still influences local government matters, concrete impact and city management and the mechanisms of urban change have been negligible. In Iran, the Office and territorial governance. Across the region, of Councils and Social Affairs within the Ministry of the predominance of centralizing models and Interior oversees all municipal councils. Although initiatives has paved the way to territorial mayors are elected by the councils, they are still coordination via hierarchical processes rather vastly dependent on the Department of Municipal than co-ownership, negotiation or inclusive Affairs within the ministry. Line ministries are consultation. in charge of local services and policies in their Inevitably, this has also affected the role respective fields, a mechanism that has frequently and effectiveness of national LGAs, making led to a lack of coordination among decision- representation of local governments in national makers formalized, to a certain extent, within decision-making even weaker. An important often contradictory regulations. This trend has exception is Turkey, where the UMT, established impeded the establishment of a consistent local in 1945, has a consultative role in the drafting government model or system across the region. of legislation and holds one seat in the In Iraq, for example, governorate councils Presidential Local Government Commission. In have extensive power over lower local councils Lebanon, a Committee of Mayors, gathering the in the implementation of local projects: at the representatives of the country’s major cities, has administrative level, more generally, mayors need been active since 1995. the approval of governors for any activities within

Phosphate train on its way to Aqaba, Jordan (photo: rikdom, bit.ly/2B1ASli).

280 GOLD V REPORT the municipal jurisdiction. In Jordan, the Ministry of Interior is the main authority in charge of local Lack of coordination among decision- governments’ functioning and activity, even though municipalities are formally under the control of the makers has impeded the establishment Ministry of Municipal Affairs. After the adoption of a consistent local government model of the country’s Decentralization Law (2015), the central government created in 2016 eight or system across the MEWA region. different ministerial committees and one central committee to assist local policy implementation. The role of the Ministry of Municipal Affairs — in the framework of the decentralization process political parties, however in most cases without — is expected to be reduced, focusing more any information available about the councillors on consultation and capacity-building, rather they are supporting. than strict policy supervision.61 In Lebanon, the A specific challenge of the MEWA region, but Ministry of Interior and Municipalities is in charge also an area in which (modest) progress has been of local administration and exerts administrative achieved, is women’s participation in sub-national supervision over municipal councils — including politics. Saudi Arabia granted female citizens financial control — through Governors (Muhafizes). the right to participate in local politics in 2015: They can suspend municipal decisions for since then, 21 women candidates have won seats three months. The Ministry is also responsible in Saudi municipal councils.63 In 2018, Bahrain’s for planning, budgeting and expenditure of monarchy appointed two Bahraini women as municipal revenue. The Palestinian Ministry of director-generals of the Capital and Northern Local Government is in charge of the oversight Municipalities. In Iran, a campaign to increase the of local authorities. The central government number of woman-held seats in local legislatures has been attempting to pool municipal services led to the election of 415 women to city councils via intercommunal entities — the Joint Services across the province of Sistan-Balochistan in the Councils (JSCs) — to overcome the practical 2017 elections, up from 185 in the previous difficulties many local administrations meet in the election. In Iraq’s second election for governorate delivery of basic services. In Turkey, a new General councils in 2013, 117 women were elected for a Directorate of Local Government was established total of 440 seats, seven more than in the 2009 in 2017 under the Ministry of Urbanization and elections.64 Environment. Ultimately, because of its history and traditional Finally, in the MEWA region most legal institutional setting, the MEWA region as a frameworks for citizen mobilization have been whole presents significant challenges for the historically weak, and participatory channels implementation and achievement of the SDGs, have been either inadequate or non-existent. and in particular for the active participation of While mayors can play a pivotal role in creating a LRGs in the process. The region is characterized culture of participation in their cities, their actions by widening disparities in development levels and seldom go beyond formal policy practices. enduring armed conflict, making it even harder Participation, however, varies across the region. for poorer and war-torn countries, such as Yemen In Afghanistan, the sub-national governance or Afghanistan, to conceptualize — let alone framework adopted since 2010 acknowledges the implement and achieve — the SDG targets locally. citizen’s right to participate in decision-making, Despite its heterogeneity, the MEWA region but in practice most decisions are still based on still has a common trend that emerges across informal political ties. In Iran, the level of public all countries in that historically it rewards strong participation in municipal decisions is very low, political centralization: this is limiting authority, and official mobilization channels are limited to the autonomy and capacity (including but not limited election of local councillors. In Lebanon, public to financial resources) of LRGs in all MEWA participation in urban planning and development countries. Accordingly, their ability to advance in remains marginal, but has been improving: policy-making and either adapt to or introduce in 2016, a platform set up by NGOs under the the SDGs in their activities is severely limited. slogan of ‘Beirut My City’ won 37% of the votes This notwithstanding, it is important to emphasize in the capital. The winner-take-all electoral system that many LRGs in the MEWA region have sought left the movement with no representation in the ways to introduce and localize the SDGs in their city council, but it won international acclaim.62 territories and communities — often in opposition In Jordan, the central government is currently to the constraints imposed by their national working on a new framework to enable citizens systems. The second part of this chapter explores to define and share their preferred projects. In and analyses these efforts in more detail. Turkey, municipal elections are still the main institutional channel of participation: citizens vote for their mayor and for candidate lists linked to

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 281 3. The contribution of local and regional governments to the localization of the SDGs

282 GOLD V REPORT 3.1 Promoting local ownership to localize the SDGs

There is plenty of evidence of the importance included in the community of partners invited to of local governments and their national all the national events related to either the SDGs associations in the successful localization of the or the Turkish government’s VNR for the United SDGs from around the world. While the SDGs as Nations. Since 2017, the UMT has taken on the a framework are inherently intergovernmental task of circulating information and knowledge and their realization tied to national policies, about the SDG framework to all Turkey’s mayors budget and political will, the achievement of and municipalities. most Goals still depends extensively on the The Mersin Metropolitan Municipality and cooperation, commitment and participation the municipalities of Nilufer (İzmir province), of local and regional authorities. SDG 11 Nevşehir and Bakırköy (a municipality in the larger on ‘inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’ conglomeration of Istanbul) have organized cities and human settlements, for example, several SDG-related workshops. Seferishar, in the acknowledges the transformative power of İzmir province, created a webpage for reporting sustainable urbanization and the impact that practices and examples of local implementation. local governments can have on driving (global) The municipalities (and Istanbul districts) of change from the bottom up. Bakırköy, Esenler and Maltepe have already The implementation of a complex and developed their own local reports on the SDGs. comprehensive Goal such as SDG 11 requires The Regional Municipal Union of Marmara not only improvements in the delivery of basic has organized workshops and seminars on the services (health, education, water and food SDGs for its member municipalities. Several security, energy, among others), but also access NGOs have also been active in monitoring and to inclusive economic opportunities and the promoting municipal activities in support of protection of women, youth, minorities and SDG implementation: the Yereliz (‘We are local’) other vulnerable groups. While the resources Association created an online reporting system for this would in most countries be allocated by that maps local government efforts in support national governments, the design and successful of SDG targets and their achievement. The implementation of specific programmes are a Maya Sustainable Development Agency has local responsibility and require true cross-level co- organized local workshops and conferences to ownership, participation and mobilization of local raise awareness among local stakeholders and communities, actors and stakeholders. communities. Not surprisingly, considering the region’s The national government — via the Presidential traditionally centralized political and administrative Directorate in charge of the realization of Turkey’s structures, local governments have only rarely — VNR for the 2019 HLPF — has shown an increasing and only in a few countries of the region — actively willingness to engage the local level. The UMT participated in the process of implementing the was selected as the coordinating institution for SDGs, as well as in the preparation of the VNRs. local administrations contributing to the reporting This can partly be explained by the still limited process and bringing to the table the experiences development and presence of LGAs and networks of LRGs in the country. The UMT directly engaged across the region: the job of intermediating with 50 municipalities in the process, while reaching across governance tiers and representing the out to over 1,400 municipalities for them to shared interests of local authorities performed by associations and networks can be a valuable enabler for local governments to gain visibility and The implementation of the SDGs centrality in SDG-related decision-making. Turkey, Lebanon and Palestine are essentially the only requires improvements in the delivery MEWA countries with a developed, established of basic services and the protection of network of local government associations and organizations. Turkish local governments have vulnerable groups. come together in the UMT, which has to date been

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 283 contribute to the document’s recommendations.65 the countries in the region. UCLG MEWA plans The UMT attended the 2019 HLPF in New York to disseminate the results and outcomes of the along with the national government delegation. project throughout the region to incentivize In Lebanon and Palestine, national municipal mutual learning and collaboration. associations have developed to a certain degree. In Jordan, the United Nations Development In Lebanon, the Bureau Technique des Villes Programme (UNDP) has supported a dedicated Libanaises (BTVL, Technical Office of Lebanese “roadmap for the implementation of the SDGs Cities), also known as Cités Unies Liban (United with a 2030 time-horizon” to reinforce SDG- Cities Lebanon), has a membership of 66 related initiatives in planning at the national municipalities and 22 federations of municipalities, and sub-national levels: this includes awareness- comprising 80% of the country’s population. The raising, mapping, mainstreaming and financing country’s largest municipalities collaborate under development initiatives. Jordan’s VNR — the aegis of BTVL. However, when the national submitted in 2017 — stressed the participation government prepared its VNR for the 2018 HLPF, of both elected municipal councils and appointed the municipalities of the BTVL were informed, governorate councils to the reviewing process. but not invited to contribute to the process.66 Development-related priorities for the country’s When the State of Palestine presented its 2018 12 governorates, however, are still centralized VNR, the national LGA was neither informed through the Governorate Development nor involved in the process. The Association of Programmes: while these are ‘expected’ to be Palestinian Local Authorities (APLA), however, fully aligned with the SDGs, there is no significant has been particularly active in the territory. It evidence of actual implementation or integration has established the Palestinian City Managers of the Goals in the initiatives undertaken at the Network (PCMN), which involves higher-level local level. administrators responsible for running the day- UN-Habitat has also been very active in to-day operations of Palestinian municipalities,67 Afghanistan, sponsoring several programmes in and has historically been proactive in global partnership with the national government and networks of local authorities and in the effort of sub-national authorities. Even if designed outside granting their members increasing visibility on the the SDG framework, many of the 30 projects international stage. active on the ground since 2008 have a strong In Iraq, UN-Habitat has monitored and impact on the achievement of core SDG targets supported the process of establishing a national and development indicators in Afghan territories LGA to improve information and experience and communities. UNDP, as mentioned above, exchange among municipalities, channelling their has also been a key player for SDG localization concerns and priorities to reach regional and in the region. In Bahrain, UNDP — in partnership central governments. Although the Iraqi national with other UN agencies such as the United Nations LGA has been active in conferences and specific Environment Programme (UNEP) and United projects, it is still in its infancy institutionally and Nations Volunteers (UNV) — has aimed to engage politically. Using a similar process, the World Bank young Bahrainis in the Capital Governorate has assisted in the creation of the Independent to issue ‘Volunteering Passports’ in the SDG Directorate of Local Authorities in Afghanistan. framework to increase awareness at the local Besides these efforts, several municipalities in level.69 In Saudi Arabia, a national-level UNDP-led the region have also actively sought to participate project included a pillar dedicated to localization. in international initiatives, particularly on issues Through UNDP support, moreover, the Riyadh of climate change, sustainability and resilience. Urban Observatory has engaged in discussion Many cities in the MEWA region are part of the with local actors to promote the integration Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate and of the SDGs and their related indicators in the Energy.68 UCLG has maintained an active presence Observatory’s toolkit for monitoring and reporting in the region through the Istanbul-based regional on implementation in the city of Riyadh. headquarters of UCLG MEWA: in the past year, it In Palestine, UNDP has organized awareness- has developed several dissemination initiatives in raising workshops with the participation of sectoral, the region about the SDGs, aimed at training local national and local-level representatives. In Syria, governments and their officials on the process of the agency has also been assisting governorates localization through workshops and conferences. in the preparation of their voluntary reviews. In In 2018 and 2019, UCLG MEWA completed Iraq, with the support of the national government, a pilot project to map SDG implementation: UNDP has set up a project to integrate the SDGs this was initially launched in Turkey — with the at the governorate level. Governorate Sustainable financial sponsorship and partnership of the Development Committees (GSDCs) have been World Academy for Local Government and established to support implementation of NDPs Democracy (WALD). UCLG MEWA planned to use (which are already aligned with the SDGs) and the project to integrate SDG-related municipal monitor implementation progress at the provincial activities as widely as possible into the VNRs of level.70

284 GOLD V REPORT 3.2 Local initiatives in line with the 2030 Agenda

Despite MEWA LRGs’ historical reliance on the and transport in major cities; and curb sub- support of national governments, evidence of standard housing supply. Saudi Arabia, facing innovative or ‘game-changing’ progress in the increasing urbanization rates, launched a National region’s countries is scarce: limited information Spatial Strategy 2030 and a Future Saudi Cities on new programmes — catalysed by the SDGs Programme (in partnership with UN Habitat) or any other global agenda — is available to tackle urban sprawl reduction; promotion of about new lines of funding or support to local spatially balanced planning and development; Over 400 Turkish, Syrian, initiatives. There are, however, significant improvement of public transportation in and Afghani and Iraqi women from the SADA Women examples in Turkey, where several projects between major cities; national investment Empowerment and Solidarity — mostly related to SDGs 3, 6, 10 and 11 — promotion towards less-developed regions, Center in Gaziantep celebrate International’s Women’s Day were clearly beneficial to SDG localization and and empowering middle and small-sized cities along Turkey’s border with Syria, March 8th, 2019 (photo: increased policy consistency between central UN Women Europe and and local levels.71 Central Asia, bit.ly/2AVOrTz). In other countries, certain governmental priorities have been consistent with some of the main objectives of the SDGs, and some of the policies that national governments and other tiers of governance have been able to develop are to an extent aligned with these agendas. Informal settlements, access to essential services and urban management challenges — all core elements of the commitments behind the SDGs — have been more and more central for national and local policy arenas across the MEWA region.

Urban development The SDG closest to the reality and actual commitments and expectations of cities and local governments is SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. Most of the advances, initiatives and strategic alignment of local governments within the framework of the SDGs have an impact on the implementation of SDG 11, even when there is no explicit reference to the Goals. Over the past few years, several countries in the region have put in place urban development strategies as a tool to approach their main urban and territorial challenges, although the contents and objectives have been diverse. Turkey, for example, is implementing an Integrated Urban Development Strategy and Action Plan, with different sub-programmes designed to manage urban growth and sprawl; prevent disaster risk; promote urban regeneration and reduce regional disparities; develop integrated transit

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 285 and settlements as regional growth hubs.72 A Informal settlements major challenge will be the devolution of greater and social inclusion responsibilities to local governments. While local Following trends of growing inequality and the governments currently prepare local master displacement of refugees escaping conflict in plans and monitor their implementation, their several areas of the MEWA region, many urban autonomy is limited as higher-level officials have areas have experienced massive population influx, the power to overrule local decisions and central urban growth and major imbalances contributing government transfers still account for 70% of to fast growth of informal settlements. Lebanon’s local expenditures due to their low efficiency in dynamics of urban growth, exacerbated by an revenue collection and the traditional provision of extremely high number of refugees, have led to many public services free of charge.73 the sprawl of larger cities. In 2015, 1.8 million In Afghanistan, one of the less urbanized people — 53.1% of the urban population — were countries of the region, the Ministry of Urban living in informal settlements and urban slums.75 Development Affairs, the Independent Directorate In response to the inflow of Syrian refugees of Local Governance, and the Municipality of that started in 2011, Lebanon’s municipalities Kabul, in partnership with UN-Habitat, launched expanded services, schools opened their doors in 2014 (before the SDGs were established) the to refugee children, resulting in a doubling in nationwide Future of Afghan Cities Programme enrolments and the ability of local governments (FoAC). After a successful database and reporting to operate and maintain the educational system.76 phase, which led to the publication of the State Iran's informal settlements today host about of Afghan Cities report in 2015, the programme one third of the country's urban population.77 moved to a second stage. In 2016, the partnership The municipalities of Tehran and Isfahan have produced an atlas and a dataset of Afghan cities established specialized agencies that have and regions.74 Similarly, the Afghan Citizens’ been working with the Urban Development and Charter project — in partnership with the World Revitalization Organization (UDRO) on informal Bank and several local authorities — promotes the settlements and neighbourhood upgrading improvement of service and infrastructure delivery and renovation.78 Afghanistan’s Community-Led through the engagement of local communities Urban Infrastructure Programme seeks to secure by means of Community Development Councils. and stabilize urban areas through community Qatar’s Ministry of Municipality and Environment, empowerment and the improvement of living meanwhile, has developed a Sustainable Strategy conditions. In Iraq, the Funding Facility for 2018-2022 and plans to provide the country’s Stabilization (FFS), in partnership with UNDP, cities with support for food security, environmental the national government, and the governorates, protection, waste management and recycling. has focused on rebuilding and renovating urban Another dimension of specific provisions of infrastructure.79 the SDG 11.4 — cultural legacy and preservation — has been a controversial issue in planning and Basic services spatial policies in many countries of the MEWA Inevitably, due to the climatic and geographic region. Either in war-torn areas or because of conditions of the region, issues of sustainable structural indifference by political authorities, water consumption and provision and many Middle Eastern municipalities have management of wastewaters have been crucial witnessed destruction and abandonment of for national and local governments across the historical heritage and millennia-old settlements. MEWA region, and especially in the desert areas Mosul, in Iraq, has already accessed financial in the Arabian Peninsula and the Gulf. Desalinated assistance from the central government to water currently provides for over two-thirds of rebuild the old city. The Turkish municipality of potable water used in Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar Altindag (a district of Ankara’s metro area) has and the UAE, and 61% in Saudi Arabia. Water renovated the once abandoned historical centre recycling, sanitation and waste management of Ankara, refurbishing it into a cultural hub for technologies have become essential alternative the city. sources of water to meet a skyrocketing demand in the region’s urban areas.80 Almost all urban settlements in almost all countries of the region have some degree of water recycling and Many MEWA urban areas have wastewater treatment system in place. In Turkey, experienced massive population influx, for example, the number of domestic wastewater treatment facility passed from 126 in 2002 to 881 urban growth and major imbalances municipalities in 2018 and the rate of municipal contributing to fast growth of informal population using the services increased from 35% to 75%. Within the same period, the percentage settlements. of population using safety managed drinking water passed from 95% to 99%. Following the

286 GOLD V REPORT new legislation, municipalities shall reduce the rail system projects (subway, light rail systems, rate of water loss, averaging 25% in 2023.81 trams) or created bicycle lanes (e.g. Istanbul, Waste management has also traditionally Izmir, Kocaeli, Kayseri and Konya). Istanbul posed a challenge to local governance in has been able to expand its public transport the region. The Greater Beirut area’s main network, growing the underground network and landfill site was closed in 2015: since then infrastructures, while imposing some restrictions the municipality has struggled to remedy this on private motorized transport. In Izmir, a solar situation because of both inadequate financial power station was established on 10,000 m2 of resources and a centralized approach that has roofs by the local transport authority ESHOT historically limited the ability of local government General Directorate. This station aims to meet the and stakeholders to address these issues.82 Gulf energy needs of 20 ESHOT buses fully powered countries, thanks to a substantially different by electricity.84 Malatya, also in Turkey, already national economy, have been able to establish uses electric bus vehicles with routes that allow highly efficient landfill systems. Larger cities for battery recharging. Qazvin, in Iran, signed a such as Doha, in Qatar, have even been able deal in 2018 with a Chinese company to build the to invest in food and organic waste treatment country’s first tram network. Riyadh, the capital for the production of compost and chemical of Saudi Arabia, has allocated an investment of products. In Oman, quite uniquely for the region, USD 16 billion to fund an underground system solid waste landfills are managed jointly by the extending 178 km according to the plans. At general government and certain municipalities, the same time, Qatar and some of the UAE including Muscat, the capital city, and Salalah. In (including Abu Dhabi, the largest state of the Turkey, in the framework of the National Waste country) have been developing green building Management Plan, the number of municipal ratings and certifications, in order to integrate landfills increased to 88 providing services to the latest environmental construction standard in 62.3 million inhabitants in 1,160 municipalities their national regulation.85 and three incineration plants. As of April 2019, in 499 municipalities packaging waste is collected separately at the source. A Zero Waste Project was initiated to foster and recover recycling (in Box 1 the framework of a National Recycling Strategy). Municipalities with financing difficulties are Resilience plan actions in Byblos, supported by the Solid Waste Programme.83 The metropolitan municipality of Istanbul has Ramallah and Amman established a network of container recycling across the city, the credits of which can be spent Consistent with the participatory approach of the 100RC on public transport fees. Beirut has partnered initiatives, the experiences and activities that the cities of Amman with a domestic private waste management (Jordan), Byblos (Lebanon) and Ramallah (Palestine) have put company to launch the first phase of a local into practice have helped identify major resilience challenges, waste recycling project. Again, exposing perhaps as shaped by local conditions and structures. They have also a regional susceptibility to the appeal of mega- assisted the development of plans that truly reflect local planning, the city of Dubai has inaugurated its priorities and concerns. Byblos’ resilience plan was developed ‘Glow Garden’, a structure made out of 500,000 through dialogue with key stakeholders — the Municipal Council, recyclable glass vials, porcelain ware, plastic government ministries, the police, NGOs, academic institutions, bottles, dishes, and thousands of compact discs and civic groups. The plan prioritizes municipal data collection recovered from municipal waste — a reminder and use as a prerequisite for improved planning and city of the massive accumulation of waste in densely management. In Ramallah, the preparation of the resilience plan urbanized settlements. involved working groups from the Municipal Council, universities Many other essential elements of the SDGs, and the private sector, as well as conversations with local e.g. transport and energy, are being increasingly political and community leaders. A similar process was followed integrated in the region’s municipal agendas. in Amman for the preparation of its resilience plan. Transport The debate on alternative and sustainable was a critical component for the Jordanian capital, and required sources of energy and the improvement of public the development of an integrated mobility plan: this includes transportation — especially when considering a three-corridor Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) network to open in the massive untapped potential for solar energy 2019, and the enhancement of walkability, especially through production in the whole area — is challenged the creation of a railway corridor park. All these measures add by the easy access to fossil fuel energy in the to initiatives against climate change, and the improvement of region. However, several examples show growing digital connectedness, urban infrastructure and participatory progress in this regard. The city of Istanbul is mechanisms. developing efficient management of energy in municipal buildings, in facilities and parks. Source: 100 Resilient Cities network (https://www.100resilientcities.org). Several Turkish cities have developed public

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 287 Resilient cities and UNDP, Arab countries and members of the and territories League of Arab Countries acknowledged the risks Local governments in the MEWA region have and vulnerabilities of Arab cities in the face of been developing innovative approaches to climate change, earthquakes, desertification, and improve resilience and sustainability in their flooding. The signatories committed to dedicate territories and communities. Amman in Jordan, part of their budget to risk prevention and Byblos in Lebanon and Ramallah in Palestine, for preparedness, awareness-raising and education example, have all joined the 100 Resilient Cities on resilience and climate change, with particular (100RC) network: the membership helped the attention given to vulnerable cultural heritage and municipalities assess the status of their resilience protected sites, among several other measures. outlook and develop state-of-the-art strategic planning to adequately meet resilience criteria. Environment and In Turkey, 141 Urban Regeneration and climate change Development Projects Areas and ten Renovation Climate change, which is central to the policy Areas in cities are being developed with the commitments and innovation framework of the support of the government (USD 2.83 billion SDGs, is also a key issue for local governments and spent since 2012). Many cities, such as the Kocaeli a fundamental challenge tackled by local initiatives Metropolitan Municipality are implementing a and activities. Besides SDG 13 on climate change, Disaster Management and Decision Support environmental, resilience and sustainability System Project (AYDES) with the national Disaster issues are at the core of SDG 7 on clean energy, and Emergency Management Authority (AFAD). SDG 11 on cities and human settlements, SDG 12 The project implements an electronic tracking and on sustainable production and consumption, management system for all stages of integrated SDG 14 on life below water and SDG 15 on life disaster management.86 on earth. Throughout the MEWA region, many With the Aqaba Declaration,87 approved municipalities have developed initiatives and at the first Arab Conference on Disaster Risk policies that refer to a number of these Goals’ Reduction,88 in 2013, under the aegis of the targets: 30 cities have made commitments within UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) the Global Covenant of Mayors for Climate and 89 Men chat in shrine near Energy in 2019. Kashan, Iran (photo: Charles In Jordan, the Greater Amman Municipality Roffey, t.ly/80zbB). has committed since 2015 to a plan to become a green city by 2020. In Turkey, several frontrunning cities and municipalities have been implementing climate action plans for years, and have also been joining various international networks active in this field.90 Following a regulation passed in 2017, municipalities are expected to increase green areas in their spatial planning and improve accessibility to green areas. Taking initiative on air pollution, the number of air quality monitoring stations increased from 36 in 2007 to 253 in 2017. Several regional authorities, moreover, have developed air quality improvement plans.91 The municipality of Tehran organizes an annual Organic Week Festival to promote sustainable land-use patterns. The Corniche Area park, in the municipality of Abu Dhabi, in an internationally awarded structure which embodies the country’s quest to join the highest global standards in planning and management of public and green spaces. Qatari cities are promoting the development of desert campsites as a way to fund natural resource protection and alleviate touristic pressure on coastal localities. Similarly, the central government is funding sustainable greenhouse farming in cities. These kind of interventions — as is the case with similar mega-planning or top-down solutions — are fairly endemic in the Gulf region, where local government can count on significant financial support from the national level.

288 GOLD V REPORT In Iran, on the other hand, the Ministry for Health and the Tehran Municipality have joined Box 2 forces with the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). This has been to improve air Local Government Capacity pollution analysis equipment throughout the city, historically affected by extremely high levels of Programme (LGCP), Palestinian pollution. Territory Many cities in the region, maintain policy competences over coastline protection and Building on the successful history of collaboration between regulation, with a strong impact on marine Palestinian local authorities and VNGi, the Local Government environment and sea life preservation. The city Capacity Programme (LGCP), in place from 2012-2016, focused of Istanbul, for example, has managed waste on local economic development in the Palestinian territory. collection in the Bosporus and the Golden Horn: The collaboration led to positive outcomes in sustainable in the first three-quarters of 2018 alone, the city development, lower unemployment and increased food security, recovered 140 trucks of waste. The municipality of thus helping improve the legitimacy of local governments in Shahama, embedded in the Abu Dhabi metro area their communities. The Dutch government, through its Ministry in the UAE, has allocated parts of its budget to of Foreign Affairs, backed an approach that promoted local ecosystem protection for the marine environment self-sufficiency: the LGCP initially supported the activities of specific to the Abu Dhabi region. 12 local governments in the West Bank, providing both funds International and the capacity to stimulate local economic development. The cooperation project was carried out under the umbrella of the MDLF, through which the most important donors to the area work together The role of international donors and cooperation with the Palestinian Authority. Selected local governments agencies has been significant as well. The Swedish could submit applications for financial and technical support International Development Agency (SIDA) and the for projects, workshops, on-the-job coaching and training. The cooperation branch of the Swedish Association of municipality of Bethlehem was the first to establish a Council for Local Governments (SLK International) partnered Local Economic Development, together with the private sector in Iraq with the Al Qaddissiyah and Dohuk and civil society, an output of the project’s participatory spirit, governorates to establish the ‘Governance in which put particular emphasis on the establishment of strategic Social Care’ project (2012-2017). This project business alliances. supported improvements in social care at the 92 Lebanon sub-national level. In , assistance by Source: ttps://www.vng-international.nl/palestinian-territory-local-government- European LGAs and international institutions has capacity-programme-lgcp-2012-2016. been crucial to sustain healthcare, education and relief provision to the refugee population and other vulnerable groups not directly covered by UN relief efforts. In Jordan, the governorate of Al-Mafraq Palestine established an MDLF,93 an independent partnered with the City of Amsterdam and VNG public institution, which assists local governments International (VNGi, the cooperation branch of in economic development promotion. While many the Dutch national LGA) to develop a Municipal of the stakeholders involved have been responsive Assistance Programme for the Al Za’atari Refugee and aware of the SDG framework, actual localization Camp. VNGi also worked in Jordan, with funding in the State of Palestine has hardly progressed, from USAID, with the Cities Implementing mostly due to periodic violence and conflict in Transparent Innovative and Effective Solutions the area (and the Gaza Strip especially), and the (CITIES) programme. The project provides continued Israeli occupation in the West Bank. technical assistance to governorates and municipal In assessing the reach and impact of the SDG stakeholders to translate administrative reforms framework and the other global agendas in the into innovative and sustainable solutions for MEWA region, this section shows activities and service delivery, participatory mechanisms, and initiatives that are contributing to the localization community cohesion and stability — to improve process. However, because of structural citizens’ awareness, responsiveness and resilience. circumstances of the region, most progress and Donor assistance has been essential particularly in initiatives have been the prerogative of national the case of Palestine, where municipalities have governments, occasionally with the involvement extremely scarce resources and political leeway or consultation of LRGs and local stakeholders. and are often unable to address local policy issues As a rule of thumb, the motivation, commitment autonomously. Palestinian cities have depended and leadership of LRGs in the localization of the on external aid for public service and infrastructure SDGs has a clear correlation with the degree of provision and local economic development (see (planned) decentralization and/or the level of Box 2 for an example, specifically cooperation wealth and financial resources available at the with the Dutch government). Additionally, in 2005 national level.

GOLD V REPORT —— MIDDLE EAST AND WEST ASIA 289 4. Conclusions

Despite the immense socio-economic, cultural national ministries and presidential offices: the and historical diversity of the MEWA region, devolution of responsibilities to the provincial, certain trends in the way in which countries metropolitan or local level has been partial at approach the SDG framework and the global best, and such woeful progress has had significant commitments of the new agendas help elicit consequences. some region-wide conclusions. With the On the one hand, inconsistent devolution exception of Afghanistan and Yemen, the has provided most MEWA cities — with perhaps MEWA region is now (and increasingly) highly the exception of Turkish municipalities — with urbanized, and it is estimated that its cities an uncertain, unreliable mandate and strategic will have to accommodate over 96 million new outlook to plan and manage urbanization and residents by 2030. An exceptionally large youth urban expansion and development. This has cohort will continue to fuel the intense demand affected the ability of local governments to for jobs, housing and services that — with the include the mission and scope of the SDGs and exception perhaps of Gulf countries, thanks to the other global agendas in their own policy- their reliance on the economy of hydrocarbons making: thus, the dimensions of sustainability, — all countries in the MEWA region will struggle inclusiveness and policy co-creation have to meet. inevitably been undermined. On the other hand, In recent years, recurring civil strife in the financing issue is still essential for the quality Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria and Yemen have and effectiveness of local government in the exacerbated the challenge of the region’s high region. urbanization rate. War has destroyed urban Municipalities, provinces and other local infrastructure and torn the socio-cultural fabric authorities across MEWA countries still lack apart. This damage has rapidly spilled over to adequate financial resources and mandates neighbouring countries because of successive, to fund a proactive role in a truly multilevel overwhelming waves of refugees displaced governance (MLG) in the region. This has by region-wide conflict. Against this gloomy translated into an endemic inability to fund backdrop, several MEWA countries have made service provision and infrastructural assets, impressive progress in accomplishing human with the public sector especially compromised. and economic development advances — thus The sole exception in the MEWA region is the contributing to the achievement of several SDGs Gulf area. However the uniqueness of those — despite the consequences and impact of countries’ highly centralized political systems and conflict. However, socio-economic and gender the unprecedented resources available to them inequalities remain major challenges for all through the extraction economy make their local countries in the region. governments a case study whose features can Ultimately, in the MEWA region as in the rest hardly be replicated elsewhere. State-fed funds of the world, urban planning and territorial have nurtured an approach to local policy-making management are shared responsibilities that relies on mega-planning urbanism and has in a complex and evolving mechanism in concealed — when it has not neglected them which central, regional and local authorities altogether — issues of inequality, marginalization should work together to a varying degree of and unaccountable or non-democratic rule. engagement and effectiveness. In the MEWA There are several constraints on local countries specifically, however, political and governments and public administration to fully financial resources are still concentrated in contribute to governance and policy-making.

290 GOLD V REPORT Inadequate property records and the specific the devolution of more and better spatial organization of tax revenue and collection systems control and development authority to the local (many MEWA local governments, for example, level, alongside the adoption of consistent and are still unable to collect user fees reliably), in full-fledged National Urban Policies (NUPs), particular, have been hindering the capacity of integrated with strategies and plans across local governments to fund themselves and the all levels. The impact on health, inequality and provision of basic public services. If MEWA local socio-economic opportunity makes this point governments expect to play an active, guiding particularly important with regard to the actual role in the implementation of the SDGs and the localization of the SDGs and their co-ownership at other global agendas — such as the New Urban local and territorial levels. Agenda, the Sendai Framework on Disaster Risk Ultimately, balancing the growing pressure Reduction, and the Paris Climate Agreement of rapid urbanization and the achievement of — they will need enhanced, reliable, effective the SDGs and making them compatible in a local financing sources. Capturing their fair complicated and diverse region such as MEWA share of land-value appreciation following public will require a major investment of political will investment and improvement will be essential to and commitment. Even in spite of the historical funding infrastructure and delivering better and legacy of strongly centralized governance more inclusive services. systems and the intense pressure of conflict, war Finally, the combination of the region’s and destruction in many areas of the region, cities geography and ecology and the organization of and territories have an opportunity to become urban, territorial and spatial planning have made engines of growth and drivers of change for the environmental challenges and the pressures of whole region. climate change particularly threatening for MEWA To be effective, the next steps for MEWA local governments and cities. With the exception countries must include increased autonomy of Turkey and Iran, all other countries in the region and resources devolved to more engaged are already using water at unsustainable rates and efficient local governments; increased — as skyrocketing demand meets stagnating capacities to provide, maintain and effectively supply, dwindling reserves and an average 20%- deliver basic public services and infrastructural 40% loss of water due to obsolescence or lack development (all the more important in war- of maintenance of underfunded distribution torn territories); and a consistent governance networks. Similarly, while access to improved mechanism able to empower a growing youth sanitation systems has increased in almost all and urbanized population, allowing them to truly countries, these statistics tend also to include co-own their future and their land, and embrace poorer-quality, on-site sanitation systems, with the opportunities offered by the SDGs. a high social and environmental cost, in most precarious or informal settlements. Full high- capital water-borne systems, in fact, have often not been expanded to cover newly urbanized areas or more informal neighbourhoods, with a strong impact on quality of life and socio- economic equality. Similarly, waste management and disposal have been lacking in many urban systems across the region, with strong spatial inequalities in service provision and delivery. Recycling, moreover, is not yet socially or economically rooted in the urban culture of the area, and has not provided the same kind of relief on environmental impact as it has in more aware regions or urban systems. Traffic congestion is historically crippling in the region’s larger cities, and generally mobility across MEWA countries is highly dependent on motorized private transport (even mass transportation is usually performed, more or less Even in spite of centralized informally, with private and obsolete vehicles). governance and the intense pressure Reliance on motorized, polluting vehicles has reached unsustainable levels in many countries, of conflict and war, MEWA cities and with high environmental impact and economic territories have an opportunity to costs that considerably hinder the achievement of all related SDGs and targets. Any improvement become engines of growth. in this regard, however, will inevitably require

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