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Women who shattered the glass ceiling: Postpositivist inquiry into the aspirations, values, motives and actions of women serving as CEOs of Cooperative Extension Systems

Maddy, Deborah Jones, Ph.D.

The Ohio State University, 1992

UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106

WOMEN WHO SHATTERED THE GLASS CEILING:

Postpositivist Inquiry into the Aspirations, Values, Motives

and Actions of Women Serving as CEOs of

Cooperative Extension Systems

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

by

Deborah Jones Maddy, B.S. Fam.Res., M.S. Educ.Com.

******

The Ohio State University 1992

Dissertation Committee: Approved by:

Dr. Richard W. Clark, Adviser

This study is dedicated:

...to my husband, Bill, for your love and devotion, and the many sacrifices you made to make my dream come true. Thank you for sharing in my life and this degree.

...to my parents, Maurice and Mary Lou Jones, for always believing in me. Thank you for allowing me the freedom to explore the world and its options. Throughout my life, I have been secure and happy in your love.

...to the women who allowed me into their days. This is your success story. Thank you for blazing the path so that I might follow. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There are many who have played an important role in my quest for the terminal degree. I take this opportunity to thank those individuals who have assisted, guided, coached and counseled this graduate student in her professional growth and development while at The Ohio State University. I am grateful to Dr. Richard Clark for serving as my adviser during the past five years. Thank you for permitting me to design a program of study and research that met my needs and allowed me to discover my strengths. I truly appreciate your willingness to explore a new paradigm with me. To Dr. Jo Jones, Dr. Emmalou Norland, Dr. Nikki Conklin, and Dr. Jan Henderson, thank you for giving of your time and energies to assist in my academic pursuits. I am grateful for you encouragement, guidance and insights. You are friends and colleagues, but you also serve as role models for me and other women who aspire to excellence. Also, special thanks to Dr. Howard Klein for advising the human resource management area of my graduate program. Thank you Dr. Patti Lather for introducing me to the postpositivist paradigm it was love at first encounter. A special appreciation goes to Carla Menelle, Barb Hanniford, and Dr. Sue Cummings, dear friends and fellow graduate students. I enjoyed our internal partnering sessions and learned much from discussing and debating the merits of qualitative research with you. Our thoughts and prayers are with you, Carla. Sincere thanks to Gail Gunderson for serving as my peer-debriefer. I am grateful that you made time in your busy schedule as Extension professional, graduate student, wife, and mother to assist with my data analysis. Your insights were both challenging and supporting; you kept me honest and the inquiry credible. Balancing work and school is not an easy task, but with the support and understanding of my supervisors, Jim Helt and Dr. John Stitzlein, I was able to complete the degree. Thank you for being flexible and responsive to my needs. Financial assistance for this study came from; National Association of Extension 4-H Agents; Epsilon Sigma Phi, Alpha Eta Chapter; and the George Gist Graduate Research Scholarship. Thank you. I have been fortunate to be blessed with an abundance of good people to call family and friends. My loving thanks to each of you you helped to shape the person I have become.

iv VITA

February 12, 1953 Born - Buckhannon, West Virginia May 1975 B.S. Family Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown West Virginia June 1, 1976 Extension Agent, Maryland Cooperative Extension Service, Carroll County, Westminster, Maryland August 1981 M.S. Educational Communications, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York March 1, 1982 Extension Agent, Ohio Cooperative Extension Service, Warren County, Lebannon, Ohio December 1, 1984 Extension Agent, Ohio Cooperative Extension Service, Cuyahoga County, Cleveland, Ohio August 1, 1989 Assistant Extension Specialist, Ohio Cooperative Extension Service, Columbus, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Agricultural Education Dr. Richard W. Clark Area of Emphasis: Extension Dr. Jo M. Jones Administration Dr. Janet Henderson Minor Fields: Human Resource Dr. Howard J. Klein Management Research Methodology Dr. Emmalou Norland Dr. Nikki L. Conklin

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION ...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii

VITA ...... V LIST OF FIGURES ...... ix CHAPTER I ...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Problem Description ...... 1 Purpose of Study ...... 5 Justification of the Problem ...... 6 Focus of Study ...... 7 Objectives ...... 8 Definition of Terms ...... 8 Limitations of the Study ...... 9 Basic Assumptions ...... 10 CHAPTER II ...... 11 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 11 Images of Women as Boss ...... 12 Gender Differences ...... 15 Barriers to Advancement ...... 19 Ways of Leadership ...... 24 Ways Women Lead ...... 26 Work Environment ...... 29 Leadership Styles ...... 30 Conflict Management ...... 34 Communication ...... 35 Decision Making ...... 36 Personal Development ...... 38 Summary ...... 42

vi CHAPTER III ...... 45 PROCEDURES ...... 45 Research Design ...... 46 Study Participants ...... 51 Instrumentation Development ...... 53 Establishing Trustworthiness ...... 53 Credibility ...... 54 Transferability ...... 60 Confirmability ...... 62 Dependability ...... 63 Instrument One — Personal Interview Questionnaire 64 Instrument Two — Diary Studies ...... 66 Instrument Three — Biographical Data Survey .... 69 Instrument Four — Member Check ...... 70 Data Collection Procedures ...... 71 Data Analysis ...... 74 CHAPTER I V ...... 81 FINDINGS ...... 81 A Profile of the Participants ...... 83 Women as Executives ...... 91 Work Environment ...... 92 Leadership Style ...... 99 Conflict Management ...... 103 Communication ...... 107 Decision Making ...... 110 The Path to the Top ...... 113 CHAPTER V ...... 118 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 118 Summary ...... 118 Conclusions ...... 124 Implications ...... 126 Recommendations ...... 130 Recommendations for Cooperative Extension Systems.130 Recommendations for Further Study ...... 132 Recommendations for Female Aspirants...... 133

APPENDICES ...... 135 A. Participation Request Letter ...... 136 B. Telephone Recruitment Script ...... 139 C. Participation Confirmation Letter ...... 145 D. Personal, Open-Ended Interview Instrument ...... 147 E. Biographical Data Survey ...... 157 F. Member Check #1...... 162 G. Member Check #2 ...... 169 H. Panel of Experts and Peer-debriefer ...... 175 LIST OF REFERENCES ...... 177

viii LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page 1. Key Differences Between Males & Females in Management...... 44 2. System for Data Analysis ...... 77 3. The Process of Analyzing Data ...... 80

ix CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION problem Dpsnription For many women, the 1980s effectively destroyed the notion that they could have it all: a full-blown career, a happy marriage, well-adjusted children, and cellulite-free thighs. Blessed with first-class educations, middle-class drive, and a sense of unlimited opportunities, these women expected a lot of themselves. They also expected equal treatment in the workplace. Well intentioned but torn asunder, many understandably failed as superwomen the sacrifices of time, personal relationships and family were too great (Fierman, 1990). But some women were willing to tough it out, stay the course, and make the necessary sacrifices. These few women were slowly but steadily climbing to the top....until they hit the glass ceiling, that frustrating barrier that keeps women from occupying the executive suite (Morrison, 1987) . The term glass ceiling refers to artificial barriers based on attitudinal or organizational bias that prevent qualified women from advancing into mid- and senior-level administrative positions (A Report on the Glass Ceiling Initiative, U.S. Department of Labor, August 1991). The

1 glass ceiling may exist at different levels in different organizations. Many women have paid their dues, even a premium, for a chance at a top position, only to find a glass ceiling between them and their goal. Women make up 40 percent of a loosely defined demographic category of managers and administrators that covers everyone from President Bush to the person running the local Dairy Queen (U.S. Department of Labor, 1990). But only 15 percent of the top levels of power, from the military to board rooms, are occupied by women, and females are not in the zone for promotion to those jobs anytime soon (Fierman, 1990). A study by the University of California at Los Angeles Graduate School of Management and corporate recruiter Korn/Ferry International reported that only three of every 100 top executive jobs at the largest U.S. companies are held by women — a number that has barely budged in a decade (Saltzman, 1991). The third Annual Status Report of Women at The Ohio State University (1991), one of the largest land grant universities in the U.S., reported that 39 percent of the university's executive positions are filled by females, a one percent increase since the first report was released in 1988. Within the larger land-grant university concept exists the Cooperative Extension System (CES), providing research-based educational programs to the citizens of the state. In 1989, seven women served as state CES directors, 3 the organization's equivalent to chief executive officer, and one was an acting director. All women appointed to director positions since 1978 still held those positions in Spring 1989 when 15 percent of state directors were women (Goering, 1990) . Currently five women, or 10 percent of CES directors, serve as the chief executive officer (CEO) of a state-based Cooperative Extension System in the 50 land- grant universities. The Extension Committee on Organization and Policy anticipates rapid change within CES leadership during the next five years, with nearly 50 percent of the current leadership being eligible for retirement. In order to facilitate this leadership transition, new faculty development programs were established to assist promising young Extension professionals to prepare for tomorrow's leadership roles within CES. One example was the Executive Development Institute. The Executive Development Institute consisted of five, one-week educational sessions during a two year period of time. Each session focused on a different management function, and participants were expected to contract and complete a practical learning experience to reinforce knowledge and skills gained in each session. Participants in the Institute were first nominated by state CES administration, and then applications submitted by the nominees were screened and selected by a national review committee. Selected as one of the first 55 to participate in the program, I was anxious to take a closer look at these selected peers, and a quick count showed that 71 percent of this elite group were women. As I began to know these colleagues, it became apparent that many of the women identified by CES as successful had made a number of sacrifices in order to achieve success. Nearly 50 percent were single, either never married or divorced; while 20 percent had made decisions not to have children. In contrast, their male counterparts had self-proclaimed stable marriages, with supportive spouses and family. During the next two years preferred leadership styles were explored, personality characteristics examined, and effective management skills reviewed. A pattern began to emerge. The females strongly and confidently exhibited attributes that were often denoted as "masculine"; the males showed equal competency with "feminine" attributes. Could it be that CES administration, predominately an agriculturally-trained male force, recognized that traits long identified as "feminine" (nurturing, caring, sensitive, intuitive) paired with competitive, futuristic, decisive, team-spirited (usually associated with males) was the combination believed necessary for leading Extension into the 21st century? This informal prior ethnography raises interesting questions about the women who currently serve as CES leaders. What made them successful? How do they define their success? How did they prepare for their current role? Who served as a mentor or inspiration for professional growth? What does being a women mean to the individual? Has that individualized concept of womanhood changed over the years? Perhaps by taking a closer look at these few women who have achieved top leadership positions and by understanding what they attribute to their success in shattering the glass ceiling, the next generation of female leaders can learn and benefit from their success and their failures.

Purpose of Study The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the aspirations, values, motives, and actions of women currently serving as CEOs for state-based Cooperative Extension Systems. A triangulation of qualitative data collection methods and data sources was utilized to assess what these women attribute to their success in shattering the glass ceiling. This inquiry was conducted to provide initial observations regarding women in senior-level leadership roles. Additionally, the study should generate further discussion and evaluation about how this information can be used by both current administration and qualified women to identify and dismantle barriers, should they be found to exist, based on attitudinal or organizational bias that prevent women form advancing. Using these initial observations as a framework, future qualitative and quantitative research can provide an assessment technique for determining organizational readiness of women to serve in senior-level administrative positions and a model for a professional development strategy preparing women for senior-level leadership roles within CES.

Justification of the Problem By the year 2 000 women will make up nearly half the labor force but it won't be the top half (Fierman, 1990). Discrimination, however subtle, still plays a part. The cool reception women once got at the door has followed them up the organizational hierarchy. If history is any guide, the glass ceiling will disappear. But it won't crack and fall all at once. In the meantime, what can women do to nudge things along? This inquiry will provide insight into the lives of successful female CES administrators, describing in rich, contextual detail their leadership attitudes, strategies and theory; how they make decisions, communicate, manage resources and build relationships; their personal experiences as women, wives, mothers, friends, sisters, daughters, executives. Through the discovery of strengths and the understanding of limitations within this select pioneer population, future generations of women who aspire to CES leadership roles can learn and benefit.

Focus of the Study Because this was an inductive inquiry, variables are not specified nor operationalized. Instead, five main topics of importance that consistently appear in the literature concerning women who have successfully shattered the glass ceiling were studied. The topics are: individualized concept of womanhood, personal experiences attributing to self concept, definition of success, strategies for success, and ways of leadership. Five working days of structured observation and in-depth personal interviews with each identified CEO explored these five topics. Analysis of data identified emerging patterns or common themes that possibly impact women achieving a senior- level administrative position. Two formal member checks allowed the human sources to confirm, clarify and validate the researcher's findings and interpretations. The inductive paradigm has emphasized the human element of inquiry. This holistic approach enables the researcher to understand the complexities of the whole, by studying the interdependencies of the parts as they interact in complex systems. In-depth, detailed, rich data are produced based on participants' personal perspectives and experiences. Cultural insights and symbolic, sensitive meanings are provided via the use of their language which represents their reality. Interpretive inquiry is an interactive process in which researcher and participant learn from each other through dialogic interaction.

Obi ectives The research objectives of this study were to: 1. identify factors relating to women successfully shattering the glass ceiling within state-based Cooperative Extension Systems. 2. describe possible professional development strategies for future generations of women who aspire to CES leadership roles.

Definitions of Terms The following terminology, used throughout the study, was operationally defined as: Postpositivist Inquiry: Inquiry conducted in natural settings and including a variety of qualitative techniques; reality is constructed, multiple, holistic and divergent; participants help structure the inquiry through reacting to patterns of meaning and action emerging from the data; the goal is to interpret and understand the reality of the participants. Inductive Logic: General conclusions on the basis of knowledge gathered through direct observation; through observing and accumulating facts, the researcher summarizes theory that emerges after careful consideration of the facts. Qualitative Research: Type of descriptive research with smaller sample size but more depth than survey; qualitative methods are more sensitive to and adaptable to the many mutually shaping influences and value patterns that may be encountered in interpreting and understanding multiple, constructed realities. Chief Executive Officer (CEO): Senior-level administrator who gives primary leadership for daily management and operations of a state-based Cooperative Extension System; job titles vary, with Director and Associate Director predominant, but job responsibilities are consistent. Cooperative Extension System (CES): The primary outreach force of the land grant university in each state, the mission of CES is to help people improve their lives through an educational process that uses research-based knowledge.

Limitations of Study Recognized limitations of the study included: 1. The findings are restricted to the eight senior-level 10 administrators participating in the study. 2. The findings are "real" insofar as the participants perceived and defined reality. 3. Actions are interpreted in relation to the participants' motives, intentions and purpose. Action only occurs in context of meaning.

Basic Assumptions For purposes of this study, this researcher assumed: 1. The constructed nature of reality rather than positing the existence of only one truth. The reality presented in this study is that of the participants. 2. Underlying the inquiry are decisions and assumptions that reflect the researcher's ideologies and biases. Steps were taken to keep the inquirer honest and the study credible. 3. Interaction between researcher and participant impacts on inquiry. The values and relationships shared among and between the researcher and participants were woven throughout the research plan. 4. Knowledge of context is important. A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context. 5. Integrity of the study hinges on how the participants inform. Research and analytical design includes participants' insights as a central focus. CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

"Women hold up half the sky," says a Chinese proverb. It means that half the work and half the thinking in the world is done by women. For the sky to be complete, both halves must work together; nothing can be truly human that excludes one half of humanity. Until recently, the half of the sky assigned to women has been the private half; the public half has been ceded to men (Forisha, 1981). But as women assume positions of leadership in the public realm they are bringing their values with them, and the ancient dichotomies, between male and female, and between public and private are dissolving (Helgesen, 1990). Just as individuals are enriched by developing both the masculine and feminine sides of the self (independence and nurturance, intellect and intuition), so society is benefiting from the change in the balance of power between the sexes (Ferguson, 1984) . The National Extension Leadership Development (NELD) program promotes a "new" leadership philosophy called "next- age leadership," a term coined by Jerry Apps (1990), who heads NELD. "Next-age leadership" describes an

11 12 administrator who will function much more cooperatively, both within and outside a particular organization. This "new" leadership requires individuals who know who they are, who know what their organization is and could be, and who are willing to risk their careers to achieve that vision. "Next-age leadership" builds on the leadership skills and theories that have developed over the years, but is different in that it is not gender-specific. If the concept of leadership is redefined as Apps envisions, we can think differently about women in leadership roles. Burns (1978) called it "male bias" that sees leadership as mere command or control, whereas it is properly the engagement and mobilization of human aspirations. Women are now learning to use their unique leadership qualities— integration, empathy, reconciliation, intuition— openly, rather than the coy and manipulative ways of the past (Ferguson, 1984).

Images of Women as Boss Do women have a different leadership style than their male counterparts? If so, do the consensus-building, participatory methods that are largely attributed to women work better than the hierarchical, quasi-militaristic models? The subject has become increasingly controversial and academics and practitioners continue to debate the issue passionately (Billard, 1992). The theory that there is a style of leadership particular to women gained widespread attention in a 1990 article in the Harvard Business Review by Judy Rosener. Entitled "Ways Women Lead," the piece argued that women are more likely than men to manage in an interactive style— encouraging participation, sharing power and information, and enhancing the self-worth of others. Rosener claimed that women tend to use "transformational" leadership, motivating others by transforming their self-interest into the goals of the organization, while men use "transactional" leadership, doling out rewards for good work and punishment for bad. Bernard Bass, who studied subordinates of both men and women managers, supports Rosener's findings. Bass (1985) found that women bosses were more often described as possessing transformational leadership qualities. This image of women as boss is a change from earlier findings. There are a variety of images of leaders, both male and female. Yet Heller (1982) notes that there tends to be one image of the ideal male leader: strong, aggressive, rational and aloof. Women leaders are believed to be more concerned with interpersonal relations than are their male counterparts who are thought to be task-oriented (Forisha, 1981) . At Purdue University, psychological researchers found that women who display "masculine leadership styles" and 14 those who occupy predominantly male-dominated roles in the workplace are routinely mistrusted— especially by men. In general, women tended to be more democratic and collaborative when serving in a leadership role; men leaned toward the autocratic and commanding. However, when a woman leader is autocratic and "nonparticipative"— a style rewarded in men— she is distrusted and evaluated lower by males (Salter, 1991). In a study at the College of the Holy Cross, researchers found that women who adopt an unsure, almost- apologetic manner while attempting to persuade others about an issue are more successful at gaining men's trust and support— and they are liked better. To a man, a woman who is assertive and direct is much less likable and trustworthy than an incompetent woman (Salter, 1991). Hammer (1978) identified four images of woman as boss: earth mother, manipulator, workaholic, and egalitarian. Kanter also identified four views of women's roles: mother, sex-object, pet, and iron maiden (Candy, 1981) . None of these stereotypic images is positive. The earth mother or mother image is overly concerned with others' feelings, the manipulator and the sex-object both use feminine traits to control others, the workaholic is devoid of emotions, the pet is cute and bubbly, the egalitarian and the iron maiden are both heavy-handed. Each role is set in opposition to what is defined as a "good leader" by the power-elite 15 dominant culture.

Gender Differences Schaef (1981) has written extensively about the world of white males and the world of women. She points out that all people must know the world of white males because it is the dominant perspective in society. In addition to that world, women and minority people also live in worlds that exclude white men. They know and understand these worlds— worlds that white men seldom know exist. Thus for women to be able to negotiate the world of white males is to be expected. They wouldn't have been selected for leadership if they didn't comprehend and master that culture. In addition, however, they have knowledge of a female culture and socialization that they bring to the job. As the idea of a women's style of leadership gained momentum, it plugged into a larger body of work outside the world of business management. Indeed, a growing body of scientific and social research supports the notions that in work, as in love and play, men and women experience and react to the world differently (Saltzman, 1991). British geneticist Anne Moir (1989) contends that men's and women's brains are biologically different, while sociolinguist Deborah Tannan (1990) persuasively shows how men and women communicate differently. A number of researchers have documented differences between male and female language 16 (Kramer, 1974a, 1974b? Lakoff, 1973; Thorne & Henley, 1975). The cultural socialization of children plays an important role in establishing gender differences. Candy (1981) reflects on the superficial interaction of young boys, the socialization of young boys in large groups, and the low degree of intimacy of the boys compared to the socialized norms of intimacy with a few friends of young girls. She also notes the importance that the male socialization process emphasized team work where in the female process, though some team play is involved, individual or small group is the dominant work pattern. Parents, teachers and peers have different expectations for boys and girls in diverse areas such as competition, readiness of display of emotion, and loudness of voices (Jacobson, 1985). The expectations of women are formed in great part by socialization through family, childhood play, school experiences, early work experiences and the perceived structure of opportunity (Astin, 1982). The work of Carol Gilligan (1982) in the area of moral psychology constitutes the primary study of gender differences that might have implications for leadership styles. Gilligan was a colleague of the late Lawrence Kohlberg (1981), who developed a theory of moral development using moral dilemmas in his work with adolescent boys. Kohlberg's resulting schema defines morality as justice or 17 fairness reasoning, with an emphasis on the movement toward objectivity and universality as the ideal. The moral law here is not to interfere with the rights of others and to step back from situations in an attempt to be objective and fair. This orientation usually places relationships along a continuum of inequality-equality and values autonomy and reciprocity in interactions with others. It is referred to as the justice/rights mode. Gilligan carried forward Kohlberg's research by studying people with real-life dilemmas who were asked to explain their moral thinking and consequent action. Because Gilligan's subjects happened to be a group of women considering abortion, she heard a "voice" that did not fit the patterns evidenced by the males in Kohlberg's study. This new voice (or orientation) articulated by Gilligan is a voice tha.t values attachment and care as the primary basis for moral decisions. It places relationships along a continuum of attachment-detachment and values intimacy and nurturing in interactions with others. This voice (or orientation) is referred to as the care or connected mode. It is important to remember that the two modes are gender-related but not gender-specific. Women and men fall into both modes, but more men are found in the justice/rights mode and more women in the care or connected mode. The research also reveals that people in the justice/rights mode tend to project aspects of their moral 18 orientation outward to the environment, while those in the connected/care mode project certain aspects inward to self. The implications of Gilligan's work for community college leadership emerged in research conducted by Desjardins (1985) with a sample involving 72 community college presidents. The findings revealed that the majority (66 percent) of the women scored higher in the care/connecting mode, while 17 percent were in the justice/rights mode and 17 percent were in a combined mode. The CEOs in the care/connecting mode tended to be the most concerned with the inner atmosphere, the community within the college. Justice/rights CEOs tended to be more concerned with how the external community viewed the college. The National Institute for Leadership Development has conducted a research study of leadership qualities. Based on the theories of Kohlberg and Gilligan, the study revealed that the most effective male and female CEOs in community colleges operate out of a connectedness and care mode or moral orientation. This study appears to support the current move toward the "horizontal" model of leadership and is proving effective in higher education, having broader application in an emerging environment of cultural diversity (Desjardins & Brown, 1991). 19

Barriers to Advancement The first female executives, because they were breaking new ground, adhered to many of the "rules of conduct" that spelled success for men (Rosener, 1990) . Loden and Rosener (1991) argue that women would prosper if they were encouraged to use what numerous studies have shown to be their generally stronger intuitive and people skills instead of adopting the "male" command-and-control style. A 1991 report on the Glass Ceiling Initiative by the U.S. Department of Labor identified the barriers to advancement for women. These barriers included: 1) The manner in which new job openings are advertised or lack thereof, 2) The use of executive search firms which often do not include women in those recommended, 3) The lack of access to training and development programs, including foreign assignments, special projects and so-called line duty— experiences to enhance academic and work-related credentials, and 4) A lack of knowledge at the top levels of organizations regarding equal employment opportunity responsibilities and evaluation. A 1990 poll of FORTUNE 1,000 CEOs also shows that discrimination is at work. Nearly 80 percent of 241 respondents to a survey conducted by Catalyst, a group that does research on women in the workplace, said there are 20 identifiable barriers that keep women from reaching the top. Women do not lack the technical skills to make it. The problems, said 81 percent of the CEOs who acknowledged the existence of barriers, are stereotyping and preconceptions (Fierman, 1990). Cultural forces help define the patterns of behavior of both men and women. Where men are defined as ascendent, women are culturally defined as subordinate. Men are independent, forceful and unemotional by definition and thus, the woman is to be dependent, unforceful and emotional to balance the culture (Fenn, 1978). Jacobson (1985) adds to this list the findings of a study of psychologists conducted by Broverman. The psychologists listed the traits of healthy men as aggressive, adventurous, independent and objective; healthy women were seen as submissive, dependent, shy and emotional. Candy (1981) concurs with the observation that while the males in our society are inculturated to be independent, achievement oriented and suppress affection, females are taught dependence and affectional expression. Schwartz (1989) summarizes some of these issues in a manner that supports this discussion: barriers to women's leadership occur when tradition, socialization and maternity meet the management system of preconceptions, stereotypes and male expectations. It is also interesting that even though there are far fewer women in leadership roles than 21 men, because of the desire of top level management for the appearance of equity, women are often requested or required to serve on an inordinate number of committees, task forces, or other efforts (Merriam, 1985), are expected to mentor all young women in the profession (Hetherington and Barcelo, 1985), and are expected to perform at or above the level of their male counterparts consistently while being subjected to greater criticism, (Forisha, 1981). In breaking through stereotypes, the adage that line jobs are the quickest route to the top still holds. Women should take a lead from men and steer clear of dead ends like personnel and public relations. The most successful women have typically sought out risky, thankless projects whose results become immediately apparent. A women has to prove herself a leader, to show she's willing to steal second base (Fierman, 1990) The culture gives women a double-bind message. On the one hand, it tells women to be aggressive, hard-driving and competitive. But on the other hand, men are not comfortable with a woman who does not act like they think a typical female should act. According to Dusky (1992), there is a certain line that women cannot cross, but the culture demands that individuals do so if they are going to be successful. Another area of inequity is in the organizational structure of most corporations, institutions, and organizations. Some considerations for understanding women in an organization are the opportunity, power, and numerical distribution of women in the existing structure (Kanter, 1981). The inertia of what exists is an important consideration; in the past and even now, top level administrative positions are held almost exclusively by men. The instruments developed to measure, assess and prescribe leadership, policy-making and managerial skills have been developed and validated on male subjects from a male perspective (Hamptman, 1981). The organizational style- setters have been overwhelmingly male, especially at the leadership and decision-making positions (Pearson, 1981). Barriers to equity include both social and organizational barriers. The social barriers are the patterns of pressure on the women and the organizational barriers include placement, development, nonformal networks and compensation issues (Fenn, 1978). Women are not included on an equal basis in the informal communications channels or networks of men (Meyer and Lee, 1978). This includes office gossip, office politics, and company intrigue...information shared in the men's room, in the locker room, on the golf course and at the corner bar (Scott, 1977; Merriam, 1985). Though much has been made of "womentoring" (McNeer, 1983; Hetherington and Barcelo, 1985), the male networks have a distinct advantage because of the long-standing position of males at 23 the top power levels (Mitchell and Burdick, 1985). According to Ehrenreich and English (1985), the "fast track" with its macho camaraderie and toxic work load, remains the only track to success. Women are often denied challenges and opportunities for risk and growth, and are given greater criticism than their male counterparts (Forisha, 1981). The end result is a difference in degree to which the role expectations of men and women differ and how the expectations fit with the organizational requirements (Kosinar, 1981). A benefit to examining these patterns of dominance between men and women is that in doing so, the subtleties of power and control that exist within bureaucratic organizations is better comprehended (Ferguson, 1984). Men's perceptions of tasks are steps to an end compared to women's perceptions of each task as a complete detail of the whole (Koisnar, 1981). Levinson's early career strategy for men, the dream phase, occurred in the males' early twenties... Most women postpone career strategies, or dreams, until the mid-30's when questions of family and stability are better addressed (Missirian, 1982). "Don't Blame the Baby" is the name Wick & Co., a Delaware consulting firm, gave its recent study of why male and female managers change jobs. The Wick research, a survey of 110 executives, found that most women quit jobs not to rock the cradle but to find greater career 24 satisfaction somewhere else (Fierman, 1990). It did not make any difference what their situation was— married, single, with or without children, the number one reason for leaving was that they could not grow in their jobs (Dusky, 1992). John Rosenblum, dean of the University of Virginia's Darden graduate school of business administration, observes women are discouraged about their ability to realize a vision of life that has family, career, and happiness all in the same sentence (Fierman, 1990) .

Ways of Leadership Men are considered decisive, direct, rational, authoritative, logical, aggressive and impersonal in their business dealings. Whereas, studies have indicated that women leaders tend to use questions, tag questions, qualifiers and intensifiers, hedging constructions, muted imperatives, frequent and intensified courtesy markers, and emotional and personal references significantly more than their male counterparts (Pearson, 1981). Instinctive behavior, or intuition and nurturant actions, are ascribed to women with men viewed as cognitive and productive actors (Fenn, 1978). Loden (1985) refers to this female pattern as intuition plus rational thinking. But where males are thing-oriented, women are people oriented; where men are strong and positively aggressive, women are weak and passive (Fenn, 1978); women are never viewed as assertive, only as unattractively aggressive (Jacobson, 1984). In a study contrasting men and women leaders, Heller (1982) found the perceived negatives of the male boss were: too focused on procedures, remote, inaccessible, authoritarian, and sexist. The perceived negatives of the female boss were: too focused on people, emotionally demonstrative and not assertive. Men bosses were seen to be more relaxed and humorous than their women counterparts, though the women were seen as more human, open and friendly. Though the males were thought to be better able to separate work and social roles, the females were seen as more egalitarian. Kanter and Fassell (Kanter, 1977) found that women who assumed task oriented leadership styles held no distinguishing "feminine" traits. It would appear that an extreme task orientation eliminates perceived sex differences. Some of these same women, however, behaved in more nurturant and supportive ways while maintaining their clear task focus. The traditional experience of women in our dominant culture contains notions of individual identity and patterns of social interaction. These notions can suggest a nonbureaucratic vision of collective life (Ferguson, 1984). This experience is reflected in the feminist leaderless groups, rotating leadership and shared authority organizations. Many businesses and organizations are 26 beginning to view the authoritarian leadership style as destructive to individuals and costly to the group (Bardwick, 1981). Bardwick suggests that a modified form between the two extreme approaches can lead to consensual decision-making, active participation in decision-making, and a willingness for individuals to assume responsibility. Apps (1991) emphasizes in "next-age leadership" that it is important for leaders to have a variety of leadership skills that they can apply in a variety of situations. It is also critical that the leaders of the future have a well developed working philosophy of leadership. Components of this working philosophy include beliefs about directions for leadership, about approaches for leadership, about people, and about education.

Ways Women Lead Women adapt to inequities in different ways depending on their individual socialization, personality, and experiences. Kosinar (1981) identified three broad categories of responses: 1) Absolution from the female role socialization (adopt the male role); 2) Decide that desensitization of self to get ahead is not worth it; and 3) Attempt to integrate the two roles. In absolution, the woman assumes the male performance 27 standards, yet fails to perform as a man due to inequities of the system. In the second, the woman fails to enter into leadership roles in the existing system. The third approach is perhaps the most ideal; yet, the most difficult of the three. In this, the woman strives to maintain her own sense of self, while working within the bureaucratic male system. Until recent years, women were advised that to succeed as leaders, executives, or administrators they must behave like "one of the boys." Marilyn Loden (1985) was one of the first to assert that women have their own leadership style and that they manage most effectively by being themselves and not by conforming to the traditional masculine leadership model. In 1990, Sally Helgesen researched the strategies and organizational theories of four successful female leaders. Through direct observation of how they solve big and small tasks, she explored how women leaders make decisions, schedule their days, gather and disperse information, structure their companies, hire, and fire. Her findings reveal innovative organizational structures and strategies that suggest women, with their unusual strengths, may be the new Japanese. As the concept of leadership is being redefined, there is growing recognition of the need for more people-oriented skills— heightened sensitivity to nonverbal cues, creative problem-solving, intuitive management, participatory leadership (Apps, 1991)— the same skills that women have 28 been taught to cultivate since they were little girls. The National Institute for Leadership Development's research supports the national trend toward a "horizontal" model that values people within the organization (Desjardins & Brown, 1991). Some of the changing values that reflect this shift in the direction of women's basic orientation are discussed by Josefowitz (1980). The changing values place a greater emphasis on collaboration as opposed to competition; pay attention to process and not just to task; trust people and share power. This model stresses being authentic instead of playing games; appropriately expressing feelings rather than shutting them off; viewing people as whole persons not just in terms of job description. The model involves accepting and utilizing individual differences instead of resisting or fearing. Leadership using this model places an emphasis on affiliation and nets of connectedness. Change is brought about through bridging and communication. The remainder of this section on Ways Women Lead is an effort to begin documenting the existence of a female organizational culture. The current literature has been divided into the categories of work environment, leadership style, conflict management, communication, decision making, and personal development; most of the research has been done with women in the corporate world. Benedetti (1975) cautions that women in the corporate world score higher on 29 structure dimensions whereas women in educational administration score higher on consideration. Nevertheless, the differences are small and, in other areas, the two groups are similar.

Work Environment Rosener (1990) indicates women are seeking and finding opportunities in fast-changing and growing organizations and proving they can achieve results in a different way. They are succeeding because of certain characteristics generally considered to be "feminine" and inappropriate in leaders. The women's success shows that a nontraditional leadership style is well suited to the conditions of some work environments and can increase an organization's chances of surviving in an uncertain world. As the recession and the realities of the '90s impact public and private organizations, how well will female leaders deal with layoffs and restructuring? Psychologist Steven Berglas thinks the female style of leadership is bettered positioned for hard times. "In an era when the need to motivate is so important, women will do better because they are nurturers and value-driven," he says. "And at a time when the corporation needs restructuring, women will be able to do so because they operate in webs rather than pyramid-shaped hierarchies" (Billard, 1992: 70). 30 Female leaders interviewed by Rosener (1990) believed that people perform best when they feel good about themselves and their work, and the leaders took actions to create situations that contribute to that feeling. Cooperation and empowerment, or the ability to make people feel they are capable of doing the best work possible, were points raised in interviews with women managers (Loden, 1985). Helgesen (1990) found women's workplace were not only organized in ways that foster and engage the human spirit; they were also efficient means for facilitating interaction and information flow. Miller (1976) reports that a workplace facilitating interconnection and seeking to encourage communication will be both efficient and humane.

Leadership Styles Women leaders in Rosener's study (1990) made frequent references to their efforts to encourage participation and share power and information— two behaviors that are often associated with participative management. The fact that many of the interviewees described their participatory style as coming "naturally" suggests that these leaders do not consciously adopt it for its business values. Participation increases support for decisions ultimately reached and reduces the risk that ideas will be undermined by unexpected opposition. The interviewees also believed their preferred 31 style creates loyalty, trust and respect, and enhances self worth— important components to establishing the desired work environment. James Autry, former president of the magazine group at Meredith Corporation, also embraces participatory management (Billard, 1992). He believes that women do "get it" quicker than men when it comes to employer empowerment. "Women think of themselves as affiliated with their people; men think of themselves as the boss," he says (p. 107). Whether they are working in a team with peers or managing a work group, feminine leaders tend to behave in very similar ways: putting cooperation ahead of competition and seeking input and support from all members of the group (Loden, 1985). To them, participative management, from fostering open communication and soliciting employee input to establishing mutually agreed upon goals and encouraging creativity and increased autonomy among team members, is more than a set of techniques. It is a basic operating philosophy that guides their every action. A 1989 International Women's Forum Survey of men and women leaders found that women are more likely than men to use transformational leadership— motivating others by transforming their self-interest into the goals of the organization (Rosener, 1990). At the very heart of managing and leading is the desire to influence people and events. All leaders use their power 32 to influence others and to achieve their goals. Loden's research (1985) reports that, when given the choice, feminine leaders prefer to use personal power to influence organizational policies and practices and to motivate others. Although they recognize the importance of position power, they tend to use it more sparingly than traditional leaders. Miller (1976) observes that the female values of responsibility, connection, and inclusion have been devalued in our culture, which tends to celebrate the lone hero, the rugged individual. Yet, she also observes that in recent years this bias has begun to diminish, as alienation, loneliness, family instability, and resulting problems of drugs and random crime have forced the recognition that a sense of human community is much needed in modern culture. As a result, the female view that one strengthens oneself by strengthening others is finding greater acceptance, and female values of inclusion and connection are emerging as valuable leadership qualities. Connectedness and building networks in which one is at the center rather than hierarchies in which one is on top is a critical element in Loden's Feminine Leadership Model (1985) . Gilligan (1982) also explored the importance women tend to place on building a network or web of relationships. Relationships, when viewed as a hierarchy, appear unstable and morally problematic; the image of a web 33 changes an order of inequality into a structure of interconnection. Helgesen's (1990) work also supports the "web of inclusion" as key to how women run the workplace. The image of the web not only imbued the language of the women she studied, it was also evident in the management structures they devised and in the way they structured their meetings. Implicit in such structuring is the notion of group affiliation rather than individual achievement as having the highest value. Where traditional managers believe in the importance of controlling or managing the efforts of their subordinates, female leaders take a totally different view of their role (Loden, 1985). They see themselves primarily as empowerers, the individuals responsible for encouraging greater autonomy among employees, and thereby, improved quality in the team's output. According to studies done from a wide database at the Center for Values Research (CVR) in Dallas, top women managers are more likely to be characterized as "existential" leaders— that is, leaders who are able to reconcile a concern for bottom-line results with a concern for people; who focus on both ends and means; who are good at both planning and communication; and who are "reality- based," able to comprehend all the important aspects of existence (Helgesen, 1990). Also CVR has found that co­ 34 workers tend to be more hostile and negative toward women managers who lack human relations skills, which prevents women not strong in these skills from reaching positions of authority and influence.

Conflict Management Studies of women and men find that women approach conflict management somewhat differently than men. Although both males and females use a variety of conflict management styles, women are more likely to withdraw from conflict or use collaborative strategies, whereas males use authoritarian responses more often (Bendelow, 1983; Hughes & Robertson, 1980). Rahim (1983) also found that "females were more integrating, avoiding, compromising and less obliging than males" (p. 374) . Chusmir and Mills (1989) reported female managers in the work setting used the compromise style the most followed in order by avoidance, collaboration, accommodation, and competing. Female leaders approach conflict in a style that incorporates a strong and constant concern for the equality of relationships, regardless of the source of the conflict (Loden, 1985). Women managers show a strong preference for two different modes of conflict management behavior. The first, collaboration, is an approach to conflict management that seeks to find different, more satisfying solutions to complex problems than those proposed by either side. This 35 win-win approach is based upon a consensus-building strategy for resolving differences rather than a competitive strategy. The other behavioral mode favored more by women managers surveyed was accommodation. Here the strong emphasis is placed on the importance of preserving relationships, even at the expense of achieving one's goals, for accommodation involves subordinating one's own self- interests to those of another person. The accommodating mode assumes that the nature of the relationship between the parties in conflict is more important than the outcome.

Communicat ion Communication is one of the major tasks of the administrator. Studies in the corporate and industrial worlds have shown that oral communication consumes over half of the manager's workday (Barns, 1954; Mintzberg, 1973). The authors of Women's Ways of Knowing (1989) explicitly contrast the metaphor of vision with that of voice. Drawing form extensive interviews, they observe that women tend to ground their descriptions of how knowledge is gained and opinions formed in terms of listening and speaking. "We found that women repeatedly used the metaphor of voice to depict their intellectual and ethical development; and that the development of a sense of voice, mind, and self were intricately intertwined" (p. 18) . Unlike seeing, which is a one-way process, speaking and 36 listening suggest dialogue and interaction. Voice may be defined not just as a vocal instrument, but as a mode of communicating information and, more subtly, sensibility (Helgesen, 1990) . "Communication involves using the voice as an instrument to disseminate vision" (p. 242). Hyman (1980) reports that women use language that indicates more consideration and concern than the language of men. Baird and Bradley (1979) , in a study of communication styles of men and women, found that female managers gave workers more information, encouraged effort more, and stressed interpersonal relations through communication more than did males. Leonard (1981) documented more people orientation among female higher education administrators as well as the use of more personal adjectives in their speech. For establishing and maintaining effective communication, female leaders have a finely developed set of interpersonal skills, including sensing skills, listening skills, management of feelings, intimacy/authenticity, the use of feedback, and assessing personal impact (Loden, 1985) . When used effectively, these skills go a long way in creating a work environment of trust and openness.

Decision Making Charters and Jovick (1981) documented women's collegial decision-making styles: "In large and small schools, more 37 decisions than expected were of the collegial variety under female principals, while more decisions were made by the principal alone under male principals" (p. 316) . This participatory style appears to enhance rather than threaten the power base of female administrators. While some males compete for control in making decisions, females are more likely to aim for decisions reached through compromise or consensus-building (Loden, 1985) . They more often poll others for ideas, support the right of all to express their opinions, and are willing to modify their own views based upon the evidence presented during the discussion. The manager operating from the center of the web, connected to every point in the whole, has direct assess to information, not only to widen input but to test reception to decisions in advance (Helgesen, 1990). Both these benefits give the decision maker more data when making a decision, but do not dilute the necessity for the leader to make it. There is evidence that women think about and evaluate their decisions more often than do men (Hoyle, 1969; Morsink, 1970) • Women are more likely to use strategies that include long-range planning and evaluative data in making decisions and thus have been rated as better planners. 38 Personal Development In her 1970 study of 25 women holding line positions as presidents or divisional vice-presidents of nationally recognized firms, Hennig found that there was a particularly strong and regular pattern to the family histories of her subjects: 20 out of 20 were either eldest or only children; five were not first-born but on examination their experiences were essentially similar to those of a first­ born child. All had had extremely close relationships with their fathers and had been involved in an unusually wide range of traditionally masculine activities in the company of their fathers, beginning from a very young age. They believed that they had been given unusually strong support by their families in following their own interests regardless of the sex-role attributes of those interests. Finally, they thought that they had developed a very early preference for the company of men rather than of women. All of the 25 remembered their childhoods as having been happy. They spoke often of the closeness and warmth of their relationships with their parents and from the beginning they felt they assumed a special role in their parents• eyes.

The father-daughter relationship provided an added dimension to these women's childhoods. From it they drew attention, approval, reward and confirmation. It was an added source of early learning, a very early means of 39 expanding their experience, and through it they gained a role model with which they could begin to identify. Their memories of their mothers were not as rich in detail, and the mother-daughter relationship was the most elusive to characterize. For each of the 25 their "typical" mother provided a warm, caring and socially sanctioned feminine model, a model they shared with their peers, while their fathers supported them and confirmed them in believing that these were not binding models of behavior but a matter of choice and option — and that the roles themselves could be readily modified. As little girls they were free to take part in activities usually reserved for little boys. While their mothers confirmed them as little girls, their fathers confirmed their freedom to be more than the traditional little girl was allowed to be and this very early confirmation of their right to do and be more than the traditional role reserved for little girls remained with them throughout their careers. Research indicates what closeness in a family can mean. Douvan and Adelson (1966) found that parents in a small family of fewer than three siblings more often shared values which stressed personal responsibility and individual achievement for their children. They found that the children felt more encouraged to be autonomous, were mote internalized and more independent, valued exploration, and 40 developed the ability to deal with risk. Hennig and Jardixn (1977) attribute some measure of men's success in the workplace to the male focus on "winning; on achieving a goal or reaching an objective" (p. 33). These goals or objectives were conceived of in very specific terms. By contrast, women were supposed to be hampered by a more diffuse, less goal-oriented notion of their careers: by tending to see their work "as personal growth, as self-fulfillment, as satisfaction, as making a contribution to others as doing what one wants to do" (p. 33). The difference was strategy: men had a definite, objective plan for getting to where they wanted, while women, as a general rule, lacked such a plan. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, so often thought of as a women who exemplifies male valu'es, nevertheless gave perfect expression to this female sense of strategy when asked how she had attained her success. She replied that she had never spelled out specific goals for herself or aspired to a particular position, but had rather seized opportunities as they came and made the best of them (Helgesen, 1990). Levinson's early career strategy for men, the dream phase, occurred in the males' early twenties. Most women postpone career strategies, or dreams, until the mid-30's when questions of family and stability are better addressed (Missirian, 1982). 41 By their mid to late thirties, the 25 participants in Hennig's study (1970) had moved up to positions in the higher levels of middle management. It was during this period that half of these women married. They married widowers or divorced men, all of whom had children. The husbands were at least ten years older than their new wives, none of whom subsequently bore children of their own. Whether the rest of the women chose not to marry or whether the opportunity never arose, they remained open to the idea of marriage into their fifties. In 1986, Leopold reported the average woman executive as forty-six years old, unmarried and without children. The group of executive women studied by Morrison (1987) did not fit this pattern. First, they were much younger. The average age was forty-one, and half (n=76) of them had not yet reached age forty, although they ranged in age from thirty to sixty. Second, only one in four was unmarried at the time of the interview, and half of them had at least one child. Nearly half the women (n= 19) on FORTUNE'S 1990 list of highly paid women were childless, five were divorced, and one never married (Fierman, 1991). In contrast, a historical study of former Cooperative Extension System directors and administrators (Clark, Norland & Smith, 1991) detailed a very different profile. All respondents were male, all that indicated their marital 42 status were married (n=57) , and 40 individuals indicated they had two or more children, in 1992, Clark reported that the 77 current state directors of Cooperative Extension Systems were predominately male (91.4 percent), 53 years of age, and had served as CEO for less than seven years. The majority (88.9 percent) were trained in an agricultural discipline. Women managers and administrators are becoming more common throughout the Cooperative Extension System (CES) . A 1989 survey (Goering, 1990) of the state and territories revealed 879 women working as managers or administrators at county, district, and state levels. This represents about 25 percent of the managers and administrators throughout CES. Seven women held state director positions across the country and one was an acting director in 1989. The first woman appointed to a director position was Agnes Arthaud— appointed interim director in Nebraska in July 1975. Constance McKenna followed as director in Nevada in 1976. All women appointed to director positions since 1978 still held those positions in spring 1989 when 15 percent of state directors were women.

Summary

Unlike the traditional masculine style favored more by men, feminine leadership is a style of managing that utilizes the full range of women's natural talents and 43 abilities. It is an approach to leading that is linked to gender differences, early socialization, and the unique set of life experiences from early childhood on, which shape women's values, interests, and behaviors as adults. The feminine leadership style is composed of many qualities and characteristics that are different from those used by men. Yet, taken together, these qualities represent a leadership style that works extremely well for many women— better, in fact, than the more traditional approach. Figure 1 summarizes the key differences between the leadership styles of men and women in management. Leadership Model Characteristics Masculine Feminine Style Transactional Transformational

Structure Hierarchy "Webs of Contacts"

Objective Winning Production Emphasis . . . Excellence Orientation

Value Vision Voice

Decision Making Style Militaristic Consensus-Building

Key Descriptors Competitive Cooperative Unemotional Empathic Exclusive Inclusive Isolated Integrated Control Empower

Figure 1. Key Differences Between Males and Females in Management CHAPTER III PROCEDURES

This chapter will describe some of the methodological issues that emerged in a plan for this study. The values and relationships shared among and between researcher and participants were woven throughout the research plan. With that knowledge, different actors may ask the same question, employ identical methodological tools and produce different results. This chapter begins with a discussion on how a new paradigm inquiry evolved, and why the postpositivist paradigm is appropriate for this study. The next three sections present and describe information that is needed to both generate and complete the study, with discussion outlining techniques included to ensure that the study is trustworthy. The chapter concludes with a discussion of both the pragmatic steps related to the analysis of data and some of the issues related to research ethics that guide those steps.

45 46

Research Design Social science research today has entered a new era. Whereas in the recent past researchers were primarily trained and socialized in the positivism tradition, they now confront an array of inquiry paradigms and methods. They must make choices based on their own philosophy and assumptions as well as their research problem, and there are clearly no right or wrong answers. Like Habermas (1971), I view the underlying values of research to stretch across a continuum, and believe, much like Patton (1990), that the scholar who can utilize the continuum at any point that best answers the research question is truly worthy of his or her title. The positivistic paradigm's purposes are to explain, predict, or control. Positivism is based on the philosophy that there is one reality, and it is knowable (Eichelberger, 1989; Nielson, 1990). For researchers with these research objectives and this philosophy, positivism is appealing. Patton (1990) characterizes the positivistic approach as offering breadth because it allows the researcher to collect data from many subjects on a number of well defined questions. Positivism appears to be objective (unbiased, reliable, and rational) and thus seems to bean ideal way to determine the nature of reality. Positivism's assumption of one knowable reality has been questioned by those who believe that there are multiple 47 realities which are constructed, and that this assumption of one reality is ethnocentric and hegemonic (Stanfield, 1985; Nielson, 1990) . Patton (1990) observes that the positivistic approach lacks depth and richness. Positivism is relatively uninterested in what meaning a phenomenon or situation has for the subjects, but for some researchers this is the most important issue. Positivism’s objectivity may be more apparent than real, as even those who study physical sciences have realized. Underlying the apparent objective research approaches of positivism are decisions and assumptions that reflect a researcher's ideologies and biases. Hidden biases may be more dangerous than explicitly stated ones. As Patton (1990: 480) comments, "Distance does not guarantee objectivity; it merely guarantees distance." Postpositivism recognizes the constructed nature of reality rather than positing the existence of only one truth. Quantum physics has already made such a recognition (Nielsen, 1990). The researchers' impact on the research is understood, and the distinction between subject and object blurs. Further, postpositivism questions the possibility of absolute knowledge that allows us to predict and control with certainty. Knowledge of context becomes important as scientists understand how critical contextual variations can be. Again, natural science has led the way in dealing with these issues as a result of its research in chaos theory 48 (Patton, 1990). Because postpositivism science views the world differently, it approaches scientific research differently as well. In a world of absolutes, research designed to explain, predict, and control makes good sense. In a less definite world, these research purposes cannot be the only acceptable ones. Postpositivism encompasses a variety of research purposes, including understanding and emancipation. Under postpositivism, no longer is one research method the only legitimate one. Postpositivism values and needs different approaches in yielding insights that fall beyond the realm of measurable, discoverable facts. Few would argue against the claim that the postpositivist paradigm has emphasized the human element of inquiry. Its holistic approach enables the researcher to understand the complexities of the whole, by studying the interdependencies of the parts as they interact in complex systems. Humans tend to develop a holistic ontology, characteristic wholeness constructed from the multiple divergent aspects that permeate their lives (Patton, 1990; McCutcheon & Jung, 1990). Inquiry participants self-disclose and self-reflect, enabling them to gain self-introspection and understanding. When patterns are recognized, self conscious, critical scrutiny of actions result, and subtle change occurs. Postpositivist inquiry is an interactive process in which 49 researcher and subject learn from each other through dialogic interaction. It results in realistic understanding of expression which is interpreted through the social, cultural, and historic context of their lives. In-depth, detailed, rich data is produced based on subjects' personal perspectives and experiences, cultural insights and symbolic, sensitive meanings are provided via the use of their own language which represents their reality. The flexibility of the emerging or "unfolding" designs accommodates phenomenological perspectives. New, rich discoveries may emerge in an open, responsive atmosphere (McCutcheon & Jung, 1990; Belenky, 1986; Patton, 1990). Postpositivistic inquiry leads to theory development based on the inductive reasoning process. The research base on women's ways of leadership is not yet robust enough to offer theoretical generalizations that have wide support. Everything we know about leadership we know from studies of male leaders (Helgesen, 1990). Because the theoretical constructs are so limited, the in-depth case study research design, well grounded in the postpositivistic paradigm, is chosen because of its capacity to generate the rich, subjective data that can aide in theory development (Borg & Gall, 1983; Nord & Tucker, 1987; Patton, 1990). An interpretative type of inquiry such as this is chosen for its contextual approach to understanding, helping to more 50 clearly describe the subtleties that may exist in the phenomena under investigation (Nord & Tucker, 1987) . This study will rely on the qualitative methodologies described by Glaser and Strauss (1967) , Miles and Humberman (1984), Guba and Lincoln (1989), and Patton (1990). A good case study example is The Female Advantage: Women's Wavs of Leadership (Helgesen, 1990). This journalistic study used the case study method to describe the lives of four successful female executives in the private domain, resulting in the construction of a grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Yin (1989) states that a case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between the phenomenon and the context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used. He says that case studies allow an investigator to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events, such as organizational and managerial processes. Social science research uses case studies both in the traditional disciplines such as psychology, sociology, political science, and anthropology; and in the practice- oriented fields like education, public administration, and public policy (Tesch, 1990; Yin, 1989). Qualitative case studies are typically not designed to be generalizable to a population. Yin (1989) argues however 51 that they may be useful to the development of theoretical propositions. He likens them to experiments in that respect. He says that case-study generated theory can be tested through replication of additional cases in the same way that a theory from controlled experiments is tested through replication. A case study offers the reader a vicarious experience with the particular situation described within the case. Guba and Lincoln (1989) suggest that it is through this process of gaining an understanding of the events in the case that the reader can see whether or not the knowledge in the case can be applied in a second setting. In the multiple case study, one goal is to build a general explanation that fits each of the individual cases, even though the cases vary in their details. Miles and Huberman (1984) agree with this multiple case strategy. They suggest that observing processes and outcomes across several sites adds to the understanding of how contextual variations may affect the emerging theory. Finally Glaser and Strauss (1967) support multiple cases, saying that they extend the range of generality of a finding and identify the conditions under which the finding may occur.

Study Participants According to Patton (1990), there are no rules for sample size in qualitative inquiry. The validity, 52 meaningfulness, and insights generated from qualitative inquiry have more to do with the information-richness of the cases selected and the analytical capabilities of the researcher than with sample size. What is crucial is that the sampling procedures and decisions be fully described, explained, and justified so that information users and peer reviewers have the appropriate context for judging the sample. Frame, selection and sampling error are not applicable in the postpositivist paradigm. Utility and credibility of a small purposeful sample support the paradigm's logic and purpose, more so than probability sampling. Transferability is the goal, not representativeness for generalizing from a sample to the population. In this study, the target population was all women serving as chief executive officers of state-based Cooperative Extension Systems. No individual with an interim assignment was included in the target population. Although job titles varied, job responsibilities were consistent, with the identified CEOs having primary leadership for CES management and operations. At the time of the inquiry, five women served as Extension CEOs and a census study was conducted. A second target population was the three women who at the time of the study served as associate directors of state-based Cooperative Extension Systems. As these 53 individuals served in very similar capacities as those who have CEO responsibilities, involving them in selected parts of the study improves the probability that findings and interpretation of the data are accurate and credible.

Instrumentation Development In order to explore and describe the aspirations, values, motives, and actions of women currently serving as CEOs of state-based Cooperative Extension Systems, four data collection methods were included in the inquiry. The use of methodological triangulation helps to guard against researcher bias distorting the logic of the evidence. It is essential that methodology seek counterpatterns as well as convergences if data are to be credible. The four methods used in this study include structured observations; personal interviews; biographical data survey to verify such factors as age, birth order, family background, education, exact descriptions of jobs held and rates of progression; and a member check using open ended questions.

Establishing Trustworthiness No amount of trustworthiness techniques built into a study will ever "compel” anyone to accept the results of the inquiry; it can at best persuade. (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; 329)

Before the inductive researcher can focus on instrumentation development, careful consideration must be 54 given to establishing trustworthiness. The development of data credibility checks to protect research and theory construction is essential in the efforts to establish trustworthiness within the postpositivist paradigm. In most traditional research, investigators attend to issues of internal and external validity, objectivity, and reliability. Lincoln and Guba (1985) draw parallels for each of these methodological issues and label them credibility, transferability, confirmability, and dependability. Lincoln and Guba ask, "How can an inquirer persuade his or her audiences (including self) that the findings of an inquiry are worth paying attention to, worth taking account of" (p. 290) . In other words, how "trustworthy" is the study?

Credibility Credibility is the extent to which the findings are consistent with the participants' views of constructed reality, while acknowledging that reality takes on "multiple meanings" (Lincoln and Guba, 1985: 301) • Procedures to increase the likelihood of producing credible findings for this study include: prolonged engagement; triangulation; peer debriefing; and member checks. I define these activities below and also address their significance within the context of this study. Prolonged Engagement is the investment of significant time to learn the culture of an environment. The amount of time required to accomplish this task is determined by the researcher. My experience as an Extension professional involves: 12 years working in two states and three different counties which range from a large agriculture county to a suburban and rural nonfarm area to a major metropolitan county; and more recently, three years as an Extension administration doctoral student and administrative assistant for two different state-based Extension administrators. During my career in Extension, I developed strong collegial relations with professionals and administrators from across the country and interacted frequently with these individuals to learn the scope and depth of Extension programming and administration nationwide. The second component of prolonged engagement involves investing enough time with the participants to establish trust, and to become familiar with the context of inquiry. This trust is a developmental process whereby the researcher demonstrates on a continual basis that promises of anonymity will be kept and hidden agendas are not part of the study. Lincoln and Guba (1985) quantify the development of trust with "daily engagement" of time (p. 303). Early in the development of the inquiry’s design, one of the potential participants was asked to assist in 56 determining the appropriate length of observation. Five consecutive working days was suggested and adopted as appropriate to observe each participant in action, it was, however, important to observe the participant's activity from the beginning to the end of each observation day. Participants were asked to select days that would not require out-of-state travel. Mechanisms for building rapport and establishing trust were built into the design of the study, however not on a daily basis. The design provided several opportunities for interactive conversations between the participants and me. This study, therefore, illustrates that the concept of prolonged engagement needs to be placed within the context of the study. For example, total immersion into a culture on a daily basis is most appropriate for field work where the researcher's culture is significantly different than the participants'. Therefore, the engagement between the researcher and the participants of this inquiry was best described as intermittently intense. Trianaulation is a technique for improving the probability that findings and interpretations of the data are accurate and credible. The most significant mode of triangulation used in this study was multiple data collection methods. The triangulation of diary studies and personal interviews meet the requirements of exploring both scope and depth and validate emerging data patterns. A secondary mode of triangulation is the use of multiple sources. The sources included complete observations and interviews with five women whose job titles reflect the authority of CES director. Three women currently serve as associate directors of state-based Cooperative Extension Systems. As these individuals serve in very similar capacities as those who have CEO responsibilities, interviews, but not observations, with the associate directors improved the probability that findings and interpretations of the data are accurate and credible. Denzin (1989), although supportive of the use of triangulation as a credibility check, also offers a useful critique. He contends that if all social action is contextual and unique, then there is little probability of like interpretation between resources. Lincoln and Gube (1985) offer further insight into this dilemma by encouraging investigators to focus on "the judgment of accuracy of specific data items" (p. 316). Triangulation holds an implicit danger of adapting to a positivistic approach to inquiry if the investigator gets caught up in trying to determine which is the right story by triangulating different human sources. Patton (1980) suggests that it is best to expect that different data sources reveal different aspects of what is being studied. Because of the belief that reality is socially constructed, Lincoln and Guba support the use of triangulation as a tool 58 to judge the accuracy of "particular data items" as opposed to data perceptions (Lincoln and Guba, 1985: 316). The purpose of triangulation is to explore differing perceptions not to determine the "truth" of the matter under investigation. Peer-Debriefing involves the researcher evoking insights from a peer who is not involved with the research. The peer debriefer helps make the implicit issues more explicit by questioning the researcher's interpretation. The task of the debriefer is to help make the researcher more aware of his or her values, and how they are influencing the study. Multiple purposes are served by peer debriefing. It helps keep the inquirer "honest" by setting up a system of feedback on a regular basis (Lincoln & Guba, 1985: 308). This process allows new meaning to be explored and interpretations to be clarified. After a session with the peer debriefer, if the researcher does not feel comfortable with his or her position in the interpretation, s/he may want to reconsider the position (Ibid). The peer debriefer should provide an appropriate level of challenge and support so that the researcher may defend the position in a credible manner, but not lose his or her sense of enthusiasm and confidence. A former CES associate director serves as the peer- debriefer for this study. She currently serves as a member of the organization support team for a state-based Extension 59 System and is enrolled in a doctoral program in Extension administration, she was familiar with the concepts to be explored, the organizational structure of CES, and methodological issues involved in the study. Member Checks are key roles that involve the participants' input in the study. Guba (1981) refers to this process as the most important action inquirers take in terms of establishing credibility. Without this process, the study would result in a very limited and lifeless analysis. Its purpose is to place the participants in a position of central importance in the creation of knowledge. There are varying degrees of importance placed on member checks in postpositivist inquiry. In its most minimal representation member checks are used by the researcher to clarify wording that took place during the interview. For those committed to praxis research, the member checks are built into the design from the earliest stages of interviews through the final analysis. Opportunities for participant feedback were incorporated throughout the study. However, of central importance in this study is the role the participants played in the final analysis. Participants critiqued the analysis and offered their theoretical and analytical insights. These insights were incorporated in a "second editing" of the final analysis. 60 Face validity in postpositivist inquiry is dependent on member checks, where emergent categories and/or conclusions are recycled back through respondents and refines them in light of the participants reactions. This is a relatively easy task to complete, and the payoff in both construct validity (and catalytic validity if the study is emancipatory in nature) is worth the effort.

Transferability Lincoln and Guba (1985) draw a parallel between the positivist term of external validity or generalizability to the postpositivist term transferability. This can be problematic for two reasons. First, the analogic approach exacerbates the positivist/postpositivist debate. Since there is no existing "critical test" that will resolve the truth or falsity of rival belief systems, Eisner suggests that this debate is pejorative (1979: 214). Second, postpositivists generally ask different kinds of questions than positivists, usually from two different frames of reference, therefore it is unlikely that the criteria used to judge credibility will be similar. Postpositivists may not share similar criteria with positivists but that should not be confused with not having sound criteria for credibility (Ibid). Admittedly, Guba and Lincoln are not completely comfortable with the term "transferability." They support the use of "thick description" as a major technique for establishing transferability, but "proper thick description is still unresolved" (Lincoln and Guba, 1985: 242). They define thick description as "salient features of the context" which specify "everything the reader may need to know in order to understand the findings" (p. 125). Again, I contend that there is a problem in comparing transferability to generalizability. If postpositivist research is framed in the rejection of universal claims, then the results of such studies could never and would never profess to be generalizable. Transferability has enough strength to stand on its own. Transferability is actually claimed by the readers of the study rather than the writer of the study. The writer supplies the data in context (thick description) and the reader concludes whether or not to contemplate a possible transfer (Lincoln and Guba, 1985: 316). This process is contextual as opposed to generalizable, and there is no comparison between the two. The "burdens of proof of claimed transferability is on the receiver" as opposed to "burdens of proof for claimed generalizability on the inquirer" (p. 241). Transferability is possible when collection methods result in a rich data base, thick in description and detail. The data must capture not only the details but also the nuances, drawing a concrete, empirically based picture for 62 the reader. It is not the researcher's responsibility to provide an index of transferability, but rather, to detail the data base that make transferability judgments possible. Data collection methods for this study provided the "thick" description necessary to enable transfer judgments.

Confirmabilitv Confirmability is the process of assuring that data, interpretations, and outcomes of inquiries are grounded in contexts and persons apart from the evaluator and are not simply "figments of the evaluator's imagination" (Guba and Lincoln, 1989: 243). I used three techniques suggested by Guba and Lincoln (1989) to establish confirmability. First, the data were triangulated through the compilations of multiple data collection methods and multiple sources. Second, data and all documents related to the study were archived to specifically assess the source of records and sources of data. Included in these archives were audio tapes and transcripts of the interviews, rough cut analysis and hunches, and final data analysis notes. The notes also included data that were gleaned from some transcripts and placed into emerging patterns and categories. Third, I kept a "reflexive journal" throughout the study to chronologically track the events and insights that occurred during the process of data collection and analysis (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). The purpose of the journal was 63 two-fold. First, it provided a good record for the administrative details of the study; and it provided a narrative on how the study evolved by tracking the patterns that emerged, the conversations that followed, and the substantive accounts of the interaction between the participants and me, and between the peer debriefer and me.

The reflexive journal also served as a vehicle to '• continually reveal my paradigmatic and theoretical assumptions. The journal provided the opportunity for me to question ways that the data were shaped by my values and how the data shaped mine.

Dependability Overall, dependability is assessed by the "overlapping methods" of data collection and theoretical perspectives (Lincoln and Guba, 1985: 188). The overlapping methods included the various components involved with the established credibility claims. The theoretical perspectives are stated clearly throughout the study and documented in the reflexive journal. The overall record­ keeping serves as a source of dependability for postpositivist research. I have kept detailed records of this study in the form of field notes, transcripts, a reflexive journal, computerized coding, and records of various stages of data analysis. These records serve as the criteria to judge the dependability of the study. 64 Researchers operating from the postpositivist paradigm must pay careful attention to criteria for trustworthiness in order to design and conduct inquiry that produces works of integrity. Operationalizing these procedures is a prerequisite for developing reliable and valid data collection instruments.

Instrument One — Personal Interview Questionnaire The first step in instrument development is to conduct a thorough literature review which provides the scope and boundaries of the study. Triangulation of theories from different disciplines build a strong, provocative case for exploratory, hypothesis-generating work. Drawing largely from the works of Mintzberg (1973), Hennig and Jardim (1976), Loden (1985), Gilligan (1982), Belenky (1989), and Helgesen (1990) , the focus of the study was determined, the scope and boundaries were defined. Informal discussion with Extension administrators, management specialists and women who aspire to CES leadership roles refined topics and concepts to be explored. Framing questions began with a review of instruments used successfully in earlier, related studies, particularly the works of Hennig (1976), Gilligan (1982), Morrison (1987) and Helgesen (1990). Based on this instrument review and consistent findings in the literature, a first draft questionnaire was framed, A first attempt was made to 65 sequence this pool of questions in a logical, progressive order. At this point, little attention was given to design, format or layout for a personal interview; however, grammar, readability, sentence structure, etc. was informally checked with friends and colleagues. The list of questions was pretested with a convenience sample of 39 female graduates of the first CES sponsored Executive Development Institute (EDI). All of these women have achieved middle management positions; many now have senior-level management responsibilities. All aspire to top CES leadership roles. As one purpose of this inquiry is to provide a professional development model for women preparing for top management positions, this group reviewed the questions for relevance, desirability and usefulness. The pool of questions was mailed to the sample, with a prospectus of the study to provide an overview of the inquiry's purpose, focus and methodology and a stamped, addressed envelope to return the edited interview guide. Based on the prospectus, the sample was asked to edit or revise questions as necessary; make notes or suggestions to strengthen the study in any way appropriate; add questions that obviously were missed; or delete questions that seemed superfluous. Sixty-four percent (n=25) of the sample returned edited interview guides. No reminder notices were sent to late or non-respondents. 66 The returned interview guides were reviewed and analyzed. Revisions and additions were made before field testing the interview schedule in the prior ethnography. Rules for layout and format of interviewer-administered survey instruments were followed, including a convention that differentiates between instructions and questions, a convention for handling instructions to skip questions, optional wording, transitions, introduction, and explanations. For the prior ethnography, five, female mid-level administrators of the Ohio Cooperative Extension Service composed the participant pool. The women are the first females to serve in any of these five positions, and all have been appointed within the past five years. The interviews were tape-recorded and analyzed for problems. The participants were asked for feedback on questionnaire content and format immediately following the interview. Data was also reviewed for potential problems. Final revisions and editing were based on this information.

Instrument Two — Diary Studies Structured observation, in the form of diary studies kept by the inquiry observer, was the chosen method of study because it is possible to develop theory inductively, to observe and question intensively where necessary, and to be systematic (Mintzberg, 1973). The label "structured 67 observation" is used here to refer to a method that couples the flexibility of open-ended observation with the discipline of seeking certain types of structured data. Each observed event (a verbal contact or a piece of incoming or outgoing mail) was categorized by the researcher in an number of ways (for example: duration, participants, purpose). In addition to categorizing events, the researcher recorded detailed information on important incidents and collected anecdotal materials. At the end of each day's observations, the field notes were transcribed as part of the reflexive journal. As the recording system finally evolved, structured data were coded in three forms — the chronology record, the mail record, and the contact record. The chronology record, noting times and basic activities, and cross-referenced with the other two records, was designed to provide basic data on the design of the working day, and to provide a reference to the other two records. The chronology record shows, at a glance, the distribution of media — scheduled and unscheduled meetings, tours, desk work. Meetings were defined as "unscheduled" if they were arranged hastily, as when someone just "drops in." "Tour" referred to a chance meeting in the hall, or to the "visits" taken by the manager to see what was going on and to deliver information. "Desk work" refers to the time the manager 68 spent at her desk, processing mail, scheduling activities, writing letters, or communicating with the secretary. "Duration" was recorded to the nearest tenth of an hour; actions lasting less than three minutes ver© recorded as lasting 0.02 hours. The mail record details the nature of the mail received and generated by the CEO, with classifications such as form, purpose, action. The contact record provides detail on meetings, telephone calls, and tours, with particular attention given to the role of the CEO during the contact. Finally, anecdotal data were recorded. These were comprised of:

- detailed notes, including relevant quotations, on activities of particular interest, - exhibits of actual correspondence, when available and relevant, - background information, obtained from discussion with the CEOs. These data were used (l) to facilitate coding, (2) in the development of theory, and (3) as examples to support the findings and conclusions. This recording system was adapted from that used by Mintzberg (197 3) . In order to prepare for the structured observations, a prior ethnography was conducted, with the five, female mid-level administrators of the Ohio Cooperative Extension Service making up the participant pool. This practice allowed the researcher to develop observation, organization and analysis skills necessary to 69 be open, discovery oriented, and inductive. The prior ethnography also assisted in fine tuning the data recording system, making description factual, accurate and thorough was well as practical and functional for analysis.

Instrument Three — Biographical Data Survey A biographical data survey was given to each participant to verify such factors as age, birth order, family background, education, exact descriptions of jobs held and rate of progression. The use of a biographical data survey allowed the interview to focus on constructs instead of details. Two surveys of similar purpose were reviewed for content and format, Career Development for Women Executives (Hennig, 1970) and Historical Study of Turnover Among Cooperative Extension System Directors and Administrators (Clark, Norland & Smith, 1991) . However, neither survey was appropriate for this particular study and a third instrument was developed. Just as in a positivist inquiry, I was concerned that the content of the instrument was representative of the content of interest. Since the survey deviated from the Dillman (1978) recommended format, a panel of experts was asked to review the survey for relevance, desirability and usefulness; clarity; and face validity. The panel of experts included two Agricultural Education professors who 70 have conducted research involving similar target populations; two current graduate students who are CES professionals with aspirations for senior-level administrative positions; and a current CES director. Changes were made based on the panel of experts' suggestions. The revised survey was sent to the five prior ethnography participants for their completion. No additional changes were made after analyzing the returned surveys.

Instrument Four — Member Check Face validity in postpositivist inguiry is dependent on member checks, where emergent categories and/or conclusions are recycled back through respondents and refines them in light of the participants reactions. This is a relatively easy task to complete, and the payoff in both construct validity (and catalytic validity if the study is emancipatory in nature) is worth the effort. Two formal member checks were part of this inguiry's design. The first came immediately after the development of broad-based categories based on perceptions of the narratives in the transcripts and the structured observations. Each participant was sent a first cut analysis of the data. This analysis included perceptions of some broadly defined themes that emerged as the transcripts were coded and the participants' reaction was requested to 71 expand and enrich the data for the study. A telephone conference was scheduled with each participant to discuss the initial findings and their perceptions. As a result of the discussions, the original data and analysis were reviewed, the categories were narrowed, and an analytical reading was developed. The reading was sent to each participant with the second member check, a response sheet using open ended questions to record the participants reactions to the monograph. A pool of opinion items was developed for the member check, allowing participants to respond to the description and interpretation of the data collected in the diary studies, personal interviews and demographic questionnaire. Open-ended questions provided opportunity for specific suggestions and criticism. An attempt was made to alter the look of the survey in order to catch the attention of the respondents, yet maintain face validity. It is this researcher's opinion that this audience is "survey wise" and a deviation of the norm established by Dillman (1978) is necessary to encourage response. A field test with peer reviewers was used to check face validity.

Data Collection Procedures Early in the study's design, one female director was asked to review the proposed inquiry and make suggestions 72 for improving and strengthening the study. She was also asked to write a letter of support to accompany the recruitment letter and prospectus of the study to the other potential participants. Her letter was personally addressed to each of the four remaining directors, printed on her letterhead and individually signed in blue ink. One week after the recruitment mailing was sent, a telephone call was placed to each potential participant to answer any questions and learn if the individual was interested in participating in the study. Once the individual agreed to participate, dates were selected for the observation and interview. A letter confirming the conversation and selected dates was sent immediately to each participant. Modeled on a journalistic study recently published by Helgesen (1990) focusing on four successful female executives in the private domain, this inquiry adapted many of the same data collection procedures with careful attention given to meet scholarly standards for postpositivist inquiry. The diary studies involved intense scrutiny, watching each subject from the moment she arrived at her office until the end of the working day. In an interview, the participant can censor out what she does not want to talk about, but in a diary study, there is no place to hide. Five working days was the time spent with each case. Detailed field notes taken as part of the diary study 73 were transcribed each evening, with the researcher also making notes in the reflexive journal. At the week's end, a three hour block of time was reserved for the personal interview and demographic survey. Interviews were taped and fully transcribed. Notes of key phrases and major points were noted by the researcher. Demographic data was compiled to provide comparisons. Once the five directors were confirmed as participants, the second target population, those women who currently serve as associate directors of state-based Cooperative Extension Systems, were contacted. First a recruitment letter and prospectus of study was sent to each. One week after the recruitment mailing was sent, a telephone call was placed to each individual to answer any questions and to learn if they were interested in participating in the study. Once the individual agreed to participate, a three-hour appointment was made for conducting the personal interview and the demographic questionnaire. A letter confirming the conversation and the appointment was sent to each participant. Interviews and surveys were administered following the same procedures for both target populations. Data collected from all sources were analyzed for emerging trends and counterpatterns and interpreted in rich narrative of the everyday details in the lives of the participants. Within three months of the last interview, member checks were conducted with the participants for 74 recording their reaction to the findings and conclusions and refining the final analysis to reflect their reality. This inquiry is meant to provide initial observations regarding women in top CES leadership roles and to generate further discussion and evaluation about how this information can be used by Extension administrative and women who aspire to similar professional goals. The intention is to use these initial observations as a framework for future qualitative and quantitative research.

Data Analysis The data were analyzed inductively. Lincoln and Guba (1985) compare inductive data analysis to content analysis, a process aimed at uncovering embedded information and making it explicit. Inductive analysis is likely to identify the "mutually shaping influences that interact" and accommodate a developing relationship between researcher and participants (p. 40). This opportunity not only provided a forum for reciprocity between the participants and me, but also encouraged a constant interplay between the data and my own theoretical assumptions that guided the study. Two essential subprocesses are involved with inductive analysis, unitizing and categorizing (Lincoln and Guba, 1985: 203). Unitizing involves a process of coding in which the raw data are systematically transformed and aggregated into units which permit precise description of relevant content characteristics (Holsti, 1969: 94). Glaser and Strauss (1967) describe categorizing as sorting the units into provisional categories. Transcripts of the interview were coded and categorized on a computer, using the software package, "The Ethnograph," which was developed specifically to work with data generated by interviews. After I entered the codes to the computerized program, The Ethnograph enabled me to easily pull out all the narratives that were common to one code. This process helped me to determine the commonalities and differences within one particular category. The process of coding and recoding data was very complex and time consuming. I used a system that was loosely modeled after Strauss and Corbin's (1990) design for developing grounded theory (see Figure 2). A grounded theory is inductively derived from the study of the phenomenon it represents. That is, it is discovered, expanded, verified through systematic data collection and analysis of data pertaining to that phenomenon (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). Strauss and Corbin (1990) describe the interaction of linking categories and subcategories as a mechanism to produce grounded theory. However, it should be noted it was not my intention to develop grounded theory. Rather, my intention was to provide insight into the lives of successful female CES administrators, describing in rich, contextual detail their leadership attitudes, strategies and 76 theory; how they make decisions, communicate, manage resources and build relationships; their personal experiences as women, wives, mothers, friends, sisters, daughters, executives. In addition, my intention was to describe possible professional development strategies for future generations of women who aspire to CES leadership roles. I approached these data with an "open coding" system that identified major themes or broad categories. Next, I focused on specifying the category (or phenomenon) in terms of "the conditions that give rise to it" (p. 97). This process is called "axial coding." These conditions are referred to as subcategories because they are a more precise description of the category. Examples of categorized conditions include background conditions, intervening conditions, action/interaction, and consequences. Background conditions may include the events or incidents that lead to the development of a phenomenon. The context includes a specific list of properties that pertain to the phenomenon such as location. The intervening conditions involve the conditions that have bearing on the interactional strategies that pertain to the phenomenon. Action/Interaction involves the strategies that are devised by the participants to manage or respond to a phenomenon within a specific set of perceived conditions. Finally the consequences describe the results of action and interaction. Through the process of open coding a phenomenon or theme is established

Figure 2. System for Data Analysis 78 Participants' names and job titles were masked to provide confidentiality. As with other feminist studies (Gilligan, 1982; Patai, 1988; Richardson, 1988), I assigned a first name only to each of the women. I initially coded and categorized the data without the input of the participants. This process allowed me to see how or if the categories would change as I built in steps for more collaborative work. All transcripts and related materials were stored in a locked cabinet and my personal computer. I developed broad-based categories based on my perceptions of the narratives in the transcripts and the structured observations. My peer-debriefer helped with this process. If the analysis was to be collaborative, the categories should remain open-ended. This approach would leave room for more input from the participants as well as a more expanded data base. Each participant was sent a first cut analysis of the data and asked for their careful review and reflection. A telephone conference was scheduled with each of the participants to discuss the initial findings and their perceptions. Through this process, I expanded and enriched the data from this study. As a result of the discussion, I again reviewed the data and the original analysis, narrowed the categories, and developed an analytical reading. The reading was sent to the participants with an open-ended questionnaire for 79 recording reactions to the monograph. The participants' comments regarding the reading guided the writing of the final analysis and conclusions. The process of data analysis is illustrated in Figure 3. The step-by-step approach begins with a wide range of possibilities and ends with a clearly defined extraction of concise theoretical formulation. Strauss and Corbin (1990) note the importance of being sensitive to theory during the process of data analysis. Theoretical sensitivity takes on the personal qualities of the researcher. These qualities are experienced in varying degrees depending on the related readings and previous experience of the researcher. Strauss and Corbin elaborate on theoretical sensitivity in the following passage: Theoretical sensitivity refers to the attribute of having insight, the ability to give meaning to data, the capacity to understand, and capability to separate the pertinent from that which isn't. (p.42) Some of the catalysts for theoretical sensitivity may be found in the literature base, personal experience, and knowledge of the context of the field. It should be obvious by now that the integrity of this study hinges on how the participants inform the study. In this manner theoretical sensitivity must include a research and analytical design that includes the participants' insights as a central focus. The Story: Data From initial Interviews and Observations

Coding of Data: Open-ended Categories

First Member Check: Follow Up Questions Categories Narrow

Researcher Analysis: Interpretive Paradig^1

Second Member Check: Findings and Conclusions Critiqued by Participants

Final Analysis: Reflective of Participants Reality

Figure 3. The Process of Analyzing Data CHAPTER IV FINDINGS

The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the aspirations, values, motives, and actions of women currently serving as senior-level administrators for state- based Cooperative Extension Systems. This inquiry is meant to provide initial observations regarding women in leadership roles. In addition, the study should generate discussion and evaluation about how this information can be used by both current administration and qualified women to identify and/or dismantle barriers based on attitudinal or organizational bias that prevent women from advancing into mid- and senior-level administrative positions. Four data collection methods were included in the inquiry. The use of methodological triangulation in post- positivistic research helps to guard against researcher bias distorting the logic of the evidence. It is essential that methodology seek counterpatterns as well as convergences if data are to be credible. The four methods used in this study were five working days of structured observation, a personal interview, a biographic data survey, and member checks using open-ended questions.

81 This inquiry provides insight into the lives of female CES administrators, describing in rich, contextual detail their leadership attitudes, strategies and theory; how they make decisions, communicate, manage resources and build relationships; their personal experiences as women, wives, mothers, friends, sisters, daughters, and executives. Through the discovery of strengths and the understanding of limitations within this select pioneer population, future generations of women who aspire to CES leadership roles can learn and benefit. Every detail of the reported results may not hold for every person, yet the patterns found in the analysis and reported here are solid. For an emerging theme to be reported, six of the eight participants voiced the idea during the interviews or four of the five participants who were observed exhibited the behavior. All participants did not need to express or exhibit the emerging behavior or idea at the same level of intensity for the theme to be included; however, an attempt has been made to provide the contextual variance and richness through the words of the participants. The text represents a blending of findings from both the observations and interviews. Wherever possible, self reported information was confirmed with observation data. Quotes were used to illustrate those findings. Two member checks were used to place the participants in a position of central importance and to represent their reality through 83 the use of their own language and interpretation.

A Profile of the Participants The women participating in the study had one thing in common— they held senior-level administrative positions in state-based Cooperative Extension Systems— the first women to break the glass ceiling. As pioneers, they become role models for countless others, women and men, who admire what they have achieved and hope to learn from them. What are these women like? The average age was 50.5, ranging in age from 40 to 60. All but two became CEOs during their early to mid-forties, with 4 3.5 being the average age for the group. One participant was 52 and another 38 when first taking leadership of a state-based Extension system. At the time of the interviews, two participants had never married, one was divorced, and five were married. Of the six who married, three had children still living at home and three were married without children. Some of the women were short, some were tall, but all had a presence projecting strength and confidence when entering a room. All appeared to be in good physical condition for the energy was there to keep up a hectic, demanding pace. All were impeccably dressed, usually in a tailored suit but sometimes in coordinating separates with a polished, professional look. 84 Not unlike the literature, there was a particularly strong and regular pattern to the family histories of the participants. Three of the eight were the eldest child, two were middle children, two were the second of two daughters, and one had a twin brother as well as a baby sister arriving 20 years later. Regardless of birth order, all participants described a childhood detailing behavioral dynamics which underline the early experiences of a first-born child. Very much a team from the traditional mold...Dad ruled the roost at home, but Mother was the feeling one. Neither was ever sharp. Always willing to listen. I think each of the five children felt (he/she was) special. Just a very supportive environment to grow up in. Susan What seems to be critically important is that, for whatever reason, each child received the special treatment traditionally reserved for the first-born and developed a sense of specialness contributing heavily to the character of the childhood experience. Viewed by the family as a special child, this group of children was allowed the freedom to expand beyond traditional experiences, to explore options, to take risks. The women recalled their parents supported and reinforced the child in developing her own qualities and capacities, never forcing the child into stereotypical gender roles. 85 I was reared in a one parent family, by my mother. My father was killed in an automobile accident when I was 5 years old. And so I sort of grew up never thinking there were any boundaries on what a female could do. We were encouraged to do things that interested us; not to be constrained at all by boundaries of tradition. And that probably encouraged me to do some of the things that I did later on. Jessica My stepfather was sort of a man before his time? he believed that his stepchildren were his children....My stepfather was sexist, but he wasn't sexist about his two stepdaughters. He always encouraged us that we could be anything or do anything we wanted. So that made me tend not to question whether it was okay to do something as a girl. Throughout high school, (my sister and I) got a lot of positive feedback because we were both very successful in the sciences. We both won places in the state science talent search. We got things that were supposed to be boy kind of things. X think those were the kinds of things that ultimately contributed to my career. Marsha Among the participants, three profess being "tomboys" and two admitted to being "bookworms." Both labels imply activities and interests that most little girls of their generation would not have been encouraged to pursue. Shared in essence by six of the women, there existed a possibly significant relationship between the young girls and their fathers. Fathers and daughters shared interests and activities traditionally regarded as appropriate only for fathers and sons: physical activity, love of the outdoors and nature's wonders, an aggressive wish to achieve and a willingness to compete. 86 I get my love of athletics and sports from him. He would sit around the radio and listen to the Brooklyn Dodgers play baseball. I was sort of his favorite kid when I was little because I always wanted to go out and put up hay, tag-along after him and he taught me to drive the tractor. We did all those kinds of stuff together when I was little. But he this really kind of, I don't know how to describe it...he was delighted that I as assertive and strong and successful, but I also scared him to death. Diana My dad was a strong minded Irishman who married late in life, who had been a boxer and a professional ball player. Tough as nails. Growing up with my father wasn't easy. When my dad started a business, he sat my sister and me down and said we were going to have to work hard. We literally, physically dug ditches and put in lawns, because he built a trailer park. We did tremendous manual labor, a lot of stuff in that day and age only boys could do. I never felt that it was inappropriate because I was a girl, it was just a lot of hard work....Dad was a real hard ass. A lot of tension, but on the other hand, a real chance for me to learn how to confront somebody who is really tough and to do it on a regular basis was great practice. Theresa Often her father's approval depended on the little girl's ability to succeed or to win.Yet this was done in such a way that the means remained as enjoyable as the end and reward was found in being physically involved and extended. Their fathers added to their definition of themselves as people. 87 I had an interesting man for a father. He was my friend and my mentor, I have all his good and bad habits. He probably shaped my life more than anything else that has happened to me. My freedom of soul comes from there. I had that kind of unconditional support and affection, nurturing. He was a man of great humor, I always loved listening and I did everything with him. I gambled with him, I played the cards with him until the middle of the night, we'd talk about some subjects, like Africa's reorganization. He was very political, very interested and involved in politics and always involved me. From a very young age I was exposed to a lot of different people and situations which made life very interesting and great fun. Shirley To their fathers, they were girls— but they were girls who could do much more than girls ordinarily did. The first year I started in Extension, my fiance died. I was working in a county about twenty miles from home. The doorbell rang at dinner time, the lady I lived with went to the door, and she didn't come back. Something told me there was a problem. I must have been, what, twenty-one? I went to the door, and my mother was standing there. And I said, "Mother, there's a problem." "Yes, there is." "Is it Dad?" "No, (fiance) has been killed." I was so thankful it wasn't my father. My father has been very important in my life. Susan While the participants acknowledged that a prominent male figure served as strong influence early in life, the mother-daughter relationship varied greatly among the eight. Two of the eight mothers had professional careers; the remaining six were full-time homemakers. They consistently reported that their mothers were "typical," and it became crucial to know what "typical" really meant. 88 I have a wonderful relationship with my mother who graduated from high school in 1927 and wanted to be a doctor. She managed to scare up enough money to go for a year, but the depression was on, so she had to go back to the farm and help with the family and all that stuff. She never got to fulfill her dream. She's always kind of lived vicariously through her kids. When I came to understand all of that, I felt very special....She is generous, hard working, believes in doing her duty. And her duty, as she saw it, was to be a good wife and a good mother. Diana Mother didn't work, she took great pride in the fact that we never came home to an empty house. She did all of the things that women in the 50's did and did them well....My mother is real strong down under it all, she was committed to seeing that the family stayed together and that her children had the right chance. Karen My mother has been a very important relationship to me and I think it's been important because she's a person who entered life, especially young adulthood, in a very structured society with very specific sort of values and she defied those by getting divorced and she went through a lot of stress and trauma around that." Marsha In general, their mothers were remembered as a warm and caring feminine model? strong people, who because of the social norms of the time, did not achieve all their dreams. Perhaps within these unfulfilled dreams of the mothers comes the drive to achieve high aspirations among the daughters. However, Margaret, whose mother was a teacher, declared when questioned about her mother's station in life, "I wish I could catch up with my mother!" Although all eight remembered their childhoods as having been happy, they also suggest that they suffered losses as well as gains in this period of their lives. Each had sustained, in some degree, a courage-building experience 89 in her childhood. You know, a very happy childhood as I recall in the early years, until adolescence intruded into my life....I thought you had to be traditionally feminine, that woman was pretty, submissive, a cheerleader. I didn't want to be those things. I wanted to play football instead of be a cheerleader....The teen years were really awful because I didn't fit that definition (of woman). And what I came to understand during that period of time was the world's definition was crazy. I wasn't crazy. I was an okay woman, it was the definition that was the problem. It wasn't until I was in graduate school that the definition (of woman) really had changed sufficiently so that who I was fit the world's definition. Diana i came into the kitchen, it wasn't air conditioned and, God, it was hot. My mother had real long hair at the time and she was standing at the sink in her shorts washing dishes, sweat was just pouring off of her. She was crying because she wanted to leave Daddy and she couldn't because she did not feel she had any way to take care of us kids because of her lack of education and no money. That wasn't the last time I saw that happen to Mother, but it was the first time I thought I will never be put in a position where someone else exerts that much control (over me). I mean, my mother has had a miserable life and the effect on me has been to say there has got to be a way, people do not have to live this way. Karen I had a lot of incongruity, I felt, in my life as a young child. I was a child that had a disability and felt very abnormal. That certainly had significant effects on my growing up. And then my parents moved a lot and I think that has both pros and cons in my life because I'm very resilient, I like to move and I like to try new things, but I had a very hard time behaving myself by socially fitting in. And I think that's probably grounded in being or perceiving myself as abnormal so I always had a tendency not to fit in— that was fairly purposeful for me. Marsha From these early courage-building experiences, the individual gained an awareness of and faith in her own power. Self-reliance became a highly prized value and, 90 today, is perceived by others as a gritty, pioneer spirit shared by all eight participants. Without exception, each individual knows her "self" well and most, in one form or another, expressed the importance "of listening to the inner voice in a process of self-discovery." The quest for leadership must first be an inner quest to discover the real self. Margaret These women administrators are comfortable with "self" and confident in the abilities of "self." This self confidence comes across clear and strong to others and is perceived as power. As individuals, these executives were a diverse lot. Each has developed her own unique, individual style. Yet, when asked to be both fair and honest in describing "self" several key personal competencies consistently were mentioned: optimism, initiative, enthusiasm, visionary ability, decisiveness, persuasiveness, and interest in developing people. Few expressed regrets when asked how they would change their personal history. The themes that did emerge reflected lessons that experience has taught, not a strong desire to restructure their lives. 91 Well, I guess I hope to get, to continue to get, braver. I think there are a number of times when I failed to be as successful as I could have been in accomplishing something because I wasn't brave enough. I wasn't brave enough at standing out there for a position I thought was right and take the criticism for being considered as sort of outrageous. Diana I like my personal history, i wouldn't change anything. It's a good history. Very rewarding, enriching. I like where I am, I like what I'm doing, I like this organization, I have enormous, strong faith that it can get stronger. I like the service business, I like education and I like being a teacher. I like my home life. I am just overall really pleased that things have happened the way they have. Shirley

Women as Executives The eight female participants, each achieving a senior- level administrative position, come from a variety of backgrounds and life experiences, yet share common capabilities and strengths for successfully leading complex, diverse organizations. To place the eight women together in a room would quickly highlight the differences in the individuals; each has developed her own unique, individual style. However, in analyzing how these pioneers go about accomplishing their work, more similarities than differences are found. Five broadly defined themes emerged from the data supporting common values, motives and actions of women serving as CEOs of Cooperative Extension Systems (CES) . The five emanated themes include: work environment, leadership style, conflict management, communication, and decision making. 92 Work Environment This section gives an overview of the ograniztional structure in which the women work, as well as highlights how the participants fulfill their job responsibilities, the ways they spend their time, their day- to-day interactions, the priorities that guide their actions, and the satisfaction they derive from their work. Attention is given to how the women create their personal work enviornment and how that work enviornment impacts on the organization. Based on how the state land-grant university is structured, the work environment of the participants may be viewed as somewhat different than that of their male counterparts. The traditional model has CES housed and operated in the land-grant university's college of agriculture. Only two of the participants report 100 percent to the Dean of the College of Agriculture; two participants have two superiors, one the Dean of the College of Agriculture and the other the Dean of the College of Human Ecology or the Vice Provost for University Outreach. Four of the universities where CES is a part of a larger university outreach and continuing education unit have women as the senior-level administrator. Perhaps these eight have been successful in breaking the glass ceiling, in part, because they work in organizations that are open to untraditional ideas and management techniques. Historically, an advanced degree 93 earned in an agricultural discipline would be required of an Extension director. Organizations that are not part of the college of agriculture may consider a wider range of disciplines as acceptable training for administrative positions. None of the eight participants held any degrees in an agricultural discipline, although three had undergraduate degrees in basic sciences. Four of the eight had earned terminal degrees in administration. Nutrition, family ecology, economics, and adult education were the terminal degrees earned by the other participants. Another work environment consideration is the geographic location of the participants. Five of the eight are located in Extension's Northeast Region, two are in the North Central Region, and one in the Southern Region. The economic and industrial climate in each of these regions varies greatly, as does the educational and social issues being faced by the citizens. In achieving Extension's mission of helping people put knowledge to work for improved lives, the requirements and responsibilities of the CES administrator may differ. A different set of knowledge and experiences are necessary for addressing social issues than for increasing agriculture production. Society is changing at an ever accelerating pace, as are the institutions that support society. It was apparent among the participants that they understood fast-changing environments play havoc with tradition, creating 94 opportunities for women to prove themselves. These executives drew on what was unique to their socialization as women (understanding, cooperative, supportive, service orientation) and created paths to the top. Admittedly, none of the participants set a professional goal to become the chief executive officer for a state-based Cooperative Extension System. But all spoke loudly about a strong commitment to social justice and wanting to make an impact on the lives of people. "Caring." "Being involved." "Helping." "Being responsible." "To be of greater service to people." These were the primary reasons the women in the study gave for becoming an administrator. What distinguishes the women's motive is that it encompasses a vision of society— they relate their decisions as administrators to their larger effect upon the role of the family, the American educational system, the environment. They feel they must make a difference, not just for their organizations, but for the world. . . or at least that part of the world they can impact. This broad focus derives from their consciousness of themselves as participators rather than observers. The female CEOs believed that people perform best when they feel good about themselves and their work, and the women took actions to create situations that contribute to that feeling. The women valued working with highly qualified and motivated people. They made an effort to 95 organize the work place in ways that encouraged interaction and communications...to make people feel capable of doing their best work. Without exception, the participants desired and actively sought high contact with people. All made a deliberate effort to be accessible, not only to immediate subordinates but to all individuals within the organization. Such encounters were not regarded as interruptions that impeded the flow of scheduled events, but rather as part of the flow itself. Because the women accepted contact with people as a normal part of the flow, they did not expect their administrative assistants (the preferred title for their personal secretaries) to protect them from the world. Rather, their assistants facilitated access to and communications with that world. At least 3 0 minutes per day were reserved to review schedules and priorities with their assistants. The women preferred live action encounters, either by telephone or brief meetings, and office hours were reserved for interacting with people. Time scheduled to attend mail and routine paperwork was usually non-office hours, either early mornings before the office opened or evenings at home. Considering this factor, none appeared to view her mail or paperwork as a burden, rather a way of keeping in touch and in the know. 96 A variety of methods were utilized to assist in the process. One participant used a dictating machine to compose a constant stream of letters between meetings. Another depended on computer systems for sending messages; another preferred voice mail. One participant wrote personal notes on yellow legal pads by hand, then gave to her assistant to type. "I have to scratch around, or it doesn't sound like me." Whatever the method used to assist in the paper process, it was considered an important link in communicating with people. The women maintained a complex network of relationships with people, both internal and external to their organizations. They considered representing their organizations a major aspect of their jobs. During four of the observations, the women spent approximately 40 percent of their time with clients (Extension user or support groups), peers and superiors (other university administrators), and colleagues (Extension employees other than members of the administrative support team). All the participants were mindful of balancing attention given to internal (both CES and university) and external (both university and community/public) relationships. Although the open-ended nature of their jobs demanded long hours, all made a conscious effort to make time for self and significant others.... some with more success than others. 97 My family life will not suffer because it is my priority; given a conflict I always put my children first. I am willing to put off work-related tasks that do not demand immediate attention in order to prevent work responsibilities from infringing on family time...and I won't ask my team members to do something I am unwilling to do...they have families too. Theresa I value most my relationship with (husband) . I do not do well with balance between home and work. I am a workaholic. My behavior does not reflect my values, because I do sacrifice a lot of opportunities that (husband) and I could be together and do things. Karen Most arrived at the office an hour early and tried to leave at least by 6:00 most evenings. Some admitted to going into the office on weekends or spending extra hours at home in order to work on "think" pieces.. .those important speeches, presentations or communiques that take time and concentration to get right. Although, during observations, two directors successfully completed important "think" pieces by "working around the edges" of other scheduled events and activities, giving 30 minutes here and 20 minutes there until a final product was produced. None of the women appeared to suffer from intellectual isolation that Mintzberg (1973) noted among the men he studied. In no case did a woman restrict her reading to material that related only to her work. Margaret and Diana both characterized themselves as voracious readers, consuming books on history, management, and current events, as well as occasional novels or mystery stories. Margaret and Jessica depended on audiotapes during drive time in 98 order to "Keep current and on a positive track."' Everything I read relates in some way to (my leadership position) . If it just broadens my understanding of the world, that helps. Diana Travel, exercise, gardening, sailing, hiking were various healthy escapes also cited and used by participants to stay fresh and invigorated for their role as CEO. The women saw their own identities as complex and multifaceted. • - they viewed their jobs as just one part of who they were. Other aspects of their lives— daughter, mother, wife, sister, aunt, friend, mentor, teacher, scholar, scientist— simply took up too much time to permit total identification with their careers. Having a baby gives you a sense of what's really important. You still work like hell, but it's all in perspective. Shirley Mintzberg (1973) noted that their lack of detachment made it difficult for the men he studied to consciously adopt various roles. They had a hard time playing whatever part was called f°r— figurehead, liaison, negotiator— because they identified too strongly with the position as a whole. The women in this study were clearly able to make a distinction and appeared to enjoy the opportunity to play different parts as the situation required. One participant went so far as to keep two offices in order to strengthen her sense of having different roles...one as Director of CES and one as vice President for University Extension. Above all else, this group exudes enthusiasm for their work. They view work as exhilarating and fun, and have the ability to excite others about their work. In my present position there are a lot of frustrations. There are also immense opportunities of being able to conceive and implement an idea that actually will make the institution and its service a high quality and better for people. I take great joy in that. Marsha But these women are more than cheerleaders. They make a difference for individuals by articulating the organizational vision, creating a positive work environment, and empowering others to do their best work. I like the ability to do things that make other people's lives easier, faculty and administrators. I like reducing bureaucracy. There are a whole lot of things that I take joy and pride in that are part of my every day work life. Shirley It's exciting. I get up in the morning and I look forward to coming to work. Part of it is not knowing exactly what all is going to happen, but knowing what you do makes a difference...it gives me a sense of responsibility about people's welfare and well being. Susan Leadership Styles The women of this study, as did those in Helgesen's study (1990), focused on the ecology of leadership. The women kept the long term goals and vision of the organization in constant focus. Instead of becoming overly absorbed in the day-to-day tasks of management, the participants concentrated on motivating others by transforming individual self-interest into the goals of the organization. This motivation is achieved through an interactive leadership style. 100 I do think successful leaders are people who are able to articulate visions and goals and do it well so other people understand and share the vision and goals. I think my job is to know the organization and access all points for gathering different perspectives.... I have deliberately tried to make the organization a collaborative venture. A 'one person organization' didn't fit my style...I could not be a charismatic leader. But what I could do was put together the people to make it belong to the people. That's where I'm effective. Susan The participants' words and actions reinforced their belief in building partnerships (internal and external) to achieve the organization's mission. Through interactive leadership, they encouraged participation of others by creating mechanisms for participation, communicating in a conversational style, and taking action on input. They shared power and information willingly with others in an appropriate and timely manner, working to make interactions with others positive for everyone. Participation increased support for decisions ultimately reached and reduced the risk that ideas would be undermined by unexpected opposition. The participants believed their preferred leadership style created loyalty, trust and respect, and enhanced the self worth of the organization's people. The participants valued and practiced a flattened organizational hierarchy, even though the organization's flow chart may clearly depict a hierarchical structure. They operated in "webs of contacts" rather than from the pyramid-shaped flow charts. Building networks in which the leader is at the center, 101 rather than hierarchies in which the leader is at the top, promoted group affiliation and partnership, an open communication flow between all partners, and collaborative decision making. The flattening of the organizational structure, and the interchangability of it's parts, I think has strengthened my leadership style to make it more inclusive, more diverse, and less my decision and more our decision. Karen Although the participants reported that interactive leadership was their preferred and natural style, all appeared comfortable using a variety of leadership styles as the situation required. The CEOs can act quickly and do take control when necessary. Common leadership characteristics, identified in the interviews and confirmed in the observations, the participants share included: persuasiveness, tolerance of freedom/individuality, production emphasis— excellence orientation, and integration. No issue is more central to a discussion of leadership than the subject of power, "the ability to influence others, to shape events, and to achieve personal goals" (Yukl, 1989) . Getting more power is a goal frequently mentioned by individuals who aspire to leadership roles (Loden, 1985). The eight participants agree that their underlining leadership philosophy is about inspiration and influence, not power. However, Diana is quick to assert: 102 Leadership requires the use of power. While I want to inspire and influence, sometimes I must just tell someone, "This is the way it will be." You can not ignore power, pretend you don't have it, or abuse it. Power is something people acquire and exercise through a combination of external resources and individual qualities. These women ascribe their power to personal characteristics, like charisma, interpersonal skills, hard work, knowledge or personal contacts, rather than to organizational stature, like position and formal authority. However, Theresa warns: Tomorrow at the football game, I will sit in the (university) President's box, not because I am a good and wonderful person, but because I am in a position of power. We make a dangerous assumption about ourselves if we are not aware of how others perceive our power. Loden's research (1985) has shown that, when given the choice, female leaders prefer to use personal power to influence organizational policies and practices and to motivate others. Although they recognize the importance of position power, they tend to use it more sparingly than traditional leaders do. Power, for me, is a minor consideration, but you cannot divorce it from leadership. The key ingredient (of leadership) is a vision that others can buy into. Motivating others is most effective when there's a shared vision and a sharing of power to achieve the vision....I am more likely to be persuasive than dictatorial. Jessica My approach (to leadership) is holistic. You got to do your homework first and have a thorough knowledge of the organization and the issues. In most situations, knowledge is power. Margaret 103 Knowledge is power. It was through knowledge (that I could get into the Board Room). I still feel knowledge is power. And that's the only power that I've ever had. Although people think I do (have other power). Shirley One participant suggested "Women having power intimidates some people, makes others uncomfortable. This may be, in part, why our leadership is so interactive...a strategy to make it work." In general, the participants don't focus on gender as an issue, but prefer to get on with the job at hand. Yet, a participant cautions: Individuals in power have a personal responsibility to understand gender differences, to know why individuals are coming from certain points of view. Gender can make communication a challenge. Marsha I stood at a cocktail party one night with (male peers and colleagues) and said, "Guys, look, I played basketball and I was very good at getting under the basket and using my elbows and my hips to stake out the position so I got the rebound. I know how to do that on a basketball court, and that is exactly what I've been doing (at budget meetings). Extension has a position, and I'm going to protect it. I'm going to protect our ability to make decisions on things that effect us. I'm not going to sit around and wait for you guys to tell me what you think we ought to do. And if you're in the way, you're going to get an elbow or a hip so I can get the rebound." Somehow or other my behavior over the past several months became okay. I don't quite understand it, but it helped to be able to use an analogy from my life that somehow related to theirs....The point is, you gotta be assertive, you gotta be self confident, you gotta know when, and you gotta have some ways of allowing some of these things to happen. Diana Conflict Management Within complex organizations, where rapid change has become the only predictable constant, 104 the ability to manage conflict productively is an increasingly important part of a leader's roles. Every change--whether the result of shifting environmental conditions, changing strategic direction, new organizational structures, procedures, or personnel— creates some degree of turmoil and conflict (Earnest, 1992). The women leaders showed a strong preference for two different modes of conflict management behavior. The first, collaboration, is an approach that seeks to find different, more satisfying solutions to complex problems than those proposed by either side. This win-win approach is based upon a consensus-building strategy for resolving differences rather than a competitive one (Loden, 1985). I think collaborative skills and the ability to get diverse groups of people behind a decision are qualities of a first-class leader. Change is more likely to stick if lots of people participate in the decision making and have a real stake in the change. The more collaboration the better and the better people feel about the decision. Karen The women viewed collaboration's key advantage as a strategy for building individual and group "ownership" in decisions, even if this approach to conflict resolution requires significant time and ongoing attention. They sensed it was "the right way to do things." Compromise was the women's second choice as a method for managing conflict. Compromise always requires some degree of negotiation and generally results in trade-offs with both parties making some concessions and maintaining 105 part of their original position (Loden, 1985). A more short-term, decisive strategy than collaboration, compromise is also reflective of a win-win situation. For these women, negotiating was not so much a way of winning as a process that enabled them to build relationships. Their focus was both on getting a deal that served the organization and on keeping people committed to the organizational vision. By focusing on the long-term interaction, they used negotiation to bridge the gap between the efficient and the humane. A few of the women were also aware of the contrast between the conflict management style they used and the style preferred by their male peers. Let me contrast my own style with the style of a former male boss that I worked for. I would say he was more inclined to make rapid decisions without a lot of prior analysis, to be very task-oriented. In contrast, I am more inclined to gather information and examine a conflict from different angles, to analyze the situation in depth before acting. I think my approach is more relationship-oriented. Jessica Women tend to bring a win-win perspective to leadership and to teamwork. Men tend to have more of a win-lose perspective which does not necessarily provide the best answers in problem situations. Win-win is not a secretive approach but a communicative approach. It creates the best situation and makes things happen. Marsha The women on occasion withdrew from conflict until the timing was right, especially if the conflict was a personnel issue that could negatively impact the organization. This behavior could be identifed as avoidance, which can be an 106 effective alternate strategy for taking continued action...thinking, planning, evaluating to prepare the best resolution. One participant suggested that the behavior is avoidance covered with a "timing" justification. Four of the five observed directors had to "reassign" a key administrator sometime during their tenure as senior administrator, a "reassignment" that had potential for being destructive to the organization. Each identified the "reassignment" as her "most significant act of procrastination." Yet, in discussing the situation, it became evident that procrastination worked to the advantage of the organization. The director used the time wisely to explore the possible scenarios and consequences and to conceive and actualize a resolution that had minimal negative impact on the organization. It was tough. Just one of those ugly things that you don't want to do. I didn't want to face the fact that I couldn't make it better, so I kept trying to put more band aids on. Finally, I had to admit the time had come. I tried to accomplish the task with grace and dignity for both our sakes and the organization. Theresa One participant indicated that with time in the position she became more comfortable with conflict, in fact did more seeking and allowing of conflict. She became more proactive. "For true social change, conflict is necessary. It's how we manage the conflict that tells the true story." None of the CEOs were afraid of conflict, and all were willing to go to battle for the good of the organization and 107 its people. Competition for scarce resources has become a struggle for the survival of the organizations the women lead. All have faced downsizing and restructuring because of budget cuts. Although each consulted internal and external partners about the directions for the future, it was one instance when the buck stopped with her. We had to cut 50 positions out of the organization (because of bad university policy). That certainly wasn't my doing, but the way in which it was done was my doing...What I had to do, and what I could do, was to make decisions that were in the best interest of the organization, but adversely affected people's lives. I could make those (decisions) and still sleep at night, and still look everybody in the eyes, and still know that I had done the right thing. Until you go through that kind of experience where you actually test your feelings and emotions and everything about you against that kind of caldron of decision making that's on the front pages of every county newspaper....Well, I learned that I could be decisive on the real tough things and still be okay. I learned to be a little braver. Diana Communication The women scheduled time for sharing information. They structured their days to include as much sharing as possible; it was a deliberate process, a major goal of every day, consuming as much as 7 0 percent of work time. The communication process was an important step in building and maintaining partnerships to achieve the organization's mission. I do think successful leaders are people who are able to articulate visions and goals and do it well so other people understand.... I think communication skills are absolutely critical, written and oral, and the ability to adapt them to a variety of different audiences. Margaret 108 I visit every county— I do that at least once a year. It is a style that says 'I'll come to you, you don't have to come to me.' It's not an elitist, separatist style. Karen Sharing was also facilitated by their view of themselves as being in the center of things rather than at the top: "It's more natural to reach out than to reach down," said Theresa. They tended to structure their organizations in networks instead of hierarchies, which meant that information flowed freely in many directions instead of up and down prescribed channels. Sharing critical information with employees enabled them to function more effectively. Information was widely available to internal and external partners; information was viewed as a source of empowerment. It was a wonderful unit which had scaled back because of the cut backs, but yet it was not promoting itself. I did some simple things to put it back on the map. I produced some materials, on the faculty, on the center, on its work, that were simple to do, but they were relatively slick for the culture....I helped them help me define (who they were) and then I marketed back to them who they were, as well as marketed to the world. They said, "Oh, that's who we are," and they went on with their business and did all the good work they were doing. At some point you've got to quit contemplating your navel and tell your story and believe it yourself....So I've done that wherever I've been, positioning a part or the total organization within the world. Shirley 109 One of the practices that I have instituted, as a result of observing many men who did not do this, is holding regular staff meetings. I think employee involvement and two-way communication are critical to the effectiveness of the organization.... People had to learn to speak up. They were afraid of negative repercussions from revealing their point of view. I made it clear, fast that my leadership style encouraged participation and valued pluralism. Marsha In order to establish those necessary partner relationships, the CEOs used language that encouraged participation and community. They also showed respect for their audiences through listening, echoing, summarizing, and using nonantagonistic responses. The need to interact effectively with people from a wide variety of socio-economic and cultural backgrounds. The ability to speak effectively before large and small groups. To write effectively. And I think writing skills may be among the more neglected of the skills that should be stressed.... I believe listening is most important. We need to give respectful attention to other people who wish to be heard. Jessica

Their view of human interaction also took into account the dialogue that is constantly occurring at both the emotional and intellectual levels. They paid close attention to what was being said and the emotional tone associated with statements and action. In individual or group interactions, they studied nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, posture, and degree of eye contact, as well as verbal cues like vocal inflections, the timing of interruptions, and the general level of interest or excitement conveyed in the other person's voice. 110 I think about all the people who have serious things that are going on in their life, at the same time they come to their job here and are doing things. I don't fit that into my style because I think it is the smart thing to do; I fit it in because I value people. I really feel that in any kind of situation, you have an obligation first as a human being, as a caring human being, and then comes your duty as "boss." I don't think you can divorce the two. Susan The participants agreed that listening and sensing are key interpersonal skills that makes gathering data easier. It is as important to hear and to decipher what's not being said by others as what is spoken. By being aware of the feelings of others, which often remain unspoken, the women leaders developed a more complete picture of what was occurring within their organizations.

Deni sion Making I've become convinced that for real change to take place people have to be involved individually in their portion of their responsibility for (change) to occur. It's very easy to shirk one's own sense of identity in the decision if you have no responsibility to participate in what and how it is made. Marsha The participants preferred a collegial decision making style, involving democratic process and participation when the situation allowed. They were willing to submerge displays of personal power in an effort to get others to participate in the decision making process. Consistent with the participants' communication style, the language used in the decision making process encouraged participation and community building. They were more inclusive than exclusive. Ill It doesn't matter to me how we get there. What matters is that we get there together and that other people feel that they've had a part in the decision and that they really have had a part in the decision. Susan My leadership style is (somewhat situational).. .one that wants to have people comfortable with input into the decisions, but clear that somebody eventually has to make a decision. The situational part has to do with strategizing politically; how best to get to that goal. Karen Committed to coalition building as the appropriate means to achieve goals, the CEOs would seek input from a variety of sources, both internal and external. The women kept the long term goals and vision of the organization in constant focus throughout the decision making process. Success is achieving vision...moving toward the vision. And as a part of that move toward the vision, increasing the capacity of the people in the organization to produce the product, which for us is meeting the needs of (citizens). To achieve the vision, (people in the organization) really must have a stake and feel a part of this (organizational) community....A successful leader worries about the big picture and is able to draw the pieces together to create a shared vision. Theresa It's absolutely essential that whoever has a leadership position for the organization be a visionary— someone who can have a long term view for what might be for the organization and look at the potential of how the mission of the organization is fulfilled. Jessica The participants' exhibited and discussed a holistic orientation in their decision making. They were able to see the big picture and how one decision could impact the parts of the whole. Considerable thought and evaluation went into their decisions, using strategic planning and formative and 112 summative data to assist in the process. I spend a lot of time thinking about strategy. Who I need to talk to, who needs to be involved, contacts that I need to make to create linkages. I find myself drawing models and thinking and evaluating. Theresa Strategy that one uses to build support inside a university and outside a university doesn't just happen. There are systematic ways of going about building support. If you have a product that is worthy of support, if you believe in it, if you have passion for it, that's not enough. You have to have discreet strategies in order to have this fact recognized by others who are important decision makers inside and outside our institution. Shirley Noted as decisive, these women can and do make the tough decisions when the situation demands. Most people are not promoted to leadership unless they are perceived not only as being decisive but also as being able to make quick decisions in the face of ambiguity and inadequate data (Josefowitz, 1980) . Style itself, I would describe as open, consultative. I like to collect a lot of information from a lot of different sources...non-traditional sources; both sides of the controversy; internal and external. I'm particularly open to new ideas and to people in the organization that have ideas. I try to get people to a decision. I will offer options. I feel good when we've gone through some type of a process, and a decision is made....I can be decisive when decisions need to be made. Sometimes things move too fast, and decisions need to be made. You don't bother asking 15 people what they think...You take action. Diana As mentioned before, all the participants have faced downsizing and restructuring because of budget cuts. Although they used a variety of strategies and a variety of sources for input, the tough decision and follow through was 113 the responsibility of the senior administrator. They made the tough decisions, but not without designing, or seeking, systems to support the individuals effected. Going around the state telling people that they didn't have a job anymore, to date, was my darkest hour. We didn't just talk to the people that lost their jobs, we talked to every Extension employee. We did that during the process so nobody could be determined to have been the effected person. We also talked with the non­ effected people on what the process was so that the organization could have some unity and understand how the decisions were made, etc. Although no one felt good about loosing a valued peer, comparatively, the energy and effort paid off. Afterwards, one of the (university) personnel officers said to me, "You really did that right. You were both humane and efficient." Marsha

The Path to the Top As in British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's climb to political power (Helgesen, 1990) , the participants did not aspire to achieve the top leadership position within a state-based Cooperative Extension System, but had rather seized opportunities as they came and made the best of them. The lack of specific goals was not a problem. I don't think it was a conscious decision. I think it was just sort of osmosis that it began to occur to me that maybe (senior-level administration) was something that I could be doing. I was not one who planned out her life. Things had always just sort of happened, and every step was a better step. I thought I was young and somehow or other it was going to work out. I really didn't know how it was going to be, but I never worried about it because I thought whatever happened I would be in charge. ... I'm opportunistic!" Karen 114 I was offered the opportunity (for advancement) and took advantage of it. In some cases, I looked around for opportunities, to see what might be available. Jessica This group shattered the glass ceiling at an early age, with 4 3.5 being the average age when becoming a CES senior- level administrator. The average age for their male counterparts, with no significant change since the 1950's, was about 48 (Clark, Norland & Smith, 1991). These high achieving females worked diligently to accumulate credentials and competencies, consciously preparing for leadership positions, but never zeroing in on which leadership position. Emerging women leaders have to (prove) competence in the basic leadership skills...You must be competent, not just marginal. You have to have the degree requirements for whatever level you aspire to. From there you need a support network that will help you find those opportunities at the right time and the right place. And then, you've got to work your butt off. You've got to give 150% to prove you can do it as well as the big boys can. That's being opportunistic! Karen Clark, Norland and Smith (1991) reported that the percentage of CES directors (100 percent male) retiring from the position has remained relatively constant since the 1960's, ranging from 54 percent to 57 percent. Based on responses to questions about future plans, it seems safe to predict that only 37.5 percent of the participants (n=3) will retire as CES directors. The three with plans to retire are considering second careers; the remaining five range in age from 40 to 50 and aspire to career 115 opportunities that will provide new challenges and continued personal growth and professional development. The path to a top leadership position was different for each woman. Their work histories revealed more counterpatterns than convergences. Only three of the eight participants have spent their entire careers with CES; one came from public schools, one from business, one from nonprofit advocacy administration, and two from university academic positions. Not even the prerequisite line job, so highly emphasized in the literature, was a consistent pattern in the women's path to the top. The academic training and preparation was as diverse as the work histories. Each participant had earned a terminal degree, with five choosing administration or education degrees over a subject matter discipline. Even their advice on academic preparation for female administrative aspirants differed. Get a solid academic background. Don't do (the terminal degree) in education. Get it in an academic field. Earn your promotion and tenure before you go into administration, establish a record of scholarship And along the way, get that cognitive management and business sense; develop those skills, get those experiences through leadership programs like Kellogg and NELD. Theresa Frankly, as I've looked back over my Extension (administrative) career, I think probably the thing I needed least was the discipline background....! think we do have to get by the discipline barrier and recognize that we are not hiring subject matter individuals as administrators, we're hiring administrators. Jessica 116 Each of the participants acknowledged significant relationships with individuals who helped shape the person she had become. One participant recommended, "I think you might be smarter to have your mentor as a combination of people." The participants followed that advice, seeking a variety of individuals to learn from during their careers. Each mentor offered a different perspective or a new skill to add to the emerging leaders' competencies. I think the best level that any human being is ever in, if they really like to learn, is the second person. Now that frustrates some people, but just the opportunity to know what is going on and to have some perspective of how to (lead) is invaluable....Overall, (mentor) taught me the most because he gave me the opportunity to do a broad spectrum of tasks...he allowed me to learn from my mistakes as well as my successes. Margaret (Mentor) was instrumental because when I first became Director of Extension, CES was still very much operating in a man's world and (the men) were very skeptical (about my abilities). I didn't know the rules. He opened doors for me by introducing me to the right people and providing (reflected power). Susan I learned from her that a passion for justice and the work that we do is a good thing to be committed to, and that you don't compromise on that. She did not accept shabby work being done anywhere. Diana Time, energy and passion were common themes the participants discussed and exhibited that played important roles as their careers evolved. Each theme was valued for its particular contribution to achieving their leadership positions. 117 I think who gives leadership has almost become a time issue. Who is willing to take the time and do the hard work that leadership requires?... I think being a leader right now is such hard work and its so ambiguous. What is the kind of leader to be in this time of change? I think women are willing to take the risks around that ambiguity and expend the energy to get the job done. Marsha Do what you do well. Don't count the hours, don't wait for a pat on the back for everything. If you're doing something of value, recognition will come. Be involved, be an organization person, care about other parts of the organization (not just your assignment). Give of your time to make the whole better....If your goal is administration, then develop the kind of skills and strengths that will serve you well in that role....(Successful leaders have) passion, strong passion for whatever it is you're leading. You've gotta care, you've gotta love it. You have to be able to be an advocate for it, which doesn't mean you don't criticize it quietly and try to change it for the better. Shirley Although academic training and work histories varied greatly among the participants, future generations of women who aspire to CES leadership roles can benefit from what these pioneers learned along the path to the top. Like any journey, the one that started the women on the path to the top began with preparation. Without the required credentials and competencies, the aspiring leaders could not take advantage of the opportunities along the way. A network of contacts helped in identifying those opportunities, and mentors, through teaching, coaching and guiding, assisted in gaining knowledge and skills for upward mobility. Finally, time invested wisely, energy expended to achieve results, and passion for the work to be done were necessary for a successful trip. CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AMD RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary The purpose of this study was to explore and describe the aspirations, values, motives and actions of women currently serving as CEOs for state-based Cooperative Extension Systems. This inquiry was meant to provide initial observations regarding women in senior-]_evel leadership roles related to their leadership attitudes, strategies and theory; how they make decisions, communicate, manage resources and build relationships; and theif personal experiences as women, daughters, sisters, wives, mothers, friends and executives. The target population was all women serving as senior- level administrators of state-based cooperative Extension Systems. No individual with an interim assignment was included in the target population. Although job titles varied, job responsibilities were consistent, with the identified CEOs having primary leadership for CgS management and operations. At the time of the study, eight women served as Extension senior-level administrators (Directors and Associate Directors) . A census study was conducted.

118 119 A triangulation of qualitative data collection methods and data sources was utilized to assess what these women attribute to their success in shattering the glass ceiling. The four data collection methods used in this study were five working days of structured observation; a personal interview; a biographic data survey; and member checks using open-ended questions. The data were analyzed inductively, and two essential subprocesses were involved, unitizing and categorizing. Unitizing involved a process of coding in which the raw data were systematically transformed and aggregated into units which permitted precise description of relevant content characteristics. Categorizing sorted the units into provisional categories. The data were initially coded and categorized without the input of the participants. Each participant was sent a first cut analysis of the data and asked for their careful review and reflection. A telephone conference was scheduled to discuss the initial findings and the participants' perceptions. Through this process, the data were expanded and enriched. As a result of this first member check, the data and original analysis were reviewed, the categories narrowed and an analytical reading was developed. The reading was sent to the participants with an open-ended questionnaire for recording reactions to the monograph. The participants' comments regarding the reading guided the writing of the 120 final analysis and conclusions. The step-by-step approach begins with a wide range of possibilities and ends with a clearly defined extraction of concise theoretical formulation. Characteristics of the Participants The average age was 50.5, ranging in age from 40 to 60. All but two became CEOs during their early to mid-forties, with 43.5 being the average age for the group (range 38-52). At the time of the interview, two participants had never married, one was divorced, and five were married. Of the six who married, three had children still living at home and three were married without children. There was a particularly strong and regular pattern to the family histories of the participants. Regardless of birth order, all participants described a childhood detailing behavioral dynamics which underline the early experiences of a first born child. The women recalled their parents supported and reinforced the child in developing her own qualities and capacities, never forcing the child into stereotypical gender roles. There existed a very special relationship between the young girls and their fathers, sharing interests and activities traditionally regarded as appropriate for fathers and sons. In general, their mothers were remembered as a warm and caring feminine models; strong women, who because of the social norms of the time, did not achieve all their dreams. 121 Although all eight remembered their childhoods as having been happy, each had sustained a courage-building experience in her childhood, and early gained an awareness of and faith in her own power. Self reliance was a highly prized value and, today, is perceived by others as a gritty, pioneer spirit. Without exception, each individual knows her "self" well. These women administrators are comfortable with "self" and confident in the abilities of "self." All had a presence projecting strength and confidence when entering a room. Women as Executives The eight female participants shared common capabilities and strengths for successfully leading complex, diverse organizations. Five broadly defined themes emerged from the data supporting common values, motives and actions. The five emanated themes include: work environment, leadership style, conflict management, communication, and decision making. Work Environment Participants: * understood that fast-changing environments play havoc with tradition, creating opportunities for women. * desired and actively sought high contact with people; office hours were reserved for people and paper work became homework. * exhibited strong commitment to social justice; became administrators to be of service to people. 122 Leadership Style Participants: * preferred interactive leadership; however, were comfortable using a variety of leadership styles as situation required. * shared power and information willingly with others; cultivated internal and external partners. * had ability to excite others about their work, but more than cheerleaders; made a difference for individuals by articulating the vision, creating a positive work environment, and empowering others. Conflict Management Participants: * practiced collaborative and compromising strategies to be most effective; truly worked for win-win situation. * were not afraid to battle for good of organization and its people. * withdrew from conflict until timing was right; however, continued to be active thinking, planning, evaluating to prepare the best strategy. Communication Participants: * spend 70 percent of work time communicating. * valued and practiced a flattened hierarchy; operated in "webs of contacts" rather than from pyramid­ shaped flow chart. * used language that encouraged participation and community building. 123 Decision Making Participants: * possessed holistic orientation; able to see big picture and how one decision impacts the parts of the whole. * preferred collegial decision making style; more inclusive than exclusive. * used long-range planning, formative and summative data in making decisions. The Path to the Top Although academic training and work histories varied greatly among the participants, future generations of women who aspire to CES leadership roles can benefit from what these pioneers learned along the path to the top. Like any journey, the one that started the women on the path to the top began with preparation. Without the required credentials and competencies, the aspiring leaders could not take advantage of the opportunities along the way. A network of contacts helped in identifying those opportunities, and mentors, through teaching, coaching and guiding, assisted in gaining knowledge and skills for upward mobility. Finally, time invested wisely, energy expended to achieve results, and passion for the work to be done were necessary for a successful trip. 124 Conclusions Based upon the review of literature and the findings related to the research objectives, factors were identified that relate to women successfully shattering the glass ceiling within Cooperative Extension Systems. The following conclusions, applicable to the population of this study, were reached: (1) The senior-level administrators participating in this study shared an underlying philosophy: leadership is about inspiration and influence, not enforcing power. (2) These women who shattered the glass ceiling are not imitations of men. Each has developed her own unique, individual style; however, in analyzing how these pioneers go about accomplishing their work, more similarities than differences were found. (3) The CEOs don't focus on gender as an issue? they get on with the job at hand. (4) The individual knows "self" well. Each woman appeared comfortable with "self" and confident in abilities of "self." (5) Drawing on what was unique to their socialization as women (understanding, cooperative, supportive, service orientation), the participants created individualized paths to the top. Their 125 competencies and credentials were of the highest quality, and they took or made opportunities to prove their abilities. (6) These leaders valued and practiced a flattened hierarchy, operating in "webs of contacts" rather than from pyramid-shaped flow chart. (7) Viewing communication as an important step in achieving the organization's mission, the CEOs made sure information flowed freely to all internal and external partners. (8) The participants preferred an interactive leadership style; however, they were comfortable using a variety of leadership styles as the situation required. (9) The women did seek input from a variety of sources, both internal and external, but can and did make the tough decisions when the situation demanded. (10) The leaders kept the long term goals and vision of the organization in constant focus throughout the decision making process. (11) The female executives believed in building partnerships (internal and external) to achieve the organization's mission. (12) The women serving as CEOs of Cooperative Extension Systems ascribed their power to personal 126 characteristics, like charisma, interpersonal skills, hard work, knowledge or personal contacts, rather than to organizational stature, like position and formal authority.

Implications By encouraging women to use all their skills and abilities to lead effectively, organizations can increase their capacity to solve problems and improve productivity. As the pool of feminine talent increases within CES mid­ level administration, there are greater qualified human resources to draw from. The flow of creative ideas also increases as men and women approach problems from their own unique perspective. Homogeneity within administration does not lead to increased productivity. It simply maintains the status quo and, in some areas, actually decreases the potential for creativity. By increasing the value placed on building relationships as well as by balancing work priorities with other interests and personal pursuits, female leaders can make an important contribution. They can demonstrate that career success and a satisfying personal life can be achieved simultaneously. Men also have much to gain, for the masculine model of executive success has often constrained and confined many men, leaving little room in their lives for much beyond 127 their work. As John Kenneth Glabraith commented in a 1984 essay on "Corporate Man:" Any consideration of the life and larger social existence of the modern corporate man...begins and also largely ends with the effect of one all-embracing force. That is organization. ... It is to this, at the expense of family, friends, sex, recreation and sometimes health and effective control of alcoholic intake, that he devotes his energies. (p.39) There is little doubt that today's executive man and woman both can benefit from a redefinition of effective leadership— one that emphasizes feminine skills as well as traditional masculine qualities. To promote a redefined leadership, nothing less than total commitment will be required. In order to succeed, this change will require the constant attention and support of enlightened men, women, and institutions. While the potential benefits are great, the challenges will also be considerable. For women, the challenge will come from finding their own voice within organizations and infusing institutions with their values. For men, the challenge lies in understanding the meaning of different but equal and then acting accordingly. If organizations expand uieir definition of effective leadership, several things might happen, including the disappearance of the glass ceiling and the creation of a wider path for all sorts of executives— men and women— to attain positions of leadership, widening the path will free potential leaders to lead in ways that play to their 128 individual strengths. Then, perhaps, the newly recognized interactive leadership style can be valued and rewarded as highly as the command-and-control style has been for decades. By valuing a diversity of leadership styles, organizations will find the strength and flexibility to survive in a highly competitive, increasingly diverse environment. This study has presented insights into the lives of female CES administrators, describing in rich, contextual detail their leadership attitudes, strategies and theory; how they make decisions, communicate, manage resources and build relationships; their personal experiences as women, daughters, sisters, wives, mothers, friends, and executives. Women's ways of leadership have seldom been included in formulations of theory. Nor have researchers who generalized their results to women tempered their conclusions based on the dissimilarities between men and women as noted in the literature. Findings of this inquiry closely mirrored the feminine leadership model established by the literature review. What my research and the research of others demonstrate is that, as a group, women tend to have a different administrative style than men do and that effectiveness for a female may depend upon this altered approach. The evidence suggests the existence of a "Female Organizational Culture" within Cooperative Extension Systems. Further qualitative and 129 quantitative research is necessary to establish the theoretical formulation of a "CES Female Organizational Culture." The values and relationships shared among and between researcher and participants were woven throughout the research plan. With that knowledge, different actors many ask the same questions, employ identical methodological tools and produce different results. From the outset of this study every attempt was made to place the participants in a position of central importance in the creation of knowledge. The participants played a major role in the final analysis of this inquiry. Participants critiqued the analysis and offered their theoretical and analytical insights to better achieve the study's purpose....to interpret and understand the reality of the participants. The member checks provided an interactive process in which researcher and participants learned from each other. A few of the participants suggested that the findings were too positive, too flattering...."presented women of strength at perhaps the cost of avoiding full disclosure of the limitations." My response as the researcher is that if the study as achieved its purpose, than those values that the participants honor most, that best part of anything we call virtues, are reflected in the findings. Any one sharing those same values will believe this to be a positive piece, praising the virtues of female leaders. Those who honor 130 another set of virtues will believe this is a piece reflecting limitations, not strengths. My intent was not to establish one leadership style as superior to another, but merely to present the reality of these pioneers who achieved senior-level leadership positions within state-based Cooperative Extension Systems. Without question, these women were successful in shattering the glass ceiling* The success of their leadership can only be evaluated by studying their organizations and what impact the CEOs' aspirations, values, motives, and actions have had on the organization.

Recommendations The review of literature, the findings of this study, and the subsequent conclusions and implications led this researcher to several recommendations for both Cooperative Extension Systems and for further study* Following are these recommendations: Recommendations for cooperative Extension systems (1) It is recommended that Cooperative Extension Systems take action to promote a quality, inclusive and diverse leadership for meeting the challenge of change within the organization. (2) It is recommended that CES continue to involve equal numbers of women in developmental practices and credential building experiences, including 131 advanced education and career enhancing assignments such as national, regional and state committees and task forces and special projects, that have been traditional precursors to advancement. (3) it is recommended that CES identify "high potential" employees early in their careers and oversee their career advancement through yearly appraisals and needs assessments. Individualized professional development programs are key to enhance academic and work-related credentials. (4) It is recommended that monitoring for equal access and opportunity, especially as female managers of local units move up the organizational ladder to mid-level administrative positions where important decisions are made, is considered an organizational responsibility or part of the planning for developmental programs and policies. (5) it is recommended that females currently serving as mid- and senior-level administrators seek and develop a mentoring relationship with potential women employees who aspire to CES leadership roles.

(6) It is recommended that accountability for Equal Employment Opportunity responsibilities be placed with senior-level administrators and top 132 university decision makers. (7) It is recommended that CES establish educational opportunities for both internal and external partners in order to promote and applaud diversity and redefined leadership. Meaningful incentive programs must be developed to recognize efforts to promote equal opportunity. (8) It is recommended that as mid- and senior-level leadership positions become available careful evaluation be given to the competencies and credentials announced as required to do the job effectively. Recommendations for Further Study (1) It is recommended that this study be replicated with a sample of male CES senior-level administrators to determine differences or similarities. Does a "Female Organizational Culture" exist? Or are the leadership attitudes, strategies and principles identified in this female population common among CES executives regardless of gender?

(2) Should the data support the existence of a "Female Organizational Culture," further qualitative and quantitative research would be necessary to establish theoretical formulation. (3) Further qualitative and quantitative research is 133 needed to determine what impact the aspirations, values, motives and actions of female senior-level administrators has on a state-based Cooperative Extension System. (4) Using these initial observations as a framework, future qualitative and quantitative research could provide an assessment technique for determining organizational readiness for women to serve in senior-level administrative positions. (5) Further qualitative and quantitative study is needed to formulate a model for a professional development strategy preparing women for senior- level leadership roles within CES. Recommendations for Female Administrative Aspirants (1) It is recommended that females aspiring to administrative roles within CES achieve credentials and competencies in basic leadership skills, such communication, negotiation, interpersonal, and strategic planning. Academic preparation is a prerequisite for senior-level leadership roles; attain the degree requirements in area of study that will assist in preparing the individual for administrative responsibility. (2) It is recommended that female aspirants seek opportunities to participate in developmental programs and credential building experiences, 134 including advanced education and career enhancing assignments such as national, regional and state committees and task forces and special projects, that have been traditional precursors to advancement. (3) It is recommended that females seek and develop significant relationships with a variety of individuals who can teach, coach and guide the emerging leader in preparation for upward mobility. Each mentor can offer a different perspective or a new skill to add to the aspiring administrator's competencies. (4) It is recommended that emerging leaders build a network of support among colleagues and peers. Effective networks are developed and maintained in a climate of trust and equality. (5) It is recommended that aspiring leaders thoroughly understand the demands of a senior-level administrative position. Huge investments of time, energy, and passion are necessary to do the job. (6) It is recommended that females aspiring to leadership roles become comfortable with "self" and confident in abilities of "self." Each leader must develop her own unique, individual style; not become an imitation of someone else. APPENDICES APPENDIX A Participation Request Letter

136 137

Deborah J. Maddy 5305 Brandy Oaks Lane Columbus, Ohio 43220

Home: €14/457-3560 Work: 614/292-6169

March 9, 1992

Name Title Cooperative Extension Service Address

Dear Salutation, A doctoral candidate at the Ohio State University and 15-year Cooperative Extension professional, I write to ask for your assistance with my dissertation research. The purpose of this inquiry is to provide insight into the lives of successful female Cooperative Extension Systems (CES) administrators, a small group who shattered the glass ceiling in a predominately agriculturally-trained male organization. Through the discovery of strengths and understanding of limitations within this select pioneer population, future generations of women who aspire to CES leadership roles can learn and benefit. The enclosed prospectus of my study provides you with an overview of the inquiry's purpose, focus and methodology. Participation in the study would require your willingness to allow me to observe you for five working days. A three-hour block of time will be needed at the end of the observations for a personal interview. You will also be asked to complete a biographical data survey to verify such factors as age, birth order, family background, education, exact descriptions of jobs held and rate of progression. Three months following the final interview, I will be in contact with the participants to ask for your reaction to the first cut data analysis, including my perception of some broadly defined themes that emerge as I code the data. A copy of the initial findings will be sent and a telephone conference scheduled with each participant to discuss my initial findings and your perceptions of the findings. 138 As a result of our discussion, I will take a second look at the data and my analysis, refine the identified themes, and develop an analytical reading. The reading will be sent to each participant with a response sheet using open-ended questions for recording your reactions to the monograph. Participants' comments regarding the reading will guide the writing of the final analysis and conclusions. Participation in the study is voluntary, and participants may withdraw from the study any time. Participation or non-participation will have no effect on employment status or career opportunities. All observations and responses will be kept completely confidential. No names or states will be associated with any of the reported data. During the week of March 16, I will telephone you to answer any questions you may have and to learn if you are interested in participating in the study. Should you agree to participate, I ask that you review your calendar and select five consecutive working days between March 30 and June 12 that would be most appropriate for me to observe you in action, reserving a three-hour block of time at the end of the observation for the personal interview. It is not necessary that the five consecutive working days fit a Monday through Friday schedule; a weekend sandwiched between the observation days is acceptable. I wish to observe your activity from the beginning to the end of your work day, and I am willing to travel anywhere within your state your schedule takes you. Thank you for giving my proposed study careful consideration. I hope that when I talk with you during the week of March 16 you will agree to participate and we can confirm my visit with you.

Sincerely,

Deborah J . Maddy enclosure: prospectus APPENDIX B Telephone Recruitment Script

139 140 TELEPHONE RECRUITMENT SCRIPT

Good morning, Dr. ______. I am Deborah Maddy, a graduate student at the Ohio state University, and I am calling in reference to the letter and inquiry proposal you received last week from Rachel Tompkins. Have you had an opportunity to review the letter and proposal?

If response is yes, continue with script on this page. If response is no, continue with script on page #3.

Oh, good. Then you might guess that I am calling to assess your interest in participating in this study of successful female leaders within Extension and to answer any questions you might have about the study's purpose, design and methodology. First, let me answer your questions. What additional information do you need to assist you in making a decision about participation?

Time will be allowed to answer all questions as thoroughly and completely as possible before moving on to the request to participate.

Have I answered all your questions? Then let me again emphasize what the proposal outlines: Participation in the study is voluntary, and participants may withdraw from the study any time. Participation or non-participation will have no effect on employment status or career opportunities.

All observations and responses will be kept completely 141

confidential. No names or states will be associated with

any of the reported data.

Participation in the study would require your willingness to allow me to observe and, where necessary, question you for five working days. A three-hour block of

time will be needed at the end of the diary studies for the personal interview. You will also be asked to complete a demographic questionnaire to verify such factors as age, birth order, family background, education, exact descriptions of jobs held and rate of progression.

Within three months of the final interview, participants will receive a monograph which describes and interprets the data collected in the diary studies, personal interviews and demographic questionnaires, and a response sheet using a Likert scale and open-ended questions for recording reactions to the monograph. Based on the input of the participants, the final results and conclusions will be refined and edited prior to publication.

Would you be willing to participate in the study?

If response is yes, then I will work with the participate to select the best dates fitting the proposal timeline and conclude with the following:

Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I will follow up immediately with a letter confirming our conversation today. Should you have questions concerning the study between now and our scheduled meeting, please call 142

me. I look forward to our week together and learning about

your ways of leadership.

If response is no, then conclude with the following:

I do thank you for giving my proposal careful

consideration. I appreciate the opportunity to talk with

you today.

Page #3 continued from a "no response" to first question:

Then, let me take few minutes to briefly summarize the

proposed study.

The purpose of this postpositivist inquiry is to

explore ancl describe the aspirations, values, motives, and

actions of six women currently serving as chief executive

officers of state-based Cooperative Extension systems.

Through the discovery of strengths and the understanding of

limitations within this select pioneer population, future generations of women who aspire to CES leadership roles can

learn and benefit. Five main topics of importance will be

studied: individualized concept of womanhood, personal experiences attributing to self concept, definition of success, strategies for success, and ways of leadership.

Four data collection methods to be used in this study include diary studies; personal interviews; demographic 143 questionnaire to verify such factors as age, birth order, family background, education, exact descriptions of jobs held and rates of progression; and a member check using a

Likert Scale and open-ended questions.

Participation in the study would require you willingness to allow me to observe and, where necessary, question you for five working days. A three-hour block of time will be needed at the end of the diary studies for the personal interview. You will also be asked to complete a demographic questionnaire.

Within three months of the final interview, participants will receive a monograph which describes and interprets the data collected in the diary studies, personal interviews and demographic questionnaires, and a response sheet using a Likert Scale and open-ended questions for recording reactions to the monograph. Based on the input of the participants, the final results and conclusions will be refined and edited prior to publication.

Let me emphasize that participation in the study is voluntary, and participants may withdraw from the study any time. Participation or non-participation will have no effect on employment status or career opportunities. All observations and responses will be kept completely confidential. No names or state will be associated with any of the reported data. 144

That's a quick summary of the proposed study. What questions do you have? Is there additional information you need to assist you in making a decision about participation?

Time will be allowed to answer all questions as thoroughly and completely as possible before moving on to the request to participate.

Have I answered all your questions?

Would you be willing to participate in the study?

If response is yes, then I will work with the participate to select the best dates fitting the proposal timeline and conclude with the following:

Thank you for agreeing to participate in my study. I will follow up immediately with a letter confirming our conversation today. Should you have questions concerning the study between now and our scheduled meeting, please call me. i look forward to our week together and learning about your ways of leadership.

If response is no, then conclude with the following:

I do thank you for giving my proposal careful consideration, i appreciate the opportunity to talk with you today. APPENDIX C Participation Confirmation Letter

145 146

Deborah J. Maddy 5305 Brandy Oaks Lane Columbus/ Ohio 43220 March 30, 1992 Name Title Address Dear Salutation, Thank you for agreeing to be a participant in my study of women who serve as chief executive officers of state- based Cooperative Extension Systems (CES). As we agreed, I will arrive at your office on Monday, April 27, at 8 a.m. to begin the diary studies. Sometime during the week, we will need a three-hour block of time for the personal interview. We can discuss and select an appropriate time once I arrive on campus. My travel plans are confirmed. I will arrive in (town) late Sunday afternoon, April 26. I have lodging reservations at University Motor Inn. Let me assure you that my observations and your responses will be kept completely confidential. No names or states will be associated with any of the reported data. Participation in the study is voluntary. Participation or non-participation will have no effect on your employment status or career opportunities. Participants may withdraw from the study at any time. The Ohio State University Behavioral and Social Sciences Human Subjects Review Committee requires that a consent form be signed by all participants in the study. Enclosed is a copy for your review, our first order of business on April 27 will be the review and signing of the consent form. Richard W. Clark is my dissertation committee chair. Again, my sincere thanks to you for agreeing to participate in the study, should you have questions between now and our scheduled meeting, please call me at work (614/292-6169) or home (614/457-3560). I look forward to our week together and to learning about your ways of leadership.

Respectfully yours, APPENDIX D Personal, Open-Ended Interview Instrument

147 148 PERSONAL, OPEN-ENDED INTERVIEW INSTRUMENT

Note: An interview guide approach was selected to increase the comprehensiveness of the data, yet allowing the data collection to be somewhat systematic for each respondent. The intent is to make the interview fairly conversational and situational. However, topics and issues to be covered are specified in advance in outline form, and the researcher will attempt to keep question sequencing and wording as standardized as possible. All instructions and questions to be read to the participants appear in bold print. Lead questions are listed first; appropriate probes follow. Probes will be asked only if the desired information is not provided in the response to the lead question.

Introduction

Before we start, let me first say thank you for

allowing me to shadow you this week. I have learned a great

deal about your leadership attitudes, strategies and theory

from observing you in action. Now, I want to explore with

you your aspirations, values and motives.

During the next three hours, we will discuss your

personal experiences as a woman, wife, mother, friend,

sister, daughter and executive. The questions are open-

ended, focusing on the constructs of self-concept, gender,

relationships, leadership, success, and professional

development. I will tape-record your responses in order to use your language to represent your reality. I will also make notes of key phrases or ideas that I may wish to return to for clarification or elaboration. 149

All your responses will be kept completely confidential. No names or states will be associated with any of the reported data. You may choose not to answer any particular question without explanation or justification.

Three months following the final interview, I will be in contact with the participants to ask for your reaction to the first cut data analysis, including my perception of some broadly defined themes that emerge as I code the data. A copy of the initial findings will be sent and a telephone conference scheduled with each participant to discuss my initial findings and your perceptions of the findings.

As a result of our discussion, I will take a second look at the data and my analysis, refine the identified themes, and develop an analytical reading. The reading will be sent to each participant with a response sheet using open-ended questions for recording your reactions to the monograph. Participants' comments regarding the reading will guide the writing of the final analysis and conclusions.

As mentioned in my original participant recruitment letter, the results of this study have the potential to be used by the organization and individuals to assist future generations of women to prepare for top management positions within Cooperative Extension Systems.

Do you have any questions before we get started? 150

Interview Guide

Section A — Background

Al. What experiences stand out for you over the past few years of your life?

Probe l; What kind of experiences have been the most important?

Probe 2 : What experiences would you term as "milestones" or turning points in your life?

A2. Tell me something about what your life is like right now.

Probe l; What do you value most about your life?

Probe 2 : What do you think about?

Probe 3: Where do you spend most of your time?

Section B — Self-Description

Bl. Being both fair and honest, describe yourself.

B2. Is the way you see yourself now different from the way you saw yourself in the past?

Probe 1 : What led to the changes?

Probe 2 : Have there been any other turning points? 151

B3. How do you see yourself changing in the future?

Section C — Gender

C l . What does being a woman mean to you?

Probe 1; Has your concept of yourself as a woman changed? If so, how?

Section D — Relationships

Dl. Looking back over your life, what relationships have been really important to you? Why were they important?

Probe 1: How would you describe those relationships?

D 2 . Have you had a relationship with someone who helped you shape the person you have become?

Probe l: How do you think the other person would describe the relationship?

Probe 2 : How has the relationship changed, and how do you account for the change?

D3 . Tell me about your family life when you were a young person.

Probe 1: How would you describe your mother (or primary caregiver)?

Probe 2: Your father (or prominent male figure)?

Probe 3: Describe your childhood relationship with your siblings. 152

D4 . Describe your family life today?

Probe 1: who is included in your family?

Probe 2; How would you describe your relationship with each individual?

D5. What impact has your career had on your family life?

Probe l: what kinds of personal sacrifices have you made in order to pursue your career?

Probe 2: What sacrifices has your family made for your career?

Probe 3: How has your family life been enriched by your career?

Section E — Leadership

El. Describe your leadership style.

Prob^ l: Give an example of your leadership in action and identify key points which describe your leadership style.

Probe 2: is this your natural, preferred leadership style?

Probe 3: what adaptations have you made in your style in order to function more effectively in the organization?

Probe 4: What adaptations has the organization made as a result of your leadership style? 153

E2. When you think about your career, certain events or episodes probably stand out in your mind — things that led to a lasting change in you as a leader. What happened that made a difference in the way you lead now.

Probe 1: What did you learn from the experience?

E3. What are the traits of a successful leader?

Probe 1: Give me some examples of individuals who you believe are successful leaders?

Section F — Success

FI. How do you define success?

F2. What has made you successful?

F3. What does it take for a woman to achieve a top leadership position within Cooperative Extension Systems?

Probe 1 : What factors can advance a woman upward?

Probe 2 : What barriers must a woman overcome?

Probe 3: Are the factors and barriers different from men wishing to achieve top leadership positions within CES? 154 Section G — Professional Development

Gi. Considering the various positions you have held over the years, what have been the common characteristics in each position.

Probe 1: What have been typical motivations for seeking or accepting new and different positions?

G2. What was you first administrative job?

Probe 1 Was there anything special about it? What did you learn from it?

Probe 2 : Have you experienced a "quantum leap" in your career — movement to a job with significantly more responsibility/ challenge/pressure than prior jobs?

Probe 3 : What is the biggest challenge you have ever faced?

Probe 4 : What was your most frightening first — something you did for the first time that really had you worried.

G3. What was your darkest hour?

Probe l: Tell me about a time when you tried something that was important to you and failed.

Probe 2 : What was your most significant act of procrastination? By this I mean a time when you didn't face up to a situation that got steadily worse, resulting in a mess.

Probe 3: Were you ever worn out or fed up, but managed to restart? How?

G4. What was your first important exposure to top administration? What did you learn? 155

G 5 . Was it your professional goal to become the chief executive officer for a state-based Cooperative Extension System?

Probe 1: When did you realize that this was an opportunity that could be a reality?

G6 . Sometimes people invest in developmental activities that they hope will pay off for them. Can you think of something you did specifically to help you develop that proved to be particularly valuable?

Probe 1: How about something that turned out to be a waste of time?

G7 . Describe the person who taught you the most during your career. What did that person do that made him or her so special?

Probe 1: Who do you look to now for inspiration and/or guidance?

Probe 2: Do you see yourself as a role model for other women? In what ways?

Probe 3: Host of us have worked for a person we simply couldn't tolerate for one reason or another, what did you learn from such an experience?

Probe 4: What was you most significant interpersonal conflict — a situation in which dealing with another person (or persons) was very difficult for you? What did you learn from it?

G8. How do you stay current and prepared for your executive role?

G9. What advise do you have for future generations of women who aspire to Cooperative Extension System leadership roles? 156

Section H — Conclusion

Thank you. Now before we stop, I have just one or two more questions.

Hi. What do you vision for yourself five years from now?

Probe 1: Ten years from now?

H2. Knowing what you know today, what decisions would you make to change your personal history?

H3. Are there any other questions that I should have asked you that would help us better understand the issues that impact women and their opportunities to achieve leadership roles within Cooperative Extension systems? APPENDIX E Biographical Data Survey

157 158 Assigned Name:

WOMEN WHO SHATTERED THE GLASS CEILING:

Postpositivist Inquiry into the Aspirations, Values, Motives and Actions of Women Serving as CEOs for Cooperative Extension Services

Biographical Data Survey

Instructions: Please respond to the questions in the biographical data survey. Most questions are short answer or listing. The questionnaire should take approximately 20 minutes to complete. "Assigned Name" is included in the upper right hand corner in order to match survey responses with data collected during observations and interviews. All your responses will be kept completely confidential. No names or states will be associated with any of the reported data. 159

WOMEN WHO SHATTERED THE GLASS CEILING:

Postpositivist Inquiry into the Aspirations, Values, Motives and Actions of Women Serving as CEOs for Cooperative Extension Services

Biographical Data Survey

1. Age: years (as of your last birthday)

2. Marital Status: (circle one) A) MARRIED B) DIVORCED C) SINGLE - NEVER MARRIED

If you circled either MARRIED or DIVORCED, please respond to questions 2A and 2B. If you circled SINGLE, go to question 3.

2A. Age when you married: ______

2B. Number of years of professional work before you married: ______

3. Total number of children:

Number of children currently at home:

4. Were you parents living during your entire childhood (those years before high school graduation)? (check the appropriate response) YES _____

NO _____ (if NO, which parent was living?) _____

5. Number of sisters: Number of brothers:

Number of siblings older than you:

Number of siblings younger than you: Educational History: (beginning with most recent degree)

Institution Degree & Date Awarded Field of Study

Non-degree Granting Education: (examples: Kellogg Fellowship, Harvard Management Institute, etc.)

Institution Type of Study Length of Study Dates

Occupational History: (beginning with present)

Type of Organization Type of Job Dates Position Held 161

9. Years in current position: ______years

Total years in a position of Chief Executive Officer for a state-based Cooperative Extension System: (may include more than one state) ______years

Age when you first became Chief Executive Officer for a state-based Cooperative Extension System: ______years Total years in Extension: ______years

10. Academic discipline you identify as your specialty:

THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION IN THIS STUDY. PLEASE RETURN THIS QUESTIONNAIRE WITHIN FIVE WORKING DAYS IN THE ATTACHED, STAMPED ENVELOPE.

QUESTIONS & CONCERNS CAN BE DIRECTED TO:

Deborah J. Maddy home: 614/457-3560 work: 614/292-6169 APPENDIX F Member Check #1

162 163

Deborah J. Maddy 5305 Brandy Oaks Lane Columbus, Ohio 43220 August 31, 1992 Name Title Address Dear Salutation, Enclosed is the listing of broadly defined themes that emerged from the data collected during my observations of and interviews with the eight women who currently serve as senior administrators within state-based Cooperative Extension Systems. My apologies for being a bit slower with data analysis than I had predicted. The information that you and your colleagues provided is both rich and abundant, and analysis was more time consuming than I allowed. I do hope that waiting the additional two weeks for this mailing has not inconvenienced you in any way. I ask that you take some time to review the initial findings provided you, deciding if what I have interpreted is reflective of your reality. Make note of where you agree and disagree, mark ideas and concepts that need clarification, add any omissions that would better reflect you reality. Keep in mind that the categories presented here represent the broad-based framework or outline for structuring my writing. Details will be filled in later, and you will also have an opportunity to review and provide input at that stage as well. On the afternoon of September 9, I will call to set up a telephone meeting for you and I to discuss the initial findings. Will sometime the week of September 14 suit your busy schedule? Twenty to thirty minutes should be ample time for our discussion. I will be asking for your reactions to the findings and responding to any questions or concerns you may have.

I look forward to talking with you and truly appreciate your continued support of my dissertation study, WOMEN WHO SHATTERED THE GLASS CEILING: Postpositivist inquiry into the Aspirations, Values, Motives and Actions of Women Serving as CEOs of Cooperative Extension Systems.

Sincerely, 164

WOMEN WHO SHATTERED THE GLASS CEILING: postpositivist Inquiry into the Aspirations, Values, Motives and Actions of Women Serving as CEOs of Cooperative Extension Systems

Initial Findings for Review by Study Participants August 31, 1992

Evidence indicates the existence of a "Female Organizational Culture" within Cooperative Extension Systems (CES). The eight female participants, each achieving senior-level administrative position, come from a variety of backgrounds and life experiences, yet share common capabilities and strengths for successfully leading complex, diverse organizations. Broadly defined themes emerging from the data supporting the existence of a "Female Organizational Culture" include:

1 . underlining philosophy: leadership is about inspiration and influence, not power

2 . not imitations of men; each has developed her own unique, individual style 3. don't focus on gender as issue; get on with the job at hand 4. know "self" well; comfortable with "self" and confident in abilities of "self" 5. draw on what is unique to their socialization as women (understanding, cooperative, supportive, service orientation) and created different paths to the top than male counterparts

6 . value and practice a flattened hierarchy; operate in "webs of contacts" rather than from pyramid­ shaped flow chart 7. make sure information flows freely to all staff and external partners; information widely available

8 . prefer interactive leadership style; reported that this preferred style is innate or natural style 9. seek input from a variety of sources, but can and do make the tough decisions; do not make tough decisions without designing systems to support the individuals effected 165

1 0 . can act quickly and do take control when necessary

11 . believe in building partnerships (internal and external) to achieve the organization's mission

1 2 . ascribe their power to personal characteristics, like charisma, interpersonal skills, hard work or personal contacts, rather than to organizational stature, like position and formal authority

These identified themes evolved from studying and analyzing the data from five different perspectives: work environment, leadership style, conflict management, communications, decision making, and personal development. The following elements were consistent throughout the data on each participant and resulted in the theoretical formulation of the "Female Organizational Culture." Work Environment: Participants — understand that fast-changing environments play havoc with tradition, creating opportunities for women to prove themselves — desire/seek high contact with people; office hours reserved for people and paper work becomes homework — enjoy working with highly qualified and motivated people — exhibit strong commitment to social justice; became administrator to be of service to people — use professional skills effectively for creative leadership — mindful of balancing attention given to internal (both CES and university) and external (both university and community/public) relationships -- work hard, but make time for self and significant others and expect colleagues to do the same 166 Leadership Stvle: Participants — share common leadership characteristics: persuasive, tolerance of freedom/individuality, production emphasis— excellence orientation, integration — prefer interactive leadership; work to make interactions with others positive for everyone — are comfortable using a variety of leadership styles as situation requires — encourage participation of others by creating mechanisms for participation, communicating in a conversational style, taking action on input — share power and information willingly with others; cultivate both internal and external partners — enhance others' self-worth — ability to excite others about their work, but more than cheerleaders; make a difference for individuals by articulating the vision, creating a positive work environment, and empowering others to do their best work — exude enthusiasm for work; view work as exhilarating and fun

Conflict Management: Participants — withdraw from conflict until timing is right; however, continue to do something active ...thinking, planning, evaluating to prepare the best strategy — use collaborative strategies to manage conflict — most effective when using compromising and conciliatory strategies; truly work for win-win situation — not afraid to battle for good of people and organization 167 Communications: Participants — spend 7 0 percent of work time communicating — use language that encourages participation and community building — show respect for audience through listening, echoing, summarizing, using nonantagonistic responses

Decision Making: Participants — have wholestic orientation; able to see big picture and how one decision impacts the parts of the whole — are democratic and participatory; more inclusive than exclusive — prefer collegial decision making style — use coalition building to achieve goals — willing to submerge displays of personal power in effort to get other to participate in decision making process — use language to encourage participation — think about and evaluate their decisions — use long-range planning and formative and summative data in making decision

Personal Development; Participants — place emphasis on self-reliance; share a gritty, pioneer spirit — sustained courage-building experience in childhood — not forced into stereotypical gender roles during childhood — viewed by family as a special child, regardless of birth order

— acknowledge that prominent male figure served as strong influence early in life 168 desire to surpass mother's station in life project self confidence: awareness of and faith in own power possess presence, projecting enthusiasm and/or strength share personal competencies: optimism, initiative, visionary ability, decisiveness, persuasiveness, interest in developing people APPENDIX g

Member check #2

169 170

Deborah J. Maddy 5305 Brandy oaks Lane Columbus, Ohio 43220

October 3, 1992

Name Title Address Dear Salutation, As promised in our telephone conversation on September 15, here is your opportunity to collaborate in the final draft of my study focusing on women who serve as senior- level administrators of state-based Cooperative Extension Systems (CES). Face validity in postpositivist inquiry is dependent on member checks, where emergent categories and/or conclusions are recycled back through respondents and refines them in light of the participants' reactions. Enclosed are two items:

1 . a monograph which describes and interprets the data collected in the diary studies, personal interviews and biographical data survey, and

2 . a response sheet, using open-ended questions for recording your reactions to the monograph. Please review the monograph at your earliest convenience and complete the response sheet for return to me no later than October 16. I will edit Chapters IV and V based on your input, submit the completed dissertation to my committee on October 23 and defend on October 30. Should you have questions or wish to make verbal comments, please call me at work (614/292-6169) or home (614/457-3560). Thank you for your continued cooperation and support of my inquiry.

Respectfully yours,

Deborah J . Maddy 171

WOMEN WHO SHATTERED THE GLASS CEILING:

Postpositivist Inquiry into the Aspirations, Values, Motives and Actions of Women Serving as CEOs of Cooperative Extension Systems

Response Shoet

Part 1 At your earliest convenience, please read the enclosed monograph. The response sheet is designed to allow you to react to the description and interpretation of the data collected in the study of women serving as senior-level administrators for state-based Cooperative Extension Systems (CES). Your input is necessary to establish data credibility. In postpositivist inquiry, in-depth, detailed, rich data is produced based on participants' personal perspectives and experiences. Results and conclusions must reflect the reality of the participants. After reviewing the monograph, please read the statements on the response sheet and record your reactions to the statements in the space provided, please add suggestions or specific details that would assist me in revising the monograph to better reflect your perspective and experience.

1. The monograph presents an accurate portrayal of my reality as a senior-level administrator for a state- based Cooperative Extension System.

2. The description and interpretation provides the contextual variance and richness among the participants in the identified themes emerging from the data. A reading of the monograph left me feeling that data had been selected to support an a priori position.

The description and interpretation of data is rich/ contextual narrative based on the participants' personal perspectives and experiences.

Patterns and themes explored in the monograph emerged out of the language of the respondents.

The monograph gives me "food for thought" as far as specific strategies for helping women prepare for top leadership roles within CES.

The researcher's own values distorted the data analysis. 173 Part 2

Please respond to the following questions. Your responses will be used to check the face validity and credibility of Chapter V: Conclusions, Implications and Recommendations.

l . Where do you find the analysis off-base?

2. Where do you find the analysis compelling?

3. What effect, if any, might this study have on the Cooperative Extension System's efforts to infuse the professional development of women with strategies for achieving top leadership roles within CES?

4. What means would you recommend for disseminating the information from this study throughout the Cooperative Extension System? THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION IN THIS STUDY. PLEASE RETURN THIS RESPONSE SHEET IN THE ATTACHED, STAMPED ENVELOPE NO LATER THAN OCTOBER 16, 1992.

QUESTIONS & CONCERNS CAN BE DIRECTED TO: Deborah J. Maddy home: 614/457-3560 work: 614/292-6169 a p p e n d i x h Panel of Experts & Peer-Debriefer

175 Panel of Experts

Richard W. Clark, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Ag. Education The Ohio State University Janet Henderson, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Ag. Education The Ohio State University Keith Smith, Ph.D. Director Ohio Cooperative Extension Service Gail Gunderson Organization Development Ohio Cooperative Extension Service Wendy Stivers Extension Specialist, 4-H Youth Development Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service

Peer-Debriefer

Gail Gunderson Organization Development Ohio Cooperative Extension Service LIST OF REFERENCES

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