Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife

Scott W. Gillihan, David J. Hanni, Scott W. Hutchings, Tony Leukering, Ted Toombs, and Tammy VerCauteren Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife Scott W. Gillihan, David J. Hanni, Scott W. Hutchings, Tony Leukering, Ted Toombs, and Tammy VerCauteren 14500 Lark Bunting Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Lane Brighton, CO 80603 (303) 659-4348 www.rmbo.org AboutIntroduction the Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory (RMBO): Our mission is to conserve Rocky Mountain, Great Plains, and Intermountain West birds and their habitats through research, monitoring, education, and outreach. We conduct on-the-ground conservation in cooperation with other private organizations and government agencies responsible for managing areas and programs important for birds. We also work with private landowners and managers to encourage practices that foster good land stewardship. Much of our work is designed to increase understanding of birds and their habitats by educating children, teachers, natural resource managers, and the general public. Because birds do not recognize political boundaries, and may even spend most of their lives outside of the United States, RMBO works to bring a unified approach to conservation among states and countries, and many of our projects focus on issues associated with winter grounds, especially those in Mexico. At the core of our conservation work is bird population monitoring. Only through long-term monitoring can we identify which species are in need of help, and evaluate our success at protecting or recovering them.

About this manual: This third edition of this manual (formerly entitled Sharing Your Land With Shortgrass Prairie Birds) is about how to help birds and other wildlife make a living from the land while you do the same. Prairie wildlife species have gone about their business of reproducing, feeding, mating, and dying for thousands and thousands of years. They continue to live out their lives all around you, on land you provide. However, the populations of some birds and other wildlife species are declining, for reasons that are not clear. A little assistance from you can help keep declining wildlife populations on the land, along with maintaining the more common species. This manual offers information about what these spe- cies need and how you can provide for those needs on your land.

Although the focus of this third edition is still the shortgrass prairie, it includes information on species found in other parts of the Great Plains, and most of the concepts presented are applicable to grasslands beyond the shortgrass prairie. Also, while we have added discussions of five species that are not birds, we have retained the introductory material from previous editions when birds were the focus. The man- ual begins with some basic information about the shortgrass prairie and about bird biology. It goes on to present general management guidelines, followed by more specific guidelines for some prairie birds and other wildlife in need of conservation. This is followed by information about agencies and organizations that can help you with technical and financial assistance. Finally, three appendices provide information on simple structures, techniques, and equipment modifications that can benefit birds and other wildlife.

LaSalle We hope you’ll find this information useful. Please contact us with questions or comments about the Adams manual. Fund Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

A Short History of Shortgrass

Ecology— The shortgrass prairie lies along the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains, from New Mexico north to Alberta, Canada. Storm fronts traveling east across the continent from the Pacific Ocean lose their moisture as they climb over the Rockies, and the resulting rain shadow creates the driest conditions found on the Great Plains. These semi-arid conditions support only limited plant growth, and the ankle-high vegetation of the shortgrass prairie is the result. Traveling east, precipitation increases, and shortgrass gives way to the taller mixed-grass and tallgrass prairies. Shortgrass prairie is dominated by two low-growing warm-season grasses, blue grama and buffalograss; western wheatgrass is also present, along with prickly-pear, yucca, winterfat, and cholla. Sandsage prairie is found where sandy soils occur, and is Shortgrass prairie birds breed and winter throughout the cross- hatched areas dominated by sand sagebrush and grasses such as sand bluestem and prairie sand-reed. Pockets of mixed- grass prairie (including needle-and-thread and side-oats Because of the forces of fire, grazing, and climate, grama) and tallgrass prairie (including big bluestem, little shortgrass prairie birds historically had access to a bluestem, and switchgrass) are found where moisture is patchwork of vegetation in a variety of growth stages adequate, typically in low-lying areas. and conditions. Each bird species could move about the prairie until it found the habitats most suitable The shortgrass prairie landscape has been shaped for its nesting and foraging. Ideally, modern prairie over time by the forces of climate, grazing, and management would continue to create this patchwork fire. Precipitation, for example, is lower and more of vegetation by duplicating the timing, intensity, and unpredictable than in either the mixed-grass or tallgrass landscape distribution of the natural forces that shaped prairies. Droughts are not uncommon, and vegetation the prairie. However, the primary management activity growth is variable from year to year. Before widespread on native shortgrass prairie today, livestock grazing, settlement by European-Americans, a major grazing tends to spread out its effects evenly, resulting in a force came from the expanding, contracting, and landscape that varies little from one area to another. shifting prairie dog colonies. Herds of bison, pronghorn, The patches of habitat are very similar in vegetative and elk wandered widely but at times concentrated in growth and condition. Shortgrass birds no longer small areas, so the impact of their grazing and trampling have access to the variety of habitats that they had was spread unevenly over the landscape. The result historically, and it is increasingly difficult for some of such animal activities was that, at any given time, species to find the particular habitat conditions that some areas were grazed intensively and others not at meet their needs. all, creating a diversity of habitat conditions across the landscape. Little is known about the ecological role of fire in shortgrass, although fires were probably never A tradition of stewardship— very frequent because of the lack of dense grass as During the 1800s, the U.S. government gave much of fuel. Humans have used fire as a management tool in the Great Plains grasslands to homesteaders and the shortgrass to improve grazing conditions for livestock railroads (who eventually sold much of it to individuals) by removing woody vegetation, cacti, and accumulated to encourage westward expansion. Those landowners litter. However, the grasses recover slowly, requiring plowed, planted, and ran cattle on the prairie. Today, 2–3 years. about 70% of the shortgrass prairie remains in private Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife 1 Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

ownership. Landowners in the shortgrass region have Bird conservation— a long tradition of careful and effective management of Together, the shortgrass, mixed-grass, and tallgrass the land (stewardship), a necessity in a dry region where prairies cover about one-fifth of North America. In so little vegetation grows. Careful stewardship includes spite of their large size, the prairies support a bird maintaining healthy ecosystems upon which livestock, community with few members. Only nine bird species wildlife, and humans depend. As a landowner, you live are restricted to the Great Plains (eight of the nine close to the land, and recognize that abusing it reduces are covered in this publication), and only 20 others its productivity. Land that is less productive is less are closely linked with it. These 29 species are a profitable. And because abused land affects not only the small fraction of the approximately 650 bird species current owners but future generations, you nurture it that breed in North America north of Mexico. Such to leave a lasting legacy of healthy land. a small group of birds is easily overlooked, especially in comparison with the more numerous and colorful Because of the semi-arid climate and low human species of forested lands. population density, less of the shortgrass prairie has been altered than either the mixed-grass or tallgrass As a result, population declines among shortgrass bird prairies. Less than 50% of the original shortgrass species have been largely overlooked until recently. Part prairie has been converted to other land-cover types. of this neglect was due to widespread concern about By comparison, cropland and other land-cover types well-publicized population declines among birds of now cover about 98% of the original tallgrass prairie. eastern forests. However, grassland birds are now the As prairie is lost, so are the plants and animals that are highest conservation priority—among North American adapted to it. Prominent among the animals that are birds, they have shown the steepest population declines declining are some species of prairie birds. of any group. With 70% of shortgrass prairie habitat in private ownership, assistance from landowners is critical to prairie bird conservation. Basic Bird Biology

Food— large hawk or owl can eat over a thousand mice and Some birds eat fruits, some eat seeds, and some eat voles per year, adding up to many thousands over the animals, but most birds eat insects. Even some species course of its lifetime. A pair of Ferruginous Hawks that rarely consume insects will eat them during the will kill about 500 ground squirrels, prairie dogs, and breeding season for the protein and calcium they other rodents each summer to feed themselves and provide. Both nutrients are necessary for producing their young. Such natural controls on insect and rodent eggs. Some young birds are fed only insects to help populations are of great economic value to landowners. them grow and develop. Even hummingbirds eat spiders and insects, contrary to the common belief Breeding— that they eat only nectar. The number of insects that One of the things that separates birds from mammals a bird can eat is impressive. A biologist once found a is the fact that birds lay eggs. Bird eggs exhibit Swainson’s Hawk in Kansas with 98 crickets in its crop tremendous variation in size, shape, and color, and another 132 in its stomach. Other Swainson’s depending on the species and where it lives. They range Hawks have been found with 40–50 grasshoppers in in size from the pea-sized eggs of hummingbirds to the their stomachs. Although birds usually cannot control apple-sized eggs of cranes. Egg shape varies greatly, too. large insect outbreaks after they have begun, under For example, birds that make their nests in tree cavities normal conditions they can suppress the numbers of usually lay eggs that are nearly spherical, while those insects, keeping them below the outbreak levels that that nest on narrow cliff ledges lay eggs that are very require more active control by landowners. pointed on one end. For cavity-nesting species, easy- rolling spherical eggs are not a problem, since the cavity Birds of prey (raptors) take their toll on rodents—a

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is deep and the eggs cannot roll out. The pointed eggs These resident birds are usually those that eat seeds, of ledge-nesting species, however, roll around in a tight which are still available during the winter. Some birds circle, so they are less likely to roll off the ledge. Egg that eat other birds or small mammals migrate south for color varies, too, with cavity-nesting birds producing the winter, but they may travel shorter distances than all-white eggs while birds that nest in the open, such the insect-eaters. Some birds of mountainous areas may as shorebirds, lay eggs that are heavily streaked and move down to lower elevations, including the prairie, spotted with various shades of brown, black, purple, or to spend the winter. green creating excellent camouflage. For many years, scientists believed that North Bird nests are quite variable, too. Some species simply American birds flew south for the winter to avoid the scrape out a shallow bowl on the ground. Other species cold and snow. However, recent research has suggested build elaborate structures each year, such as the hanging that many North American birds actually originated pouch nests of orioles. Others just keep adding material in the tropics, in Central and South America. They fly to the same nest year after year, such as many hawks north to take advantage of abundant food and nest and eagles. One eagle nest used for many years was sites during the breeding season, then return to their 10 feet across and weighed 2000 pounds! The purpose southern homes to spend the rest of the year. Many of the nest is to hold the eggs during incubation. species that we think of as “our” birds actually spend Incubating adults keep the eggs warm and roll them the greater part of each year elsewhere. over occasionally, to ensure proper development of the embryos. Once hatched, the young birds stay in the While migrating, some birds get blown off-course, nest until they grow and develop to where they can or wander outside of their normal range in search of move about on their own. For some birds that hatch in new areas. As a result, individual birds may show up a highly developed form, the stay in the nest lasts only hundreds or even thousands of miles from the species’ a day or so. As soon as these birds dry off and their usual breeding or wintering areas. Sometimes these feathers fluff, they are ready to follow their parents individuals find that the new areas suit their needs, and around on the ground (learning to fly comes later). This they may colonize these areas. One example is the is common for shorebirds and other species that nest Cattle Egret. This species was originally found only in in exposed areas, where squirming, helpless nestlings Africa, but some wandering individuals managed to would make easy prey for predators. For other cross the Atlantic Ocean and colonize South America in species, the nestling stage lasts for weeks. The young of the late 1800s. From that original foothold, the species these species hatch in a very undeveloped form, with has spread into most of North America, including the unopened eyes and few feathers. They are completely Great Plains. dependent on their parents adult for warmth and food. Coloration— Migration— Unlike the colorful reds, yellows, and blues worn by Different bird species respond to the many forest birds, grassland birds are mostly changing seasons differently, depending brown. Such drab coloration is needed as on their food requirements. Birds that camouflage. Blending in with the background is eat insects or fish, which are not as critical for grassland birds, which spend much easy to find in the winter, migrate to of their time foraging or nesting on the warmer areas in the southern U.S., ground where they are more vulnerable the Caribbean, or Central and South to predators. America. Some bird species remain on their breeding grounds year-round.

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shrubs of the shortgrass prairie. Third, at an even Habitat— smaller geographic scale, the site must contain habitat An animal’s habitat is the place that provides all that the elements in the particular arrangement that suits the animal needs to survive and reproduce. For a bird, this species’ needs—for example, some species require means food, water, and nest area (during the breeding large pastures of closely cropped grasses, while others season): require a mix of tall grasses and wetlands. Finally, the • Food is an obvious need, essential for the survival site must include the specific features that the species of all organisms. What is not so obvious is that birds requires at a very fine scale—for example, a dry hilltop may require large areas in which to find enough food. with patchy grasses for a nest site. Birds will only settle This is especially true for hawks and other large birds in an area if it meets their habitat needs at all of these with widely scattered food supplies. geographic scales. • Water is also an obvious need, although many birds of the shortgrass prairie do not need access to open water for drinking or bathing. They eat moisture- Birds and a healthy rich foods and “bathe” in fine prairie dust that absorbs environment— excess oils from their feathers. Aldo Leopold, considered to be the father of modern • Nest area is the nest site itself (for example, wildlife management, said, “To keep every cog and a clump of grass) and the area around the nest site. wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering.” This is the area needed by the bird for gathering nest Birds are integral parts of the prairie mechanism, and materials and enough food to feed itself and its growing they are essential for its proper function. They help family. control insects and rodents, disperse seeds, eat carrion (dead animals), and serve as food for other animals. Each species is adapted to a particular habitat, and to Scientists are continually gaining new information about the features of that habitat, such as the climate, foods, how birds fit into their habitats and how they affect vegetation, and so on. Birds choose a particular site to the lives of other organisms. When a species is missing breed or spend the winter based on the suitability of because its habitat needs are not met, its function as a the habitat. They judge the habitat at several geographic cog or wheel in the prairie mechanism is missing. But scales. First, at the widest scale, the site must be within when all the parts are present, the prairie “machine” a broad geographic area that has the proper climate—a hums along smoothly. Because of their importance in bird of cool, rainy coastal areas of the Northwest smooth system operations, healthy populations of birds might have a difficult time adjusting to the hot, dry indicate a healthy environment. Also, because bird Great Plains. Second, at a smaller geographic scale, the habitat overlaps with habitat for other wildlife species, site must contain the proper vegetation type—a bird preserving bird habitat ensures the preservation of accustomed to finding food and nest sites in dense, homes for many other animals, all of which are essential mature pine forests of the Rocky Mountains might for a healthy prairie. Finally, healthy wildlife habitat is not survive long among the low grasses and sparse also a good indicator of good range conditions. How to Use this Manual

Not all of these birds will be on your land. The first need and the kind of habitat your land can provide. step is to determine which species are present or Follow the guidelines and manage the land to provide could be present if the right habitat conditions were the necessary habitat conditions. In some cases, available. Compile a list of the birds present with the the management recommendations for one species help of a local birdwatcher, biologist, or Prairie Partners contradict the recommendations for another species. representative. Or look over the maps in the following If both species are on your land, follow both sets of pages and decide which species could potentially be on recommendations but in different areas, or consult your land, based on their distributions. Then, for each with local bird experts to determine which species is a of those species, read through the habitat information higher conservation priority in your area, and follow the to find out which ones might be able to find suitable recommendations for that species. homes on your land, given the kind of habitat they 4 Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

General management recommendations— Here are some general guidelines for enhancing bird • Mow or burn uncultivated areas in rotation, habitat on your land. Keep in mind that these are just leaving some areas uncut and unburned each year. recommendations—they are not rules or regulations, • Install escape ladders in watering troughs so that just suggestions. Feel free to follow as few or as many birds and other small animals can climb out (Appendix as you like. The more you follow, the more birds your B). land will support. • Manage croplands under a conservation tillage • Conserve native prairie and the native flora and system (no-till or minimum tillage), which can provide fauna. Once native prairie is plowed, it requires decades crop residue that acts as cover for birds, their nests, for a similar plant community to return. Controlled and their prey, resulting in higher nest success than in livestock grazing in planned regions is one of the most either conventional or organic farms. Delay first tillage sustainable uses of native prairie. Other options are until at least late June (mid-July would be even better) available that preserve native prairie while diversifying to avoid destroying nests. your ranching business (Prairie Partners can help you • Apply Integrated Pest Management practices with this). (IPM), including alternatives to chemical control of • Manage grazing so that your pastures reflect insects, to preserve the food supply for insect-eating various intensities of grazing, ranging from light to birds. If chemical controls are necessary, use pesticides heavy. This will leave a variety of amounts of residual that degrade rapidly. Contact your extension service for cover and create habitat for a greater diversity of more information about IPM. birds. For bird species that require taller grass cover • Protect agricultural land from grasshopper for nesting, try to have some pastures lightly grazed or damage by using a bait line only along the boundary ungrazed through the winter so that when birds return between agricultural and range land. in spring, they have taller cover for nesting. This pasture • Reseed with native species—if you have land can then be grazed again after the birds have completed enrolled in CRP (Conservation Reserve Program), use their nesting cycle, usually by August. native shortgrass species. Birds have a long history with • Manage pastures and other grassland parcels as specific plants and plant communities and are more large units, rather than as many small units. Many bird likely to breed successfully and overwinter where the species are more attracted to large grassland patches plants are natives. than small isolated ones. Some scientists consider • Control non-native plant species, emphasizing 125 acres to be the minimum parcel size needed by early detection, controlling spread, and facilitating re- a breeding pair of grassland birds, thus the larger the colonization by native plants. tract provided the greater the number of birds it will • If you plan to change your management scheme, support. please refer to our Assistance Programs section in • Schedule any haying, plowing, burning, or heavy this manual to identify programs that are available to grazing in the spring before the nesting season (April provide technical and financial assistance. to late July), or after the nesting season (after at least mid-July) — such activities during the nesting season can disrupt breeding activities, destroy nests, or expose nests and birds to predators. • Use a flush bar, flush chain, or similar device attached to the swather of the mowing machine if you must mow while birds are nesting, usually before mid- July. These tools will cause a bird to “flush” in front of the mower and are most effective when operating at less than top speed (Appendix A). • Do not mow at night, when birds are on their nests. • Burn shortgrass prairie every 8–10 years, an interval that is approximately equal to the historic interval.

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Plains Topminnow

Pl a i n s To p m i n n o w (Fundulus sciadicus)

Identification: A small fish, about 2.5” long, the Plains Eggs: Females lay their small (about 1 mm) clear eggs Topminnow has rounded anal and dorsal (back) fins as singles or chains on fine-leaved plants or algae, and set far back on the relatively long body and a distinct are most successful in waters of 71-75°F (22-24°C). snout that tapers upward. The male’s thin white to yellow stripe along the top edge of the powder blue Did you know? The courtship of the Plains Topminnow body is distinctive, as is the variably-red edgings to the is an involved ritual, with tandem swimming and fins. Females are olive-colored or grayish above with S-shaped movements and with the red areas on the a cream-colored belly, with some sporting a red spot male’s fins intensifying in color. between the gills and the caudal (side) fin. Conservation need: The historic alteration of Great Habitat: Plains Topminnow prefers areas of clear, Plains stream flows, particularly with the channelization slow water with abundant filament-like algae growth, of larger streams and rivers, has caused a decline in the specifically, quiet pools of small perennial creeks and availability of habitat for Plains Topminnow. Coincident backwaters of larger streams. Individuals have also with habitat decline has been a decline in the fish’s been found in ponds unconnected to streams, probably populations, with many local extinctions. Runoff as a result of human introduction. from urban areas and agriculture negatively impact populations due to the excessive particle loads that Natural history: This species typically occurs singly or cloud normally clear water. in small groups near the surface or in shallower, near- shore waters, presumably to avoid predation by larger fishes. Little is known of the natural feeding habits of Plains Topminnow, though it is assumed to be omnivorous, eating insects and insect larvae, as well as algae. It has been kept successfully in aquaria on a diet of mass- market Tetra food and brine shrimp.

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Management recommendations: • Minimize livestock access to backwaters and Plains Topminnow Distribution slow stretches of creeks and streams, particularly May- Native,Breeding year-round July before eggs hatch, by providing alternate water Non-Breeding sources for livestock. Livestock use of these areas alters Introduced, year-round Plains Topminnow habitat by muddying the water and removing plants that shade the water and regulate its temperature. • Create or enhance backwaters. • Remove or control the non-native Bullfrog (Rana catesbiana), which preys on small native fishes. • Avoid introducing mosquitofish (sometimes introduced to control mosquitoes) into waters containing Plains Topminnow. • Avoid applying herbicides or pesticides upstream of, or in the drainage areas hosting, backwaters and slow-moving stretches of streams.

Associated species: Other species that may benefit from habitat management for Plains Topminnow include Northern Leopard Frog, Killdeer, Spotted Sandpiper, Belted Kingfisher, and Common Yellowthroat.

Plains Topminnow Habitat

Plains Topminnow Diet

Invertebrates (crustaceans, snails, insect larvae) 75% Algae 25%

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Great Plains Toad

Gr e a t Pl a i n s To a d (Bufo cognatus)

Identification: This medium-sized toad (up to 4” long) Natural history: The species is primarily nocturnal is identified by the white or cream borders to the large (active at night), spending summer days camouflaged dark patches on the back. The belly lacks dark spots. on the ground surface or holed up in burrows, The ridges between the eyes (cranial crests) extend particularly during periods of high heat or cold. from behind the eyes to meet near the snout (the Individuals hibernate winter away in burrows dug to crests on the similar-appearing Canadian Toad (Bufo below the frost line. Great Plains Toads subsist almost hemiophrys) do not extend behind the eyes). wholly on insects (particularly beetles and ants) and other arthropods (such as spiders). Few species prey Habitat: Great Plains toads typically occupy grasslands on these toads­­—like many toad species, they have in sandy or loose-soil areas. They breed in temporary, glands that produce substances distasteful to birds and clear, shallow pools, usually with considerable mammals (though Raccoons and skunks can avoid those vegetation emerging from the water. Such sites are glands). Hognose Snakes, however, seem to have a often created by spring runoff or heavy rain and particular affinity for these toads. The unusually long include flooded fields, ditches, and playas (which are life (at least 10 and up to, perhaps, 20 years) is probably depressions that fill with water after rainfall). Some an adaptation to allow the species to survive multi-year permanent or semi-permanent water bodies are used droughts when appropriate breeding pools are scarce. and these may be critical to the species in times of drought. Clear water is also critical, as Great Plains Eggs: about 9,400 (range of 1,300 to 45,000), laid in Toads will apparently not breed in muddy or cloudy long strings by a single female, attached to debris at waters. bottom of pools of water

Did you know? When threatened by predators, individuals will, with a deep breath, puff themselves up, lower their heads, and extend all four legs, apparently to make themselves difficult to handle.

Conservation need: Great Plains Toad populations have declined since European settlement, probably due, at least in part, to conversion of grasslands to agriculture. Filling, draining, and alteration of temporary pools of water, including playa wetlands, have probably also contributed to the decline.

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Management recommendations: • Preserve low-lying areas that catch Great Plains Toad Distribution rain or runoff and that form pools of water. • Avoid pitting (or deepening) playas or other low-lying wetlands—deep pools Year-round are less beneficial to toads and other shallow-water wetland-dependent species. • Fill pitted playas and restore native wetlands. • Fence off all or part of playas or other wetlands with emergent vegetation to protect eggs, tadpoles, and adults from trampling by livestock, and to maintain water clarity. • Avoid applying herbicides or pesticides upstream of, or in the drainage areas hosting ephemeral pools.

Associated species: Other species that depend on areas occupied by Great Plains Toad include Ferruginous Hawk, Burrowing Owl, Lark Bunting, Baird’s Sparrow, McCown’s and Chestnut-collared longspurs, and Ord’s Kangaroo-Rat.

Great Plains Toad Habitat

Great Plains Toad Summer Diet

Insects, spiders, other arthropods 100%

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Greater Short-horned Lizard

Gr e a t e r Sh o r t -h o r n e d Li z a r d (Phrynosoma hernandezi)

Identification: A medium-sized horned lizard, Greater hotter summer periods dormant in similar situations. Short-horned Lizard is around 4” in length (snout to Individuals fall prey to a large number of other tail tip), but can grow to about 6”. It has very short predators, such as other lizards, snakes, hawks, Greater “horns” on the back of its head. The animal’s sides are Roadrunners, and Burrowing Owls. each adorned by a single row of spines. In the southern Great Plains and southern Rockies, the large, dark spots Litters: Unlike most lizards (even some other horned on the back are edged with white or pale, while in lizard species), Greater Short-horned Lizards bear live the northern and central Great Plains, these spots are young (3-36 per litter). typically not so edged. Did you know? When threatened by predators, horned Habitat: The species occupies a large array of habitats lizards can squirt a stream of blood from the corners in its relatively expansive range, from grasslands and of their eyes at the eyes and mouth of the predator, sage shrublands to open Ponderosa Pine forest, ranging though this is probably a last-ditch effort to avoid being uphill to 9000 feet in places. It prefers areas with at eaten. least some loose or sandy soil. Conservation need: The species is highly susceptible Natural history: Horned lizards are specialist ant to habitat loss and degradation, particularly that of predators, though they do take other insects (such as urbanization, intensive agriculture, and, in places, beetles) and arthropods, like spiders and sowbugs. intensive off-road vehicle use. Cattle grazing is Greater Short-horned Lizards hibernate during winter generally compatible with Greater Short-horned under the soil or in rodent burrows and can spend the Lizards.

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Management recommendations: • Conserve native grassland. Greater Short-horned Lizard Distribution • In southern areas where fire ant control is necessary, use spot treatments rather than broadcast Year-round application of insecticides to avoid eliminating other species of ants. • Avoid prolonged, high-impact use of off-road vehicles. • Control non-native plants, including cheatgrass, which may restrict the movements of the lizards. • In areas where substantial amounts of ground litter accumulate, remove the litter by burning pastures on a rotational basis.

Associated species: Other species that depend on areas occupied by Greater Short-horned Lizard include Swainson’s and Ferruginous Hawks, Burrowing Owl, Loggerhead Shrike, Lark Bunting, McCown’s and Chestnut-collared Longspurs, Ord’s Kangaroo-Rat, and Swift Fox.

Greater Short-horned Lizard Habitat

Greater Short-horned Lizard Diet

Insects, spiders, other arthropods 100%

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Greater Prairie-Chicken

Gr e a t e r Pr a i r i e -Ch i c k e n (Tympanuchus cupido) of both dense and sparse cover and a high diversity of Identification: A medium-sized grouse, the Greater forbs (broad-leaved annual plants), providing a diversity of Prairie-Chicken has whitish underparts strongly barred insects as food for chicks. High forb number and diversity with dark brown. Males are larger than females, have also support adults by producing seed crops that are their all-dark tails, sport long tufts of feathers that are erected primary food. in display but trail behind the head otherwise, and have orange air sacs on the sides of their necks that they inflate Natural history: Greater Prairie-Chicken males gather during display and which amplify their distinctive low in early spring on booming grounds (leks) and display to booming. Females’ tails are paler with dark bars and their attract females. Leks are comprised of from a few males crowns are barred. to more than 30 at times. Females visit leks to assess male quality and to solicit matings, most of which are Habitat: The species originally used native grassland with performed by the one or two dominant males on the lek, a mixture of shrubs and/or low-stature trees, particularly even in large leks. Females will often visit multiple leks, oaks. Currently, much of the species’ population utilizes sometimes multiple times, before mating. The species grassland without the woody component and, at times, forages on seeds, leaves, and insects on the ground, but interspersed with agriculture. In the western reaches of occasionally in trees, with most feeding occurring in the range (historic and current), sage, particularly Sand- morning and evening. sage (Artemesia latifolia), provided the woody habitat aspect. Currently, Greater Prairie-Chickens seem to do Nest: Females construct nests that are bowl-shaped best in tallgrass prairies with a mix of 75% grassland and depressions (7” wide, 3” deep) in the ground that they line 25% cropland. Hens and chicks need taller vegetation with feathers and dried grass and leaves, sometimes with for concealment but not so tall or dense that their twigs. movements are restricted. Preferred height of vegetation in nesting areas is about 15 inches (38 cm), but nests have Eggs: Typically 10-12 (ranging from 7 to 17), olive to pale been found in grass heights of 4-38 inches (10-97 cm). buff with dark brown speckling Successful brood-rearing habitats generally have areas Did you know? The Lesser Prairie- Chicken of southeast Colorado, southwest Kansas, western Oklahoma, and panhandle Texas is quite similar with similar habitat needs. In the northern part of the species’ range, they prefer high-structure grasslands; in Texas, areas of grass and shinnery oak provide the birds habitat.

Conservation need: Loss and/or degradation of habitat, primarily through extensive conversion of native grassland to cropland but also through over- grazing, is the primary threat to prairie- chicken populations. Some success has been achieved in enlarging some populations, but most are still declining and are becoming more and more isolated from each other, which can create genetic problems.

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Management recommendations: • Maintain a patchwork of pastures containing short Greater Prairie-Chicken Distribution grass, taller grass, and scattered shrubs for lekking, foraging, nesting, brood-rearing, and wintering. This mosaic can be produced by light to moderate grazing Year-round or by burning at intervals of 3-4 years. However, in the southwestern part of the range (Colorado, Kansas, western Nebraska), burn intervals should be longer, as the shortgrass prairie does not recover from burning as quickly as does tallgrass prairie. • Conserve native grassland, particularly on a large scale. • Avoid or minimize sheep grazing in shortgrass habitat occupied by Greater Prairie-Chickens as sheep graze an area more completely and to a shorter height, and their habit of traveling in tight herds results more often in nest destruction. • Control non-native plants, including cheatgrass, leafy spurge, and knapweed, which replace the grasslands favored by prairie-chickens. • Encourage native forbs including sunflowers, compassplant, and wild indigo.

Greater Prairie-Chicken Habitat

Associated species: Other species that may benefit from habitat management for Greater (and Lesser) Prairie-Chickens include Sharp- tailed Grouse, Northern Harrier, Swainson’s Hawk, Ferruginous Hawk, Short-eared Owl, Loggerhead Shrike, Cassin’s Sparrow, Grasshopper Sparrow, and Eastern Meadowlark.

Greater Prairie-Chicken Diet

Seeds, grains 55% Leaves, buds 25% Insects 20%

Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife 13 Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Sharp-tailed Grouse

Sh a r p -t a i l e d Gr o u s e (Tympanuchus phasianellus)

Identification: The Sharp-tail is a medium-sized grouse, Nest: Females construct nests in dense vegetation, often somewhat intermediate in appearance between Greater under or near a shrub or small tree. The oval nest is Prairie-Chicken and female Ring-necked Pheasant. Its placed in a depression in the ground composed of various underparts are mottled dark and light; in the southern materials, including moss, grasses, and leaves and lined parts of its range it has a pale belly. Sharp-tailed Grouse with sedges and some of her own breast feathers. has a medium-length, pale, pointed tail, and feathered legs (pheasants have unfeathered legs). Males and females Eggs: Usually about 12 (up to 14), about 1¾” long, olive- have similar plumage, but males are larger, with a yellow buff to pale brown with various brown speckling comb over each eye that enlarges and brightens during display season. Males also have pinkish-violet air sacs on Did you know? Sharp-tailed Grouse may migrate short the sides of their necks that they inflate during display and distances (often <3 mi., but up to 40 mi.) to spend the which amplify their low cooing. Though Greater (and winter away from breeding grounds, at that time being Lesser) Prairie-Chickens can be similar, that species is found in some areas in which the species does not breed easily differentiated by the extensive horizontal barring (e.g., northeast Colorado). This species and Greater underneath. Prairie-Chicken have been known to hybridize where their ranges overlap. Habitat: Sharp-tailed Grouse primarily uses prairie or prairie-like habitats in a mosaic of shrubland and forest, Conservation need: Loss of habitat is the main source of such as aspen, birch, oak, and willow. In many parts of its population decline, primarily through conversion of native range, the species switches from more open grasslands grassland to cropland but also due to development and in summer to shrubby or wooded habitats in winter. urbanization (particularly near the Denver metropolitan However, in parts of the range (particularly eastern area). Wyoming and western Nebraska), the species can readily be found in mosaics of native grassland and agriculture with some woody component. This last is the typical habitat of the species in the Shortgrass Prairie region, where windbreaks and Sand- sage provide the woody component.

Natural history: Sharp-tailed Grouse are typical of lekking grouse with males gathering in early spring and displaying to attract females. Leks are comprised of from a few to 25 males (occasionally more). Females visit leks to assess male quality and to solicit matings, most of which are performed by the one or two dominant males on the lek, even in large leks. Females will often visit multiple leks, sometimes multiple times, before mating. The grouse forage on seeds, leaves, and buds. They commonly feed in trees eating buds (like Ruffed Grouse), much more so than do prairie-chickens, particularly in winter when snow covers other food supplies.

14 Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Management recommendations: • Maintain a patchwork of pastures containing short Sharp-tailed Grouse Distribution grass, taller grass, and scattered shrubs for lekking, foraging, nesting, brood-rearing, and wintering. This Year-round mosaic can be produced by light to moderate grazing or by burning at intervals of 3-4 years. However, in the south-central part of the range (eastern Wyoming, western Nebraska), burn intervals should be longer, as the shortgrass prairie does not recover from burning as quickly as does tallgrass prairie. • Conserve native grassland, particularly on a large scale. • Avoid or minimize sheep grazing in shortgrass habitat occupied by Sharp-tailed Grouse as sheep graze an area more completely and to a shorter height, and their habit of traveling in tight herds results more often in nest destruction. • Control non-native plants, including cheatgrass, leafy spurge, and knapweed, which replace the grasslands favored by these grouse. • Encourage native forbs (broad-leafed plants) including sunflowers, compassplant, and wild indigo.

Sharp-tailed Grouse Habitat

Associated species: Other species that may benefit from habitat management for Sharp-tailed Grouse include Greater Prairie- Chicken, Swainson’s Hawk, Lark Bunting, and Western Meadowlark,.

Sharp-tailed Grouse Diet

Seeds, grains 40% Leaves, buds 40% Insects 20%

Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife 15 Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Swainson’s Hawk

Sw a i n s o n ’s Ha w k (Buteo swainsoni)

Identification: These birds are identified by a dark Nest: A large stick nest, 2–4’ across and about 1’ tall, brown head and bib (female) or gray head and reddish is usually placed high in a live tree but sometimes in bib (male), contrasting with white chin and belly. Some a large bush or on a rock outcrop. Swainson’s Hawks individuals are dark brown underneath rather than often reuse the same nest each year, or use old nests white. The tail has several dark, narrow bands with a of other birds, especially magpies, as the base for their wider one near the tip. The wingspan is 52”. nest.

1 Habitat: Nesting habitat includes open grasslands Eggs: 2 (sometimes 3 or 4), 2 /4 “ long, white with with scattered trees or large shrubs, river bottoms, dark brown blotches. shelterbelts, and farmyards. The hawks hunt in open habitats such as grasslands, hay fields, open shrublands, Did you know? Swainson’s Hawks are long-distance or croplands. Their wintering habitat is grasslands and migrants—the trip between their breeding grounds and croplands. South American wintering grounds covers 5,000–8,000 miles and lasts 15–35 days each way. Natural history: Swainson’s Hawks begin to leave their wintering grounds in February, and arrive on Conservation need: California populations have the breeding grounds in March and April. They begin declined an estimated 91% since the early 1900s nesting in April and May, with young birds usually out and their breeding range across the continent has of the nest by June or July. Many ranchers and farmers diminished considerably. Causes include habitat loss are familiar with this species’ habit of following farm (loss of native grasslands, loss of nest trees, conversion equipment through the fields to pick up injured rodents of suitable agricultural land by urbanization), pesticide and insects. The birds leave for the wintering grounds in use (especially on the wintering grounds), and shooting September, migrating in during migration. Populations are bouncing back in large flocks, sometimes some areas, although they continue to decline in others. containing thousands of birds.

16 Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Management recommendations: Swainson’s Hawk Distribution • Preserve trees in shelterbelts, windbreaks, and around old homesteads, as those trees provide nest Breeding sites. However, many of the trees are lost through Non-Breeding natural aging and dying, and through active removal as small farms are consolidated into larger farms and old homesteads are removed. As the trees are lost, suitable nest sites become more scarce. • Preserve trees that already contain nests, since pairs often use the same nest year after year. • Protect nest trees from livestock rubbing by using fences or other barriers, and from destruction by fire, herbicides, or other causes (Appendix C). • Control rather than eradicate the primary prey species (including rodents and grasshoppers), at levels compatible with economic activities on the land. Controlling those animals may be harmful to Swainson’s Hawk populations—less food means fewer hawks. • Leave unused utility poles for use as hunting perches.

Associated species: Other species that may benefit from habitat management for Swainson’s Hawk include Red-tailed Hawk, Ferruginous Hawk, Rough-legged Hawk, Golden Eagle, American Kestrel, Mourning Dove, Great Horned Owl, Western and Eastern Kingbird, and Loggerhead Shrike.

Swainson’s Hawk Habitat

Swainson’s Hawk Summer Diet

Snakes, Small mammals (including ground squirrels, rabbits, prairie dogs) 67% frogs, and Birds 25% insects 8%

Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife 17 Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Ferruginous Hawk

Fe r r u g i n o u s Ha w k (Buteo regalis)

Identification: Often seen while soaring, these hawks Did you know? In the Old West, Ferruginous Hawks are rust-colored on the back and shoulders, mostly used not only sticks but also bison bones to build nests, white under the wings and on the breast, belly, and and used bison wool and manure to line the nests. tail (which lacks the dark bands of other hawks). The rust-colored legs contrast with the white body and Conservation need: Ferruginous Hawk numbers are look like a dark “V” when the bird is flying overhead. low—a 1993 estimate placed the population as low as Some individuals are all dark. This is the largest hawk in 12,000 birds. The populations are stable in some areas North America, with a 53” wingspan. It gets its name, but declining in others. Causes for declines include Ferruginous (fer-OO-jin-us) from the red coloration, loss of habitat (by conversion of native prairie to like rusty iron (ferrous). cropland or other uses, conversion of suitable habitat by urbanization, and conversion of native vegetation Habitat: Habitat, summer and winter, includes to non-native) and disturbance of nesting birds. This grasslands, deserts, and other open areas with isolated species is very sensitive to human disturbance around shrubs or trees where less than 50% of the land is the nest. under cultivation. During winter, Ferruginous Hawks are often found around colonies of prairie dogs, which Associated species: make up much of their winter diet. Other wildlife that may benefit from habitat management for Ferruginous Hawk include Swainson’s Natural history: These birds arrive in the northern part Hawks, Red-tailed Hawks, Rough-legged Hawks, of the breeding grounds in March and April. Nesting Golden Eagles, American Kestrels, Mountain Plovers, begins as early as mid-March in Colorado and Kansas, Mourning Doves, Great Horned Owls, Burrowing but in most other prairie states nesting does not Owls, Western and Eastern Kingbirds, start until May. Young leave the nest during late June and Loggerhead Shrikes. and July.

Nest: A bulky nest of sticks 3’ across and 2’ tall is placed in an isolated tree or in a tree within a small grove of trees. Nests can also be placed on other elevated sites such as large shrubs, rock outcrops, buttes, haystacks, transmission towers, and low cliffs. The same nest can be used year after year, with the birds adding more sticks each year—some Ferruginous Hawk nests are 12–15’ tall. Nests are located adjacent to open areas such as grasslands or shrublands.

1 Eggs: 3 or 4 (sometimes up to 6), 2 / 2 “ long, off- white, sometimes with brown blotches

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Management recommendations: • Preserve native grassland, as its conversion to Ferruginous Hawk Distribution cropland is considered the main factor in population Breeding declines. Non-Breeding • Control rather than eradicate the primary prey Year-round species (ground squirrels, prairie dogs, and jackrabbits). Retain populations at levels compatible with economic activities on the land. • Deferred grazing in mixed-grass prairie may help control prairie dogs. With adequate moisture, the vegetation may grow faster than the prairie dogs can clip it in the spring, impacting their abilities to settle in or expand in these areas. • Poison only active prairie dog burrows if you use chemical controls. • Avoid the use of strychnine to poison rodents. Hawks can die from eating the poisoned animals. • Avoid disturbances near Ferruginous Hawk nests during the nesting season, such as visits by humans, mineral extraction, or pipeline construction. Such activities result in fewer young birds produced, or even nest abandonment by the adults. Limit brief 1 disturbances to no closer than / 2 mile, prolonged disturbances no closer than 1 mile, and long-term 1 disturbances (such as construction) no closer than 1 /2 miles. • Preserve trees planted as windbreaks and around abandoned homesteads. As with Swainson’s Hawks, some nest Ferruginous Hawk Habitat sites are in those areas, and as those trees are lost, nest sites become more scarce. • Preserve trees that already contain nests, since pairs often use the same nest year after year. • Protect nest trees from livestock rubbing by using fences or other barriers (Appendix C), and from destruction by fire, herbicides, or other causes.

Ferruginous Hawk Summer Diet

Rodents (mostly ground squirrels and prairie dogs) 64% Birds and snakes 16% Rabbits 20%

Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife 19 Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Mountain Plover

Mo u n t a i n Pl o v e r (Charadrius montanus) Nest: A shallow bowl on the ground, the nest is sometimes lined with dried grasses. Unlike some other Identification: In summer, the Mountain Plover is mostly ground-nesting prairie birds, Mountain Plovers do not light brown with a white throat and breast, and white place their nests next to tall vegetation, although they under the wings. It has a white forehead and white line often place them next to dried manure. over the eye, which contrast with a dark brown cap. 1 Plovers blend in extremely well with the background, Eggs: usually 3 (sometimes 2 or 4), 1 / 2 “ long, buffy or making them very difficult to spot, especially when they olive-colored, with small dark brown splotches; well- hunker down on their nests. The winter plumage is similar camouflaged and extremely difficult to find. to the summer plumage, but the brown colors are paler. Plovers lack the black bands across the chest found on Did you know? Female Mountain Plovers will sometimes their more common (and noisier) relative, the Killdeer. lay eggs in one nest and leave it in the male’s care while They are a little smaller than Killdeer—about 8” tall. This she lays eggs in a second nest, which she tends. species was originally called “Rocky Mountain Plover,” but the name was shortened. Conservation need: The Mountain Plover’s population and distribution are declining at an alarming rate, faster Habitat: Despite the name, Mountain Plovers breed in than any other grassland bird. Between 1966 and shortgrass prairie where the land is fairly flat or gently 1991, the population dropped by an estimated 63%. sloped. They favor areas where vegetation is sparse The current total population is estimated at less than (at least 30% bare ground) and very short (2” or less). 9,000 birds, which is a very low number compared to Dry alkaline lakes are attractive to plovers, as are areas most other bird species. Causes for the decline include where grazing livestock or prairie dogs have reduced conversion of native shortgrass prairie to cropland, vegetation height and density. They will also nest in areas urbanization (especially on the wintering grounds), with low, widely scattered shrubs. Plovers will forage and removal of prairie dogs, oil and gas development, and nest in agricultural fields that are bare or contain short plowing and planting on the nesting grounds (the bare vegetation, but will abandon nests in such habitats when ground of fallow and plowed fields is very attractive to the vegetation grows taller than about 2”. Winter habitat plovers, but many nests are destroyed when the fields are includes alkali flats, plowed or burned fields, fallow fields, planted or tilled, or are abandoned when the crops grow heavily grazed grasslands, sod farms, prairie dog colonies, taller than 2”). or other areas with low, sparse vegetation. Associated species: Natural history: These birds leave their wintering Other species that may benefit from habitat management grounds (primarily in California) in mid-February or for Mountain Plovers include Greater Short-horned March, and begin to arrive on the breeding grounds in Lizard, Long-billed Curlew, Burrowing Owl, Horned Lark, March. Southern birds lay their eggs in April, northern and McCown’s Longspur. birds in June. Their young are on their own by June or July. In hot weather, young birds can die within 15 minutes if not protected from the sun by an adult. Adults protect their nests from trampling by flying up into the face of cattle that get too close. Mountain Plovers don’t need access to water for drinking, as they get enough from their diet. Although they are often found near water sources such as stock ponds, it may be the low, sparse vegetation that attracts them. The adults usually begin leaving for the wintering grounds as early as July, arriving during mid-September to November. During migration, they sometimes form flocks of hundreds of birds.

20 Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Management recommendations: • Graze shortgrass prairie at moderate to heavy levels Mountain Plover Distribution in summer, late winter, or early spring to create the short, sparse vegetation profile preferred by Mountain Plovers. Breeding • Burn shortgrass prairie outside of the nesting season Non-Breeding to create favorable vegetation conditions. • Control rather than eradicate prairie dogs. Retain populations of prairie dogs at levels compatible with economic activities on the land. Efforts to control prairie dogs may be detrimental to plovers, as prairie dogs provide the low, sparse vegetation structure favored by plovers. • Poison only active prairie dog burrows if you use chemical controls. • Deferred grazing in mixed-grass prairie may help control prairie dogs. With adequate moisture, the vegetation may grow faster than the prairie dogs can clip it in the spring, impacting their abilities to settle in or expand in these areas. • Preserve native shortgrass prairie, because plovers usually cannot nest successfully in croplands. • Delay discing croplands until June, to allow plovers to complete their nesting. • Plant native shortgrass species (blue grama and buffalograss) rather than taller, non-native species. Plovers will not use areas with tall grasses. • Control non-native plants, including cheatgrass, leafy spurge, and knapweed, which displace native shortgrass prairie plants and do not provide the structure favored by plovers. • Avoid disturbance to nesting Mountain Plover Habitat plovers by restricting activities such as oil and gas exploration, water well development, and other similar activities during the nesting season. Such activities are restricted at certain sites from April through June in Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah to protect plovers. • Protect the area around known nest sites as some plovers will reuse nest sites in subsequent years, and their offspring will return to nest near where they hatched. • Maintain wintering sites as native rangeland, and protect from uses that are harmful to plovers, such as use of off-road vehicles.

Mountain Plover Summer Diet

Invertebrates (mostly grasshoppers, beetles, crickets, ants) 99% Seeds 1%

Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife 21 Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Upland Sandpiper

Up l a n d Sa n d p i p e r (Bartramia longicauda)

Identification: Brown on the back and wings, but southern breeding grounds in April, and in the north in lighter on the breast, belly, and underwings. Long neck, May. Nesting in the southern part of their range begins and eyes that look like they’re too large for the small in late April and May, and in the northern areas in late head. Just under 1’ tall. Upland Sandpipers are often May and June. Most young birds leave the nest in June seen perched on fenceposts. Adults sometimes feign and July. They depart for the wintering grounds by late injury to draw humans and predators away from nests. July.

Habitat: In shortgrass prairies, Upland Sandpipers Nest: A depression in the ground, the nest is 2–3” are usually found near water and other areas with deep, lined with grasses, inside diameter 4–5”, usually tall grasses, up to 24”, although they sometimes nest covered by overhanging vegetation. in grass as short as 4”. Their typical nesting habitat is 3 the tall, dense vegetation found in mixed-grass and Eggs: usually 4 (sometimes 3 or 5), 1 /4 “ long, tallgrass prairies, with up to 50% forbs, few shrubs, buff-colored with brown speckles and blotches and little bare ground. They also nest in wet meadows concentrated on the large end of the egg and hayfields, and sometimes in weedy fallow fields, roadsides, Conservation Reserve Program lands, and Did you know? Upland Sandpiper numbers dropped row crops. Litter cover is usually moderate to dense, substantially during the 1880s as market hunters ran 1 1 1 / 2–3 /2 “ deep. Their nesting territory usually includes out of Passenger Pigeons and switched their aim to the rock piles, stumps, or fenceposts for displaying. They sandpipers. forage in areas where the vegetation is up to10” tall, such as grazed pastures, plowed fields, stubble, and Conservation need: Populations are increasing on croplands. Brooding areas contain vegetation 4–8” tall. the Great Plains, but declining in other areas, such as the Upper Midwest and New England. They are most Natural history: Upland Sandpipers leave their common in the mixed-grass and tallgrass prairies, and wintering grounds in mid-February, arriving on the have never been very common in the shortgrass prairie.

22 Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Management recommendations: • Maintain a patchwork of shortgrass and other Upland Sandpiper Distribution grasses of different heights and densities to provide habitat for foraging, nesting, and brood-rearing. • Avoid grazing in areas known or suspected to be used for nesting sites, which removes the taller grasses preferred by Upland Sandpipers for nesting. • Protect taller grasses around water, which may be the only suitable habitat for Upland Sandpipers in the shortgrass prairie. • Delay mowing or pesticide applications until late July, to allow the birds to complete their nesting cycle. • Leave small pockets of uncut hay as refuges for young birds if hayfields must be cut before late July. • Use a flush bar or similar device if you must mow earlier than mid-July (Appendix A). Breeding • Use a back-and-forth mowing pattern (illustrated Non-Breeding in Appendix A).

Upland Sandpiper Habitat

Associated species: Other wildlife that may benefit from habitat management for Upland Sandpipers include Ring- necked Pheasants, Sharp-tailed Grouse, Greater Prairie- Chicken, Baird’s Sparrows, Grasshopper Sparrows, and Western Meadowlarks.

Upland Sandpiper Summer Diet

Invertebrates (mostly grasshoppers, crickets, weevils; also beetles, grubs) 97% Seeds 3%

Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife 23 Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Long-billed Curlew

Lo n g -b i l l e d Cu r l e w (Numenius americanus) August. Territories, which range from 15–35 acres in Identification: This is North America’s largest size, are often reused in subsequent years. Curlews will shorebird, standing about 16” tall. The overall color not re-nest if their nest is destroyed by predators or is cinnamon brown, lighter on the breast and belly, other causes, but instead will wait until the following with brown markings. But the most striking feature of year to try again. these birds is the extremely long, downward-curving 1 bill: 5–6” long for the male, and 6 / 2–8” for the female. Nest: A depression in the ground about 2” deep, lined Their long bills are used to probe for food deep in mud with grass or weeds, inside diameter about 8”. and soft soil. Their “cur-lee” calls can be heard for long 1 distances across the prairie. Eggs: usually 4 (sometimes 5), 2 /2” long, pale green or buff-colored, heavily marked with dark brown blotches Habitat: Curlews nest in shortgrass and mixed- grass prairie, with or without scattered shrubs, and Did you Know? The nest is often placed next to dried occasionally in idle cropland such as wheat stubble. manure, probably to help hide the nest from predators, They prefer short vegetation, and nest where or to mask its scent. vegetation is less than 12” and often where it is less than 4” tall. Total vegetation cover should be 50–95%. Conservation need: Long-billed Curlews are one of After hatching, the adults move the chicks to areas of the highest conservation priorities on the Great Plains. taller grasses and scattered forbs and shrubs, apparently Their populations in the shortgrass prairie have declined for protection from predators and weather extremes, 10% per year for several decades, probably because although they avoid areas of dense vegetation, possibly of the loss of suitable breeding habitat as prairie is due to low visibility and difficulty of travel for chicks. converted to cropland or urban developments. Other possible causes include loss of habitat and pesticide use 1 Curlews are often found within /4 mile of standing on the wintering grounds. water, and often much closer, although the birds are rarely seen actually using the water. The water is often from human sources (stock tank overflow, stock ponds, etc.). As with Mountain Plovers, curlews may be attracted to the short vegetation created by livestock near such water sources, rather than being attracted to the water itself. They often search for food in wet meadows or areas of moist soil, which may also explain the attraction to water sources. Winter habitat is open fields, grasslands, and shores of oceans, bays, and freshwater lakes.

Natural history: Nesting usually takes place in May and June, with most young birds leaving their nests during June and July. Most birds leave their breeding grounds by the end of

24 Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Associated species: Long-billed Curlew Distribution Other species that may benefit from habitat management for Long-billed Curlew include Greater Breeding Short-horned Lizard, Mountain Plover, Horned Lark, Non-Breeding and Swift Fox.

Long-billed Curlew Habitat

Management recommendations: • Maintain a patchwork of pastures containing shortgrass, taller grasses, and scattered shrubs for foraging, nesting, and brood-rearing. • Preserve native shortgrass prairie, as its conversion to cropland often renders it unacceptable to curlews. • Avoid grazing sheep in shortgrass habitat occupied by nesting curlews. Sheep grazing may be more detrimental than cattle grazing, as sheep graze an area more completely and to a shorter height, and their habit of traveling in tight herds results more often in nest destruction. • Plant native shortgrass species (blue grama and • Avoid disturbance to curlews at known nesting buffalograss), forbs, and legumes rather than taller, non- sites by restricting activities such as oil and gas native species. Curlews will not nest in areas with tall exploration, water well development, and other similar grasses. activities during the nesting season. • Control non-native plants, including cheatgrass, • Protect the area around known nest sites because leafy spurge, and knapweed, which do not provide some curlews will reuse nest sites in subsequent years the structure favored by curlews, and displace native and their offspring will return to nest near where they shortgrass prairie plants. hatched.

Long-billed Curlew Summer Diet

Invertebrates (insects, worms, burrow-dwelling crustaceans, mollusks) 90% Toads, eggs, nestlings 10%

Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife 25 Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Burrowing Owl

Bu r r o w i n g Ow l (Athene cunicularia) new burrows or clear out collapsed burrows. Identification: These are small, long-legged owls, 8–10” tall, brown with white spots on the back and wings, and Nest: The nest is located underground at the end of a dark brown barring on the light brown breast and belly. burrow 4–12’ long. The nest is usually lined with plants or They are often seen in the daytime perched on fenceposts dried manure, probably either to disguise its scent or to or on the ground in or near prairie dog colonies. They help absorb water. have the peculiar habit of bobbing up and down while looking at prey or other animals. Eggs: usually 5–7 (sometimes as few as 3 or as many as 10), 11/ 4 “ long, white, almost round Habitat: Burrowing Owls nest in treeless areas with short vegetation (less than 4” tall), usually where there Did you know? Zuni Indians called the Burrowing Owl are prairie dogs. The owls nest underground in burrows the “Priest of the Prairie Dogs.” dug by prairie dogs, badgers, or foxes. They successfully raise more young where there is a high density of prairie Conservation need: Significant range contractions dogs, probably because the owls are less conspicuous to and population declines have occurred in some areas, predators in areas with many prairie dogs, or because especially Canada and California, where 60% of the prairie dogs are good at spotting predators and barking breeding birds disappeared in the 1980s and 1990s. to alert all residents of the colony including the owls. Over the past 100 years, Burrowing Owl populations in Burrowing Owls benefit from some areas of tall, dense British Columbia, Alberta, California, Nevada, Colorado, vegetation (at least 12” tall), which provides habitat for and New Mexico have dropped by more than 50%. In insect and small mammal prey. Saskatchewan, the population declined 88% between 1988 and 1997. Causes include loss of habitat (due to Natural history: Northern birds leave their wintering urbanization and conversion of native grasslands to grounds in March and April, arriving on the breeding croplands or to taller, non-native grasslands), and removal grounds as late as May. They begin laying eggs in late of ground squirrels (in California) and prairie dogs. March in the southern part of the range, and mid-May in the north. Burrowing Owls nest in loose colonies, with Associated species: nest burrows about 100 yards apart. The adults and Other wildlife that may benefit from habitat management young birds move around and use “satellite” burrows for Burrowing Owls include Swainson’s Hawks, Red-tailed in addition to the nest burrow. Northern birds leave for Hawks, Ferruginous Hawks, Rough-legged Hawks, Golden their wintering grounds by mid-October, while more Eagles, Mountain Plovers, and Horned Larks. southern birds remain year-round. Unlike many other owls, Burrowing Owls will hunt during the day. This is when they capture insects near the nest burrow and in other areas of short vegetation. They also hunt at night, capturing small mammals in areas of taller vegetation. Contrary to popular belief, they do not share their burrows with prairie dogs or rattlesnakes.

Burrowing Owls rely on prairie dogs to maintain the burrows that they use for nesting and resting. Without prairie dogs, burrows remain usable to owls for only 1–3 years, depending on the soil type. Although they will do minor excavating, the owls are unable to dig

26 Sharing Your Land with Prairie Wildlife Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory

Management recommendations: • Retain populations of the principal insect prey Burrowing Owl Distribution species (grasshoppers, crickets, beetles) at levels compatible with economic activities on the land. Breeding Insecticides have direct (poisoning) and indirect (loss of Non-Breeding prey) effects on the birds. If insecticides are necessary, Year-round postpone their use until after the young owls have left the care of their parents (i.e., after the end of July). • Control rather than eradicate prairie dogs. Retain populations of prairie dogs at levels compatible with economic activities on the land because Burrowing Owls are heavily dependent on prairie dogs for nest burrows. Consider the use of barrier fences to control the distribution of prairie dogs. • Poison only active prairie dog burrows if you use chemical controls. • Don’t poison burrows used by Burrowing Owls. These burrows can often be identified by the presence of feathers and white droppings around the burrow entrance, or livestock manure lining the burrow. However, these signs are not always present, especially when the young hatch and start using different burrows than the nest burrow. A safer alternative is to fumigate burrows in the spring before the owls arrive, or bait in the fall after the owls have left. • Maintain areas of taller vegetation, such as weedy 1 • Leave inactive burrows open to provide roosting fallow fields or fencerows, within 1 /2 miles of known sites and future nesting sites for owls. owl nest burrows, to provide habitat for the owls’ prey • Educate varmint hunters about the owls, and species. instruct them to be sure of their targets. Given the • Drive slowly by colonies to avoid collisions with owls’ habit of perching on the ground outside a burrow owls—vehicles often hit owls when they fly low over entrance, some owls could be mistaken for prairie dogs or roads in search of prey. ground squirrels. • Protect known nest Burrowing Owl Habitat burrows because the owls will often reuse the same burrow in subsequent years. • Maintain a buffer zone 1 of 100–300 yards (up to / 2 mile, if possible) around owl nest burrows; limit insecticide applications, rodent control, and other human disturbances in this area. • Graze areas of shortgrass prairie used by owls, to maintain a low vegetation profile and provide manure for owl nests.

Burrowing Owl Summer Diet

Small mammals Invertebrates (mostly grasshoppers) 88% and birds 12%

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Loggerhead Shrike

Lo gg e r h e a d Sh r i k e (Lanius ludovicianus)

Identification: Slightly smaller than a robin, gray with Shrikes hunt from elevated perches, such as utility lines black wings and tail, white throat and breast, white and poles, fences, trees, shrubs, even tall weeds. They patches on the wings (especially visible when the bird is sometimes impale their prey on barbed wire or large flying), and a black mask across the eyes. At close range, thorns to store it for later consumption, or to hold it the hooked beak can be seen. while they eat.

Habitat: Loggerhead Shrikes require areas with Natural history: Loggerhead Shrikes that breed in scattered or clustered trees and shrubs in open country, the north leave their wintering grounds in early April with a mix of short (less than 4”) and tall (more than 8”) and May; other birds remain in the south year-round. grasses. They avoid large expanses of very short grass, They are early nesters, beginning their nesting activities such as heavily grazed pastures—probably because as early as February in the south and late April in there is less food there. On the plains, suitable nesting the north. Young birds usually leave the care of their sites include fencerows, shelterbelts, stream bottoms, parents in June. Northern birds leave for their wintering and abandoned farmsteads. Popular shrubs for nesting grounds by October. An almost identical species, the include greasewood, saltbush, and sagebrush; popular Northern Shrike, moves into the shortgrass prairie trees include hackberries, hawthorns, and red cedar. from northern Canada each winter.

Nest: A bulky nest of small twigs and bark strips, placed in tall shrubs or small trees (especially those with thorns) in open country.

Eggs: 4 or 5 (sometimes as many as 7), 1” long, creamy white with light brown and gray blotches

Did you know? Some insects are naturally toxic to birds, so shrikes store these toxic bugs on thorns or barbed wire for a day or two until the toxins have degraded and the food is safe to eat.

Conservation need: Loggerhead Shrikes are declining in many areas of the U.S., with the declines accelerating recently. Causes include the loss of both breeding and wintering habitat (conversion of pastures and hayfields to row crops, urbanization), loss of insect prey due to chemical controls, and pesticide contamination (especially on the wintering grounds).

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Loggerhead Shrike Distribution Associated species: Breeding Other species that may benefit from habitat management for Loggerhead Shrikes include Swainson’s Non-Breeding Hawk, American Kestrel, Burrowing Owl, Long-eared Year-round Owl, Northern Shrike, and Northern Mockingbird.

Loggerhead Shrike Habitat

Management recommendations: • Avoid heavy grazing (especially in areas where grass is naturally short or sparse)—tall vegetation, more than 8”, provides habitat for prey. • Control rather than eradicate populations of the principal insect prey species (grasshoppers, crickets, beetles), at levels compatible with economic activities on the land. Insecticides have direct (poisoning) and indirect (loss of prey) effects on shrikes. • Protect known nest trees and shrubs from browsing or rubbing by livestock and from destruction by fire, herbicides, or other causes. • Preserve tall grasses, shrubs, and other vegetation along fencelines and other areas within 200 yards of known nest trees because they provide habitat for prey. • Preserve hedgerows and windbreaks because they provide nesting sites, hunting perches, and habitat for prey species. Where appropriate, establish new thickets with thorns.

Loggerhead Shrike Summer Diet

Invertebrates (mostly grasshoppers) 72% Small mammals Birds 14% 14%

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Cassin’s Sparrow

Ca s s i n ’s Sp a r r o w (Aimophila cassinii)

Identification: The Cassin’s Sparrow measures 5–6” Kansas, Colorado, and Oklahoma. Clusters of breeding from beak to tail, with brown and gray streaking on pairs often nest close to each other. Most birds have left the back, a pale gray throat and breast, and a white for their wintering grounds by late September. belly. The face is light gray. The brownish-gray central tail feathers have conspicuous dark brown bands; Nest: A deep cup made of weeds and grasses, lined white corners on the tail are obvious when the bird with fine grasses or hair, placed on the ground in is flying. The male frequently flies up about 20’ above bunchgrass or near the base of a shrub or cactus, or a his territory, then sets his wings and glides down while few inches off the ground in a shrub or cactus. singing. 3 Eggs: usually 4 (sometimes 3 or 5), / 4 “ long, plain Habitat: Cassin’s Sparrows inhabit shortgrass prairie white with scattered shrubs or other vegetation (including bunchgrasses, sagebrush, yucca, rabbitbrush, mesquite, Did you know? Although all male Cassin’s Sparrows oaks, and cactus). In some areas, they are found in sing the same basic song, each male’s song is slightly fairly dense shrublands with scattered grassy openings. different from his neighbors’ songs. The difference is The taller plants are used as song perches and for nest strong enough that individual birds can be identified by cover. Their territories typically contain 20–35% bare careful study of their songs. ground, 40–80% total cover of shortgrass and mixed- grass, and at least 5% shrub cover. They will accept a Conservation need: Cassin’s Sparrow populations wide range of shrub cover densities as long as some have been declining nationwide for decades, probably grass is also present. The winter habitat is similar to a result of habitat loss due to conversion of native that of summer. prairie to cropland, urbanization, planting of non-native grasses, fire exclusion leading to overly dense woody Natural history: Nesting begins as early as March (in vegetation, and brush control on the breeding and Texas) and continues as late as early September (in wintering grounds. Arizona). Nesting begins in the latter half of May in

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Cassin’s Sparrow Distribution

Management recommendations: Breeding • Avoid grazing in areas where the vegetation is Non-Breeding already sparse, such as sparse shortgrass and desert Year-round grasslands. Cassin’s Sparrows usually respond negatively to grazing in such areas, probably because of their need for some tall vegetation for nest protection and as song perches, and because of the habitat needs of their insect prey. • Provide a patchwork of grassland parcels of different heights and densities. Cassin’s Sparrows change nest sites from year to year, probably in response to changes in plant growth, grass seed production, and insect populations. Providing a diversity of habitat types provides Cassin’s Sparrows options for establishing breeding sites each year. • Preserve suitable shrub/grass habitat (grassland with at least 5% shrub cover). • Avoid disturbance of nesting birds, as the adults are easily disturbed at the nest, and visits by humans often result in nest failure.

Cassin’s Sparrow Habitat

Associated species: Other wildlife that may benefit from habitat management for Cassin’s Sparrows include Lesser Prairie-Chickens, Scaled Quail, Loggerhead Shrikes, Lark Buntings, and Western Meadowlarks.

Cassin’s Sparrow Summer Diet

Invertebrates (mostly beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, caterpillars) 80% Seeds 20%

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Lark Bunting

La r k Bu n t i n g (Calamospiza melanocorys) Nest: A cup of fine grasses placed on the ground, 1 1 Identification: These birds are 6 / 2 “ from the tip of the inside diameter about 2 /2 “, with the rim at ground beak to the end of the tail. In summer, the males are level, usually partially concealed with grasses or other black with bold white wing patches, while the females vegetation. It is often placed next to a shrub or other are mostly brown, with white wing patches, dark tall vegetation. Neighboring nests are sometimes just brown streaks on a white breast and cream-colored 10–15 yards away. corners on the tail. During winter, males resemble

females, but are darker, with a black throat. Beginning Eggs: usually 4 or 5 (but as few as 3 or as many as 7), 3 in early spring, males fly up above their breeding /4 –1” long, pale blue or greenish-blue, sometimes with territory, then slowly glide down across it while singing reddish-brown spots an exuberant song of whistles and trills. This handsome species is Colorado’s state bird. Did you know? In the 1800s and early 1900s, some farmers waited for the arrival of Lark Buntings each Habitat: Lark Buntings nest in open grasslands with a spring before planting, as the arrival of the birds mixture of short and tall grasses and scattered shrubs, generally coincided with more settled and favorable and in sagebrush shrublands with grassy openings. They spring weather. prefer to nest in areas with 60–70% low grass cover and 10–15% bare ground. Also important is 10–30% cover of shrubs, tall grasses, or other plants taller than the blue grama and buffalograss (tall vegetation is necessary for protecting nests from the hot prairie sun). They will not nest in areas with less than 30% grass cover or more than 60% bare ground. Other nest sites include fallow fields with weeds and residual stubble, Conservation Reserve Program lands with tall grasses, and unmowed alfalfa and other hayfields, but they avoid mowed hayfields. Winter habitat is similar to summer habitat, although they will inhabit areas without shrubs.

Natural history: Birds leave the wintering grounds in early March, arrive on their breeding grounds in April and May, and begin nesting in May and June. Young birds leave the nest during June and July. Migration to the winter grounds occurs by late September, although some birds may stay over the winter in the southern parts of their range. The birds are most common in Mexico from August to April. During migration, large flocks of Lark Buntings are often seen in weedy roadsides. During migration and in winter, flocks may contain many hundreds of birds. Most of their food is picked off the ground, although they sometimes catch insects in flight.

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Conservation need: Ornithologists first began reporting a steady shrinkage of the breeding range Lark Bunting Distribution and population declines in the 1800s, and the situation has not changed since. Lark Bunting populations are Breeding declining significantly across their range. Non-Breeding Year-round Associated species: Other species that may benefit from habitat management for Lark Buntings include Chestnut- collared Longspur, Western Meadowlark, and Swift Fox.

Management recommendations: • Avoid heavy summer grazing of shortgrass on the breeding grounds. This removes grass and forb cover needed by prey (especially grasshoppers) and taller vegetation needed to shade nests. • Graze shortgrass lightly in summer or heavily in winter. • Graze at moderate to heavy intensity in the northern and eastern parts of the species’ range where grasses are taller (12” or more) to improve Lark Bunting habitat by reducing vegetation height and density. • Use short-term rotational grazing rather than long-term grazing in shortgrass prairie to maintain the tall vegetation these birds need. • Delay mowing until mid-July, Lark Bunting Habitat when young birds should be out of their nests. • Use a flush bar or similar device if you must mow earlier than mid-July (Appendix B). • Retain shrubs, cacti, and other tall vegetation, which are needed by Lark Buntings for perching and for shading nests. • Preserve the taller, weedy vegetation found along fencerows as habitat for migrating buntings.

Lark Bunting Summer Diet

Invertebrates (mostly grasshoppers) 75% Seeds 25%

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Grasshopper Sparrow

Gr a s s h o pp e r Sp a r r o w (Ammodramus savan- narum)

Identification: Grasshopper Sparrows are 4–5” long. end of July. Most birds have migrated off the breeding The back is chestnut and gray with some dark brown grounds by late September. Grasshopper Sparrows markings. The throat is white or off-white. There is sometimes nest close together, and populations in a a buffy tinge on the breast and sides with faint brown particular location can vary widely from year to year, as streaking, and a plain white belly. The males sing an the birds move around in response to changes in their insect-like buzz—the origin of the bird’s name. When habitat. approached by a human, Grasshopper Sparrows often run along the ground rather than fly. Nest: A simple cup on the ground, made of grasses, often at the base of grass clumps or other dense Habitat: Grasshopper Sparrows are found in most vegetation. The nest is concealed by overhanging types of grassland, especially tallgrass and mixed-grass vegetation. prairies, but also shortgrass, especially where scattered 3 shrubs, trees, or other tall plants are present, and in Eggs: usually 4 or 5 (sometimes 3 or 6), / 4 “ long, Conservation Reserve Program lands, which provide white with reddish-brown blotches heaviest on the the only suitable habitat in some parts of the shortgrass large end prairie. In addition to native grasslands, they will nest in fallow fields with tall weeds. Grasshopper Sparrows Did you know? Grasshopper Sparrow singing is unusual require some areas of bare ground, up to 35% of their in the bird world: the males sing two completely territory, since they forage on the ground. In general, different songs (one is the insect-like buzz, the other they prefer sites where much of the vegetation is at more musical), and the females sing a trill to attract least 4” tall. These birds are highly territorial and prefer males. areas with tall forbs or scattered trees or shrubs to use as singing perches. However, they avoid areas with Conservation need: Like several other grassland bird more than 35% shrub cover. During winter, they can be species, Grasshopper Sparrow populations are declining found in areas of dense grass with scattered low shrubs, wherever they are found. Causes include loss of habitat and in weedy fields. by urbanization, conversion of native grassland to cropland, and overgrazing. Natural history: Birds start leaving the wintering grounds as early as March. Nesting begins in May and June, and most young are out of their nests by the

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Grasshopper Sparrow Distribution Breeding Management recommendations: Non-Breeding • Provide pastures and grassland parcels of at least Year-round 30 acres because Grasshopper Sparrows prefer large tracts of suitable habitat. Nests in smaller tracts are more likely to be found and destroyed by predators. • Avoid grazing shortgrass, or delay grazing until after the end of nesting (the end of July), because the grazed vegetation often becomes too short and sparse to suit Grasshopper Sparrows. • Delay mowing until after nesting, i.e., usually the end of July (mowing operations often destroy nests placed in hayfields, or expose them to predators). • Use a flush bar or similar device if you must mow before mid-July (Appendix B). • If pastures of shortgrass prairie are burned, they should be burned at relatively long intervals (>8 years), as the tall vegetation and shrubs needed by Grasshopper Sparrows take several years to reach heights suitable for the birds.

Grasshopper Sparrow Habitat

Associated species: Other wildlife that may benefit from habitat management for Grasshopper Sparrows include Ring-necked Pheasants, Greater and Lesser Prairie- Chickens, Upland Sandpipers, Vesper Sparrows, and Western Meadowlarks.

Grasshopper Sparrow Summer Diet

Invertebrates 61% (mostly grasshoppers) Seeds 39%

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McCown’s Longspur

McCo w n ’s Lo n g s p u r (Calcarius mccownii)

Identification: These birds are 5–6” long from beak on the breeding grounds in late March and April, and to tail. The male in summer has a gray face with black often linger into November. Nesting begins by mid- to crown and “moustache,” gray back with black streaking, late May, with most young out of the nest by mid-July. white throat, black across the breast, and white belly. Paired birds are strongly attached to each other and Chestnut-colored “shoulders” are especially noticeable stay close together, even walking side by side when in flight. An inverted “T” can be seen in the tail in flight, foraging. formed by a black band across the end of the tail, black central tail feathers, and white outer tail feathers. The Nest: A simple grass structure, the rim level with the female is similar to the male, but the colors are muted. ground, placed next to a grass tuft, cactus, or small In winter, the black on the male’s head is brown, and shrub, in an area of very sparse plant cover. the black on the breast is not as noticeable, while the 3 female looks like she does in summer. The male displays Eggs: 3–4 (sometimes as many as 6), / 4 “ long, buff- by flying up above his territory, then floating down on colored with faint brown blotches outstretched wings while singing his territorial song. Did you know? The nests are difficult for predators Habitat: McCown’s Longspurs breed in shortgrass, (and humans) to find because the female sits tightly especially where vegetation cover is sparse due to soil on her nest until practically stepped upon, relying on moisture or grazing, or is interspersed with shrubs or her superb camouflage to avoid detection. Females taller grasses. They are also found in grazed mixed- also have a strong instinct to protect the eggs: one grass prairies and stubblefields. Individuals often use researcher who wanted to count eggs in the nest of a sparsely vegetated hilltops for displaying and nesting. particularly protective mother had to first lift her off They require areas of bare soil, and nest sites are the nest because she refused to abandon her eggs even often on barren hillsides. Early in the breeding season, momentarily. nests are often placed on south-facing slopes. Nesting territories usually include 45–80% grass cover and 15–25% bare ground, with little or no cover by forbs, woody plants, or cactus (although nests started late in the season are more likely to be in denser vegetation or near shrub cover, perhaps for protection from the sun’s heat). Longspurs breed in loose colonies. Winter habitat is similar to that of summer, with the addition of freshly plowed and bare fields.

Natural history: Longspurs leave the wintering grounds in late February and March, arrive

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Conservation need: The population is down and the range has contracted since at least the early 1900s, McCown’s Longspur Distribution probably because of loss of breeding and wintering habitat through fire exclusion, conversion of native Breeding prairie to cropland, and urbanization. Non-Breeding

Management recommendations: • Retain populations of the principal insect prey species (especially grasshoppers) at levels compatible with economic activities on the land. • Graze at moderate to heavy intensity to improve McCown’s Longspur habitat by reducing vegetation height and density. • Graze in summer, rather than winter. • Preserve or create native shortgrass prairie because longspurs cannot nest successfully in croplands or in tall non-native grasses. • Control non-native plants, including cheatgrass, leafy spurge, and knapweed, which do not provide the vegetation structure preferred by longspurs, and displace native shortgrass prairie plants. • Protect the area around known nest sites because some longspurs will return to nest in subsequent years.

McCown’s Longspur Habitat

Associated species: Other wildlife that may benefit from habitat management for McCown’s Longspurs include Greater Short-horned Lizards, Mountain Plovers, Long-billed Curlews, Burrowing Owls, and Horned Larks.

McCown’s Longspur Summer Diet

Invertebrates (mostly grasshoppers) Seeds 70% 30%

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Chestnut-collared Longspur

Ch e s t n u t -c o l l a r e d Lo n g s p u r (Calcarius ornatus) a large rock, fencepost, or shrub, which is used as a 1 Identification: Chestnut-collared Longspurs are 4 / 2–6” singing post. Some research has shown them to nest long. The male in summer is dark brown overall with most successfully in grassland patches of at least 140 some lighter brown streaking on the back. He has a acres. Winter habitat is similar to that of summer— black crown with black and white on the face and pale grasslands with vegetation less than 20” tall, also yellow on the throat and face up to the eye. The nape croplands and mowed hayfields. of the neck is chestnut. The female in summer has brown streaks on the back and crown, a white throat, a Natural history: Birds arrive in mid-April and begin brown “necklace,” white belly with faint brown streaks nesting in May, with most young out of their nests by on the sides. In winter males, brown replaces the black mid-June. However, because some pairs nest a second on the head and breast, and the chestnut on the back time, young can be found in nests as late as mid-August. of the neck. The female doesn’t change much from After the end of the nesting season, the birds forage in summer to winter, although her overall coloration in large flocks. Most birds migrate south by September or winter is paler. Like the male McCown’s Longspur, the October. The male vigorously attacks and drives away male Chestnut-collared Longspur sings while flying over other birds and ground squirrels that get too close to his territory. the nest.

Habitat: Chestnut-collared Longspurs prefer Nest: A nest of fine grasses placed in an area of sparse shortgrass or grazed mixed-grass prairie with scattered vegetation, the rim below or level with the ground, shrubs. In dry areas with sparse vegetation, they placed under grass tufts. seek out wet meadows and other low, moist areas 3 where the vegetation is taller and denser. They appear Eggs: 3–5 (sometimes 6), /4 “ long, white with dark to prefer a mix of short and tall grasses, especially brown speckles and blotches bunchgrasses, and usually avoid the tall dense cover common to some Conservation Reserve Program lands. Did you know? Unlike many songbirds that live They will nest in mowed hayfields and grazed pastures, in forests, Chestnut-collared Longspurs and other provided some vegetation is 8–12” tall, but they avoid grassland birds do not hop on the ground, but walk or cultivated fields for nesting. They prefer native pasture run. The elongated claw of the backward-facing toe over planted grasses or hayfields, and they avoid areas may aid in this—it is this elongated claw that gives the with dense litter. The territory is usually centered on bird its name, “longspur.”

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Conservation need: The breeding range has Chestnut-collared Longspur Distribution contracted, and the population has declined. For example, Chestnut-collared Longspurs were common Breeding breeders in western Kansas in the late 1800s, but they Non-Breeding no longer nest there. Significant declines have also been recorded in Minnesota and Saskatchewan. Causes for the declines include loss of native prairie due to urbanization and through conversion to cropland.

Management recommendations: • Protect known nesting sites because the birds will nest in the same areas year after year. • Graze lightly or moderately in shortgrass prairie, leaving some areas of vegetation at least 6” tall—longspurs are more abundant in properly grazed grassland than in ungrazed grassland. • Use a twice-over rotation system, which creates more suitable habitat than either season-long or short- duration grazing. • Preserve native prairie because longspurs will not nest in croplands.

Chestnut-collared Longspur Habitat

Associated species: Other wildlife that may benefit from habitat management for Chestnut-collared Longspurs include Greater Short-horned Lizards, Lark Buntings, Western Meadowlarks, and Swift Foxes.

Chestnut-collared Longspur Summer Diet

Invertebrates (mainly beetles, grasshoppers, spiders) 72% Seeds 28%

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Ord’s Kangaroo-Rat

Or d ’s Ka n g a r o o -Ra t (Dipodomys ordii)

Identification: Ord’s Kangaroo-Rat is a medium-sized and eat in relative safety. They do not hibernate, so kangaroo-rat with five toes per foot. It has a relatively can be found during the winter foraging on the snow long tail (even for a “k-rat”) accounting for about 60% for their daily seed haul, though the species is strictly of the species’ average 10” length. The tail is only rarely nocturnal (active at night). Their primary predators are white-tipped. The fur is pale cinnamon-buff (with some Swift Foxes, Badgers (which can dig them out of their darker color) on the upperparts with distinct dark facial burrows), rattlesnakes, and open-country owls (such as markings. There are usually distinct white patches at Barn Owl). the bases of the ears and above the eyes. Litter: Typical litters consist of three young, ranging Habitat: This species is resident in a wide variety from two to six. The breeding season occupies a large of habitats (e.g., grassland, semi-desert shrubland, portion of the year, from early spring to late summer piñon-juniper woodland) on the Great Plains and in the or early fall, dependent on latitude and other factors. Intermountain West from southernmost Canada well However, during drought and other conditions during into Mexico where sandy soils predominate. It readily which food resources are poor, breeding is limited with colonizes newly-disturbed areas with little ground cover fewer litters and fewer young per litter. and where shifting sands are a conspicuous component of the habitat. Did you know? Ord’s Kangaroo-Rats have no particular need for surface water as they metabolize all their Natural history: Ord’s Kangaroo-Rats dig deep water needs from the dry seeds (mostly weed seeds) burrows in which they spend their days safe that they eat. So unimportant is available water to the from predators and high summer and low winter species that they do not even know how to swim. temperatures typical of the species’ range. These burrows often have multiple entrances and the rats’ extensive burrowing greatly aerates the soil and can create “soft” patches or mounds at the surface. The primary food supplies are the typical weedy annuals of arid country that produce relatively large seeds, such as sunflowers. Ord’s Kangaroo-Rats collect seeds that they store in their expansive cheek pouches to take back to their burrows

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Conservation need: Though the species’ populations are susceptible to conversion of native Ord’s Kangaroo-Rat Distribution habitats, as are virtually all species detailed in this booklet, Ord’s Kangaroo-Rat is fairly resilient and can be found in fairly disturbed and altered habitats. There is no strong concern for the species’ populations currently, though urbanization in some areas certainly has a strong negative effect. Additionally, the historic alteration of prairie stream flows, particularly the channelization of the larger water courses may have erected barriers to dispersal to an animal without the ability to swim.

Management recommendations: • Conserve native grasslands, especially on a large scale. • Avoid filling in burrows. • Encourage native forbs, including sunflowers. • Control non-native plants, such as leafy spurge and cheatgrass, which do not provide the vegetation structure nor food resources that this species prefers.

Ord’s Kangaroo-Rat Habitat

Associated species: Ord’s Kangaroo-Rat shares its habitat with many other prairie species, particularly Swift Fox, Burrowing Owl, Lark Bunting, and McCown’s and Chestnut-collared Longspurs.

Ord’s Kangaroo-Rat Diet

Insects 10% Seeds 90%

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Swift Fox

Sw i ft Fo x (Vulpes velox) tunnels with multiple entrances. Identification: This, one of the smallest native dogs of North America, is about the size of a house cat, Natural history: This species eats primarily smaller weighing only around 4-5 lbs. The black-tipped tail mammals (e.g., mice and rabbits), but also scavenges is distinctive, as are black marks on the muzzle. The carcasses killed by other causes (e.g., disease or other winter fur is primarily buffy-gray on the head and predators). Swift Foxes are opportunistic predators upperparts (including the upper side of the tail), and will kill and eat nearly anything that they can catch orangish-tan on the sides, legs, and underside of the tail, (e.g., birds). The breeding season of Swift Fox runs and pale buff on the throat, chest, and belly. In summer, from January into summer, with pups born in April or Swift Foxes are overall more reddish-gray. May. Pups leave the parents’ territory sometime in fall.

Habitat: Swift Foxes prefer open or sparsely-vegetated Litter: Typical litters consist of four or five pups, but shortgrass and mixed-grass prairie with high visibility. range from as few as one to as many as eight pups. In some parts of the range, particularly more southerly areas (e.g., southeast Colorado), habitat preference is Did you know? Swift Foxes have a low tolerance for a bit wider with shrubbier habitats being utilized. The wind and are rarely seen above-ground on windy days. conversion of native prairie to cropland and other uses Also, adults are very fast runners, reaching speeds of 25 is detrimental to the species. Den sites, which are used miles per hour, hence the species’ name. year-round (unlike in other North American canids), are typically burrows excavated by the foxes themselves, or Conservation need: During the latter 1800s and modifications they make to existing badger or prairie- early 1900s, the Swift Fox suffered drastic reduction dog burrows, on well-drained slopes or hilltops near in both range and numbers and disappeared entirely water. Those used solely for protection (from weather from the Canadian part of its range. Primary causes of and predators) typically have a single entrance. Those this decline were conversion of prairie and harvesting used for birthing are often mazes of burrows and for furs. The Canadian government has reintroduced

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the species in parts of its historic range with success. Other reintroduction efforts have been successful in South Dakota and elsewhere in the United States. Swift Fox Distribution These efforts have been part of the cause behind a Year-round resurgence of range and population size in many areas. Even parts of the species’ range that have not hosted reintroduction efforts have seen a rebound in Swift Fox numbers, particularly Colorado, Wyoming, and western Kansas. Swift Fox have been trapped in Colorado and released elsewhere in the Great Plains to enhance smaller populations. This species was proposed for listing under the Endangered Species Act but was removed from “candidate” status partly due to the willingness of private landowners to allow access for surveys and restoration efforts.

Associated species: Most other native, terrestrial prairie animals also depend on areas that support Swift Fox, particularly Ferruginous Hawk, Mountain Plover, Burrowing Owl, Lark Bunting, and McCown’s and Chestnut-collared Longspurs. Management recommendations: Swift Fox Habitat • Return cropland to native prairie; incentives and cost-share programs are available through state and federal agences for this purpose. • If controlling coyote populations, avoid killing Swift Foxes. • Avoid disturbing burrows, particularly birthing dens during the breeding season. • Control rather than eradicate the primary prey species (mice, ground squirrels, and rabbits). Retain populations at levels compatible with your economic activities on the land.

Swift Fox Diet

Birds Rabbits 60% Rodents 30% 10%

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Assistance Programs

A number of programs are available from government • Programs that involve wildlife habitat components agencies and private organizations to assist include: Conservation of Private Grazing Land (CPGL), landowners and land managers in protecting, creating, Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), Environmental and enhancing habitat for birds in the shortgrass Quality Incentives Program (EQIP), Wetlands Reserve prairie. Please see our website for a more complete Program (WRP), and Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program list of assistance programs (www.rmbo.org), or call (WHIP). 303-659-4348. • Projects included under these programs involve retirement of cropland, establishment of grass Conservation Easement cover, retirement of wetlands from grazing, wetland • Conservation easements are often used to keep enhancement and restoration, and grassland renovation agricultural land in production, giving landowners and management. financial support for not developing their land. • Depending upon the program, the landowner may • Landowner voluntarily transfers (by donation or provide cost-share, in-kind contributions, or in some sale) certain development and land-use rights for instances, receive incentive payments for enrollment. all or part of their land to a qualifying conservation • Contact your local NRCS office for more information organization or government agency, while retaining (www.nrcs.usda.gov). title and all other rights to the land. Both parties agree to the details of the contract, which can include Partners for Fish and Wildlife continued operations on the land, such as farming or • Private lands program of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife ranching. Service • Conservation easement donors may be eligible for • Provides technical and financial assistance for wetland income tax deductions. Property with a conservation and riparian restoration, nest structures or nesting islands, easement in place may also be eligible for reduced grazing plans that benefit wildlife, food and shelter for property and estate taxes. See IRS Guidelines for wildlife, native plant restoration, water level management, specific details. and more. • Some organizations that accept donated easements • The landowner’s part of the cost-share can be cash or and/or purchase easements on the plains are: in-kind (i.e., labor, equipment use, etc..) Colorado Cattleman’s Association Land Trust, The • Work is accomplished by an active coalition of willing Nature Conservancy, Colorado Division of Wildlife, landowners, non-governmental organizations, tribes, and Montana Land Reliance, American Farmland Trust, state and federal agencies. and Centennial Land Trust. • The emphasis is on landowner choice and blending • For more information, contact the Land profitable agriculture with wildlife conservation. Trust Alliance, 1319 F Street NW, Suite 501, • Contact Bill Noonan (Colorado) at 303-275- Washington, DC 20004-1106; phone 202-638-4725 2435, or for more information check the website at (www.LTA.org). www.r6.fws.gov/pfw.

Natural Resources Conservation Service Pheasants Forever (NRCS) • Provides up to 100% of the cost to establish or • NRCS administers the Farm Bill which includes maintain habitat about 20 agricultural conservation programs • Emphaisis is on pheasants and other upland game birds, nationwide. There are about 3,000 local districts but managing their habitat benefits other birds with across the country. similar habitat needs, such as Upland Sandpipers • NRCS provides educational, technical, and financial • Contact your local Pheasants Forever chapter, or check assistance to landowners who wish to protect and their website (www.pheasantsforever.org). enhance wildlife habitat through enrollment in a Farm Bill program.

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Prairie Partners Candidate Conservation Agreement • Provides technical assistance for the management of with Assurances (CCAA) species in this manual. • Agreement for landowner to provide habitat for • Provides inventory for shortgrass prairie birds. species that are candidates for listing under the • Provides cost-share assistance for habitat Endangered Species Act (ESA). enhancement projects on private lands, through • The landowner agrees to enhance habitat and, in cooperative agreements. return, receives cost-share funding to implement • Contact Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory, 14500 management practices. Landowner also receives Lark Bunting Lane, Brighton, CO 80603; phone 303- assurances that if the species becomes listed under the 659-4348 (www.rmbo.org). ESA, his/her lands will not be subject to restrictions imposed by the ESA. Cooperative Habitat Improvement Program • Contact the nearest U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (CHIP) office for more information (www.fws.gov). Region 6 • Designed to assist landowners wishing to develop or (CO, KS, NE, WY, SD): 303-236-7920, and Region 2 improve wildlife habitat. (OK, NM, TX): 505-248-6282. • Offered statewide by the Colorado Division of Wildlife (CDOW). High Plains Partnership • CDOW will provide technical assistance and as much •A Branch of Partners for Fish and Wildlife (USFWS) as $4,000.00 per landowner in financial assistance. that focuses on rare and declining species on the plains, • CDOW will also provide assistance to landowners such as those outlined in this manual. regarding other cost-share programs. • Uses CCAAs as a conservation tool. This is a mutually • Can be used as a stand-alone program for small drafted agreement between the landowner and High projects, however many projects can be supplemented Plains Partnership designed to improve habitat for rare and improved by partnering with other habitat species. programs such as the Conservation Programs within • The USFWS provides cost-share for habitat Farm Bill and Partners for Fish and Wildlife. improvements on private lands. The landowner • A flexible program offering landowners several contribution may be “in-kind.” options to create habitat for a specific species. A few • Participating landowners receive the “assurance” that examples of habitat projects eligible for this program should any of the species managed for on their lands be are small woody plantings, grass plantings, wetland listed under the ESA, they would be exempt from any enhancements, and stream improvements. Match: 15% land-use restrictions under the ESA. landowner cash or in-kind, $4,000 cap. • Contact Steve Arey, USFWS, 918-581-7458, ext. 239. • Deadline: On-going • Contact your local CDOW office. WILD Nebraska—Partnerships for Wildlife Habitat • Private lands program of the Nebraska Game and Parks Commision (NGPC) • Provides technical and financial assistance • Wildlife habitat development and management activities • Transition land-use payments • Public access option • Contact your local NGPC office for more information, or check the website at www.ngpc.state.ne.us

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Colorado Species Conservation Partnership • A far-reaching species protection program developed In Canada... with the U.S. Department of the Interior by The Great Outdoors Colorado Trust Fund (GOCO), in partnership Native Prairie Stewardship Program • Voluntary stewardship agreements with landowners. with the Colorado Division of Wildlife (DOW), private • Provides educational materials and technical landowners and non-governmental organizations assistance. throughout Colorado. • Contact Saskatchewan Wetland Conservation • Goals are to prevent further decline of Colorado’s Corporation, 2022 Cornwall St., Room 101, Regina, SK wildlife species, meet species conservation goals that S4P 2K5; phone 306-787-0726 (www.wetland.sk.ca). secure recovery of declining species in the state, reduce the necessity of further listing of new species under the Endangered Species Act (ESA), and down-list Operation Grassland Community and delist species listed as threatened or endangered • Provides educational materials and technical under ESA. assistance. • Brings together species protection and land • Incorporates Operation Burrowing Owl. conservation tools and incentives not available without • Special focus on Burrowing Owls, Loggerhead the partnership. Shrikes, and other uncommon or declining grassland • Protection strategy entails use of habitat conservation species. easements providing incentives to private landowners • Contact Operation Grassland Community, Box 1644, to actively assist with management and protection of Brooks, AB T1R 1C5 (www.eidnet.org/local/ogc). Colorado’s declining species. • Conservation easements used to guarantee that landscapes will remain intact to provide fundamental Additional information on programs in the U.S. is wildlife resources on a long-term basis. available from your state wildlife agency, Soil and Water • Private landowners have the opportunity to choose Conservation District offices, extension service, and state either term or perpetual conservation easements. lands offices. • All conservation easements within the program will have an accompanying management plan that will be agreed upon by the landowner and CDOW. • Landowner preference and biological concerns drive these options. • Species conservation goals of CSCP over the long-term will recognize that habitat protection efforts should not undermine the financial viability of an agricultural operation. • For more information regarding CSCP or other landowner programs offered through the Division of Wildlife, please contact: Ken Morgan Private Lands Habitat Specialist [email protected] (303) 291-7404

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Prairie Partners

Prairie Partners is an RMBO program that works with Colorado Birding Trail- private landowners and asks their voluntary cooperation We also encourage economic diversification on private to conserve shortgrass prairie wildlife. Because most of land through opportunities including the Colorado Birding the shortgrass prairie is privately owned, landowners are Trail. To nominate your land for the birding trail, please the key to conservation. Landowners choose their level of contact RMBO or visit the web site www.birdingtrail.org. involvement, ranging from allowing us to inventory their This is a free opportunity to diversify your economic base land, to implementing management practices described in by attracting nature enthusiasts to your property. this manual, to enrolling in one of the programs outlined in the Assistance Programs section. Prairie Partners encourages conservation on private lands through: Nebraska Shortgrass Prairie Partnership (NSPP) This is a partnership between the Nebraska Game & Parks Inventory- Commission and RMBO. The NSPP provides technical An survey of shortgrass prairie birds, other wildlife, and and financial assistance to landowners for at-risk prairie their habitats. species’ habitat conservation and enhancement in the panhandle of Nebraska. Assistance can be used for: Outreach- • Grazing management (cross-fence, pipeline, tanks, We involve private landowners in prairie conservation wells); through personal one-on-one conversations, workshops, • Grassland restoration (tillage, cover crop, reseeding of and presentations to landowner groups. native plant species); • Prescribed fire (to enhance native plant communities); • Tree clearing and thinning (to remove trees encroaching Incentives- on grasslands); and For landowners interested in habitat enhancement • Mountain Plover nest marking. projects, we provide technical advice and help landowners identify other sources of technical and financial assistance. We develop projects that provide win-win solutions In Summary- by helping landowners with their operations while Our goal is to engage you in the conservation of birds and simultaneously enhancing habitat. Please see the Assistance other wildlife, build partnerships, and work collaboratively Programs section for further details. to create win-win solutions in shortgrass prairie conservation.

Mountain Plover- Private lands, as a whole, make a tremendous contribution We conduct Mountain Plover nest marking on cultivated to shortgrass prairie habitat conservation, but this is land during the nesting season. The equipment need only largely unrecognized. The Prairie Partners program is miss nests by inches. Call toll-free 1-888-575-6837 during eliminating the gap in information that exists on private Mountain Plover nesting season (mid-April through July lands by asking permission to inventory private range. We 4th) and an RMBO biologist will survey your land, mark can document the number of acres supporting prairie bird nests, and provide a map. This is a voluntary opportunity species, numbers of birds, and provide better scientific to help a species of conservation concern. This program is information. We work in Wyoming, Colorado, New available in eastern Colorado and western Nebraska. Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and South Dakota, thus covering the breeding range of many of the Publications- shortgrass prairie bird species. Information collected on We provide publications to help raise awareness for private lands is summarized and given to representative prairie wildlife conservation needs including this manual, natural resource agencies; individual landowners are the Pocket Guide to Prairie Birds, and the Stewardship not identified. Information collected on private lands is Resource Guide for private lands. a powerful tool that can help keep common species common, and less abundant species from becoming listed as threatened or endangered. This is an effective way to keep management on a local level, in your hands.

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Appendix A

Mowing Technique

Native Prairie

At the time of harvest, reduce the speed of your machine and use a cutting pattern that will give the birds a chance to escape from the cutting device. The most effective technique is to start from the edge of the plot and use a back- and-forth pattern to push birds toward uncut areas, such as native prairie. The birds will use the standing cover for concealment until they reach the native prairie.

Flush Bar Construction

Flushing bars mounted on the front of mowing devices can reduce the number of birds killed when harvesting a field. The pictures here show how a flushing bar is connected to a self-propelled hay mower. To obtain specific information on how to build and mount a flushing bar on your tractor, please contact: Ducks Unlimited Canada / Alberta Prairie CARE office in Brooks at 403-362-4827 (http://www.ducks.ca). Photos courtesy Ducks Unlimited Canada.

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Appendix B

Stock Tank Escape Ladder for Wildlife

The design is somewhat like a diamond, where the ramp length is 28” and the “wings” to be bent down are 32” across. The ramp is made of 14-gauge expanded metal with 3/4” mesh. A pattern can be made from sheet metal, which is clamped on the expanded metal and used as a template for cutting. One 4’x10’ sheet of expanded metal will yield six ladders.

After cutting out the design with a cutting torch, the metal is bent with a metal brake 4” between bends to make the sloped side or “wings” for the ramp. A 3/16” rod can be used to form the hangers for round rim and rimless tanks or use a bolt, washer, and nut to secure the ladder to the tank.

Another option for hanging is to leave a 3-4” tail on your diamond-shaped cutout making it more kite- Dead Red-tailed Hawk in stock tank. shaped (see diagram below). After bending the wings, bend the tail in a half-circle and use it as a hanger. The ladders can be painted or dipped with a neutral color farm implement paint to prevent rusting.

If interested in ordering fabricated ladders contact Horse Creek Fabrications of Karval, Colorado, at [email protected]

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Appendix C

Ferruginous Hawk Nest Platform and Tree Crib It is important to recognize that historically the Hawks are sensitive to disturbance and have been Ferruginous Hawk has preferred to nest on the ground known to abandon nests when a prolonged disturbance using bison bones and large sticks to construct a nest. (e.g., construction) is within a mile. Now, however, about half of all Ferruginous Hawk nests are located in trees and shrubs. Most of these 3. Availability of prey. Small mammals are the primary trees were planted during the homesteading days prey items of the Ferruginous Hawk. Habitat to and are now old and dying. We recognize that trees maintain populations of these animals must be available were not as prominent in the past on the shortgrass to provide a food supply during the breeding season. prairie but are important today for nesting Ferruginous Hawks. Discretion must be used when constructing a 4. Condition of current nest tree. Ferruginous Hawks nest platform for the Ferruginous Hawk in the prairie. reuse nests and if the nest tree is old and dying the nest Nest platforms alone will not bring Ferruginous Hawks will be lost with the tree. to your property. You should evaluate several factors before constructing a nest platform: The nest platform and nest tree crib (pictured below) 1. Records of Ferruginous Hawks on your property. are tools that can be used to assist in Ferruginous Hawk Historical and current records of nesting Ferruginous conservation. The nest platform will provide the hawk Hawks are a good indicator that you have suitable with additional nesting opportunities if nest sites are habitat. limited. The nest tree crib provides protection from livestock rubbing up against the tree, hence prolonging 2. Disturbance near the nest platform. Ferruginous the life of the nest site. Contact the Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory for more detailed information or to assist in Ferruginous Hawk conservation on your land. Ferruginous Hawk Nest Platform

Ferruginous Hawk Nest Tree Crib

Photos courtesy of Dan Garcia

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Pictures of some other species mentioned in the text.

Great Horned Owl

Northern Harrier

Rough-legged Hawk

Killdeer

Horned Lark

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Notes:

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Funding for this project came from the Wildlife AcknowledgmentsHabitat Management Institute, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Colorado Division of Wildlife, LaSalle Adams Fund, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Turner Foundation, Playa Lakes Joint Venture, National Forest Foundation, Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, Nebraska Environmental Trust, USDA Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the Adams County Cultural Council of the Scientific and Cultural Facilities District. The maps were created by Tammy VerCauteren with ArcView software donated to RMBO by the Conservation Technology Support Program. The graphics presenting bird diets were based on a chart created by Lisa Hutchins for The Warbler, the newsletter of the Audubon Society of Greater Denver; Larry Semo researched diets of species new to the third edition. Valuable input was provided by RMBO staff: Mike Carter, Doug Faulkner, Seth Gallagher, Tony Leukering, Dana Ripper, Jeff Sprock, and Jennie Duberstein. Thanks to the reviewers who made many helpful comments: Shannon Albeke, Beth Dillon, John Dinan, Herman Garcia, Wendell Gilgert, Stephanie Jones, Fritz Knopf, Noe Marymor, Cynthia Melcher, Ken Morgan, David Pashley, Brian Peers, Duke Phillips, Majda Seuss, John Sidle, Terri Skadeland, Arley and Trudy Smith, and Dan Svingen.

Illustrations: Louise Zemaitis and Sherrie York Layout: Sherrie York and Tony Leukering

Photographs: Shannon Albeke (habitat photos), Seth Third Edition Edits: Tony Leukering Gallagher (habitat photos), Scott W. Gillihan (habitat photos), Tony Leukering (most bird photos) and Christopher L. Wood (photo of Horned Lark)

Copyright © 2006 by Rocky Mountain Bird Observatory RockyPrairie Mountain Partners Bird Observatory 14500 Lark Bunting Lane Brighton, CO 80603

Shortgrass Prairie Bird Conservation