PROCEEDINGS OF THE
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY Of MANITOBA
VOLUME 10 1954 Proceedings -of the ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF MANITOBA
Vol. 10 1954
CONTENTS
. . List of Members · . . . ' . . . . Page 1 Financial Statement 3 Introduction • • • • . • . · • • •. •- • . . . 5 The Spring Meeting . . . . . 6 The Business Session . . . 6 Scientific Business • . . . . . 6 What is Ne1.or in the Field of ColliDlercial Insecticides? - J. Howden •.•.••• ...... 7 Control of Soil-Inhabiting Insects- W. Fox . . . 11 Report on Ninth Annual Conference North Central Branch
of the Entomological Society of America - W.R.Allen • . 13
Exhibits - Br~don Laboratory •• 17
Symposium on I~sect Pollination - D. R. Robertson (Chairman) ...... 18 Insect Pollinators of Fruits - H. P. Richardson 20
Legume Pollinators - T. V. Cole •.••. 24 Sunflover Pollination- C. F. Barrett • . . . . 25 The Effect of the Honey Bee, Apis mellifera (L.) on the Seed Set, Yield and Hybridization of the Cultivated
Sunflo'ltrer, Helianthus ~uus L. - B. furgala . . 28 Sequential Sampling of Insect Populations - W.G.H. Ives 29 - ii - The Annual Meeting 33 The Business Session ...... 33 Scientific Business • • 34 Changes in Entomological Research in V.lestern Canada in the
Last Decade (1944 - 1954) - H. L. Seamans ... 35
The Role of Liaison in Entomology - R. H. Painter 43
Pioneers of Entomology in lvlanitoba -. J. B. Hallis 45 On the Classification of Entomological Knowledge -
Brian Hocking . . . 50
Appendix I. Additions to the Library of the .Entomological Society of Manitoba ...... 57 ..
Issued: Ivlarch, 1955 Winnipeg, Man.
The price of the Proceedings to non-members of the Entomological Society of Manitoba is ~1.00 per volume. Requests 'for the exchange of publications should be addressed to the Editor-Librarian. - 1 -
LIST OF MEMBERS Executive
1954 1955 President: A. J. Thorsteinson, F. L • Watters, Dept. of Entomology, Stored Product Insect The University of Manitoba. Laboratory, Winnipeg. Vice-President: F. L. Watters, G. L. Warren, Stored Product Insect Laboratory of Forest Laboratory, Winnipeg. Biology, Winnipeg. Secretary: P. H! Westdal, R. M. Prenti-ce, Fietd Crop Insect Laboratory of Fore~t_ Laboratory, Brandon. Biolo~, Winnipeg. · Treasurer: , G. L. Warren, . T. V. Cole, Laboratory of Forest Field Crop lnsect Biology, Winnipe~. Laboratory, Brandon, Editor-Librarian: ... A. G. Robinson, A. G. ~obinsbn', . Department of Entomplogy, Department of Entomology, The University of Manitoba. The University of Manitoba.
Members 1954 W. R. Allen, Field Crop Insect Laboratory, Brandon, Manitoba. W. L. Askew, Field Crop Insect Laboratory, Brandon, Manitoba·. _ .. ,, B. Berek, Stored Products Insect Laboratory, 724 Do~inion Public Bldg: , Winnipeg, Manitoba. R. D. Bird,· Field Crop Insect Laboratory, Brandon, Manitoba.
F. Birt, Chipman Chemicals Ltd., 1040 Lynn Ave., \.Hrm'ipe~- ~ Manitoba. A. R. Brooks, Entomology Laboratory, Saskatoon, Sask. c. H. Buckner, Laboratory of Fo~e~t Biology, Winnipeg, Manitoba. L. N. Chiykowski, 491 Garlies St.,, Winnipeg,_ Manifuba ~ T. V. Cole, Field Crop Insect Laboratory, Brandon, Manitoba. J. P. Eastwood, Velsicol Corporation, 700 Kellogg Ave., Ames, Iowa, U.S.A, - 2 - W, Fox, Chipman Chemicals Ltd., 1040 Lynn Ave., Winnipeg, Manitoba, B. Furgala, Dept. of Entomology and Economic Zoology, University of Minnesota, St. Paul 1, Minnesota, U.S.A,
F. J. Greaney, Line Elevators Assoc., 765 Grain Exchange Bldg., Winnipeg. W. Ranee, 484 Polson Ave., Winnipeg, Manitoba. A. F. Redlin, Laboratory of Forest Biology, Indian Head, Sask.
R. J, Heron, Laboratory of Forest Biology, Winnipeg, Manitoba ..
J, S, Howden, Green Cross Products, Princess and Bannatyne 1 ,Winnipeg, Man. W. G. Ives, Laboratory of Forest Biology, Winnipeg, Manitoba. J. s. Kelleher, Fteld Crop Insect Laboratory, Brandon, Manitoba. R. R, Lejeune, Laboratory of Forest Biology, Winnipeg, Manitoba. *A. v. Mitchener, 911 Windermere Ave., Winnipeg 9, Manitoba. J, A. Muldrew, Laboratory of Forest Biology, Winnipeg, Manitoba, J. A, McLeod, Dept. of Zoology, The Univ. of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man.
L. D, Nairn, Laboratory of Forest Biology, ~Jinnipeg, Manitoba. ' . R. M. Prentice, Laboratory of Forest Biology, Winnipeg, Manitoba. S. Pugh, Chipman Chemicals Ltd., 1040 Lynn Ave., Winnipeg, Manitoba. H. P. Richardson, Fruit Insect Laboratory, Experimental Farm, Morden, Man. D. R. Robertson, 153 Legislative Building, Winnipeg, Man. A. G. Robinson, Dept. of Entomology, The Univ. of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man.
\-1, Romanow, Field Crop Insect Laboratory, Brandon, Manitoba. E. P. Smereka, Forest Insect Laboratory, Box 490, Sault Ste. Marie, Ont.
T. Smith, 631 Henderson HwY., Winnipeg, Manitoba. E. J, Stansfield, 917 Riverwood Ave., Winnipeg 9, Manitoba.
A, J. Thorsteinson, Dept~ of Entomology, The Univ. of Manitoba, Winnipeg. W. J. Turnock, Laboratory of Forest Biology, Winnipeg, Manitoba. *J. B. Wallis, 468 Niagara St., Winnipeg, Manitoba.
*Life member. - 3 - G. L. Warren, Laboratory of Forest Biology, Winnipeg, Manitoba. F. L. Watters, Stored Products Insect Laboratory, 724 Dominion Public Building, Winnipeg, Manitoba. P. H. Westdal, Field Crop Insect Laboratory, Brandon, Manitoba. H. R. Wong, Forest Biology Laboratory, Winnipeg, Manitoba.
ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF M]u~ITOBA FINANCIAL STATEMENT
FOR YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31. 195~. Receipts: Balance in Bank, Dec. 31, 1953 47.79 Receipts from members dues 1954 50.00 Receipts from members dues 1955 98.00 Registration for 1954 fall meeting 13.00 Registration for 1954 fall smoker .llJ2Q 46.00
Chipman Chemicals 15.00 Canada Agriculture (purchase of Proceedings) 25.00 40.00 Bank interest 0.33 $282.12
Subscriptions to Entomological Society of Canada 116.00 Taylor Co. -- covers for 1953 Proceedings 16.50 Taylor Co. -- covers for 1954 Proceedings 17.33 Mays Drug Store -- gifts for stenographers 5.20 Mays Drug Store -- envelopes .40 Smoker fall meeting 61.00 Stamps, money order and telegraph charges 18.86 Bank operating charges 0.84 Balance in hand December 31, 1954 45.99 $282.12
Audited and found correct - January 4, 1955.
F. L. Watters ...... ' ...... R. M. Prentice
- 5 -
Proceedings of the ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF MANITOBA
Vol. ·10· 1954
INTRODUCTION
This year is the tenth anniversary of the formation of the Entomological Society of Manitoba. The cirqumstances leading to the birth of our Society are"recorded in Volu¢e: I of these Proceedings, by our first President, Dr. B. N. Smallm~. The foresight· shown by those who were active in forming our organizatio·n· "now seems prophetic. The decade that has since elapsed has .been marked by such an increase in the complexity of entomological science that there is. .an imperative need for interchange of knowledge such as is ~ov.ided by the regillali' . meetings of our Society.
Where~s our Annual Meeting is customarily devoted largely to reviews of advance~ tn e~tomological seience. and technology, this year, in observance of th~ . tenth · ~nniversary, .it has been dedicated to memoirs on early and more recem.t entomologi 'c~l. event.s in Manitoba and to the broad problems of cla-ssify ing ~d. dis.~emipating entomologic~l .knowledge. Anotl:ier special feature this year was the.holding of the Spring Meeting at Brandon, Manitoba • .i am happy to express appreciation for the hospitality of the Brandon mem~ers on that occasion. -
No one can predict infallibly what will happen in the next ten years • . . .. Yet it is safe to assume that the Entomological Society of Manitoba will. continue to serve a useful purpose. . It is a .pleasure once again to record our thanks to the Goverrtment of Ca.naqa Entomlogy Laboratories f~r assistance in producing these Proceedings. I wish to express my appreciatio!! .for the· efficient·and cooperative efforts of · the executive in the organization of meetings.
. . . . .; .It has been a privilege and a pleasure·.to me to serte as President t:~-nd I look' forw~d with optimism to the future activities of ·the Entomological ' · S9ciety. of .Manitoba :Under the gtrldance of its new executive. " tfrJ __;/' . ·yY~~~~ -~~ · · A. ;- ~ ·;ho~~te:lpson; · Presid~mt. 0 • ·'
.; .
·. • , r. ( . - 6
THE SPRING MEETING The Business Session A business meeting of the -Entomological Society of Manitoba WAS held at the Entomology !Ebor~tory, Br~ndon, 8t 11.30 A.M. on April 3, 19)4. Dr. A.J. Thorsteinson presided. The minutes qf the Annuel Meeting of November 10, 1953, were reA.d Bnd adopted on a motion by P.H. Westd8l Bnd D.R. Robertson.
The TreAsurer's report was presented by G.L. Werren, ~nd 8dop ted A.s reAd on 8. motion by G.L. WArren, seconded by W.J. Turnock. -' . - nn 8 motion by Professor Mitchener ~nd R .R; Lejeune, it was ~greed thAt the TreR.surer' s report be published annuAlly in the Proceedings of the Entomologice.l Society of Me.ni toba. . . The Edi.tor-LibrF.lrian reported t;twt th'e 1953 Proceedings would be out 8.bout July l. He · ~lso reported the t the cornmi ttee to report on the future policy of the LibrR.ry of the Society h?d not yet met.
Prnfessor Mitchener presented B_ list of 19 common n~:~mes for in sects fnr cnnsidArAtion by the ·meeting, prior to being forwRrded to the Comm:J ttee on Com.I11on NF~mes of the EntnmologicRl Society of CanE~ de. • nne nE~me WFI s deleted from the list end 8 second. ch8 nged. nn 8. motion by Professor Mitchener ~ncl. W.R. Allen, t0e list W8S approved 1=1 s F.~.mended •
The President declAred · the meeting fl djourned 1.=1 t 12 .30 P.M.
Scientific Business The flf"i AJ"'t.i f'ic session of the t'AP"lllAr spring meeting of 1954 fl ssembled At the 1:!.· t.nmnl n~y LE~.bo... ~ ... i'Y, b.C8 ndon, HRni toba, El. t 12. 4.5 · P.M. on April 2. It contb:UAd during the Afternoon of April 2, R.nd for most of the morning of April 3.
The first item WF.l.s B. visit to the Dominion ExperimentB.l Farm, 8bout two miles north of the city of BrE~ndon, Mr. R.M. Hopper, ,....,1perintendent, welcomed the · members of the Society, E!nd spoke brief l..Y on the work of the Experiment8l F~=t. rms Service in Ce.!lfl da, Bnd gE~ve 8 brief outline of the history end development of the Br8ndon Ex perim.entA.l FArm. It W8S interesting to heRr thAt this FRrm hRs been in operRtion since 1888. Mr. Hopper then introduced in turn V8.rious members of the FRrm stA.ff, ·who ou.tlined their own perti cul8r res pofisibilities. ~~. W.H. Johnston spoke of their work on cereal crops 1 including VAriety testing R.nd purl ty trif'lls on cere8l gra.ins, 8 nd in pF1rticulf.l.r, work being done on both feed ~nd mB.l ting bRrley VR.rieties. 1-rrr. W.S. Ferguson outlined the work in Field Husbt:mdryl including or op rotFI tions, weed control (both cul turE~ . l E~nd chemical J , R.nd soil fertility, ·including use of fertilizers. ~~. W8lters spoke to the group on Poultry Nutrition, use of antibiotics in feed rAtions, ce.lci um uptA..ke, · protein supplements, 8nd protein-energy relF.ltionships. Mr •. B. Gorby outlined the work being done 8.t verious IllustrAtion StA.tions which Fire und.er the SlJnAl'Vi .<.d nn nf' t-'ho "Q.,...,,.,A~ ... - 7 - FArm. Mr: R.M. Hopper spoke on work being done in Anim~l Husbandry, ·ForEtge Crops find Horticulture. The visit to the ExperimentEtl Fe.rm termiw t.ed with e. very interesting trip to the ApiE' ry R.nd Apie.ry Buildings, C t:"mdu~ted by Mr. J. Geiger. Hembers of the Society returned to the Entomology LEt bora tory, where the remAinder of the Scientific Session WEtS held. The first item WR.s devoted to 1:'1. p8nel discussion of "The Insecticide Sitw:~tion". Mr. J. Howden, of Green Cross Insecticides, WEts chRirmEtn, Bnd in the A.b's·ence of Mr. W. Fox of ChipmE~n ChemicAls Limited, who WR s unflble to Rttend due to illness, presented both of the following pE~pers, And ·conducted the very interesting dif? cussion which fo llOIN'ed the two p8 pers. -
WHAT IS NE.W IN THE FIELD nF cnMMERCIAL . INSECTICIDES?
J. Howden 'Green .Cross Insecticides, Winnipeg, Meni toba
It is not ofteri thE~ t I 8m ple ced in the position Where whet I hAVe to say is preserved for posterity by putting it in 8 record of eny kind. Since in this instf.lnce, thAt will be the ultimBte fete of my remP.rks, I ·feel thPt I mus.t quelify them At the outset. I would like to SEt y, therefore, thfl t Et.ny opinions co nte ined in tb. is tE'lk ere my own only'· thRt they fire correc't! to the ·best of my judgement l'lnd inform8tion, Rnd thrt I h1:1ve not, with intent, neglecte.d to mention fl.ny mAteriBl which might rightfully hAVe been included. HAving cleEtred the e.ir, so t0 speEtk, I should get on with this presentRtion. The broEt.d topic Assigned to this penel or group, wes "The Insecticide Situ"ltion11 ~ I hPve decided to review the most re cent development nf C0mmerci8lly ·AVEt.ilEtble ins ectic~d8. l rnA teriEt ls. These ~'~re not hy E~ny mel"lns Al;L, or even for the most pEtrt, B.vedl Etble from co!lliTl.ercial outlets in C8n~dEt, but when en experimentEtl chemioe.l reAches the st8 te where it is registered ·for sAle anywhere ~n -North AmericEt, it hEts reeched A stAtus which mAkes it e potentiel ly successful insecticide, l:'lnd one which stAnds 8 feir chance or · becom1ng commonly used. If I 'niAy dig.ress for A minute from the strict subject of this· ..tF~ · lk ; · for you must P ccept the stttffing with the meA_t, I would like to SB.Y A few word'S with regerd to the tremendous differentiAl between the input P nd the output o.f insecticide resel:'lrch P.nd development. In .this connection, · two· stE~ . tements co file to my ~ind, both rnA de P t d.ifferent times by fln executive of the Hons·flnto ChemicEt.l Comp8ny. The speEt.ker, in both inst8nces, WAS very well qu8lified to know his subject. The first stEttement wAs thPt in 1952· the MpnsE~nto Chemical CompR.ny · through their ~eseerch fE~ cili t i.es were producing fl.nd screen ing newly synthesized org8nic mB teri~ ls .P.t the rR te of approximately 2,000 individuel compounds per month. These compounds were being screened for insecticidfll, fungicidal, e.nd herbicidal V8.l ue, 8nd the ratio then in effect WfiS thflt one out of the 2,000 might be expected to ~eflch the finel stAtus of 8 commercisl~y feesible product. The secon.¢1 stAtement·,· su_pported, by fects .And figures, was ·th'3t to produce fl nd develop a. sihgle co1Jlll1;ercifllly succ essf.ul ins ecti ci de, involves the expenditure of· 8 million dollArs. The bulk of thAt mlllion dollt:~r expenditure ii spent on elimin~ting, et Vflrious st8ges, those - 8 - chemicAls which ~re not good enough. It should be.remembered.that the Mons~ . nt .o Comp~ny is only one of the greRt chem1.ce.l compan1.es in volved in .this se~rch for still more effective insecticides. Of compBrRtive or possibly greAter, extent ~re the individusl research prcer~ms nf'such compAnies ss Dupont, Dow,.CAliforniA-Spr~y, Shell, Rnd A rel~tively lArge number of other bASl.C chemicel compenies.
. Despite th~s tremendous effort, the output, es we know it in the mePgre numberE? Df new .insectici.cles ~Vflil8ble for :purch~se from rePdily sccessible outlets, such es our own orgAnizAt~on, 1.s relet ively minut~. A rec·ent cRnVRss of the industry, for reports of new insecticides registered for s~le in the United StRtes in 1953, re veRled thAt only six new insecticides hed been sn clessified. Of these six, only B single mAteriel will be widely sold in CBilRd~ this yeBr .
It should be reB lized, however, th~t throughnut the network of testing stAtions in North America , there Are continuously circul Ating P lerge number of chemic?ls under development. It is, under stf!ndsbly, fBr beyond the scope of this tE!.lk to B.ttempt to single out Bny of these mAterie.ls, on the bRsis of promising preliminary :-~:!forts.
The six mBteriAls which in 1953 ~chieved the distinction of hAving successfully run the gamut of labor? tory R.nd field testing, R.nd the discriminAting eye of the toxicity speciAlists, to ret:lch the ul tirilP te go:=~. l of meri tin~ the en st of B sele s promotion are the following:
r.hJ.nr,...r-'"''1.ZiV~te:- An- Ruc-ir:lc:Hlt:J Llc;vaJ '"'ped by the G~i cry CompE~ny which hes not been reported on to any g .... - ~· _ :- .~·- ~ - · C. rrhe AVEij lA.ble inform?.tion in di cP tes thA_t it is e.n effective .rnP teriE~l for the control of mites on ornAmentAls, but it hAs either not been tested Against these pests on fruits ~nd vegetAbles or it is not suiteble for these purposes becAuse nf some hendling or toxicity chArActeristic. If this supposition is true it will not become a populer chemical.
Dia~inon:- Also e-·Geigy product, end enother phosphF~tic IIJEiteriel, it hes proven to be An effective IDRteriel for the control of flies end BS 8. bP rn spr8.y. It is not~ ble in th~ t it hAs a toxicity rBng e simi 1- ;: to ME!.lAthion, And for the control purposes mentioned Above, · it is equ~lly effective. It would be logical to belieye thet this mAteri~=~l would possess equAl ecericidel velue elso, because of its chemic':'l mRke-up, but so fAr no reports Are AVB.il~bie on other types of insects . .. In connection with these two Geigy products, I would like to mention thAt they hPve not received the widespread publicity end promotion Recorded to MBlAthion, thet their development is consequently slower, A.nd thAt they should not be overlooked or dismissed· B.s Blso-rflns. The Geigy Co. rBnks with the best in the field of chemicAl reseBrch, but being bAsically a Swiss company, it does not he.ve the fAcilities AVBilAble to America.n compt=~nies for . the promotion of new m~teriAls on this continent. My personal experience wit-h t-his compBny's representAtive·s indicetes that they ~re not disposed to permit the hAndling of their developmentBl - 9 - mflteriElls by 0ther orgEl.-nizfltions in quite the sRme. manner es the Amer i ce.n · compfl nies, · 8 nd this ton, _tlend s to restrict the wide testing of their products. Hepte chl.or:- This is El. Velsicol CorporAtion product, with an interestin~ chem icfll designAtion or rnme, which E~.lmost requires fl. mRthemfltlciBn to inter'pret'. To be technicfllly c"rrect you would cell it l, .1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8 -heptB chloro-3a, 4, 7, 7 -a. tetrBhydro 4, 7 -methe.noindene •. It is El.nother in the series of chlorl.rlflted hydrocerbons, R!J.d I strongly SUSpect thAt it is Sl?ted to become 8. prominent member. MBny of you here will hAVe used this mAteriAl, E~nd will be famil i~r with it. I believe thAt it is e fBir stAtement to m?ke in sBying thAt HeptF~chlor hRs the generel specificities of the others of this series but thAt it is sufficiently superior for some purpos·es to br1ng1 it into prominence. From reports received, it is eppBrently decidedly superior to flldrin, chlordAne, or DDT, for the control of onion mBggot, it is e.n effective mE! terial for contra l of ·wireworm inf es tfi tions in vegetfl.bles, and is reported to leAve no objectionR.ble off-flflvour, end thet it hBs A wide renge of applicE~tion on other insects. Heptachlor hes been re ported to give gond control of cutworms fl.t the applicfltion rete of l pound per P ere of the techni cfll IIlfl teriRl • It hfl s already es tflblished itself in the field of cotton insect control, which meAns it will be AVflileble in quflnti ty, And this commercial ~:~vail Ability will meen Bn ineviteble inoreRse in its testing ~nd ul timAte use. There is 8 -distinct possibility that it will .enter the field of wireworm control for cereAl . crops,·for testing to d.flte hPS indicFited it to.. be effective, find germinAtion Rnd form ulPtion considerfltions mey fflvour its use. Ageinst HeptAchlor is the fRet thAt it is too similAr to others of the series, for chemic8l merchAndizing compRnies Are reluctAnt to stq~k twq prod ucts for one job.
Allethrin:- The allyl flnfllog of cinerin I; this mAteriAl ·wfls originAted by.the CArbide And CArbon Corpo'rfltion, And is frequently cBlled "Syn thetic Pyrethrum". While listed in the cenvess AS A newly 8Va.il- 8ble commer·ciel insecticide for 1953, it hes been aveilflble since 1952-. It ·ne·ed -not 'be discussed et much length here, for while it is·A sAtisfRctory substitute ·ror Pyrethrum, Rnd is important commercio.lly in times when Pyrethrum supplies Are short, it h8s the Sflme generAl cepabilities And restrictions. The ·level of toxicity is compRrflble for the two. Considerflble quRntities of Allethrin Are being used AS pyrethrum substitutes in pfl ckRg_ed generfll purpose- mRteriflls. PerthAne:- Developed And mAnufe ctured by the Rohm. E~nd HaR s Co., it hAs the chemicB.l nflme of diethyl diphenyl dichloroethane. It is the most recent of this-group, end hf!s not AS yet been fully eve.lu8ted. It hAs been proven to be en excellent mE~terial for the control of leE~fhopper, clover weevil, AlfalfB cAterpillAr, find lygus, end hfls fllso given good control of the leAf eflting insects of cole crops. Tests Rg8inst horn fly and lice on cettle hAve proven it to be an effective insec~icide with considereble residual cepacity. It is noteworthy in thAt it hAS 8. compRr~=ttively low orsl toxicity, And on e compRrfltive bAsis is only one thirty-second BS toxic 8S DDT. - 10 - For purposes of interest, the 8cute LD-50's es listed by the u.s. Food-end Drug.Administr~tion Bre: .PerthRne - 8170 mgjkg, · Methoxychlor- 6,000, Rhothe..ne (DDD) - 3,400J DDT- 2)0,·nicot ine -50 to 60, rotenone - 132, toxe.phene - b9, aldrin - 67, ~nd pRr8thion - 3.
Me.l~ thion;-:- This chemicF.~. l is undoubtedly the big development in 1954. A product of A.meric8n· Cyf:l nB.mid Co. res eEl rch, it WB s introduced widely during 1953, subjected to widespreed testing end promot ion, e.nd proven to be undoubtedly 8 mBjor development in the insecticide field. The proof of its desirBble chArBcteristics Bnd effecti.veness, is the fAct thAt it is -now being pRckBged fnr both fBrm And home mBrkets by prscticBlly 811 the leBding trAde distributors. It is the only one of the chemicels discuss ed herein, which will be widely BVB.ilElble on the CBnFI.diAn me.r ket this yeBr. The Green Cross lirie will include B. 251o Wettable Powder, B. 41o nus t, A_nd e 501? Emulsion, B nd we wi 11 probe_b ly hBve B. household pAckRge of less then ten-6unce size. I know thAt the ChipmP.n· Chemical Compeny will Blso stock MBlAthion products, end I expect thAt there will be other brBnds on the locel mBrk ets. Dr. Cooper, of the .Americen CyanAmid CompBny, gBve B pBper on this mAteri8l lAst yeAr to this Society, e.nd I will not there fore do more then 0utline the uses for which we Are recommending it this yer:>.r·. For tree fruits it will provide effective control of most mites Bnd Bll Bphids. · It is reported to be extremely effective AgBinst 8nlder mites such t:!S EuropeB.n red mite, two-spotted mite, end the clover mite. For vegetP.bles we ·recommend it for the control of Bphids, mites if BpplicBble, poteto leAfhopper, And onion thrips. For ornAmentsls, it is effective for the control of spider mites, Elphids, whitefly, end meBlyb]Jgs. It is t=1lso recommended for the control,. of scAle insects of ornamentAls.
The other need for ·which we s.ee 8 .lA.rge potentit=~l usB.ge of Mt=~lBthion, is for the control of flies end mosquitoes, pertioul Rrly where these Bre resistAnt or semi-resistp.nt to other· insect icides. However, its use is not yet recommended in homes or living quArters.
MB18thion cBn be truly clBssified e.s 8 gener8l purpose in secticide, for its range nf control is extremely wide. It will AppArently control all the insects controlled by DDT plus 8 num ber not controlled by DDT, but of course, does not hBve the res iduAl quBlities. "This ID8Y be B blessing in disguise, which will prevent the development of resistBnce to MEilBthion. - 11 - CONTROL OF SOIL-INHABITING INSECTS
W. Fox Chipman Chemicals Ltd., Winnipeg, Manitoba,
Cutworms, wireworms and root maggots are three of the most troublesome soil-inhabiting insects, and only recently have more or less satisfactory chemical treatments been developed for their control. Ants, root weevils, tuber flea beetles, white grubs, nematodes, termites, bulb flies and carrot · rust flies are also occasionally injurious. Table I indicates some of the treatments recommended for the control of various soil insects.
TABLE I RECOMMENDED TREATMENTS* FOR VARIOUS SOIL-INHABITING INSECTS . :Treat-: :Chlor-: :Diel- : · iHepta..:.: ·Taxa-: ment :Aldrin: BHC : dane : DDT D-D : driri ·: EDB' =· chlor: phene: -: ...... : . :Ants Soil :2t lb. :2t lb. :2t lb.: :2t lb.: :2t lb.: :Carrot r . : rust fly Soil 5 lb.: .. :Cutworms Soil 1 lb.: 8 lb.: :. :- 2 lb;: ;Onion maggot, : Cabbage : maggot Soil 4 lb.: :10 lb.: :Onion : maggot Seed . . :Turnip .. : maggot Soil 6 lb.: ;Seed corn . : maggot Seed t oz.: :Nematodes Soil . . :Nardissus : bulb "fly :Soil :It lb.: 1 lb.: 3 lb.: J lb.: :Root ·:- .. ... : weevils Soil 5 lb.: :Sod : webworms Soil. 5 lb.: 5 lb·.: . ... : Tube.r flea: ... .-: ... : beetles ·: .Soil. .. 4 lb.: . : :. 4 lb.: :White : grubs Soil 5 lb.: 5 lb.:lO lb.:25 lb.: 6lb.: 5 lb.: : ;Wireworms : Soil 5 lb.: 1 lb.:lO lb.:40 lb.:50 gal: 5 lb.~. 20. gal: 4)-p •.: ... :Wireworms Seed 1 o~.: 1 oz.:· : . . .: l o,z .. ·.:·-··,·~·· .-~: · ·. :., .i : · ; ·= . . . :. . , . : . : ·... . . : . . ._ . . : . : . ~ . Longevity - . 2 Years 2 J J 5 0 J . 0 J . .
*Weights and volumes are of actual material per acre. - 12 '7 Inseoticidel-Fertilizer Mixtures Sine e only one ~:~ppl-i-cAti on is ne cessE1.ry such mixtures offer an economic F.ldventR.ge. 0ne difficulty is :the le.ck of eq_u~pment for proper blending. In the U.S.~., certAin of the StAtes hAVe regul Ations prohibiting such mixtures. The registrAtion ~nd Administrl:1t ion of regulAtions concerning these mixtures Plso impose certRin difficulties. FormulAtions EXcept for the soil fumigAnts such P.S D-n, EDB P.nd MB which ere liquid, the other insecticides Pre ~veileble l:ls dusts, wettflble powders And emulsififlble concentr~tes. Applicetion Dusters (hBnd Rnd field), sprflyers (h~:~nd flnd field), e.lso Wflter ing cflns. Efficient seed-treAters Are required for ~pplicP.tion of insecticidel seed dressings • . - Mi"xing with. the soil Thhrough mixing is most importAnt, :especiAlly with chemicAls of low vol1:1ti li ty •. Th~ mixing, in most cf.l s·es, should imrnedi~ tely foll ow th. e Apt'lli cE~ti on. .. .. TillAge implements, such 8S the one·-we_y or the .rototiller, or, if necessAry, the disc:hqrrow, do e much more thorough job of mix ing tp.en plows A.nd cul ti VA tors. Hl~rrows : m8y be used for very shAllow mixing. For smAll sc~le epplicRtions, the sp8de or fork is usuAlly Sfltisfoctory.
GrBnulR.r formul~:~tions These overcome both drift loss And loss by A.dherence to veget etion. They oRn be eAsily applied by stAndard AircrAft or fertil izer equipment. They oen be mixed reAdily with fertilizers where required .. 0ff-flAVOr UnfortunAtely, one of tb.e most effective soil insecticides BHC (LindAne) is notor1ous for cAusing off-flevor.. Chlord1:1ne h8S been Also reported tn hAve cAused off-flAvor in CenAdA And the U.S. to potetoes. PhytocidAl effects High 8pplicF~tions of most. of the soil insecticides cAuse injury to seeds 1:1nd p~Rnts.. So~e plents Are more sensitive th~:~n others. Efficient r1:1tes And distr:j_bution in :the soil must be cerefully ob served. ResiduAl effects Some insectici.des, such fiS DDT And dieldrin, hAve. R reletively long life in the soil which is ?dVA.ntegeous in preventing reinfest fltion of some· insects for: A number of yeArs.
- - .-.. ~ . - ... - 13 -
Dr. W.R. Allen presented Et.; report from notes rna de while e tt ending the Ninth AnnuAl Cop.ference. of the North CentrRl Brench of the Entnmologicel Snciety. of Americe. These notes ~revery pertin ent to work being conducted P.long similAr lin13s in Meni tobR, end becfl.use of this find the interest shown by members of the Entomol ogicfll Society of MRnitobe in Dr. Allen's report, it is hereby re- produced in full. ·
REPORT 0N NINTH ANNUAL CONFERENCE . NORTH CENTRAL BRA.NCH OF THE . ENTnM()LOOICAL SOCIETY OF .AMERICA
W.R. Allen .Entomology LP borP tory , Brt:'l ndon ,- Me ni to be Field Crop Insects With the recent reorgenizPtion of the Entomology Reseflrch BrAnch of the United StRtes Dep1=1rtment of Agriculture B nPtio~al survey of ·corn insect problems find reseArch wfls completed. This survey show.ed the t the lines nf work most needed were reseEtrch on soil insecti, plent resistPhce, biologicel control, lire histor ies, migrAtion, And i.nsecticidfl.l control. The reorganized progrsm is taking intn considerAtion several of these requirements.
F .G. HoldewEt.y of the University of Minns sot fl. reported on the set-up of the regionEt.l project on corn borer. The ai·?t of the proj ect is to determine . the fActors oper~ting, And the manner of their operAtion, in bringing ~.bout the fluctu~tions in RbundEt.nc e of the corn borer. The study wi 11 encompR ss the rel~ ti onship of wee ther, biotic fActors 1 genetic ch~rRcteristics, And F~gronomic procedures fiS they influence the AbundAnc~ of corn borer. Some irtformfltion hRs been obtAined for the period from 1948 to 1951 on how the level of'ebundflnce c~n vr:;.ry during e8ch seA.son of the yeAr. It WAS stPted thAt it will probEt.bly be necesssry to understAnd these see.s on8l chF~nges in relPtion to the AbundAnce recorded for each ye8r. PreliminAry c.onclusions drflwn from Rll cnoper8ting egencies hBve indicPted, in 1953, thAt there Are mArked differences between StAtes; for ins t~nce, the lo~ ses ·in yield per bor.er per st~=~lk Are different in ell ·stAtes end it hR.s been tentR.ti vely concluded thAt .- . the losses per borer per stelk Rre dependent on fpctor~ other than, And in Etddition to, the number nf borers present.
It is notP.ble thRt there Wt:'ls considerable interest in soil infesting insects~ The difficulties in completing even Etn extensive type of survey (13 fields in two StRtes) were discussed py R.A. HlAnch~rd, Entomology Rese~rc~ BrAnch, United StAtes Department of A.griculture. Such e survey i-s indeed formidEtble wheh e.n A,ttempt is IDPde to recover ell·. of the soil-inhEtbiting insects thRt mfi.y be found. The populPtion,estimRted for minute forms.gives A figur~ of About 2-lj2 billion per ·ecre! It wr:;.s concluded thet not suffic ient soil insect survey s ... hAve been mAde to evfllUP te their worth. It is considered thAt the.:underground environment should be better understand-end something ~hould be known ebout totel effect of sub soil environment nn control meAsures Applied for specific insects. - 14 -
. Ano.ther. ~. pproAch to the influence th~ t soil-inhBbiting insects h~ve .. o.n .crop yie.ld· WBS presented by J .H. Bigger.· In this study, · por.t1,ons of fields were tre~ted with the insecti'c1de ~ldrin ~nd porti~ris wete left untreAted. nf 60 fields ex~mined, h~lf of them showed beriefi t from the .soil treA tm.ent. This resulted in fin in creA.. se in .plent populA.tion, increPsed plAnt height, E~cceler~ted · tflsseling, reduced lo.dging, ,::~nd increAsed yield. Fnr instAnce, in 95 fields the yield in the treAted fields WAS increP.sed 10 per cent over the untre~ted fields, ~nd this increAse Apparently rP.nged in some CF~Ses PS high PS 65 per cent. A.s very few of these fields were mAteriP.lly damAged by such insects AS rootworm, it seems that the response rnP.y be F~ttributed .to B pertie.l removB.l of insects present. At M:tnnesotfl., L.K. Cutkomp concluded thAt, in genere.l, snil insect problems on corn And smf.lll grfli'ns Are spotty in the StAt_e And perhPps seem less striking in t'erms of economic da.IYF ge thfln mAny other AreAs nf the northern central StAtes. This, in his view, mAkes the prepF~rAtion of wise recommendAtions for control of these soil-infe~ting pests snmewhF.~t difficult. Discussi.ng seed .traP tments for the control of soil insects, J.W. Apple of the University of Wisconsin stAted thflt about 50,000 Acres of sweet corn, or about 10 per cent of the BcreAge devoted to· sweet corn in the United Stfltes! were treAted in 1953. He pointed . out thAt for sweet corn the seed is tre,::~ted with insecticide conun erciF.~lly by· the seedsmfln prior to planting. This is not so in the CASe of dent co~n, end he pointed out thAt a greAt deRl of difficul ty WFl s encountered _be cl"iuse the f,::~rmers treAted the seed improperly by trying tl') mix the insect.icide with seed in the hopper ~t seeding time~ . : · · . •.:tn a Wisconsin test f!gP..inst .Limonius wireworms, good protection of dent c.orn wes obtained with 'lind~ne ( 1 oz. per bushel) And diel drin (2 oz. per bushel) R"s seed tree.tments, while l oz. of lindens, 2 oz. of dield.rin, hept~chlor .0r .flldrin- to 100 pounds ·of oBt seed pro~ided gond protection from e . light infestPtion of Agriptes. ·
It· hfl s been t:ound .ih. Wisconsin th~t seed or seedling injury is not AcCentuAted by storing lindfl~e nr. dieldrin treAted seed· f0r es much AS 22 months under normAl room conditions. With 4 oz. of lindflne fl stPnd WAs reduced 25 to 40 per cent in field plots on · mineral soil. I~ hA~ been fnund thAt storage of the tre~ted ~eed does; rtot increase this damege. . ·
Plent inj\,U'y W"~S less with w.ettPble powder formulF~ ti'6ns than when emul~ion cone en trP tes wer~ used. · :
J.T·.··Meq.ler, discussing.for~ge .. production, stPted thAt ther·e WAS n6t .niuch point in treR.tinge. lfF.~lfA with insecticides before a first crd~ _of hay' is CUt~ beOEIUS _e ..in Il').OSt yeflrS fl good tonnAge is eAsily obt~ ined. In relf'l t.iori to. seed producti-on he stAted there Pre m~.J1Y :: fP,ctors, such P. S. v~riety . dlffer:ence, -winter hBrdiness, the influence; .0.f cutting s.chedules ,. fer.tili zers, F~nd trfl ce elements, . th~t m~r pr~duce very l~rge dtff~rences. in seed yield. In his opin ion, therefore, lt would be. very difficult to eve.lw~ te the influence of oro~ trd~tnient on.s~ed yield. - 15 -
B.A. • HE~ws of Minns sotfl rep or ted rin ·sweet clover insects. A brief review of the liter~ture showed thflt the pests of sweet clover, other thfl.n the sweet clover weevil, were relPti vely minor. Good sweetclover weevil cnntrol wes obtE~ined with both ground and air F~pplicAtions of ·the following quflnti ties of Pctufll insecticide per Acre: heptechlot or dieldrin, 1;2 pound; ~ldrin, lj2 to 3j4 lb.; tox~;~phene or. chlordAne, 2 to 3 lb.; DDT, 2 lb. These insecticides were rAted on the bAsis nf the E~mnunt nf weevil demAge on 100 leaves selected,At rPndom. It Wfl s pointed out by A.llen thAt, in Mflni toba, dieldrin or hep tAchlor epplied At the rP te nf lj 2 lb. per Flore when the seedlings Are emerging, significF~ntly increAsed the stAnd of plAnts Find thAt the dry weight per plRnt Wfls ·Plso significAntly incre8sed.
P~"'~llinP-ting Insects R.J. Welstr'"'m led A discussion on pollinfltion And seed produc tion of legumes. He enumerAted the following approAches thAt F~re being fallowed.
1. An Attempt to increese tbe popul~=>tion of native pollinBtors by providing nesting Arefls, or domiciles in the c8se of Bombus species.
SeverAl wnrkers ·were not convinced th~t the populF~tion of nflt i ve poll inA tors hRd been greF~ tly deplete·d by modern· ~gronom.icr prflctices, but it WAS st~=>ted th"'t AnimAl predAtors Are An im portAnt fActor in destroying the nests th~t m•y be uncovered in legume·crops thAt Are grnwn for short period~. 2. The possibility of· breeding honey bees for specific pollinAtion ,iobs hAS n~t been Attempted.
According tn the Russian workers, ~orne r~ce~ of aees ~re more RdPptAble to different climAte~, the c~ucAsi~n rF~ce doing bett er in northern ereAs while the It~li~n bee is better under WArmer conditions.
: 3. Breeding A red clover t0 produe 4. The m~;~rtipulPtion of honey bee colonies And movement into fields fnr short· periods ·of time is being extensively ~tudied • . Recent work hAs ahnwn thPt red .clover is well pollinAted up to 400 feet from the hive. Th·e effect AppeArs to be less ~.oncen- trA ted where Al fA'l.ff! is poll inA ted. · · E.B. Montg0mery, IndiAnA, observed thAt the EuropeAns first Attempted to dnmicile bumble bees in 1880, Rnd thA~ Slflden in 1912 WAS Bble to estAblish A colony. He felt, howeVer, th~t the method· may not be entirely dependable becAuse in one yeBr 60 to 70 per cent AcceptF~nce mAy be obtAined while in the following yePr results .ID8y be negligible. - 16 - The fo.llcowing I!le:tpods were·suggested. for studying the ACtivity pf bU!1lble b_ees in relfl.tion t o pollinPtinn, but it · WEIS noted that there· :WEl·s no 1-ln~niini ty Df opininn among the VElrious workers as to which ·method· ~t;JUl,d be_ best. · 1.. The_qoserVEI .tiori method, in which the worker depends almost en-tirely. upon .-his: p _e~son~l judgment E~nd interpretEl.tion. 2. The bumble bees mRy be collected by sweeping, which permits the"differentiEltion of species but does not permit the not Rtio~ of P?ll~nfltion Activities. 3. A unit 1:1reA m~=~y be observed for 8 specific time. Insects .ms.y be collected for· d 'etermin~=~tion of species or pollen load. - . . - . . 4. It may fl.lso be possible, when domiciles Eire used, to base the f\Ctivity on the collection of pollen. It WAS observed by V!:!rious workers thAt mBny factors, including time A.nd · temperflture, ·development of the crop, find species of ' bee, would probE~. bly m~=~ke unrelie.ble Hny correlAtion between bee populAtion nbserved at VArious times And seed yields. Vege:tabl~ Insects Reporting--experiments in seed treE~ tment for contr-ol of the onion mAggot, Hyie.my-B El.ntiqua '{Meig.), · conducted in MinnesotR during 1952 R~d · l953, A~Q. Petershn . stAted:. · . . . . . ; . . "Pelleting onion seeds with · ei th'er four ounces of 251o heptE!.chlor, 2.5 ounces· of 401, F.l.ldrfn,. or twn ounces of 501~ dieldrin E!nd four ounces Q.f . ..501~ thirBm per pound of seed with 3 to 3.5 ounces of A~ methyl cellulose ~s A sticker gA.ve effective control of the oninn m1:1ggot from plenting unti-l hArvest;. Yield-s of green bunch- . ing nJli.ons Bnd rnA tur e onions were neArly doubled in some trifll s. Pellet_ing ·seed res·ulted -:in- significElntly . less lEl te-seA son injury in one of our ·experffuents. · t.tl't=ln broE!.dc8 st soil trefl. tments." "Dr~r mixes of two ounces 751? flldrin or two r:lUnc es 501, dieldrin find two ounc_es of thirflm per pound · of seed without a sticker E!.lso gE~ve ex· ~~llen t control of m~=~ggots; however, the limited Rmount of thirRm thflt cE!n be Rppl'ied in this WBY mRy not -be ~=~dequElte for cnntr0l of smut when low seedi · ng · r~=~tes of three t ·o five pounds per Acre fire used. · · "Seed t~e~=~tments gaVe flfl effective control of onion m1:1ggot end .. ~:~s high yields AS a broA..dcR"st soil El.pplicA.tion of heptachlor· · Applied Elt 4.5 po1lnds flctuA..l hept.Elchlor per El.cref Both seed trefltmen_ts 1:1nd brol'ldc~=~st soil applicfl.tions were more effec.tive thfln post-emergence sprE~ys in these . experiments ··" General Session on Economic Entnmology -- G .c. Dec~er, ·Illinois, gA.ve · Ah impressive fl ddress on methods of :m?k:ing estimAtes on insect · losses. In his opinion there e.re me.ny w~:~y ·s in which dPtA ma,y be obtained to provide estimAtes of insect dPmE!ge, E!nd by the use of El.ppropriAte stRtisticEll method.s Rnd s_ound - 17 - logic these estimAtes mey be Ir!flde reE~sonsbly 8ccllrF.tte. Most of this mRteriRl -is outlined in B peper by the sF.tme E!uthor in hgriculturF.tl OhemicRls, ~olume 9~ No. ~~ ppge 36, FebruRry, 1954. . B.A. Porter showed how recent developments .in the use 0f micro orgF.tnisms thst produce insect diseRses hPve made commerciAl insect cnnt~ol feAsible. rn his 0pinion, the diseF.tses of sech insect should be surveyed, ·using modern .rnicro-biologicRl methods, so thEit this method of control mBy be exploited to greAter .use. ·c .c. Rof.l.n pointed out the precF.~utions thAt should be tske·n be fore insects thRt show AppArent resistAnce to insecticides in the field eRn be sAid to hAve true resistAnce to the insecticides thAt hAve been used. The lEI st i tern on April 2 we.s 8. tour o'f the Entomology LR.borat ory, Brendan. M'embers of the stt:~ff were evsilRhle to e?Cpl~:~ih or demonstrAte the very fine exhib1 ts listed below." Spre.y "Equipment · . ~ Sprsy ~pplicRtion t9wer SunfloWer Insects - Mounted specimens of insects· injurinus to sunflowers Mounted specimens nf pAr8sites of some of the insects injurious tn sunflowers ChBrts depicting -the life. history of Phalonis hospes Wlshm. Rnd StrauziR longipennis (Wied~) Photographs of immeture stAges of insects injurious to sun flowers Rnd their demAge to plE~nts Gr8ssh6ppers Mounted specimens And Photographs of the three economic species of gresshoppers fl.nd photogrE~phs of dF.trrlAge to plsnts by these species - .Mounted specimens s nd photogrE!.phs nf grAsshopper egg predAtors Legume·PollinAtors . Mounted· specimens of the predominRn t species of MegA. chile - Photographs of nEi.sts · 0f in,sects inhAbiting punky poplflr logs - PhotogrF.tphs of developmentE~l stF.tges of two pAr8sites of MegAchile -- BombyliidAe snd Chfllcididse · ReBring dishes contAining MegRchile And so.rne of their pF.trAsites PhotogrB phi c...... An exhibit WA .s IDP.de of the new mode:!. (1953.) ExAkts VX cF.tmere. sync.hroniz ed fnr electronic flAsh with the HeilBnd Strobo!lAr V •. . The cAmerA ~RS fitted with Novoflex bellows snd extension tubes for close.-up p~c tur es. of insects. This equipment ·is pArti cul~:~r ly well Adepts~ .for photog~aphing living insects, as the very . brilliE~nt flF.tsh operAting Rt lj2·,opo second permi'ts the smE~lles . t .A.pertures . to ~ , e useQ., giving, mF.tximu.m depth of focus,. snd freez·e·s e.ll .motion. CF~:.t'qo,n . dio;x:.id .~ gfls · is used to quieten very active insects. , : - 18 - nlder· photogrf!phic equipment w_R..s al·so demonstrBted. This con sisted ·of 8 · pre-w~r · Kor.elle ref"lex cf!mere fitted with extension tubes • . ··It 'wt:'ls ... mciunted: ~n · 8 spring-suspended teble to minimize vib retions. IlluminAt1on WAS With dRylight photnflond lamps shielded with he~t-absorbing gl8.ss. Ff)cussing WRS obtained by moving the obje-ct :~th the rAck· t=~nd pinion of 8 dissecting microscope. nn f.lccount -of.'· ·the long · exposures, this equipment is not su;ited for liv:ing i-nse?ts but is s~tl~~~c~0_ry for de101d specimens. · Reflex copying pr-intirig box, for copying erticles from mflgBz ines, And resultRnt prints _And negAtives were Also on display. * * * * * * * * * * * The first item on the morning of April 3 Wfls fl penel discuss ion on Insect Pollinetors. Mr. D~R. Robertson, Provincial Apif.lrist of the Province of MAnitobA, is to be commended for the very excell ent mAnner in which he cflrried out his duties fls chAirmRn of the penal. Members were H.P. RichArdson, Fruit Insect· Lt=~borRtory, Morden,; Mfln.·, B. Furgfl.· l~. , Dep _ ~rtment of Entomology, The University of Menitobe, F~nd C.F. BArrett end T.V. Cole nf the Entomology Lebor- f!tory, Brflndon. - The pflnel WAS conducted by fl method of question flnd enswer, with vQrious items inserted At 8pproprit=~te points by the Chflirmen; but contents of the VArious reports Are given here in whole rf!the·r thAn in the order in which questions were flnswered. · .. CHd.IRMA.NtS REMARKS nN PnLLINLITION DISCUSsiON · :r:LR.. Robertson, . ProvinciA.l ApiRri st, Province ·of Mflni tobe. · Modern Etgriculturfll trends hF~Ve in some instRnces resulted in a noticef!ble upset in the b8.ll'lnce nf nAture. Fflrm mechflnizetion lles DJPde it-P.dvisAble tn increflse the size of fields, with the result Ant remoVA·l ·of fenc·e rows end reductinn. of woodlots. Tremendous · . ·-rPnces i·n the fi.eld of ~griculturt=~l chemicF~ls end in the · develop ment of equipment for their dispersBl hB.ve resulted in the much more general ~S9 hf inSeCticideS on mAny Crops. nne grOUp Of benefiCiRl insects thAt hfls suffered directly through these prActices is the wild pollin~tors. With the destrll;c.t.ion of their nesting .. sites And the reduction. o_f ___ t_hej.r ·numbers :thrO'ugh the fl.pplic~:~tion .of poisonous sprAys or .dusts,. the.i_r popul_A.t_ions. hRve. 'grAduRlly decreAsed in recent yeArs. Thus the· fFI rmer ht=~ s been .forced ·t-o rely more flnC!,· · ... more upon the honey bee for · the pollinA_tion· of' m8-ny of his _.crops; · . . PollinizAtion is the fertilizAtion of flowers which fire the· reproductive structures of·pl?nts. The structures- consist of' poii~n beAring stAmens (the ttlAle org~ns) · ~Hld cA.rpels (femt=~le orgt=~ns) con-· tfl.ining pollsn-cfltchitJg. stigmi:l!=! And . ovule.S;· the plRnt'S eggs. A union of .- the.. pGlllen with . the ·. ovuleE! , produces seeds • . Most f'lowers with which we f.lre ·fflmi-lfl:ir fl.Aye . poth . otgAns, mAle t=~nd femAle, in the sAme flower: · The mR jori tY 9f thes.s flowers. cflnnot ,poll·irw te them salves, however, fl nd require pollen from .other ind.i vidm~ ls of the s~=~me species~ · In th·e long ·course 'of evolution the flowers of plflnts h"'ve be come AdApt@d throUgh nA t'ui-B.l s·ele ction to the ch~=~r~=~ cteri sties - 19 - of their pnlliDP.tors. - Thus the VArious species of flower rme their structure, shApe, Ct')lor, odor And other Attributes to the pArtic ul::ir Agents thwt cross pollin!:lte them. ·To beekeepers, the hee flowers Are of chief concern. These flowers ~re lArgely blue, or yellow, or .snme mixture nf these two colnrs, ::~nd experiments show thAt vision of bees is mRinly in this p~rt of the spectrum. They ?.re color blind to red. Likewise bee flowers hAve specific odors distinctive to bees ~=~nd. ::~re '='lw?ys open in the df!ytime but often closed At night. Bee flowers secrete nectflr rrom speciAl glAnds which often lie 1=1t the b::~ se of the flower. Bees with their long tongues cAn reAch the nect~=~r, b~t most other insects cAnnot. As the bee tAkes the nee tAr, its ho-dy h~=~i rs pick ·up poll en frorn the flC'JWer 's st::~mens. When the bee hAS finished Wnrking on one flower it flies rApidly on to-F~nother . . Bees hAVe An instinct tn confine their Attention to flowers nr one species Pt A time, therefore ~nsuring the trF~nsfer of pollen t~ ~he right species nf plF~nt. Inserts during reports In the AnnF~polis VAlley, NovA ScotiA, the use of honey bees with pollen inserts rasulted in A prnductinn of 300 bArrels of Deli cious ~pples on fifty-rive trees in A solid block pl::~nting AS com pAred tn 25 bAr~els previously produced. - . The_· results · ob'tF~ined with tne use of honey bees for AlfPlrfl seed prnducti on At ReginR, 8::~sk::~ tche\ftn:'~n, in 195 2 Pre As follows: _Colony Rt=~te . Yield AverAge 4 Acre lots) 5 colonies per ~ere s. 3 colon~es pe~! - ~cre lbs. 1 colony.. per . A:c·re lbs. 0 colo~ies ~er ~ere lbs. - - . . ' ~ . - DAtA were obtF~ined nn the tripping rAte of honey bees forAging on fl block of :=~lfAlf~ in the ntt8~P ::~reA in 1953. A totAl of 6,372 individufll honey bees were observed visiting 14,449 rlorets. The tripping rAte w::~s 5.5 per cent AS compAred tn 0.7 per cent in simil::~r studies in 1952. An investigAtion of the rAhge nf flight of estAblished forAgers on lfldino clover At the o.A.c., .Guelph, nntArio, WAs c::~rried out in 1953. ForAging honey bees on A g"iven plot were dusted with fluores cerit powder And the field _Wfls. ex::~mined Aft,er d::~rk with An ultrfl \Tiolet lAmp. Initi~-~ tests ipd -icAt.~d. th::~t it w::~s most unusti::~l to find trF~ ces of mArked . tiee ~'~ c ti vi ty r~;~_rther thAn 10 yfl,rds f~oni the II1F' rking plot. _ . - · ,. . . . SimilF~r tests wer·e CF~rriea ;out ori bumble bees .o;n A red clover· field. .A.l though only A limited· number of bumble bees were. m1=1rked t t WAS estAblished thAt they mfl.y forAge F.lt .le~=~st severfl_l. hundred yArds from the point of mArking. - The rlight rflnge of honey bees on red clover WAS determined at - 20 ~ Vl=lrious dis'tAnces from the c()lonies. ME~ximum pollinfltion activity ext~~ded to ~ di~tAnce of 730 feet from the hive • . From this point on the populAtion decreesed sherply. Seed yield WfiS fit its m~ximum where th~ poll~n~tor ' Activity wes greA.test ~:~nd decreflsed fi.S the pop ulPtion hf forAgers decreAsed. Th~se results were obtBined at 0tt ElWfl Find corr.espo_nd re.l.lJE!r~ably well with the results obtAined ~t the Apiculture Departmen~, n.A.c., Guelph. 3wee! ClQv~r~~d_2~4~D- - ~~r. P. P~n.kiw; ApiculturiE!t, now At Beflverlodge, Alberta, lBst yef=lr c?rried o~t some experimentAl work on. the effect of 2,4-D drift on sweet clover .blonm find seed setting. . Tn get Flft iqee of extent of drift, · the investigetor sprayed a squ~re rnd plot with 2, 4-D fit the rflte of . 4 ounc.es per acre. Wind velocity At the time WCls .5 to 7 miles per hour find vapor drift was detected At fl distBnce of 80 yF~rds downwind. Seed yield near the spreyed flree WAS substentiAlly reduced. At thirty feet from the ·~ · · sprflyed fireR 185 pnunds per ~=~ . ere wes the yield obtein.ed, fiS compfl.r e~ to A check _yield . of . 4dO p~und~ per Adre. A.t lj4 ~urice PpplicAtion, eff.ects (;n plflnts were reAdily seen. Flowering w8s delflyed 2 weeks, the emount nf blonm reduced find seed yield WAS down considerAbly. Eve~ At rAtes fls low RS lj20 ounce (flbout lt nf recommended field rAtes) bloom WAS delRyed flbout 3 'dflyS And Seed yie.lq. reduce.d to 250 ·pounds PO.IDpAred With the CheC~ of LI.QO pou·nds per Aere. · . ·.·The ne.ed · for-'- --C~- ~~t~on .in -the us.e of 2, 4-D is obvious. Beekeep ers wnuld be well to give .considerAtion to the use of 2 ,4-D when locAting their epiPry. ~hese tests show WhAt cfln hflppen to seed yields, but still more import~nt is thAt even ~ trflce of 2,4-D may be sufficient to retRrd or stop nectRr secretion. No doubt nectAr secretion And seed yield go hl=lnd i ·n hflnd, therefore, this experiment prqves whet c~n h~ppen to fl. ho.ney crop. INSECT POLLINA.TIIRS OF FRUITS . .. H .P. Richi:lrdso.n, . Fru~t . Insect L~=~bor~tgry, Morden, Mflni to be~ · "F:'ruft tree$, e'xceptihg g _i'~;~peS A~d. most Of the nuts, ere depend ent under riRturBl conditions on insects .fnr pollinAtion .. 'Grepes F.'ln.d .. most · of the nuts Are dep.endent on wind for pollinetion. Fruit .trees. show the chAracteristics of trees dependent on insects for pollin A..tion .. Their flowers Are lfl_rg.e end. showy, they exude a fr~=~grance, find ·.: they secrete nectar pre·sumftbly_ for the purpose of Attrflcting insects. Besi~.es t.h~se t:ec·ts, their pollen. is heevy And gummy., · which prevent's it from being blown fl.bout by the wind. Insects, es-:- ·:· peciAlly the bees, Are dependent on the pollen And nectAr of flow ers ft s. their sole s0ur ce of food. . .. When an in.sect enters .. A flower fnr ·n.ectflr or pollen it usufllly completes the process required of it, - 21 - i.e. pollin€1.tion~ This interdependency of tree B.nd insect is highly specialized -in some inst~nces, 8 striking ex13mple of which is the fig And the fig W13sp. The cultiv~ted Smyrn9 fig with imperfect flowers is dependent on the pollen of the perfect-flowered cBprifig. The ·process of pollinfl ti nn is dependent nn the fig WAsp which devel ops only in the caprifig. In most of our spples, pe~rs, pe~ches, cherries Rnd some plums the dependency of the tree nn insects for pollination is more com plic~ted th13n JUSt the metter Of trBnSfer Of pollen from St8men to pistil. Hany of the Above fruits Are self-unfruitful, i.e. their own pollen is useless fnr their own fertiliz~tion. Pollen from a different ~Rri ety of the SPme species is essential for effective pollinl."tinn. The v~lue nf insects is greAtly enhfl.nced when growers orgAnize-their orch~rds to provide the effective kinds of pollen Bt the 8ppropriAte time. . . In~e~t_p~lline!o£s_of fr~i!s_ I hAve divided the pollinAtors into two groups: 1 . Ne t i v e insects ; 2. Honey bees. 1. N~tiva Insects -When the f1rst settlers Elrrived. in Americ!:'l they found no honey bees, but there were· flowers, fruits, find vegetAbles in forests f.lnd fielo.s. Furthermore they were able to produce n~tive Americ€1n crops of msny kinds for more thR.n 50 yeers before honey bees were estab lished·. ·. NPtive insects were still AbundAnt enough to pollinF~te the nAtive 'And intrnduced insect-pollinPted plAnts. s ...-. long 1'1S cultiv Ated ereAs were composed of smAll fields surrounded by wild l€1nd, nAtive insects were ~ble to hAndle pollinetion without the help of foreign lsbour. Inevi tP.bly hoVI;ever AS the plow turned under lElrge trActs of sod the nAti~e ben~ficial insects began to disBppeAr. At the 88-me time €1Vflil8ble pnllinA.tors were spreEld over the ever enl!:'lrg ing orchArds And fields. nf the pollinBtors the order Hymenoptera, exclUdinu, th~·ho~ey 9ee, is by f8r the most importBnt nrder of in sects in.pollin~tion.of commerci€1.l.crops. Flies prob~:~ . bly rank next, Although -moths Which t:~re very Bbuncl.~nt m€1y do more pollinAtion than they sre given credit for. Beetles And thrips Also dn considerable pollinAtion. In fElct El.ny of the thousElnds of insects thAt visit flCJWers purposely or 8 cci dentA.lly CB n be El.gen ts for carrying pollen: grAins from the Anther to the stigma. nf the nAtive bees, the bumble bees, le~f cutting bees, alkali bees, ?nd csrpenter bees which Are specificFtlly ~dApted for gBth-er ing nect~r And pollen ~re . probF~bly the most importAnt polli·nRtor·s. , These wild bees supplement the Bctivities of h.oney .bees in the po-ll inAtion nf most· of· the fruits, but honey bees ere At leAst AS effiq-· ient And only need to be supplied in reAson13.ble numbers tn .~o . the · job. The supplementFtry role nf the wild bees is very import.B-n;t · in some t=~rePS ·such AS New ·EnglAnd And EA.stern · canP.•df3 where we€1t_her unfF~vort=~ble for honey bee ACtivity is custom~ry during the apple blossoming seAson. When they are present bumble bees fl~d a _few other species .FI_cti v·e · €1 t coo1er temp·erP.tures 8-re more sl3tisfl3_ctory. In some locAtions, notFtbly peAr orcherds, syrphid flies €1nd blow flies Are imnortP.nt nollinRtnr!=l_ rrhi!=t iq cl11A t.~ t-.hA lnw T'\AT'f"l:mi". !HJ'A - 22 - ·or sug~~ ih· pe~~ - nectE~r whicn m~kes it unPttrRctive to bees_ :nne ' bf the ~~ifi . di~E~dv~nt~~es of the wild be~s is thAt in ·the -e~riy ·spring when ~nst · of the fruit trees flower they ~re not aveil Eible iri' suffici'ent nurrl.bers. The honey bees 8.re availflble in lBrge numbers flt flll times of the yeAr. 2·. Honey · bees · . The honey bee is corisi·dered the most importfl nt pollinE! tor of. fruit trees. Its - ~xistence depends on pollen find· nectar ,from p.lan.ts. The vA.lue of the honey bee lies 1n its coloniE~l hE~bit throughout the· yeAr· And. therefore it is _ J:~Vf'.ilE~ble in force fl_t Rny se~son- Semi domestioPtion in mRh-·mRde hives mAkes it ~VE~. ilE~ble for pl~'cement wherever ne·eded for pollinAtion. Another iroportAnt feAture of ~l;le honey bee is th~t ·it visits· only one kind of plAnt to collect . either pollen or nect~r -- ~ fortun~te provision of n~ture owing to species incnmpE~tibility. The honey bee hAS its limitAtions also, one nf which is its preference for ne·ctar with 8 high sugAr content. It WAS noted in CE~liforni~ · th~t when the humidity wAs high the sygE~r content of the nectAr of orE~nges dropped below the normAl of 16~, the bees lost interest in the or~nge flowers ~nd collected- from mustArd· which hAd A higher sugAr content. When the dRy WAS dry enough to evA porAte the moisture ~nd the. sugAr content of the nectAr rose to 251a, the bees -returned to the or:;:~ng e flowers. In A dry dAy when the sug~'~r content rose to 401o the bl'ossoms were sucked dry. . · . ·. -- .' ~ . . . ~ · -· When ~lmonds And Apricots Rre grown together bees will co).lect from ~lmonds AS the · sugJ:~r ·content of the nectAr is 35~ while Apricot nectAr contAins l01o sugFir. _ .__ . -. _ In eight v~rieties of plums grown together At DPVis, · CE~lifor niA; tn.e .nectAr h~?~d AVerAge sugAr · contents r11nging fr0m l0-281o. Three .other ·v,:~rieties· hAd ·no collectible nectAr. The pe~r produces ~Rll flmounts of nect?:r low in stigAr. In _pe~'~r oroh~rds the honey bee is not considered Rn efficient pollinizer •. Trre syrpfii·ds .c:~nd the blow flies Are quite efficient AS pollinizers. in peAr or ch,lrds. · - . The quAntity Arid type of pollen produced by plAnts Also A,ffect the VAlue of ·honey bees. Some pollen. is to0 _scR.n ty, too sti9kY, or too dry to Rttr~ct the bees. · · · -r-t·ls the ·pr~'~ctioe ;in ~-cime orchArd fireRS' in the Unitt?d StAtes And prob~bly in CFtnRdR tc>" "bririg in hives· of bees to do the pollin-_ Rting. nrten these-- bees Are r!3nte9. ·from:· ·commerciA 1 be_ekeepers. In IfiOSt inStAnCes· the beekeeper gets no hon_ey. fr0lll the_ nperRtion f'IS . orchA-rds Are more· import'FI·n·t fot' tht?ir ~bundRnt supply of pollen thAn for honey·.· Also ~lmond · ho!leY is bitter, And . prune honey fer ment.s re~d.ily. - In some ·circuinstFinc es the beekeepers Are forced to feed the bees. · · --- · The use nf honey' bees for p~llin~tion is -considered very - '· - 23 - worthwhile. In ? ~~ichig~n ~pple orch~rd where the lArgest crop in 8 yeArs hAd been 1,500 bushel~, 40 ~olonies of bees were introduced in 1927 F.~nd 5, 200 bushels of Bpples were hf!ryested. In ~ che;rry . orchPrd b ecflus e of the use o.f honey bees the owner ~de e.n estima t ed 10,000 dollE~rs more from his crop th8n he would h8Ve withnut the bees. In E!nother instflnce an 87· f!Cre 2'2 ye~:~r ·old apple orchl'lrd had never produced 8 profiteble cr0p, 4Bo bu~h!3ls being the highest yield. Thirty colonies of bees were moved in ~nd the crop jumped to l,580'b~rrels in 1930, 1~400 in 1931 ~:~nd 2,000 barrels in 1932. Another orchArd 16 yeArs old, which hPd never produced more than 18 bushels, yielded 1,000 bushels when An ?piery was establis~ed ne~:~r by. A number of hives of bees were plF~ced on one side of a peech orchArd. It resulted in a full crop on one side of the orch~rd. The foll0Wing · ye~r the bees were dispersed throughout the orch8rd And A full crop WAS obt~ined. In the crAnberry industry in North E~stern United Stfltes bumble be·es flnd honeJ' bees fire the chief 8gents bf polliilfltion, but As the former is not Rlwt:'lys AbundAnt the growers re~or~ to· honey bees. Without· AdequAte pollinAtion cr~nberries are i3pt to IJFture over A long period. ------PollinPtors ?nd Insecticides Even in the process of pollinetion mAn is usurping the function of the bee. ·This is pl=lrticulflrly true in fruit orchArds, espec ially E~pple orchArds of the United st~tes. The growers h8ve exter miilfl ted the m ti ve insects by their intensive spray pr:ogrA.ms Rnd discourflged beekeepers by similAr methods. As fl consequence they hAve been fnrced to hAnd-pollinPte their trees. They hAVe found thAt hAnd-pollinAtion is more profit~ble th?n depending on the few remAining insects, especiellY t:'IS these few insects Ar~ Affected by the weAther. It ~s ge~~rAlly thought thAt F~rtificifll pollinfltion sho~ld be considered AS A tempnrAry expedient to be used only until nAtural meAns cF~n be estAblished. It is considered A d~ngerous pr~ctice to Attempt tn reduce thinning costs by setting F.l. cnmplete crop by hAnd AS considerAble fruit may be set by n~turAl meflns. References Bishopp, F.C. 1952. Insect Friends of MF~n, in Insects, Y~Arbook of A.gri cul tur.e. U.S .D .A • . ' BrittPin, W.H ~ 19.28-1932 • . Apple PollinAtion Studies. in the Ann?. polis VAlley,. N.S. Grout, R.A.• 1949. PollinPtion---an A.griculturAl .Pr~ctice. DAdAnt And Sons, Inc. Metc~lf, C.L.i W.P. Flint, And R.L. MetCAlf. 1951. Destru.cti ve and Usefu. . Insects. McGr~w-Hill Book CompAny. .. . Snyder, J.C. 1947. PollinPtion of Tree Fruits And Nuts. The - 24 - St~te College ~f w~shington, Agric. E~t; · s~rvice Bull. No. 342: VPnsell, G.H.-~n9- W.H. Griggs. 19.52. Honey Bees ~s Agents of PollinAtion, in Insects, Ye~rbook . of Agriculture, U.S.D.A. LEGUME POLLINATORS . ·T.V. Cole, Fi~ld Crop Insect Section, Entomology LAborAtory, · BrAndon, MPn. · The most importAnt pollinAtora of AlfAlfR Are leAf-cutter bees, MegAchile spp., ?nd bumble bees, Bombus spp. Bees of the genus MegAchile most numerous in the WP-nless ~reA ~reM. frigid? Sm., M. iiiermie. Prov.., Find M. re1Ativf1 Cress. The higb.est count of Megf!chile (All. species) on AlfAlffl during July And August WAS 0.06 per squAre y.~=~rd. ·Twelve species of Bombus. were collected .~=~t WAnles·s in 1953. The · five species frequently encountered were B. terricolP K., B • . VAgAns F. Smith, B~ frigidus F. Smith, B. rufocinctus Cress., And B. ternflriue SAy. Tne AVerAge number of bumble bees (Fill species) on Alf~lfA during July flnd August WAS 0.3 per squF~r . e yArd. It is hoped to increASe the wild bee populAtion in the w~nless AreA by improvirig .. the "bee hAbitqt through lf~nd ffil'l.m~gement, Afid by estAblishing colonies of bumble bees in ArtificiAl domiciles in desir-ed locAtibni:(. L~nd . hAs been cleAred only on the h:tgher, well .. nrAined AreAs. The fields Are smAll, nArrow, And irregulAr, wit~ An· AVerAge nf 25 to 40 ~cres tilled per quArter section. To provide nesting sit . e~ for the log-inhAbiting leAf-cutter bees, logs cleA.red frO-m the fields were piled in windrows fllnr'lg the edges, And ·Also Along the centre ~f th6se fields thAt Are nver 100 yArds wide. A cleAred strip of lAnd, 10 yArds wide, WAS left beside the log wind rows to provide nesting sites for soil-inhAbiting bees • 1 •: In l953, spring emergent bumble bee queens (mAinly B. terricolfl) were C~'~Ught And .plAced singly in 50 ArtificiAl domiciles7 These queens Were CAred for in the domicile~ until first brond emerged~ These domiciles·were then to be moved to locAtions Around the el fAlfA fields so thAt resulting fAll queens Would hibernAte neArby Find stArt cnlonies in the .v_icinity in the follnwing spring. LeAf'-cutter bees Are mnre efficient trippers of AlfAlfA florets th?n bumble bees. During A totAl of .789 seconds of ob.servAtion. on tri'pping fl bj,.li ty Fro~ nne seeson's observ~tions, the m~in f~ctors limiting the ~:~bundBnce of Meg~chile ~ppel'ired. to "De: (1) suite.bility of hRbitt!lt, (2) ~=~v~il~bility of food, and (3) mortRlity of imm8ture bees. There WAS little indicE~. tion of the presence of leAf-cutter bees in heAvily forested ~re~:~s nr in AreA.s thAt h~d been cleAred for only one yeer. Nests Pnd ~dults were readily loc~=~ted Rlong the edges of old clear ines where logs had been piled in exposed positions. Few nect~r secreting pl~nts grow where forest prev~:~ils, while in cle?rings food is provided by fireweed, vnlunteer Dutch clover, end nther plants. The ~ortAli ty of imm~ture Meg~:~ chile spp. Wfls hePvy. Of 92 cells exRmined, only 15 contAined he~lthy l~:~rv?e. Thirty-nine cells contflined p?r~sites, including one species nf e~ch of PhoridAe, Bombyliid~:~ e, Ch~lc.ididfl e, BrA conidP e, 8 species of mite, And A species of ne~Atod.e. Thirty-eight died of other cF~uses suspected to be (1) pArAsites thflt hPd mAtured And left or hPd died, (2) mould, (3) diseAse, (4) desicc~tion, ~=~nd (5) egg infertility. SUNFLriNER POLLINATION C.F. B~=~rrett, Field -crop Insect Section, Entomology LAborAtory, Br?ndon, Mt:~n. Flowering processes In ? stud·y- of insect pollinF.~tion of sunflowers it is importent tn know the floWering processes of the plPnt. The sunflower florets Are grouped into A composite heRd ~=~nd eF.Ich floret is.perf:ect. Flowering begins ~t the periphery of the heAd ~nd progresses in~rd At the r~te nf 1 to 4 rows per dEl~'· Dflt~ colleqted· by Putt (8) show thflt for ·e given he~ - d - flowering is-complete in flbnut 1 week from · the dt:~te of opening •f: the rey flowers. He found tht:~t on the morning on which ~ given floret opens, -its Anther tube reflches its full extension by t:~bout , -.00 ~;.m. "ImmediFi tely A_fter this stfl ge is ref! ched the pollen SA os dis chJ:t rge the1r pollen inside the F~lither tube •• : ." "This stAge is followed by fln·elong~=~tion of the -lower portion of the style which pushes· the twC'l-lobed s tig~A up through the t:~n ther tube." "!\bout .5 .oo p.m. the tips of the stigmA lobes begin to_ 1:1 ppeRr •••• " "By the following morni-ng the stigmF.I lobes -t:~.re ful,ly emerged And the receptive sur f~ces exposed f0r pollinAtion." In an eXAminF~tion of 216 stigmas, Putt ( 9) found th1:1t germin~:~t ion of pollen grAins occurred only upon the inner surfAces of the stigmfl ·. This Rccnun~s in p1:1rt for-the ft:~ct thf!t st-igmAs flre ·-.r:_lOt pff ected' when moving up through the polten Dtflss in the El.nther tube. · Stigma And pollen viability . - . By me8.ns of em?.SCUlAtion, Putt (9) w~:~s· eble to studY: . dur~tion of stigmt:~ ~. fld pollen vi?bili ~Y. .In ~:~ 3-yeAr studY,. the : ,: ~:~_ _vsrt:~ge per cent_F~ge seed setting for stigmP s 1, 4, .5, ~:~.nd. ~ q._t:~ys :old wt:~ s 74 .4, 63 .. CY; 43~3, And 9 .. 6 per cent, respectively. The dur8tion nf pollen - 26 - viEibili ty. _snowed .no decreflse nver. a period of 6 days when stored in cork-~t0,ppered vi~ls, And this sPme pollen cerried over for one yeAr WEI.S: no·t ViEI.ble. ·-This· is in· cnntrAst to E1 finding of .ArnoldOVEI. (2) who _ clBims. sunflower pollen stored for a period of 11 months gave f~ir seed. setting. In Bnother test on the durl'ltion of pollen via bilf.ty; Putt (9) showed thAt 15-dfly-old pollen WAS !'IS viable as 2-dey~old pollen. self fertility . In 8 test of. bAgging mflteri~ls for hefld isolE~tion, HRmilton (3) found self.. fer'tility _to r~:~. nge from 15 to 50 per cent under a · lE~rge · ITlE.I · nilF~: pAper bAg. Putt (9) ·found th~t se:}.fin~ in be.gged heads WEI~ increAsed from El.n everAge· of 14.38 per cent to en average of 29.27 per cent_ by mflnipulAting the heAds with El cotton betting brush. It is evide~t that selfing produces little seed, Ana EIS sun~ flower p0llen is wihd borne nnly to fl. smEI.ll degree, bees Rnd other insect pnllinE~. tors appeAr to be of primBry impc:rt~nc e in pollinfl tion. Bees AS pollinAtors Although honey bees are generi:l.lly gond pol liM tors E~nd fire eEI.sily reared A..nd hA.ndled in l1:1rge numbers, they El.re not refldily induced to pollin~ .te specific crops-, such fl.s Plfalfe., red clover, A..nd sunfl0wer. The quBnti ty El.nd sugAr content nf nectAr end the. eese with which the nectE~r of El plE~nt is g8thered fire importBnt fflctors in determining which crops bees will visit. This is 8 problem of oom.pe_ting blnom ·fl nd is VEl stly · cnmpli cA ted by the wide forE~. ging range of bee~. Tl1,is competition .m:Py ·he overcome by isol~:~ ti on, overpopul....; f.l tion·, or bee condi tinni-ng. However' none of these me thod.s AppeArs to be very.~r~Qticfll · on the prPiries. · Crop isolfltion.- IsolAtion of A specific crop is difficult. It is ·g;enerF~lly.• E~ssume~ thflt bees cF~n forflge up to ; miles, which would fill ow: them t~ cqv·er P. township. This represents neflrly 25,000 f\cr~s, .. nf which E~bout Boo Acres E~re rofld ·flllowflnce. However, fin Fl pprofl ch tri".;i. sol~tion cE~n he obtfl ined through control of uncul ti VFI ted .l?l0qm ;. -throUgh- selection nf other crops thAt bloom during different periods, Find thrnugh 1ielection of sites where naturRl bA.rriers will limit the forflging r8nge of the bee • . .. · ! rr 0verp·opu1Rtion .- OV~erpopulA tion of Flrefl.s will . force- bees to concentrA.te on pesture thAt they normE~lly would ignore. However, if there is insufficient nectflr Find pnllen in the bloom, overpopul- FI tion will not help. -Bee'· cnnditioning.- PAlmer-Jones And Smellie (4.) hElve reviewed methods used by von Frisch Elnd by ·Russi fin investigAtors to deter mine the Vl'llue of bee condit1oti.ing F~s 8 meE~ns of controlling poll inAtion. 'There ere three methods RVElilflble: (1) "0utdnnr feeding on the flowers: • • • (This) method is used when honey·yield is the· mAin Qbjeet •••• : Weakly scented blossoms give goocl." results provided . the bees :f·re fed the condi ~ioning mixture .. in t.Q.e open." · - 27 - (2} "~roiDP.tic substPnces on flowers ~nd inside hives: Visit fltion of weA.kly scente·d flowers cP.n be increesed by putt ing ~- n f.'lrtificiA.l arorne tic substence -in fl. sugE~r solution in th-e hive ~nd then sprP.ying the flowers with the sa.me _ subs tEl nc e." (3) "Feeding of syrup inside hives: This method, which re quires f.l.bout lj 2 lb. of syrup per hive nightly, is used for increE~ sing pollin8. ti on-. The bees should be presented with fresh blossoms eflch dey to ensure continuous flights to a spacific blossom. L~rge sc~le · experiments in Ger many showed thAt the method ceused An increese in the bee kee~e_ r's . su~plus, in some cases considerable, with red clover, lucerne, buckWheAt, onions, And some wild nect8r plE~nts. Bees were observed to work the plAnts more energeticE~. lly i · ~:~nd en incref.l se of seed yield wp_s proved. Iti Russifl seed yield Wfls reported to increE~se." Von Frisch found that feeding an infusion of the -crop bloom was successful Where the florets used he.d 8 strong E~roma. To pre pare tne infusion, 1 pint of WElter, l~lj4 lbs. of sugPr, Elnd, with red clovet, fl.hout 150 fl0wers E~re ?llowed to infuse for About 5 hours before it is fed to the-bees. A RussiRn worker trained bees to cone entra, te their _ f.light~ -- on vetch, sunflower, And lucerne by the infusion method. Inc'reA ses in bee visi tfl-tion of up to 30 times Pnd increAses __~n seed __.: ~et _ hr _' up ·to 3 :times were reported. PAlmer-Jones Pnd Smellie -(4) ·stPte, "It is 8pp8rent thflt bees cAn be directed or conditioned to ' fl scent •••• " nther Lr~vestigAtions ~ ..: . In RussiA. sunflower pollinE~tion, especiPlly-by honey bees, is receiving ' muc.h ' .Attention. Akin'Shin (1), A.rnoldovfl (2), LopAtnikov (.5), Luttso i(6 Rnd · 7'), Pnd· ShimFtnSkii (10) Are some of the RussiAn workers ihv'es·tigA. ting sunflower pollinAtion • ..4.t Brflndon, MAnitobfl, cf.lge tests in 1951 showed thflt honey bees were effective: pollinAtors of sunflowers E~nd increAsed seed yield. A prelimi·hl'lry · field test in 195 3' shoWed th~:~ t competing bloom WA.S more Attractive ·thFtn sunflowers to honey bees. References (l) Akin'Shin, F. Honey bees increAse the yields of sunflower. (In Russi~n). Pchelovodstvo. 24(7):59. July 194?. (2) .. _"rnoldovP, n-.N. To the biology of sUnflower blooming in conn ection with· the ·technicS of its crossing. J. 'Expt. LA.ndw. - Sudost. Eur. Russ. 3: 131~143. 1926. ( 3) Hfl.mil ton, . R.I. Improvi·ng· sunflowers' by inbreeding. Sci. Agr. (: _; ·6: 190-192. ' 1926. . - . - . - ( 4) PF.Il.mer-Jones,. T.; E~nd E. Smellie. Conditioning of bees t~ con trol pnllinF~tion. New ZeAlPnd -J. Agr. 80: 49, 51-52. JRn. 1950. - 28 - ( 5) Lopetn;kbv1 -$~N. Increasing sunflowar-yields by honey bee pollJ.nfl t1 on •. · (In Rus sie.n). Pchelovodstvo ·26: 3 37-3 38. · ·' June 1949. ( 6) Luttso, U.P. nn the nect~r · secretion of different V8rieties of sunflowers·. (In RussiHn). Sele~. i Semen 16(7): 80. July 1949·. (7) Luttso, U.P. Sufiflower pollinR:tion by honey bees. (In Russ ian). Pchelovodstvo 27: 332-336. June 1950. (8) Putt, 'E.D. (llbservations on morphologicEil ch~'~rF~cters and flow ering processes in the sunflower (Heli~nthus ~:~. nnuus L.). . sci • ~ gr • 21 : 16 7 -1 7 9 • 19 4 o • . (9) Putt; 'E.D. Investig~'~·tions of breeding techp.ique for the sun flnwer (Helif'nthus annuus L.). Sci .. A_gr. 21: 689-·702~ 1941. -- - (10) Shi-me_nskii,: N.K .. New method of obtF~ining high yields of sun flowers_; (InRussi8n). ~1Rsl. Zhir. Promysh. 17(5): 9-11. MEl y 1952. THE EFFECT 0F THE HOHEY BEE, Apis mellifera (1.), nN THE SEED SET, YIELD ~ND HYBRIDIZA.TI0N OF THE CULTIVATED SUNFLf"'WER, Helianthus annuus L. Be sil FurgalR, Department of Entomology, The University of ME'lnitoba. ·· Plot Bnd f .ield investigAtions were cf!rried out in the sunflower growing t=~re~ . ' of _' Mf!nitob~:~ tn determi.qe the effect of populf.ltions of honey be'es on sunflower seed set,. yie'ld ehd .hybridization. The plot inve 'stigF~tfons were cl'lrried out in 1952 R·nd 1953 Pt The ·university bf Mt=~hitobe. The field experiments were cf'rried out in 1953 in ~he Altonf!, Pl~ Co~1lee, RolRnd Rnd Homew0nd F'refls. · The plot s·tudies reveAled thPt the per cent . seed set and the yields of the open-pol.lin~ted plots were considerJ?.bly higher thfl.n those of the mesh~bflgged Find krAft-bPgged plots. These incre~ses may be escribed to the presence 0f the l~?rger pollinAting insects, pBrticulflrly the honey bee, since the honey bee was by far the most numerous visitor of ·the lPrger pnllinR tors. · The field experiments reve8led thAt: ( 1) ·sunflowers cfln compete with buckwheR t for honey bee E!.tten tion. The dAtfl showed thAt ~ betw.een :;6 - And 62 per· cent of the ' honey -bees .exPmined. cRrried. sunfl0wer pollen. (2) Sunflower seed yields Are significf!ntly decreesed f!S the distt=~nce from the honey bee colonies is increflsed; Colonies· should be pll"ped in rows ecross the field About 300 to 400 yF~rds · f.lp?.rt beginning preferE!blY, on th~ S~'~St side· ·of the _fiel (4} There A.ppeF~rs to be ~n incre~se in the oil content in the immediF~te first generAtion seed of the fields populAted with honey bees. SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING 0F INSECT POPULATIONS · W.G.H. ·Ives, LPborE'tory of For est Biolngy, Winnipeg, MC\.n. Before describing A sequentif!l s~mpling scheme it is probably wise to offer 8 ~ew words of introduction • . There is one bf!sic diff erence between .converttionsl sE!mpling, withe fixed sample size, end sequen tiA.l sE!mpling, with A. vE~riE~ble s8mple size. In conventionE!:l sAmpling 8 decision is mflde th~t is b~sed upon the deta contR.ined in the SE!mple fl s R whole, while ln sequen ti 81 sB.mpling 13 decision is m1=1de After eB.ch unit is drl3wn. Consequently, the sample size in sequentiAl sl"lmpling VAries with e~ ch sE~mple drAwn. on the ~verBge, hoWever, the size o!' SAmple in seq uent~R 1 S8Ihpling is eon.sid erAbly ·sm~ller, for E~rt equ~l degree 0f R ccurt:l cy; th~n With A s~:~mple of fixed size. The sPving in number of observF~ ti nns is often !'Is gre~:~ t ~'~ s fifty per cent. To explAin why this s8ving in number nf observAtions m~y be ob tAined by the use of sequentiAl sE~mpling a brief outline of the principles behind the conventionAl And sequentiAl s~mpling schemes is required. In ordin1'\ry sempling, with B. fixed sample size, there Are three VRri8bles involved, tw0 of which Are fixed in-AdVAnce. These ~:~re: (A.} n --the srunple size· And (b) 4... --the proie.bility of rej ecting H0 (the null hypnthesis ~ . when H is true (Type I Error). The third VAriA.ble is .e , the probAbility ~hAt H0 will be E~ecepted when H1 (the A.lternF~tive hypothesis) is true (Type II Error). The power of the test is eq_uF~l to 1-;:~· . The usuAl procedure in fixed sR.mpling is to choose t_he-vAlues of n ~:~nd :f. P.nd then use the test thAt gives the best power for the ~ypothesis being tested, which can be seen to give the smt=lllest fJ • · ., With the conventionFil sF~inpling scheme a SAmple is drAwn E~nd on the bp sis ef the sR.mple d8 t~ A decision is m~de. The null hypothesis is either FICcepted or rejected E~t the c(. confi dance level. ~ different 8pproA.ch is used in sequential sampling. Instead of n Pnd ct_ being fixed, d A.nd .B' f'lre chosen in A.dVftnc e E!nd n 8.llowed to vary. The sE~mple is drA.wri one 8 t fl. time, f'lnd At e8 ch · drf'W e decision is IDf'lde. The H0 IDE'Y be Accepted, rejected or no decision refl.ched. If no decision is ret=~ched, the sampling is continued. If either of the other events occurs sRmpling is terminPted. ' Before 8 sequentiA.l S8.mplirtg scheme cen be 13pplied ·to estimfl te the density of 8 given insect populPtinn something must be known 8bout the type of distribution followed. Two common distributions - 30 - Are the BinomiAl Rnd the Norm~l. The BinomiAl distribution applies to R series of individuAl observ~tions from a discrete popul8tion, in which eAch observ~tion mAy be plPced in one of two mutuAlly ex clusive clRsses. The NormAl distribution-is A continuous distrib ution, but IDRny discrete distributions Appro~ch normAlity AS the sAmple size increAses. As An exRmple of the BinomiAl distribution, consider the estim Ation nf the -rAtio nf nvipnsition sites to totRl shoots of the current seAson's growth for the lRrch sAwfly, PristiphorA erichsonii (Htg.). This insect lAys its eggs in the shoots of the current seAson's growth of tAmArAck, which often gives .a chArActeristic curling to the shoots involved. The distribution of the oviposition sites in relAtion to totAl shoots AppeArs to be r~ndom, so thAt the rAtio of the twn should fnllow the Binomi~l distribution if observ Ations Are tAken one At A time. Before sAmpling stArts it must be determined Wh?t decisions Are to be mAde. Suppose it is decided to clt=~ssify ·tfie f'l=ltio into the cAtegories of light, medium or heAvy. In order: tn d11 this, sufficient infnrmA ti on from previous sE~mpling must be· ·!=lvAilAble to decide whAt VAlues of the rAtio Are to be clAss ed AS light, medium or hgAvy. These rAtios will be different for different types of trees, but thAt Aspect will not be discussed here. ·.Assuming th~?t su·itAble vF~lues hAve been decided upon for the retio,.F'ind suitAble VA·lues choSen for the confidence levels c!. And;3, A ChArt is set Up ~S Shown below. ·' / • . r('a,/ [I) QJ Heavy +l \'/ •ri (/) ~ - ~/ ~ ?>I/ ~ 0 Medium •ri / ·cy.) . +l ..-----. ·@I --- 8. oU / - _-:------0 ·-- -~ ,,J / ___. .. -·- I ; .,....1 ~ ---- . 0 c.-. l\ , , / ..----:::::5 ,.,.., e------0 ~ -. / . ---- 0------.. / ----- . P. _.-- H Light QJ c' .. / • ------t 1 Tl I)_::------·- 1 -~---co~ z .----/' ---- ::___/~_-·-· Totcil Shoots Fig. 1 - Sequential sampling chart for Binomial distribution - 31 - The ~ctuPl SPmpling procedure is quite simple. Ex~mine A sho0t And determine whether . or not it beBrs ·oviposition scArs. Then plot A point on the. chArt. Ex~=~mine Annther shant F~nd plot Another point, etc. S~mpling termirtRtes when nne nf the points fAlls into R crit icAl re~ion. It is oft~n mnre conveniant to exAmine A group of shoots·, SAy ten ;:~ t A ·time 1 Rnd then plot the results. This does not Alter the chRr~cter nf the test, hence this procedure would usuR lly b_e fo llnwe~. SuitAble rAndomizAtion technioues Are required for the Rbove test to be VAlid, but this ~spect ~f the problem will not be dis cussed here. As An exAmple of the sequenti~l sAmpling from A norwl:).. y ' dis tributed populAtion StArk's sequentiAl s~mpling method f~r estim Ating populRtion densities of the lodgepole needle miner cAn be considered. He used the number of mined needles per five-yeAr tip . AS the index of popul~=~tion density. The Chi-sqt:IFlre test WAS Applie.d to the dAtA And indi CR ted noriTJ.R li ty • . The r~tes of infestl'ltion, bAsed on number nf mines per tip, were grouped RS follows: -1) light ' less thi=in .5; 2) medium more thAn 1.5 but less thAn 2.5; And 3) heAVY nver 3.5 • The chArt is similAr to thAt for the BinomiAl distribution, Al though, nf course, different formulAe were used in drAwing the lines. Medium Light Number of Five-Year Tips Fig. 2 - Sequential sampling chart for Normal distribution. 1stRrk, R.W. Sequenti~=~l S~=~mpling of the Lndgepole Needle Miner. Forestry Chronicle, Vnl. 28, Nn. 2, pp • .57-60, 19.52. - 32 ... The prinqiple in. this c~se is ex~ctly tfie .. s~me ~s with the BinomiAl, except thAt the fltliTlOer . O:f :SAIDpl8A is plotted Agl'linst the CUIDUlA ti Ve sum of th~ s""mples ins te""d of tot-Fil number· ·or observ"" ti ons FlgFd nst m.1IT1b ~r d.e(ecti ve in the cFi se of the Binomi~=d.. SF1mpling is ·l=lgFdn termin~ted "' · ~ . ~oon ~s Fl point fR.lls in . one ·of the three criticel regions·.. · . ,. · · · '. Sequenti""l SAmpling schemes hFlve Also been dev.ised for: 1. Poisson distributions; · ~. NegF~tive BinnmiRl distributions; 3. NegAtive Hypergeometric distributions. Howeve.r, for purposes nf illustrAtion; the two distributions Pl reAdy discussed should suffice •. In conclusinn, the chief ~dv~=~ntFige nf Fl sequentiFll SFimpling scheme i.q. estimFlting the density nf i.nsact populPtions is in the reduction 0f the sRmple· size required for A. gi vert degree of' Rccur Pcy. Insect populAtions Are usuAlly vary vPriRble. Consequently, Fl l~'~ rge SAmple is required fpr reP sonl=lbly "'c curFI te estim~ tes, if P conventionAl sPmpling scheme is used. If by ustng sequen tiFI.l sAmplin~?:, the SAmple size CFin be reduced by P.n ""ppreciR.ble l=lmo_unt, without SAcrificing ~ccurRcy, then such A ·sAving cFin be very worth while. ... - 33 - THE ANNUAL MEETING The Business Session The business session of the 195& Annual Meeting of the Society was convened in the Department of Entomology, The University of Manitoba, at 9:00A.M., November 19, 195A. The President, Dr. A. J. Thorsteinson, presided. The minutes of the spring meeting were read. It was moved by p, : H~ 1Nestdal, seconded by T. v. Cole, that the minutes be adopted as read. CARRIED. The Treasurer's report was read by G. L. warren. The Society was reported as having no outstanding debts. Members were reminded that fees are payable in'advance. The Editor-Librarian's report was presented by A. G. Robinson. It included a summary of a meeting of the library committee on June ~, 19)~, and a report on the sale of 50 copies of Volume 8 of the Proceedings. The meeting was in formed that the Proceedings is now being sent to Entomological News anS} Biological Abstracts. Adoption of this report was moved by A. 'G .- Robinson ·and seconded by J. Heron. CARRIED. Professor A. v. Mitchener reported for the common names committee on a list forwarded to the Canadian committee on common names, and that he wished to be relieved ·as chairman of the local committee because he had been asked to be chair man of the Canadian Committee. The adoption of this report was moved by A. v. Hitchener and seconded by R. M. Prentice. CARRIED.----- It was moved by R. R. Lejeune, and seconded by w. Turnock that the executive be directed to appoint a new committee on commori names, and to name a chairnian. CARRIED. . . It was moved by A. G. Robinson, seconded by w. R. Allen, that the Editor-Librarian be permitted to present to new members, on joining the society, copies of former volumes of the Proceedings, where surpluses exist •. . . . CARH.IE:Q.. Contrary - A • V. Mitchener. On motion of w. R. Allen, seconded by A. G. Robinson, it was agreed that in future an Editorial Board of the Entomolog ical Society of Manitoba be empowered to accept for public ation in the Proceedings papers '"submi t.ted by any person, but that preference be given to members of the Society. The pur pose of this motion was to encourage pu.blica tion of papers other than those presented at the spring and fall meetings of the Society. . ·CARRIED. •. - 3t1 .- It was .moved by F. Birt, seconded by w. Ives, that the executive be directed to appoint an Editorial Board consist ing of the Editor-Librarian as chairman and two others. CARRIED. - on· ·a motion by w. R·:.·Allen, seconded by J. Heron, the executive was directed :t.o .investigate the matter of appoint- ment of all ·present st.anding committees. CiiRRIE~ • .. 'l;'he. President informed the meeting that the resolution regarding the mail -ballot,_forwarded by the Entomological Society·. of Manitoba, was passed at the annual ·meeting of the Entomological Society of Canada, November 1-3, 19)d, A nominating committee, composed of R. R. Lejeune, A. v. Mitchener and R. D. Bird, presented a slate of officers as follows: President F. L. Watters Vice-President G. L. Warren Secretary R.· M. Prentice Treasurer T. v. Cole Editor-Librarian A. G. Robinson Auditors F. Birt and· S. Pugh Th~ Chairman called for nominations from members present. It was moved by w. Romanow, seco.r;lded by w. R. Allen, that nom- inations cease. --CARRIED. The meeting ·was adjourn~d at 11:00 A. M. ~cientific Business The scientific ses.sion bf the annual meeting was held in the ·Department of Ent.omology, The University of Manitoba, on the afternoon of November 19, and on Hovember 20. Ari enjoyable smo~er was held an the evening of November 19. The scientific session opened with some timely ·remarks by the President -emphasizing the occasion-as the tenth anniversary of the Society • . A welcome ·t-a·=members was extended by Dr. J. R. Weir, Dean of the Faculty of Agriculture and Home Economics, of The University of Mani to.ba. · Two films were shown on the afternoon of November 19, en . titled· 1\l.iites and Monsters, and Butterfly Botanists. The Society is much indebted to Messrs. H. L. Seamans, R.H. -- Painter., J. B. Wallis and B. Hocking for presentation of papers which follow. - 35 - CH11NGE8 ll'f ENTOMOLOGICAL REi.:!EBRCH IN 1NEuTERN CANADA IIJ T".tiE LAuT DECADE (19.1.1-195.1) by H. L. Seamans Field Cr~p Insect Unit Divisi~n ~f Entomology, Ottawa, Ont. If one were to study the list of projects being carried on by the Entomology Division of the Cana~a Department of Agri culture and other institutions, he would not be impressed by the changes that have taken place in entomological research in Western Canada in the past ten years. To be sure, there are many new projects and a few nev1 fields of research, but the lists do not indicate marked changes in methods of attack, techniques, or general program. However, the study of project outlines, reports, and published papers is exceedingly reveal ing. I do not think this ~s the time or the place to single out individuals or laboratories as having made the greatest contribution to these changes, but I want to show that changes have taken place nnd what I think are the factors responsible for them. Throughout this discussion, I shall avoid the use of the word '1 fundamental ·1 in discussing research. This word has been misused and misinterpreted and has finally taken on a meaning that tends to separate ivory tower laboratory research from research done in the field. In entomology, the location of the research is no criterion of its fundamentality. The decade 19ttt1.-195.1 can be looked upon ·as one of expan sion. In 194'-1 we were still at war.· Entomologi-cal research in \vestern Uanada was restricted to the most pressing economic problems. Organizations were short-staffed, with many of the men in the armed services. Funds were limited; equipment was difficult to obtain; insecticides were in short supply; travel was restricted by gasolene rationing and field work was curtailed. However, l94A was the beginning of a new era in entomological research and since then staffs and funds have increased and equipment has been greatly improved. Effec t·s of DDT on Entomol::gical Research Between 19.12 and 19.1.1, rumors were heard that the armed services were using a new and powerful insecticide for the control· of house flies, mosqui t.oes, and body lice. The supplies ·were controlled by the. armed services and nohe was available for expe-rimental work. Runior said that, when it be came available, DDT would be the perfect insecticide, controll ing all insects. Everyone wanted to get on the DDT band wagon, - 36 - . and Western Canadian entomologists were no exception. Biol ogical studies were almost forgotten. Because any insect could be controlled with DDT, why bother to study the lives and loves of the bug?· ·· · . . The war endec:l in l9ll5 and entomological research took a new lease on life. 3taff .returned to work; new positions were created; funds were adequate; new equipment was procurable; and salaries became more reasonable·. DDT became available for ex perimental use and soon turned out to be an exceptionally good insecticide, but not all-powerful. The initial success of D~T stimulated the chemists to produce other organic compounds with value as insecticides. Some of these were deliberately compounded; others were the re sults of the search for chemicals of possible uso in chemical warfare. Tt:ith this flood of new materials, the entomologists were forced to conduct investigations to determine the value and limitations of each. There were many failures and many ·start ling successes. The conflictinc results indicated a need for reasearch on insect physiology and toxicology to determine how and why these insecticides killed •. In general, these new insecticides were extremely toxic to insects. Effective dosages were found to be unbelievably low. This stimulated research on methods of applying insecticides in low volume. Entomologists in western Canada directed this re search to .concentrate sprayers, improved nozzles, the use of insecticidal fogs, smokes, and aerosols, and improve£nen ts in both ground and air equipment. Droplet size, spray patterns, and insecticide distribution all had to be considered, and new carriers and diluents that would meet required specifications had to be formulated. The investigations alternated between the: laboratory and. the field, and be twe on the entomologist, the; toxicologist, and the chemist. The outcome, to date, has been a more effective control of insects and a more effective application of insecticides. One of the most startling changes in tho research pro g~am has been the use of the new insecticides for the control of soil-infesting insects. Research on the control of wire worms, root maggots, cutworms, white grubs, the tuber flea beetle, the carrot rust fly, and other insects attacking the underground portions of plants changed almost overnight from cultural practices, the use of soil fumigants, and poisoned baits to soil insecticides and mi:::thods of applying them. H:::>w these insecticides kill when applied to the s:::>il has yet to be determined. They are n:::>t volatile like ethylene dibromide, DDT, ana other recognized soil fumigants, and yet it is diffi cult to imagine that ari insect moving through the soil would come in contact with the small amotint of insectic.ide. that has bo en· introduced. seed dressings were found to give. excellent control of wireworms, at 6ne or two ounces of insecticide per acre, and research with seed dressings was expanded for other insects. Applications of insecticide to the soil by spraying, dusting, or through sprinkler irrigation have shown promise in - 37 - controlling cutworms. Restricted soil treatments, such as applying-tho ·insecticide in the saed furrow, or as a band treatment along the drill rows, seem to be particularly effect ive as a control for root maggots. Research on grasshopper control has been completely re vised by tho new insecticides. Experiments with poisoned baits have been dropped and the research has been concentrated on the value of the new insecticides and methods of applic ation. Concentrate sprays applied with low-volume sprayers or by aircraft have controlled grasshoppers almost to the point of eradication. As good as these new insecticides are, they created new problems. Some of them, and in many cases only certain form ulations, are phytotoxic to a varying degree. Some are dis sipated rapidly and others· persist for varying lengths of time as residues that arc important from the standpoint of insect control bu·t that also may endanger human health. Some cause a disagreeable taint in edible ~oots, limiting the crops on whicp they can be used. It was necessary, therefore, to deter mine the·maximum amount of insecticide that could be used with out undue hazard and the minimum dose for insect control. Another feature of the new insecticides brought the ent omologist back to the study of insects. None of them would cgntrol all insects. Som8 were not equally effective against all the species of one family or even of one genus, and yet were very effective against a great number of species in all orders; others were more effective against certain related groups. Laboratory tests could indicate the value of an in secticide to control specific insects but could not forecast the complications that arose when the insecticide was used in the field. ·DDT was found to be exceptionally effective in the control of the codling moth. \!Vhon used in the orchard it destroyed not only the codling moth but also tho most important predators and parasites of orchard mites, without affecting the mites themselves. The result was an extremely serious outbreak of mites. Out of it came a complete revision of the research on insects affecting apple trees, first in Nova Scotia and then in British Columbia. While the chemists bestirred themselves to find something to control mites, the entomologists studied orchard insects on an ecological basis. In the research pro gram,· sprays were used for the control of scab, and insecti cides were eliminated in some cases. Parasi.tes and predators were allowed to take over the control- of the pest species. il{hen some thing_ happened that allowed one pest species to in crease, a carefully chosen insecticide was used. to check it where possible without disrupting the parasite-predator re lationship of other species. Conflicting results in the control of root maggots led to a cri tica,l study of the species involved. The results of - 38 - this study revealed the; t the maggots f0und. in cruciferous roots are not all the cabbage maggot,- Hllemll~ brassicae (Bouche), but represent several species With different habits and 'life-histories. This has rosul ted in the entomologists studying the life-histories, habits, and behaviour of indiv idual species, particularly in parts of the \tifest where it is now--know thnt H. brassicae does not occur or is not the most common species. In other-areas and on other plants, mix tures of species have been found attacking roots, requiring resea-rch on the timing of spray applications, to secure the most effective c0ntro1 with the least effort. There is anothur phase of research stimulated by DDT and the other organic insecticides. It has not yet affected the entomologists of \'}'estern Canada, but may be expected to do so before long. A few years ago it was reported tha·t house flies were becoming·resistant to DDT, and immediately physio logists and toxicologists started investigations to deter- mine why the insecticide wus becoming less effective. Since then, other insects have been showing signs of devel0ping strains resistant to DDT. rho more serious aspect is that strains resistant to DDT develop resistance to other hydro carbon insecticides mre readily than do non-resistant strains. Unless the physiologist, the toxicologist, and the chemist can find a solution, s0me of those now insecticides may be come ineffective. The fear that this situation may arise in the not-too distant futuro· has focused tho attention of the cntomlogist on tho need for more information on the biology of the in-· sects affecting crops. There has been a marked increase in the amount of time being spent on the details of life-history, ecology, behaviour, and physiology. The interEJ st· thus aroused has created a desire for more intimate knowledge of factors such as the embryological development within the egg, the ecology and physiology of the different stages, the physiol ogical and ecological factors in diapause and breaking of diapause, and the habits and behaviour of all ·stages. . . Use of Radio-activity in Ent0mological Research One 0f the newest t0ols in scientific research is radio-active tracers. Radio-active material is dangerous to handle and must be use·d in specially equipped laborat0ries coL'lCilonly known as "hot" laboratories. In Vvostern canBda radio-active material has been used t0 tag wireworms and cut- worms so that their movements in the soil can be traced by means of·a Geiger counter. ' The dispersal of grasshoppers in the field has been studied by treating their food with radio active material and liberating thorn in the field. Collect- · ions of grasshoppers made at different times after liberation and at different distances from the liqeration point were checked with a Geiger counter to determine the distance and direction of dispersal. Radio-adti~ity has also been used in the study of - 39 - mosquito and blsck fly dispersal in the north and on the prairies. Radio-active material added to the pools containing mosquito larvae rendered the larvae radio-active and this act ivity could still be detected after they emerged as adults. Dispersal was then determined by checking field collections of adults with a Geiger counter. Insect-resistant Crops The development of Rescue, a wheat resistant to attack by the wheat stem sawfly, has led to the investigation of resis tance of other crops to other insects. In most cases these in vestigations are in the initial stages of determining the d iff erential feeding of a species on a number of varieties of the host plant. In others, some breeding work has been started with a resistant variety for at least one of the parents. In the west, this work has consisted of investigations on sawfly-resistant wheat, grasshopper-resistant wheat and barley, and sweet clover resistant to the sweet clover weevil. As a matter of interest, in other parts of canada studies are being conducted on potatoes resistant to aphids and the Co~orado potato beetle; corn resistant to the European corn borer;. turnips re sistant to root maggots; cabbage resistant to the cabbage maggot and peas resistant to the pea aphid. In the last few years, the research on resistanc~ has gone much deeper than the mere screening of varieties .. More attention is being given to the causes of resistance. In some cases resistance may be purely mechanical, such as a toughness of tissue, preventing the insect from penetrating the stems or feeding ·on the leaves, or an arrested or accelerated plant de velopment, resulting in the plants being in a non-susceptible stage when the insects are abundant. There is also a chemical resistance, which may consist of substances in the ·plant repellent to the insect or incom patible with the insect physiology or nutrition. In the first case, the insect is not destroyed but merely avoids the crop and seeks other hosts; in the second, the insect may be de stroyed or reduced in numbers by feeding on the host. The early work on the effect of the food plant on the insect has been re fined by a study of the chemical composition of the plant tissue in relation to insect survival and fecundity. For example, the fact that there appears to be a relationship between the total nitrogen and the susceptibility of a plant t·o insect attack :i,s not so important as what amino acids and the quantity of each make up the bulk ·or this nitrogen. Thus, empirical breeding for resistance is being refined and put on a more nearly sound scientific basis. These investigations +evealed the necessity for research on insect nutrition and particularly the basic dietary require ments of insects. The work along this "line is just getting - .10 - under way in the West. It must be evident to anyone who has ever given it a thought that the dietary req_uire.ments of in sects differ widely; otherwise all insects could survive and reprod.uce on the same plant. The research has progressed to the point. where the vit£lmins, enzymes, and other nutrients essential for development are known fo_r one or two species, as well as the effect of leaving one o·r more of the essentials out of tho diet. It is interesting to note that, though the incentive for dietary research came from the resistance studies, the most progress has been made with species not con cerned with these studies. Team Hork and Composite La bora torie s Just ten years ago, I was asked to give a talk to the Entomologists Group of the Professional Institute on trends in field crop insect research. In this talk I stated that in much of our research the entomologists had reached a point where help was req_uired, either from entomologists trained along special lines or from specialists in other fields. I cited the Rust Research Laboratory as a restricted beginning when plant pathologist and plant breeders combined their efforts to fight rust. I felt at that time that at least an entom ologist. should have been working with these men to determine the susceptibility of rust-resistant wheat to insect attack. I visualized a series of composite laboratories where entom ologists, insect physiologists, toxicologists, chemists, bio chemists, plant pathologists, plant physiologists, ecologists, geneticists, statisticians, and plant breeders would be housed together and, when necessary, work together on a common prob lem. The audience react ion was interesting. The consensus was that as a pipe dre·am this was pretty good, but as a pract ical working scheme it was impossible and would never be accomp lished, at least not in our lifetime. Today, several such laboratories have been established. Though the .staffs are not as complete as those .L visualized, they are coming nearer .to it each year. Specialists and special eq_uipment have been installE.:d, and on more than one occasion men from other laboratories have taken ·their problems to these lab oratories and have either had the specialist work on them or have worked on them themselves under guidance of the specialist. In general, the q_uality of the research has been greatly improved at the composite, or Science service, laborator ies. This has consciously or unconsciously influenced the work at other laboratories and research institutions. General I have not attempted to go into detail on the new work or new approaches to old projects th~t have taken place in Y'Ie stern Canada sine~ 19.14. '· - t!.l - Of the 216 projects listed in the 1954 projects list of the Entomology Division as being conducted in Hestern canada, 164 were started in l9A4 or later. Some of these are revis ions or refinements of old projects but many of them are on new work, including experiments with the. new insecticides, life history studies, ecology, population dynamicp, physiology, nut rition, and development. Entomological research at institutions other than the Entomology Division of the Canada Department of Agriculture covers much the same field but with fewer long-term studies·and a tendency to morphology. In the Forest Biology Division, ecology and population dynamics have taken a more prominent place in the research program. The livestock insect research in the Prairie Provinces has been developed in the last ten years. This has included studies on th~ life-histories, ecology, behaviour, and control of warble flies, horn flies, the sheep ked, cattle lice, mosquitoes, horse flies, and black flies. The importance of the canadian Arctic in the defence of l~or th America and the necessity of establishing air bas~s and radar s-tations throughout the region required that something be done about the biting flies that make the Arctic almost un inhabitable during much of the summer. The Systematic arid V8t erinary and Medical Entomology u.ni ts of the Entomology Divis ion in cooperation with the Defence Research Board initiated surveys of the biting flies of the Arctic regions and a research pro gram on the biology and control of biting flies. The survey became a general faunal survey of the Arctic with special emphasis on the biting flies. This paved the way for general faunal surveys in the agricultural areas of canada. The program got under way in the Vtiest when a systematist was permanently established at one of the western laboratories, and was further advanced when two field parties spent the summer in different agricultural areas of British Columbia. The purpose of the faunal survey is twofold, to become better acquainted with the species occurring in an area and to collect material for the National Collection of Insects. Research on the diseases of insects and the possibility of using diseases for the control of insects has been daveloped ex tensively in the Forest Biology Division. The Biological Control Unit of the Entomology Division has initiated a study of the diseases of prairie grasshoppers. There has been a oarked increase in the amount of time and staff devoted to research on forage crop insects in western Canada. The main effort at present is on insects affecting al falfa seed production. The research follows two main lines: the insects attacking the blossoms and seed, and the insects re sponsible for pollination. The first is a study of life-history, habits, and control; the second is largely ecological, a study of the life-history, habits, and habitats of pollinators. Methods of cl~aring and cultivating land to preserve or create - <12 - ideal ha bi tats t.:> maintain maximum p.:>llina t.:>r populations are being 'investigated .as a study in field manngement. A new field of research in the control of insects 6f(ecting stored products is the use of radio frequency and dieledtric heating. Except in a few instances, the titles of the projects do not indicate any marked change in the research program. However, the pro.je c t s ta temen ts, outlines, and reports in the Entomology Division show that thoro is an attention to detail that was lacking ten years age>. R~search programs are· more carefully planned so that results can be thore>ughly analysed. Interpretation .:>f results of biol.:>gicnl e>bscrvations where statistic5l analysis is inipossible .is given !!lore th.:>ught and study. There is .a greater tundency t0 find out why a thing hapoened than t.:> just chr.:>nicle whti t happened. ... --- One factor that has pre>bably influenced this impre>ve ment in research attitude and accomplishment more than any other ts postgraduate study. Ten years ago the men who had ·advanced degrees were in the rninori ty in we stern canada. · Today, there are more men with Ph.D. than with Bachelor degrees and there are very few of tile latter who have -not had at least one yE:Jar .:>f postgraduate study. The contacts made with other workers, students as well as pr.:>fesse>rs, ctnd the inf.:>rmal dis cussions .:>n m~thods, techniques, and equipment, are just as valuable for conducting a future research program as the ad vanced courses taken f.:>r the degree. Together, they unde>ubt edly have had a. pr.:>!e>und effect on the research outlook. A less impe>rtant factor that has had an influence on research is the attendance at c.:>nferencGs .:>f research w.:>rkers. The majority of the ftlembers of the staffs of the western lab oratories have attended one .:>r more confe.rences in the last t~n years, where tlley have had oppe>rtunities te> discuss re search prograu:s, accunlUlate new ideas, and ce>mpare ne>wes with other workers in the same fields. 'Jlhe .inspiration and stim ulus received from such contacts is reflected in the improved attitude te>wards research. In conclusion, I should like to make one statement that has been made :by others under similar circumstances. After visiting research s ta ti.:>ns arid. comparing research pro grams in the United States and overseas, I think that entom ological research in Canada can h.:>ld its own with any of them, and needs no apology. - t13 - THE ROLE OF LIAiclON IN EIJTOMOLOGY R. H. Painter Science Service .La bora tory, L.e.thbridge, Alberta Liaison in entomology is merely another term for public relations or extension in this field. It is necessary because of the development of intense specialization in research .. with a resultant neglect of the overall picture. In addition, many research workers feel that the preparation of popular articles and extension take too much time from research. The L~in functions of a liaison officer may be outlined as follows. 1. Preparation of . extension material (a) Pro c~~~ed ___E~blica t.!_on~ Processed publications are a good medium for presenting the results of research to the producer. But, these public ations lack appeal. Compared with extension material distributm by commerce, who have something to sell, most processed public ations leave much to be desired. It is essential that they be attr9ctive, and above ·all, that they be written in the language of the producer rather than in the language of research • . (b) "Eopular articles and press releases MUch of .the value in articles of this nature depends on the 'time of release. Their value is ·largely lost if they are not of topical interest. Articles passing through Information 8ervice, Department of Agriculture, may often fall into this category if they are unduly delayed. The liaison officer could be of assistance to the Information Service in suggesting the most suitable type of article. and time of release. (c) Exhibit~ One of the main features of exhibits should be their public appeal rather than research appeal. (d) Revie~~improved control techniques for use of Provincial officials It should be the duty of the liaison officer to review all control material on any one insect species and to surnmarize the information for the extension services; this to be made appropriate for different areas, e.g., ranches vs. prairie farm:il. 2. Information and public relations The liaison' officer should deal with enquiries by personal - 411 - interviews, correspondence, and by addressing producer assoc iation mc:.etings. There should be representatives from each of the specialized fields, i.e., field crop insects, fruit insects, stored product insects, etc. These officers would relieve research workers of extension Guties. 3· Liaison In this field the ·liaison officer acts as a go-between from researcher to producer and, equally as importgnt, from tho producar to th~ research worker. By attending producer meetings th.e liaison officer .umy become more fEHi1iliar with the actual problems existing and thus be in a better position to suggest research requirements. There should also be lia ison be tween research, industry, and the prod~cer in such fields as the chemical and machinery industries. Many of the chemicals and machines with which to apply them, offered to the producer, are not suitable for the job required. The liaison officer should arrange demonstrations of approved control practices~ ~1terials, and equipment and should assist in the organization of provincial and other control campaigns. He should not, ·however, organize any meetings or demonstrations except through a provincial official. ~. Ke~ing U£-to-date on insect_EEoble~ The liaison officer must keep abreast of new d8velop ments. It is obvious that with the vast amount of literature published today .the liaison officer must have assistance in this aspect of his work. He r.mst receive a summary of the latest information from. the research specialist, who is in a better position to . glean the li~erature in his own field. In performing· these functions the liaison officer can be of great assistance in acting as a buffer between the research workor and the public. - 45 - PIONEERS OF ENTOMOLOGY IN MANITOBA by J. B. Wallis Department of Entomology The University of Manitoba In preparing the following incomplete and brief account of the pioneer entomologists of Manitoba I found it impossible to obtain much statistical data or even information concern ing the maJority of those hereafter mentioned. Hence it was necessary to depend upon my own personal knowledge and memory in compili~g this report. · The first actual list of insects taken · in what is now -Plfanitoba, so far as I can discover, appears to· be a list of thirty-eight species --- twenty-two butterflies and sixteen beetles --- ·published as Appendix IV to the Report of the Geological Survey of Canada in 1880 •. The Report covered explorations by Dr. Robert Bell on the Churchill and Nelson Rivers and around God's and Island Lakes. However, the insects were taken by that remarkable Churchman, the Venerable Arch deacon Kirby, who, in spite of the dangers, discomforts, and ~ifficulties of -northern travel in those days, still found opportunity to carry on his entomological. studies. Kirby's work for the Anglican Church took him to many parts of the North West Territories but he can scarcely be considered as a pioneer of entomology in Manitoba as he was · not· a per- manent resident • . As seems to have been a general rule our:early entomolo gists were· amateurs, collecting and studying insects for the saeer love of Nature, and before the turn of the century there --were two great names, Rea th and Hanham. E. Firmstone Heath was an Englishman who settled at Cartwright, apparently in the late '70's ·or early '80's. Characteristically he named his farm dwelling "The Hermitage". Lepidoptera w·ere his chief entomological interest and of them he maje an extensive local collection, the identifica tion of most of which was done by J.B. Smith, Professor of Entomology at Rut5er's College in the U.S.A., who was, at that time, one of the three North American authorities on the macrolepidoptera •. On Heath's death, which occurred in 1914, the Manitob~:, Government bought his collec.tiort and turned it over to the-Winnipeg Board of Trade for placing in their museum and the Chairman of the. Museum. Se-c;tion:, Dr. Bond, a.sked me to· put the collection in shape for ·reference and exhibition. : .Unfortunately, the collection proper was mounted in the European fashion on short pins but as nothin~ could be done about this a ca2e was ~ought and the work of organiz ing the material went on. · . Specimens for. identif ica ti'on were sent to specialists in the various groups and F. H. Walley Dod, the distinguished authority op the Pha.laenidae was ,generous enough to come from c · ~tga :ry . and' 's.p:t;lnd two week's of his time in arranging them. The identi,fica~tons thus represented the latest l ino-.t~so~9 - t himt;ing. ; · . : : • ; • ~ Among - thes.e . waS, f.~ari)lon t . ~ Pf Rounthwai te who' for a 0 short tim~, collected_.. bee~les quite;_ex~ensively. He, too, moved to · :e. C._ .where _he c ontinu,€ld 0 hi-s ,collecting. V\'ha t became of . his collection I_ do not kriow • . Then there were J. D. Duthie who loved to· get. together a group of y.oung people to go out sugaring ~or mcths; _Dr. _A. J. , H~ter who had a hospital in Teul on and yet found, t iple - ~o i th the .help of the school teacher t'~_ ere, W. A. Cummi'ngs, to inspire Iriany of the school pupils '· - 47 - with a love of Nature. Dennis of Beulah contributed to our knowledge of the diurnal Lepidoptera, and his collection1 bought by G. s , ~ irley Brooks, is now in the Winnipeg Museum. Two men of the period 1913-1940 are of more importance becauae of the rather extensive collections made by them. L. H. D. Roberts came from England as a lad in 1913 and soon began a collection of Coleoptera and Lepidoptera. He was a most industrious coilector spending all his spare time and holidays at his hobby, so that in a relatively few years he had a good representation of local material. Following his marriage and with constantly increasing responsibility in his ; work· with the C.N.R. he felt compelled to dispose of his • coll.ections, giving his butterflies and moths to the Winnipeg Museum and his beetles to me. I, in turn, deposited most of them in the ~ .1useum of the Department of Entomology of The University of Manitoba, ·He never gave up hope of again turn- · ing to his beloved insects but intense concentration on his work brought on an illness which resulted in his death in 1953, Another prominent figure in the development of Entomology in Manitoba was G. Shirley Brooks, Hej too, was an English man, and, too, earned his living with the C.N.R,. We met first at the newly formed Natural History Society of Manitoba in 1922 and 1 until his death, were from that time in close association. While he collected more or less generally as occasion served, his love, first and last, was for the butter- .flies. At his su~ner cottage at Victoria Beach and later- on several holiday trips to Gillam and Churchill in northern Manitoba.he added considerably to our knowledcre of our northern butterflies. For several years before his death he acted as unofficial curator of Insects in the Manitoba Museum and it is to his skill and interest that we owe the fine cabinet of butterflies in that institution.· This paper has so far dealt only with collectors who are dead, but I feel constrained·.to add the ·names of J. F. May and his wife Margot who are still helping to widen popular interest in insects. A forest ran ger in the Riding Mts., May was stationed in one of ' the most interesting collecting grounds in ganitoba, He aad a brother in Brazil who, too, was a collector, and who sent him many of the beautiful Mortlhos and Papilios · from that country. May was the most ant usiastic and energetic collector I have known. He thought nothing of carrying a 40 lb. light trap through a quarter of a mil:e: of dense bush, up the highest hill in the Riding Mts .·, ·• and then climbing with the' tra'p to the top - 48 ... of a forty foot tree, from whence the li~ht could be seen for miles. Besides energatically collecting local insects in which he was ably assisted by his wife, he exchanged specimens with correspondents all over the world. He did not, however, build up a scientific local collection, his interests running ·to ·the beautiful, the unusual and the large. · •. He left the Government serv·tce some years ago and went to the United States to live, building hi~self a home near Colorado Springs. Here he has a permanent fire-proof museum from which he s .ends by. trailers two large exhibits to fairs and shows. Recently he has buil·t a museum in Southern Florida . and will probably cease the arduous displays .at Sportsmens• Shows and the like. 11\Thil e not strictly scientific his collec tions are really magnificent, appealing to the love of beauty and of the stran:ze that is inherent in nearly everyone. A number of Manitoban insects have been named after him or aftst> his wif·e, and he has extended the interest in the Mani toban ..-i.. ~~ect ; · ~auna far and wide. Finally, the greatest name of all, Norman Criddle. Norman was the eldest .son 0f Percy Criddle who came· from England in the rrjo 's ·to settle at Aweme some twenty-six miles south-east ·of 'Brandon.: At this time Aweme. was a prosperous little farming community the sandy soil with plenty of sub-surface moisture producing the best wheat in Manitoba. Grasshoppers, dry weather and winds changed this. The grasshoppers cl6aned off all ·gr6wth of grain on the fields, dry weather permitted the high w~nds to blow all the sandy top soil away right down to the gravelly hard pan, and·the settlers gave.· ·.up the fight and moved. away. But the Griddles stayed. Percy Criddle was an amazing man. Highly··educated and cultured he was an outstanding musician both performer and composer. He bad a very large library including many medical and legal books. Having a most retentive memory he knew; theoretica~ly at least, as much about ·medicine as many doctors and as much law as many lawyers. Little wonder then that he was looked upon for miles around as ·an oracle who could settle medic.al, legal, or even purely domestic problems. Mrs. Criddle was,. in her own right, an authority on ·Old ·Engl·ish, and, in addi~)..on was ... -·· .-. highly cultured in those. arts. cons·idered to be nec"essary in the education of a lady of her time. · · In this atmosphere of knowledge · ~nd ·9.ulture· the.young Griddles rrew up and developed ·an interest in all things - 49 - around them. They gave their own names to the birds and animals, to the flowers, and to the larger insects. They learned the habits of the living things and amazed that great naturalist Thompson Seton with their knowledge. Norman was especially fascinated by the beauty of the flowers which then grew in great abundance and variety on the warm moist sandy soil, and with some assistance from his mother made paintings of a number., These he sent to Dr. James Fletcher, Dominion Entomologist and Botanist, at Ottawa for identification. Fletcher, always desirous of helping and en couraging, gave the names but, in addition, mad~ comments on how the paintings could be made more suitable for reproduction. A visit by Fletcher to the Griddles not long afterwards re sulted in the employment of Norman to illustrate some of the Department's publications. Thus Norman's work with the Gov ernment began as a botanist. Interest in insects seems to date from their father bringing home a silkworm moth --- possibly Cecropia but, in my opinion, more likely Nokomis. Anyhow, his four sisters and three brothers were all soon helping with "Norman's" collection, and by the time he was transferred from flowers to "bugs" he had already a fine collection especially of beetles, moths and grasshoppers. · So valuable was Norman's contribut~on to entomology considered to be that, after his appointment to the Division he was permitted to live at home and a laboratory was built for him almost at his front door. There, until his death in 1933 he continued to build up the collection, and Aweme became one of the best known and best worked collecting areas - in North America. · Yet, although one of th!3. finest field naturalists in North America• most of his kriowled [ ~ died with him. For some years before his ·death he had worked on our western grass hoppers. He had everything complete, text and draw.ings from the egg, each nymphal instar, to the adult of all but two or three of our species. But he would not publish until all was done. . But dea.~h came first and, today, no one seems to know · ev~n where the m~nuscript is. The coll~ction is broken ~p · int·egrated in part with the National Collection, part in ..Brandon,...... Manitoba. ·. · ·. : · "Sic transit gl·or ia mundi." - 50 ·- ON THE CLAS SIFICATION OF ENTOMOLOGICAL KNOVILEDGE Brian Hoc·king Department of Entomology Uni versi·ty of Alberta The problem which I want to present to you is one which I think is likely to assume increasing importance as entomo logical research proceeds into the future, and yet, to u,nderstand it a brief look into the past is first necessary. It is hard now to realize that perhaps ·a hundred years ago, in Darwin's day, perhaps somewhat more, · ~ capable and en thusiastic man could hold in his head virtually all that was then k_nown in the science of entomology. Horn and Schenkling-j,--}4.sting entomological information pu-olished prioF: to 1863, recorded a mer~ . 25,000 'papers, of which we might note in passing that less than a quarter were on economic entomology. By the turn of the century things had begun to change. Fifty years of economic entomology in America had added its share 0f writing to a growing litera ture of the pure science, and perhaps all that the most prodigious memory could then hope to hold was the knowledge of where information on every entomological topic could be found. The more ~edestrian workers, even then, leaned heavily on a card index or similar artificial memory. The first such publicly provided memory, Zoological -Record, had in fact been started in 1864. In 1905 some 3,000 entomologi cal papers were published, of which about one third were on economic subjects. This perhaps too lusty offspring of the pure science soo.n began to outgrow its parent, and .in 1913 tl).e Review of Applied Entomology was started, . largely t.o relieve Zoolozical Record of the burden of indexing the economic literature. Today entomological literature has grown vastly, and continues to grow at an apparently increasing rate~ .Jn 1950 some 6,000 economic papers were published, as well as about 4,500 'in-the pure scienc~. The World List of Scienti fic Periodicals in 1937 contai~ed the titles of about 25,000 regular periodicals; in 1952, .about 50,000; entomology claims a fair share of these. Small wonder that ev~ry con scientious worker in the field finds it increasingly difficult to keep abreast of the literature. I find it necessary to - 51 - see (but not, you note, to read!) every issue of some 45 periodicals, -to say nothing of new books and mimeographed rna terial. ' It 1s true that many of today's papers are rehashed repeats produced by men whose bosses insist on so many papers regardless of what is in them; or single page notes of which the· first half is title and introdu~tion, and the second half summary and references; or something ·dug 'out of the '· arc.hives by the convention hound who must present a paper in order to get there. There remains however, a solid c.ore of new information to be absorbed, 'which is far lar gel;' than it ~ver was. If the rate of increase is only linear, which I th~.nk is unlikely; we may expect nearly 20,000 entomological ., titles annually by the end of the century. Or, looking at it another way, one reference only per sp.ecies, will, if we consider the world fauna to be our respons-Ibility, already give us nearly a millibn titles; even ·if we take a provincial viewpoi_nt, which few of us care to admit to, we in Alberta al~eady need 10,000, 1·1/hat is the solution? The card index, helpful though ~t is, becomes cumbersome anq demands a cross refer.ence system w~en it grows to over a few thousand titles. For anypody conc.erned with more than a small segment of the fie.ld .this can happen very quickly. Subject indexing can be qUite a :problem even with less than 1,000 cards. I cannot claim to hav~ .solved this problem, and I hope I haven't led you to suppose · that I had, Frankly, I ~m h,e:r;-e pleading for help towards what I hope may prov.e a -solu tion,. The solution. we propose· to attempt at .the Uni~~jt'_s· ity _of Alp_erta is in two parts; the first is an item whi,c?h many :Of you probably are familiar with·, the punched c_ar.d, _·and the ;:J -e,qo-nd ·-- ~without which the punched card in itself ,ls useless ~ j_. compr.ehensive_ , logical and well planned entomologic~l sub- .. ject index. ~his is where I ~ope you - may be able to t?-elp me. ·. :..' . F.or those of you who are not familiar with punched cards I shqU:ld perhaps briefly explain their use • . The holes around: the margin of the card are usual:ly arranged in groups of four, and the holes in each group are labelled 7, 4, 2, 1, figures which can be ·added to give any number from 1 to 10 (or, if necessary, to 14). Any hole or combination of holes can be punched out to the margin, so that if a needle is run through a particular hole in a stack of cards, all those with the hole punched :·out will drop off the needle. If successive groups of holes are used to represent units, tens, hundreds, - 52 - etc., a 7 1/2" x 3 1/4" card with 80 holes. can be used to represent any one of 1020 different subjects or_ categories, all the cards in each of which could be readily withdrawn from a stack of (almost) ~nlimited size. In practice it is usually desirable to categorize references in more than one way, as for instance, autho"r 1 s -name alphabetically, year of puplication chronologically, taxonomic group, and perhaps a ~econd subject category. This rapidly reduces the total n~mber of cate'gories available, for. instance 20 blocks of hples divided .equally between four groups allows for 105 categories in each group.a. making a tptal of only 400,000 cat~gories instead of lOGO. For authors' names or other alphabetical purposes the letters may be given numerical values. Bett~r, if the alphabet is di-vided. into halves, one hole can be used to indicate which ha'lf a letter falls in, and a block or four to zive its number within that half. EJ.fteen holes will .then~ serve to give the first three letters ., of' an author's name. The system is a flexible one, and many variations are possible. A subject index is a more difficult matter than the choice of a C?rd, and .a more important one. Clearly it is ~~ise to start 'punching cards until the subj~ct index is in· its final sa-tisfactory form; at the _same time it is difficult to discover the faults in a subject index until one has .used it punching cards. Since it seems that it is no longer possible. for one man to know even the full extent and content of ~he field of entomology, it is from this dilemma that I solicit your aid. With this type of card, and since many of us still prefer to count on our fingers, ~ d~cimal numerical system of arrangement is to be preferred. He.re is our ten~ative index. Each of you, when your pet field _oomes up, will I am sure find something of arrangement or o~ission to ·driticize in it;. your criticisms-will ·be most welcome. We have not· yet fou.nd ·it ·necessary or pos'sible to :-• I • : . break down all categories to. the third figur~, but I will ~how one from each major group taken to this stage; you may ·care to make suggestions regarding the others. I should mention that we have found the Ur.iverssl Decimal System one of .the mo.st useful sources of ·ideas on this question, but .,.. .. . we found it impossible to u.se this system as it stands -because it does not treat ent.omology f!eparately from zoology, .. 'and 'because of the unconventional classification of the insects adopted in it. ,. .· ..; .. - 53 - 1. H I S T 0 R I C A L, G E N E R A L I T I E S 1.1. , HISTORICAL 1.2. . BI BLI OGRA PRY 1.3. GENERALITIES 1.4 •. TEACHING METHODS 1.5. RESEARCH ~1ETHODS 1.6. ILLUSTRATIVE NETHODS 1.7. PUBLIC ATI ON 1.8. DEFINITIONS, LIMITS OF THE FIELD . ...· . 2. M 0 R P HOLOGY 2.1. HISTORICAL, GEN3RAL, TECHNIQUE 2.2. EXTERNAL - HEAD 2.3. EXTERNAL - THORAX 2.4. EXTERNAL - ABDOMEN 2.5. INTERNAL - ALD.~El\!TARY & EXCRETORY SYSTEMS . 2.5~1. Historical, bibliography, general 2.5.2. Origin of Alimentary and Exc~etory systems. 2.5.3. Oesophagus, crop and Provent~iculus 2.5.4. ~Hd-gut, general 2.5.5. Gastric caeca 2.5.6. Peritrophic membrane 2.5.7. 1'11alpighian tubules & nepl:}.rocytes 2.5.8. Hind gut & rectal glands 2.5.9. Salivary glands 2.6. INTERNAL - VASCULAR & MUSCULAR SYSTE~1q;. FAT BODY 2.7. INTERNAL - Rr.:SPIRATORY SYSTEM 2.8. INTERNAL - NERVOUS SYS1EM & SENSE ORGANS 2.9. INTERNAL - REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 2.0. HISTOLOGY 3. T A X 0 N 0 M Y 3.1. HISTORICAL, GENERAL, TECHNIQUE 3.2. ORIGINS & RELATIONSHI,PS, EVOLUTION, FOSSIL GROUPS 3.3. OTHER ARTHROPODS 3.4. APTBRYGOTA 3.5. EXOPTERYGOTA 3.5.1. Historical, bibliqgr~phy, general 3.5.2. Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Odonat~ . 3.5.3. Orthoptera 3.5.4. Orthoptera, Dermaptera 3.5.5. Isoptera, Ernbioptera, Psocoptera 3. 5. • 6. Anoplura "3."5~7. Thysanoptera 3.5.8. Hemiptera - Heteroptera 3.5.9. Hemiptera - Homoptera - 54 - 3.6. ENDOPTERYGOTA 3.6.1. Historical, bibliography, general 3.6.2. Coleoptera 3.6.3. Coleoptera, Strepsiptera 3.6.4. Mecoptera, Neuroptera, Trichoptera 3.6.5. Lepidoptera 3.6.6. Lepidoptera 3.6.7. Diptera 3.6.8. Diptera, Aphaniptera 3.6.9. Hymenoptera 3.6.0. Hymenoptera 4. PH Y S IOLOGY 4.1. HISTORICAL, Gffi~ERAL, TECHNIQUE 4.2. ~·'IETABOLISM 4.3. GROWTH · 4.3.1. General, Bibliography, Historical 4 .• 3.2. Embryology 4.3.3. Hatching 4.3.4. Growth rates 4~3.5. Moulting· 4.3.6. Metamorphosis 4.3.7. Life cycles 4.3~9. Polymorphism 4.3.9. Repair and regeneration 4.3.0. Diapause · 4.4. REPR-Ol:UCTION . , ' 4.5. WATER RELATIONS 4. 6. TE\~P~R A TURE RELATIONS 4. 7. :NERVE PHYSIOLOGY 4.8. '~'!USCLE PHYSIOLOGY 5. E C 0 L 0 G Y ·5 .1. HI STORICAV, . GENERA.I,., TECHNIQUE 5.2. ETHOLOGY . 5.3. ENVIRONMENT - GENERAL 5. 4. ENVIRONMENT - CLI ~.~A 'I'E · ·· . 5. 5 • ··:· EDA,PHIC FACTORS · 5.6. POPULATIONs:· :cc· ASSJ~IATIONS 5.6.1. Synecology - · general 5.6.2. Population c'oniposition 5. 6. 3. Population es tima ti on 5.6.4. Biotic pot:. Environment resis. 5.6.5. Social life 5.6.6. Biocoenoses 5.6.7. Commensalism 5.6.8. Symbiosis 5.6.9. Galls - 55 - 5.6.0. Parasitism 5. 7. CONFLrCT & CO~~PETITI ON 5.8. ZOOGEOGRAPHY, DISTRIBUTION 6. A P P L I E D - G E N E R A L 6.1. HISTORICAL, GENERAL, TECHNIQUE 6.2. FACTORS AFFECTING INSECT N1JMBERS 6.3. ECOLOGICAL CONTROL METHODS 6.4. PHYSICAL CONTROL HETHODS 6.5. CHEMICAL CONTROL METHODS 6.5.1. Historical, bibliography, general 6.5.2. Repellents, det~rrents, proofing mat~rials 6.5.3 • .Toxicants 6.5.4. Accessory materials 6.5.5. Insecticide evaluation 6.5.6. Insecticide application 6.5.7. Hazards, precautions, toxic symptoms, antidotes 6.5.8. Legislation 6.5.9. Mode of action of insecticides 6.5.0. Resistance to insecticides 6.6. QUARANTINES & INSPECTION 7. A P P L I E D - A G R I C U L T U R A L & FOREST 7.1. HISTORICAL, GENERAL, TECHNIQUE 7.2. FIELD C~OPS - GRAIN 7.3. FIELD CROPS- OTHER 7.4. TRUCK & GARDEN CROPS 7 .5. FRUITS 7.6. ORNA~~NTALS & HOUSE PLANTS 7.7. FOREST PESTS - DECIDUOUS TREES 7.8. FOREST PESTS - CONIFERS 7 .9. SPECIAL ASPECTS OF CON'I'ROL 8. A P P L I E D - M E D I C A L & v· E T E R I N A R Y 8.1. HISTORICAL, GENERAL, TECH:t-.'"IQUE 8.2. VENOM & URTICATION 8.3. BLOOD SUCKING ARTHROPODS 8.4. ACARIASIS 8.5. gYIASIS 8.6. CANTBARIASIS, SCOLECIASIS 8.7. RICKETTSIAL DISEASES 8.8. PROTOZOAN DISEASES 8.9. OTHER DISEASES 8.0. SPECIAL ASPECTS OF CONTROL - 56- 9. A P P L I E D - I N D U S T R I A L & D 0 M E S T I C 9.1. HISTOHICAL, GENERAL, TECHNIQ.UE 9.2. DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION OF· PREHISES 9. 3. STORAGE rfYGI ENE 9.4. DISINFESTATION 9.5. INSECT PROOF PACKAGING 9.6. SPECIAL PROBLEMS - FOODSTUFFS 9.7. SPECIAL PROBLEMS - OTHER COMMODITIES 9.8. HOUSEHOLD PROBLEMS o. A p p L I E D -' B ~ 'N E F A C T 0 R y 0.1. HISTORICAL, GENERAL 0.2. APICULTURE 0.3. SERICULTURE 0.4. OTHER INSECT CULTURE 0.5. INSECTS AS HUMAN FOOD· . . - 57 - APPENDIX -I ... :. Addi~ions to the Library of the ~ Entomological Society of Manitoba ,t .•• :. The following list contains the names of publications ·received irt exchange for the Proceedings since the list published as Appendix I to Vol. 9 of 'the Proceedings for 1953. ~qams, R. E. et al. 1954. A Flexible-Outlet Mist Sprayer. Albert~. Mann Library, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Builetin 904 • .. Pt.oceedings of the First Annual ·Meeting o"f .t.he Entomological · Society of 'Alberta. Calgary~ Alberta. Oct. 2-3, 1953 •. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of British Columbia. Ybl. , 50 • . Issued May 15; 1954. Redia. Volume 38. Published by Dalla Stazione di Entomologia Agr~ri~, Firenze. Gyrisdo, G~ G:.~t al. 1954. Biology of the European Chafer · Amphimallon majlfis, Razoumouwslcy (Scarabaeidae). Corneil-r-Unlvers y ·Agr. Expt. Sta. t- ~emoir 328. 'fl'ebs ter, p~ igh t . A. 1954. Smallmouth Bass, Microrterus d6lomieu1 in Cayuga Lake. Part I. Lif~ H1story and Erivir.onment. Cornell University Agr. Expt. Sta. 11~ emoir 327. ~ ; t • A series of publications and reprints received in exchange f 'rom Dr. Jean Leclercq, University of·.Liege, Belgium • .Du.chateau, G. et al. 1952. Sur lea acides amines, libres · ou cdmbinessous forme non protei_nique, ·du :plasma ~anguin de divers inse6tes. Archives internationales de Phys·fologie. Vol. LX. Fasc. 4. .' . ' - 58 - Duchateau, G. et ~~arcel Florkin. 1953. Teneur en acides amines non proteiniques du plasma de l 1hemolymphe des Chenilles de .Cossus cossus et de deux Saturnides africains (Imbrasi.a macrothyris et Pseudobunaea seyde.ii). Archives internationales de Physiologie. Vol. LXI. fasc. 2. . .. Duchateau, G. et al. 1953. Sur les constituants de la base · · 'inorganTquede 1 1 hemoJ,ymphe des Insectes. Journal de Physiologie, extrait du Tome 45. Duchateau, G. et al. 1953. Concerrtra·tions f).es Bases Fixes et TypesdeComposi tion. d·e Ta Base To tale de 1 1Hemolymphe des Insectes •.· Archives internationales de Physiologie. Vol. LXI. Fasc. 4. Duchateau, G. et al. 1953~ Acides Amines non Proteiniques d 1Un Enchantillon de N~api seinsa. Bulletin de la ' Societe de Chiwie biologique Tome XY\V, No. 10. Duchateau, G. et Marcel Flo.rkin. 1954. La Coagulation du San? des Arthropodes. IV. - Sur le Fibrinogens et sur la 11 Coa:;ruline" musculaire du Homard. Bull. Ste. Chim. Biol.-36~ Nos. 2-3. Duchateau, G. et '~r,: . Florkin. 1954. Eta t ·.dBs acides amines non proteiniques du plasma de l 1hemolymphe des chrysslides ·de Lepidop~eres. Archives internationales ·de Physiologie·.· Vol. LXII. fasc. 2. Duc~gteau, G. et ~ ~ Flo~kin. 1954. Acides Amirii~ - ii~res et . Sou~·Forme de ' Ccimbinaisons non Prot~iniques dans la Pla~ma Sar::tguin et le ~.quscle Strie du Lapin et du Cof. Archives internationales de Physiologie. Vol. LXII. Duchateau, G. and M. Florkin. 1954. Types de composition du 11 pool"· ·des acides amines non proteiniques des r·•.1.scles. Archives internationales de _Physiologie. Vol •.LXII, fasc. 2. ·-· . Florkin, ~. 1952. Caracteres 6iochimi~ues des Categories Supraspecifiques de la Systematique ·Animale. Extrait · de Annales de la ·societe Royale Zoologique de Belgique. Fasc. 1. Tome LX~YIII. Gregoire, Ch. 1953. Coagulation de l 1Hemolymphe chez les Insectes Hemipteroides. Archives Internationales de Physiologie. Vol. LXI. fasc. 2. •. - 59 - Gregoire, Ch. 1953. Coagulation de ;t. 'Hemolymphe chez divers Insect~s Orthop~eroides. Archive~ internationales de Physiologie. Vol. LXI. f~sc. g • .r-regoire, Ch. 1953. Sur la coagula t~on de .l .'hemolymphe. des Termi te.s. Archi VB'S internationales de. Physiologie. Vol. LXI. fasc.· 3. Gregoire, Ch. 1953. Coagulation de ~'hemolymphe chez lea Coleopteres et les Insectes Neuropteroides. Archives internationales de Physiologie. Vol. LXI. fasc. 3. . .. Gregoire, Ch. et al. 1953. Trame protidique des nacres. SocieteBelge de Biochimie. V,ol. LXI. fasc. 3. . . Gregoire, Ch •. 1953. Blood coagulation in Arthropods. III. Reactions of Insect Hemalymphe to Coagulation. In hibitors o'f Vertebrate B.lood. _Biological Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 3. ~regoirej Ch. 1954. Sur la coagula~ion de 1 1 hemolymphe des Termites (Deuxieme note). Archives internationales de Fhysiologie. Vol. LXII. fasc. 1 • . Gregoire, Ch. ~ al... La trame protidique des nacres. Experientia. Vol. X. Jeuni.aux, Charles. 1952. Influence du facteur humidite sur la distribution des Ela,terides' en Bel.giqu.e '(Coleopteres). Reprinted from: Trans. Ninth Int. Congr. Ent., Vol. 1, 1952. Jeuniaux, Charles. 1954. Sur la Chitinase et la flore bacterienne intestinale des mollusques gasteropodes. Academia royale de Belgique. Tome ~7VIII, fasc. 7. ~eclercq, .Jean •. 1953. Trigonalidae, Auiaci.dae, Evaniidae, Stephanidae et Agriotypidae_ de l.a faune Franco-belge. Extrait du Lambillionea, LIII, Nos. 1-2. . . Lecler,cq, Jean. 195~.. Notes detachees sur les Hymenopteres Aculeates de BEHgique. Extrait des Bull. et Ann. Soc. Entom. de Belgique, 8~, IIJ-IV. Lecl€rcq, Jean. 1953 •. Araign~es Spa~assidae introduites en F3elgique avec .les. cargaisons de fruits exotiques • .Extra .it d~s Bull. et Ann; So.c. En to!fl. de Belgique, 89, III-IV. - 60 - Leclercq, Jean. 1952. Liste d~ Braconides (Hym.) recoltes en Belgique.· Extrait des Bull. et Ann. Soc. Entom. de Belgique, 88, I Y-X. Leclercq, Jean. 1953. Notule sur quelque~ Heteropteres de France. Extrait du Bulletin de la Societe Entomologi :. · que de r'ulhouse de Juillet 1953; Le~l - ercq, Jean. 1953. Sur les Ichneurnonides (Hymenoptera) de la.Belgique et des Pays Voisins (l-10). Institut . . royal des Sciences naturelles de Belgique. Bulle tin • . To~e YXIX No. 38. Leclerqq, Jean. 1~53. Notes detachees sur les Hymenopteres Aculeates de Belgique. Extrait des Bull. et Ann. Soc. Entom. de Belgique, 89, VII-VIII-. Leclercq, Jean et al. 1953. Arguments d 1 0rdre social et educ.atifenfaveur de la Protection de la Nature dans la Region liegeoise. Extrait de "Pares Nationaux". Bulletin de l 1A. s. B. L. "Ardenne et Gaume". fasc. 2. Leclercq, Jean. 1954. Remplacement de la Carnitine naturelle pa~ la 11 Dicarnitine" synthetique dans la Regime Nutri tif de la Tenebrio moli tor ·L. -.B.ioahim. Biophys. Acta. Vol. 13. · · :.L'ecler.cq, J.eaz;1. 1953. Sphecinae de Madag·ascar. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. Xf..VIII, 3-4 •. Leclercq, Je~n. 1953. Notes detachees sur les. Hymenopteres .Acule~tes de BelgiqueJ Bulletin et Annales de la Soq i ete Entomologique de Belgique~ Tome V ·:YXIX, XI-XII. Leclercq, Jean. 1953·, Notes detacrtees ~ur les Hymenopteres Aculeates de Belgique. Bull. · et Ann~ Soc •. Entom de Belg-iq-ue,· 89, IX-X. Leclercq, Jean. - 1953. Un . Cas Extraordinaire de Gynandromor phisme chez Halictus ~excinctus (Hym. Apiqae). Institut Royal des Sciences naturelles de Belgique • .Tome XXII, No. 46 • .Leclercq, Jean et al. 1954. Sur l ·es Besoins nu.tri tifs du Gnatho~erus c~rnutus (Coleoptere, Tenebrionidae). Archives internationales d·e Physiologie. Vol. LXII. fasc. 2. •. - 61- Liebecq, C. 1953. De la mesure de la consommetion du glucose par le diaphragme isole du Rat. Archives internationales de Physiologie. Vol. LXI. fasc. 1. Liebecq, C. 1952. Preparation d'extraits de muscles de rat en vue de la mesure de leur activite hexokinasique. Archives internationales de Physiologie, Vol. LX. fasc. 4. Iiebecq, C. 1950. Book Review on "Phosphorus metabolism. A symposium on the role of phosphorus in the metabolism of plants and animals". Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1953, 10, 201. Liebecq, C. 1953. Un facteur de correction applicable a la mesure de la consommation du glucose par le diaphragms isole du Rat. Archives internationales. de Physiologie. Vol. LXI. fasc. 4. Liebecq, C. The Hexokinase Activity of Rat Muscle Extract and the lability of the ~g-ATP Complex. Proceedings of the Biochemical Society, Vol. 54. Part 3. Magis, N. 1954. Les besoins nutritifs des larves de Tribolium confusum Duv. (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae). Extrait des Bulletin et Annales de 1a Societe Entomologique de Belgique. Tome XC - 1954 - I-II. Sarlet, Henri. 1954. Acides Amines des Actinomyces Produites par Streptomyces S-67. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. Vol. 13. Sarlet, H. et H. Lampereur. 1953. Detarmination de la constante de diffusion de l'actinomycine produite par Streptomyces S-67. Bulletin des Societes Chimiques Belges, No. 62. Sarlet, Henri. 1954. Le Dosage Microbiologique des Acides Amines. Industrie Chimique Belge. T. XIX. No. 5. Schoffeniels, E. 1952. Une methode de dosage de 1 1 acide L-glutamique I cl4. Archives internationales de Physio1ogie. Vol. LX, fasc. 4.