Metal Stocks and Recycling Rates

Assessing Mineral Resources in Society: Metal Stocks & Recycling Rates AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

copyright © United Nations Environmental Programme, 2011 Helpful comments were received from several anonymous reviewers in two peer review processes coordinated in an Editor: International Resource Panel, Working Group on the efficient and constructive way by respectively by Lea Kauppi Global Metal Flows and Yvan Hardy together with the Resource Panel Secretariat. Lead author of both reports is T. E. Graedel. This summary The preparation of this report also benefitted from discussions booklet was prepared by T. E. Graedel, M. Buchert, B. K. Reck, with many colleagues at various meetings, although the main and G. Sonnemann. responsibility for errors will remain with the authors.

Scientific advice: Öko-Institut e. V. Photos: istockphoto.de: © James Whittaker (cover_1, p. 3), © Jonceclearvision (cover_2, p. 5), © Milos Peric (cover_3, The first report on metal stocks in society is a rewritten and p. 5), © JDNY59 (cover_4, p. 5), © Marco Hegener (cover_5, p. 5, enhanced version based on M. D. Gerst and T. E. Graedel, p. 22_2); © Pete Saloutos (cover_6, p. 13_2), © Huchen Lu (p. 2, Environmental Science & Technology, 42, 7038–7045, 2008. p. 10, p. 11, p. 13_9), © Joerg Reimann (p. 9), © HeleM (p. 12), Parts of it were developed at a workshop held August 15–16, © Sam Faltenbergs (p. 13_1, p. 16), © Dieter Spears (p. 13_3), 2008, with the following participants: Thomas Graedel, Yale © Ralph125 (p. 13_4), © Therry Wilson (p. 13_5), © Yonra Pechkin University, USA, coordinator; A. Dubreuil, Natural Resources (p. 13_7, p. 20_3), © gerenme (p. 13_8, p. 20_1), © Prill Mediende- Canada; Michael Gerst, Dartmouth College; Seiji Hashimoto, sign & Fotografie (p. 14), © Mike Clarke (p. 17_1),© Peter van National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan; Yuichi Vuuren (p. 17_2), © Sheldunov Andrey (p. 18), © Huguette Roe Moriguchi, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan; (p. 19, p. 20_2, p. 20_4, p. 28_1), © Christopher Pollack (p. 22_1), Daniel Müller, Norwegian University of Science and Technol- © Peter Zelei (p. 22_3), © Rob Belknap (p. 26_2), © Adam ogy; Claudia Pena, CIMM, Chile; Jason Rauch, Yale University, Kazmierski (p. 29_1), © Kyu Oh (p. 29_2), © Thadford (p. 31). De- USA; Thompson Sinkala, School of Mines, Zambia; and Guido gussa (p. 24). Shutterstock © Tobias Machhaus (p. 26). Umicore Sonnemann, UNEP, France. (p. 27). Öko-Institut e. V. (p. 13_6, p. 28_2).

Portions of the report on recycling rates of metals have ap- Design and creativ concept: www.3fdesign.de peared in the Journal of Industrial Ecology article by Graedel et al. (2011): “What Do We Know About Metal Recycling Rates? Disclaimer: The designations employed and the presentation Authors of the second report report are T. E. Graedel, Yale of the material in this publication do not imply the expression University, USA, Julian Allwood, Cambridge University, UK, of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations Jean-Pierre Birat, Arcelor-Mittal, France, Matthias Buchert, Environment Programme concerning the legal status of any Öko-Institut, Germany, Christian Hagelüken, Umicore Precious country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning Metals Refining, Germany/Belgium;, Barbara K. Reck, Yale delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Moreover, the views University, USA, Scott F. Sibley, US Geological Survey (USGS), expressed do not necessarily represent the decisionor the USA, and Guido Sonnemann, UNEP, France stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, nor does citing of trade names or commercial processes con- Guido Sonnemann, UNEP, supervised the preparation of this stitute endorsement. report and provided valuable input and comments. ISBN number 978-92-807-3182-0 Thanks go to Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker and Ashok Khosla as co-chairs of the Resource Panel, the members of the Resource Job Number DTI/1382/PA Panel and the Steering Committee for fruitful discussions. UNEP promotes environmentally sound practices globally and Additional comments of a technical nature were received from in its own activities. This publication is printed on FSC-certified some governments participating in the Steering Committee. paper with 80 % recycled fibre, using eco-friendly practices. Our distribution policy aims to reduce UNEP’s carbon footprint. 2 The following is an excerpt of the first two reports of the Global Metals Flows Group Metal Stocks in Society: Scientific Synthetis recycling Rates of Metals: A Status Report

The full reports are available on CD-ROM (available inside the back page of this summary booklet).

3 PrefacePreface

The pace of industrialization around the In-use stocks of metals invite for docu- world has brought with it an enormous in- mentation at national levels of such stock crease in the use of materials, as well as and for industrial plans of later use. The increasing concern about long-term ma- report on recycling rates of metals, con- terials supply potential. A possible way to taining stupendous figures of low recycling cope with supply challenges is to recover rates of most of the high tech “spice” met- and reuse discarded materials in industri- als, calls for strategic action to increase al and consumer products, thus “recycling the recovery of those metals. Industrial our way to sustainability”. design should be improved with a view of easy recovery even of small quantities of To see whether such a plan is feasible re- them, and advanced techniques of sepa- quires information: What quantities of rating metals should be developed. Fasci- the various materials are now in use and nating tasks for a new generation of engi- therefore potentially available for reuse neers! at some time in the future? How well do we recycle discarded materials? How far could we improve our recycling perfor- mance? The Metal Flows Group of the In- Prof. Ernst U. von Weizsäcker ternational Resource Panel (IRP) has ad- Co-Chair of the International Panel dressed the first two of these questions in for Sustainable Resource Management the case of metals in its reports “In-Use Stocks of Metals” and “Recycling Rates of Prof. Thomas E. Graedel Metals”. In late 2011 or early 2012 a third Leader of the report will examine recycling technologies. Global Metal Flows Working Group Together with reports on geological stocks and on scenarios for future demand, the two reports summarized in this present document will help paint a picture of the planet’s potential industrial future.

4 PrefacePreface

A transition to a green economy is already by UNEP and established in 2007, identi- underway, a point underscored in UNEP’s fied metals as a key area in terms of the Green Economy report and a growing 21st century sustainability challenge. The wealth of companion studies by internation- Panel’s Global Metal Flows Group has so al organizations, countries, corporations far prepared two reports on Metal Stocks in and civil society. But the challenge is clearly Society and Recycling Rates of Metals. This to build on this momentum. A green econo- booklet gives the key findings of both re- my does not favour one political perspective ports. over another. It is relevant to all economies, be they state or more market-led. Rio +20 The first report provides from a global per- offers a real opportunity to scale-up and spective, the best scientific information embed these “green shoots”. available on the quantity of metal stocks in the world and the second report makes Metals are a core, centre-piece of the glob- available to governments and industry the al, economy: Whether it be in the manu- relevant baseline information on metal re- facture of buildings or cars to the booming cycling rates, also at a global scale, to fos- production of mobile phone, computers and ter recycling and make more intelligent and other electronic goods, metals have be- targeted decisions on metals management come increasingly important to commerce. worldwide. This is the first time ever that But metals are also part of the challenge this information has been brought together society is facing in its transition to a low in such a comprehensive way. carbon, resource efficient 21st Green Econ- omy. Metals are a finite resource, whose I congratulate the Resource Panel for tak- management, consumption and produc- ing on this difficult task and providing us tion echo to the need to adopt a recycling with the scientific insights we all need to economy. help us move towards a Green Economy.

Understanding, quantifying and estimating Achim Steiner the ways metals flow through economies is part of the solution to better manag- UN Under-Secretary General and Executive Director UNEP ing their impacts and their benefits. Indeed the International Resource Panel, hosted

5 ConcernsConcerns about metals and UNEP’s activities

International Panel for Sustainable Relevance of metals for sustainable Resource Management development

The Resource Panel was established to pro- Economic development is deeply coupled vide independent, coherent and authoritative with the use of metals. During the 20 th cen- scientific assessments of policy relevance tury the variety of metal applications grew on the sustainable use of natural resources rapidly. and in particular their environmental impacts over the full life cycle. It aims to contribute Modes of applications range between bulk to a better understanding of how to decouple goods composed of base metals and elec- economic growth from environmental degra- tronic applications like mobile phones which dation. contain lots of different metals with only minimal amounts. The usage of certain metal containing applications implicates posi- Global Metal Flows Group tive environmental effects. Such sustainable technologies are, for example, photovolta- The UNEP’s Resource Panel launched the ic modules, batteries, or catalysts. The re- Global Metal Flows Group for a better un- duction of negative environmental effects is derstanding of global material flows of used hereby achieved because inefficient technolo- metals. A key question hereby is whether so- gies are replaced. ciety needs to be concerned about long-term supplies of certain metals. The Global Met- al Flows Group has the order to promote the reuse and recycling activities of metals and the establishment of the international sound material-cycle society by providing scientific and authoritative assessment studies on the global flows of metals. This summary booklet is based on the re- cently finished reports “Metal Stocks in Soci- ety: Scientific Synthesis” and “The Recycling Rates of Metals: A Status Report”.

6 7 RelevanceRelevance of stocks in society and metals recycling

Global metals demand – a multiple structures and illegal imports of discharged challenge metal-containing used and end-of-life products accelerate this development. Nearly all mineral resources show a significant growth in demand over the last few decades. Not only industrialized countries, but Metals recycling as a sustainability also emerging economies and developing strategy countries utilize metals to enhance their economic and social prosperity. The growing de- Recycling is a way to mitigate negative im- mand implies a permanent pressure on natu- pacts on increasing metals demand and to ral resources. The fear of scarcity and de- assure the potentials of economic growth. pendence is growing, as are concerns about For instance, the largest municipal recycling negative environmental effects and social and park in China is capable of recovering one political tensions. million tons of copper per year. The largest copper mine in China produces less than half of that. This ‘urban mining’ is important in Increasing stocks in society generating secondary raw materials. Hence, strengthening the recycling of metals is a key Metals are present everywhere around us strategy for a sustainable future. as metals can be regarded as the founda- tion upon which our economies are built. This economic growth increases the amount of metals used in our societies. Metals remain as steel bars in our houses, as copper cables for communication, railway tracks, or as jewellery. If we take a closer look at ourselves, our share of computers, kitchen equipment, mobile phones, etc. forms an individual stock of metals. Stocks in society are increasing not only in industrialized and emerging economies, but also in developing countries. In many countries inadequate recycling infra-

8 9 MetalsMetals under under investigation investigation

The following graphic of the periodic table of elements demonstrates the sixty metals which are under the focus of the Global Metals Flow Group. The different colors indicate the classification of the elements into four different groups: ferrous metals; non-ferrous 1 meals; precious metals and specialty metals. The groupings are not to be understood as 2 H He rigid, but refer to the fields of application.

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Li Be B C N O F Ne Lithium Beryllium Boron

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar Magne- Aluminum sium

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manga- Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germani- Arsenic Selenium nese um

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybde- Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium num

55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Barium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth

87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Sg Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uug Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Lantha- Cerium Praseo- Neodymi- Samarium Europium Gadolini- Terbium Dysprosi- Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium num dymium um um um

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

10 GroupingGrouping ofof metals metals

For a better understanding, the following table relates the full name of the metals to their symbols under the classification of the four groups in the order of their atomic number.

Ferrous Metals Non-Ferrous Metals Precious Metals

V – Vanadium Mg – Magnesium Ru – Ruthenium Cr – Chromium Al – Aluminum Rh – Rhodium Mn – Manganese Ti – Titanium Pd – Palladium Fe – Iron Co – Cobalt Ag – Silver Ni – Nickel Cu – Copper Os – Osmium Nb – Niobium Zn – Zinc Ir – Iridium Mo – Molybdenum Sn – Tin Pt – Platinum Pb – Lead Au – Gold

Specialty Metals

Li – Lithium Te – Tellurium Yb – Ytterbium Be – Beryllium Ba – Barium Lu – Lutetium B – Boron La – Lanthanum Hf – Hafnium Sc – Scandium Ce – Cerium Ta – Tantalum Ga – Gallium Pr – Praseodymium W – Tungsten Ge – Germanium Nd – Neodymium Re – Rhenium As – Arsenic Sm – Samarium Hg – Mercury Se – Selenium Eu – Europium Tl – Thallium Sr – Strontium Gd – Gadolinium Bi – Bismut Y – Yttrium Tb – Terbium Zr – Zirconium Dy – Dysprosium Cd – Cadmium Ho – Holmium In – Indium Er – Erbium Sb – Antimony Tm – Thulium

11 MetalMetal stocks stocks in societyin society

Life cycle of metals Japan, China and the United States addition- ally maintain stockpiles of strategic metals. Before metals are embedded in certain prod- Notwithstanding the above, the in-use stocks ucts several process steps are required. Be- in the manifold applications and products ginning from natural resources, the metal- are without question the most relevant met- containing ores are extracted and purified al stocks in society. Therefore, in-use met- because natural stocks rarely exist in pure al stocks are a focus of the UNEP Resource form. Subsequently, the concentrated ores Panel. are transformed into metals, either on-site or after transportation to a smelting facility. After further refining processes, metals Landfills – urban mines of the or metal compounds are traded or further future? processed into specific components used in different applications. The lifetime of the dif- Even after the discharge of the metal con- ferent products and thus the embedded met- taining products, further stockpiles can be als within them varies fundamentally – from identified: within recycling facilities and – to weeks in the case of beverage cans, to de- a much larger extent – in man-made land- cades or even centuries in the case of con- fills set up for the final fate of waste flows. struction and infrastructure. In the case of copper a global stockpile of 225 million metric tones are estimated to reside in landfills. If a metal-containing prod- Development of stocks uct is taken out of service, it is not automati- cally recycled or landfilled. For example, in Along the process steps and the use of the the case of obsolete undersea cables the metals different kind of stocks may develop. containing metal is no longer in use, but has On the mining site – beside unmined ores – not yet been recovered and recycled. These by-products as tailings ponds still containing “hibernating” stocks are potentially reusable, low concentrations of different metals are but their recovery may not be economically accumulated. During the various process and feasible. manufacturing steps processor stockpiles are possible, despite usually short retention times. The governments of some states like

12 In-Use Stocks

Governmental Stocks

Use

Waste Management Fabrication Stocks Processor Stockpiles Stocks in Recycling Facilities Metal Stock

Fabrication/ Locations Manufacturing

Landfill Stocks Production

Tailing Stocks

Natural Stocks

Un-mined Ores

13 In-useIn-use stocks stocks

The global dimension Metal stock per capita

As already described, all metals put into use The continued increase in the use of metals and currently providing service are regarded over the 20th century has led to the phenom- as in-use stocks. A broad variety of different enon of a substantial shift in metal stocks metal-containing applications can be found from below the ground to above the ground in all societies. The private and public sector, in the form of applications in society. Such a as well as the industrial sector, all use met- shift raises social, economic, and environ- als for their purposes, and modern technolo- mental issues that cannot be addressed with- gies tend to choose a whole bundle of dif- out quantifying the amount of “metal stock ferent metals for the purpose of utilizing the per capita” utilized by society, or within cer- specific properties of the individual metals. tain geographic borders. For example, a mobile phone contains over 60 different metals: indium in the LCD Dis- Material flow analysis characterizes and play, tantalum in capacitors, and gold on the quantifies flows of materials into, out of, and conductor boards. The amount of each metal through a system of interest. The choice of in a mobile phone is small. It is the sum of scale can be spatial, quantitative, or tempo- globally used mobile phones that contribute ral. Consequently, when talking about in-use to relevant total metal amounts. stocks, beside the quantitative scale (“how much of a metal is in a certain stock?”), the temporal aspect has to be considered as well (“how long does a metal remain in a particular use?”).

Copper per Capita in Different Cities Capetown 2000 Bejing, City Center 2004 Global in-use Stockholm 1995 stocks of Sydney, Metropolitan Area 2002 Copper Sydney, City Center 2002

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 kg/Capita 14 CurrentCurrent situation

Differences in urban in-use stocks Differences in national in-use stocks

Using the example of copper, the bar chart As with the example of copper, differences below left shows in-use stocks per capita for in in-use stocks can be seen in the case of different cities. The usage of copper relies to aluminum. The bar chart below right shows its capability to transfer electricity with only current in-use stocks of different countries, minimal losses. Therefore, copper is widely Europe, and worldwide. Japan and the United used for electrical infrastructure in buildings. States possess the highest in-use stocks and It is obvious that stocks in cities of more-de- exceed the value of China by 9 and 13 times. veloped countries possess significantly high- In fact, the average values of per capita in- er amounts of in-use stocks per capita than use stocks of aluminum for Europe, Japan in cities of less developed countries. Regard- and the United States is more than four times ing the capital of Sweden, Stockholm, the higher than the world average value. amount of copper in-use stocks per capita is nearly four times higher than in Cape Town, Both examples show that most in-use stocks South Africa. And Sydney shows even high- currently reside in more developed countries. er figures than Stockholm. This relation be- The average per capita stock in industrialized tween urban in-use stocks of industrialized countries for copper is about 230 kg, for alu- and less-developed countries is significant minum about 340 kg. for all metals thus far examined.

Aluminum per Capita in Different Countries World 2003 China 2005 Global in-use Europe 2004 stocks of Japan 2000 Aluminum USA 2000

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 kg/Capita 15 DynamicsDynamics of in-use stocks in society

Demographic growth and economic example, precious or specialty metals. The development availability of worldwide data for a large variety of metals on equal spatial and temporal Differences in current in-use stocks are the resolution is actually not available. A reason- result of economic development. The tempo- ably detailed picture of in-use stocks and in- ral accumulation of in-use stocks shown be- use lifetimes exists for only more developed low demonstrates that the copper stock per countries and the major metals aluminum, US citizen quadrupled over the last 70 years. copper, iron, lead, and zinc. The data dem- This tendency suggests that if the popula- onstrate that every citizen in the more devel- tions in fast growing emerging economies are oped countries can be credited with an in-use going to use a similar suite of technologies stock between ten and fifteen metric tons of and lifestyles, global in-use metal stocks re- these metals. quired would be 3−9 times those existing at present. The limited data suggest that per capita in- use stocks in more-developed countries typi- Mind the gap cally exceed those in less-developed countries by factors of five to ten. As has been shown, there is reasonably good understanding of the in-use stocks of two Closing this data gap is a large challenge for major engineering metals: aluminum and the evaluation of stocks and therefore their copper. There are, however, still too few stud- use in making informed inferences about the ies with differing spatial or temporal refer- future. ences for a profound comparison with, for

Development of Development of Copper Stocks in the USA copper stocks USA 1932 USA 1948 USA 1960 USA 1979 USA 2002

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 kg/Capita 16 TheThe mines mines of of the thefuture future

Worldwide stock building

The already existing anthropogenic metal stockpile is gigantic. Continuously growing metal prices in the commodity markets indicate a dynamic demand for metals – in emerging countries due to economic growth, and in industrialized countries due to modern technologies with dissipative metal applications.

Urban mining as key strategy

Urban in-use stocks possess a high relevance for potential metal supply. The shift of mining activities from natural towards anthropogenic resources has to move into focus, not only in the interest of national metal supply but also on the global level. Total metal losses have to be reduced and recycling infrastructures and technologies have to be fostered in industrialized, emerging, and less developed countries. Taking advantage of “anthropogenic mines” has a great potential to reduce dependency on virgin metal resources and mitigate the environmental degradation often caused by mining activities. The enhanced exploita- tion of already known urban stocks and the detection of hibernating stocks (metal not in active use but not yet recovered, as in unused railroad bridges) is a key strategy in moving toward sustainable metal supply.

17 RecyclingRecycling of of metals metals

Metals recycling today New scrap and old scrap

Metals are regarded as having excellent To understand the key challenges of metals properties for recycling. For metals such as recycling in the 21st century it is necessary to iron/steel, aluminum, and copper recycling distinguish between the main types of scrap has a long tradition. In these cases appro- – the so-called new scrap and old scrap. New priate recycling infrastructure and recycling scrap is generated in manufacturing pro- technologies exist in many countries, involv- cesses and has lives of weeks to months un- ing scrap dealers, dismantlers, operators of til its return to the production process. It has shredder plants, etc.. However, the report a known composition and origin. When it is a “Recycling rates of metals: a status report” non-contaminated pure metal or alloy it can has discovered tremendous weak points in often be recycled within the processing facil- global metals recycling. ity. If contaminated, it might be sent to an ex- ternal facility. This recycling of new scrap is The reasons are manifold. The lack of basic generally economically beneficial and easy to recycling infrastructure and modern recy- accomplish. It may not be identified in recycling technologies in many developing coun- cling statistics, but can sometimes be esti- tries and emerging economies causes dissi- mated from process efficiency data. pative losses even of base metals like steel. A second main reason is the phenomenon of The second major category is end-of-life (EOL) new and complex applications of metals at scrap, or “old scrap”, which may be returned mass production scales in the last three de- to the EOL phase within weeks (a beverage cades. Mobile phones, solar panels, new light can) to decades (turbines or cars). This is ma- weight materials, catalysts, batteries, and terial recovered from products, and often con- many more have created a new era of metal stitutes mixtures of elements, alloys, plastics, use. The modern applications often employ and other constituents which need detailed low concentrations of “specialty metals” like processing to obtain recyclates for raw ma- gallium, indium, and rare earth elements for terials production. Functional recycling is the which currently almost no recycling infra- decisive EOL recycling approach in contrast to structure exists. non-functional recycling (sometimes termed “downcycling”), which means that the metal or alloy is “lost” in another dominant material flow (often that of common steel scrap). 18 Use EOL Products (Metal Content)

Products Waste Management

Metal Flows EOL Collected Metal New Scrap

Fabrication/ Manufacturing Discarded Waste & Downcycling Refined Metal Recycling

Production EOL Recycled Metal

Primary Metal Input

Natural Resources

End-of-life (EOL) recycling rates Recycled content The most important parameter to measure The metric recycled content (also termed the efficiency of an overall recycling system is the recycling input rate) describes the frac- the functional EOL recycling rate. The function of recycled metal (from new scrap and tional EOL recycling rate excludes non-func- old scrap) in relation to total metal input. This tional recycling flows of discarded products, measure is of limited relevance for metals, and depends on the efficiency of all single however, for two reasons. First, the long life- steps in the recycling chain: collection, sepa- times of many metal products in combination rating, sorting, and final metal recovery. An with high growth rates makes achieving a important thing to note is that a function- high recycled content difficult because of the al EOL recycling rate of (for example) 40 % limited availability of secondary metals. Sec- means that there are 60 % losses of a valu- ond, because metals can be recycled more able metal. than once, it is unclear how the ratio should be computed. 19 20 RecyclingRecycling rates of ferrousof ferrous metals metals

Overview of ferrous metals End-of-life recycling rates of steel and the ferrous metals The ferrous metals are predominantly iron- based, and mostly magnetic. Iron is the prin- Functional end-of-life recycling rate esti- cipal constituent of steel, and steel is by far mates for steel and its major alloying met- the most widely-used metal. In 2009 more als are listed in the report. The range of the than 1.2 billion tonnes of steel were produced figures, often obtained by different methods, worldwide, and the demand for steel – es- is wide and a high level of uncertainty in the pecially in emerging economies – is growing data is present. However, with these existing further. The other ferrous metals (vanadium, data an end-of-life recycling rate of 70–90 % chromium, nickel, etc.) are components in can be estimated for iron and steel. This val- steel, stainless steels, and superalloys. It is ue is one of the highest end-of-life recycling important to mention that for stainless steel rates among all the industrially-used metals. and other special alloys separated recycling The reasons are a very long tradition of steel flows exist in practice, because the properties in different applications with mature recycling of those materials are lost if they are mixed systems, the often large quantities of new with common steel scrap. and old scrap (e. g., from demolition waste), and the well-established recycling infrastructure for steel in many countries.

More than 50 % end-of-life recycling rates could be found for manganese (present at 0.3–1.0 % in nearly all steels) niobium (used in high strength-low alloy steels and superalloys) nickel (often a constituent of stainless steels and superalloys) and the stainless steel constituent chromium. Molybdenum fol- lows with rates between 25–50 %, while vanadium is below 1 %.

21 22 Non-ferrousRecycling rates metalsof non-ferrous metals

Overview of non-ferrous metals Recycling rates of the non-ferrous metals The non-ferrous metals contain no iron, and are used in quantities second only to the fer- Most of the non-ferrous metals are widely rous metals. Aluminum is used principally in enough used, and often sufficiently valuable, construction and transportation and has the that their recycling and reuse rates are rea- second largest production figures of all met- sonably high. This is especially true for lead als (more than 30 million tonnes per year). (EOL recycling rate > 50 %), which is mostly Copper is third among the metals (about used in large vehicle and industrial batteries 24 million tonnes in 2007) and sees wide use that are returned and subsequently recycled in conducting electricity and heat. Cobalt’s in commercially and industrially linked re- major uses focus on superalloys, catalysts, cycling chains. For aluminum and copper a and batteries. Lead’s use centers on batter- wide range of EOL recycling rates are report- ies. Magnesium is used in construction and ed. Nevertheless, for both these important transportation. Tin’s major uses are in cans metals an EOL recycling rates > 50 % is esti- and solders. Titanium’s main applications are mated. High EOL recycling rates are also re- paint and transportation while zinc’s major ported for cobalt, tin, titanium, and zinc. For use is in coating steel (galvanizing). magnesium, EOL recycling rates in the range > 25–50 % are estimated. The wide range of The recycling structures for the non-ferrous rates reported reflects the significant data metals are quite different and depend on the uncertainties for the non-ferrous metals. specific applications and the amount of material flows. Separate recycling infrastructures exist for copper, aluminum, and lead, respectively. In the case of aluminum the different compositions of aluminum alloys play a major role. On the other hand cobalt and tin are often embedded in mixed old scrap which effort special sorting and pretreatment procedures. The recycling of zinc is significantly interlinked with steel recycling procedures because steel is often coated with zinc for corrosion protection. 23 24 RecyclingRecycling rates of preciousof precious metals metals

Overview of precious metals The platinum example

Precious metals like gold, silver, and plati- Taking the relative price levels of precious num are sufficiently valuable that they are ef- metals into account, it seems surprising that ficiently recycled except in some applications those metals do not have the highest end-of- and/or when used in very small amounts life recycling rates among all metals. A gram (e. g., silver in mirrors or car glass; platinum/ of platinum for instance represents a price ruthenium in computer hard disks) or when of about 50 $ (or more) – so there should be end-of-life products do not enter into an ap- enough incentive for recycling. Furthermore, propriate recycling chain. The end-of-life re- experienced actors and state of the art fa- cycling rates for the platinum group metals cilities already exist to refine precious met- palladium (60–70 %), platinum (60–70 %) and als from many applications. But assessing rhodium (50–60 %) seem to be the highest the recycling rates of the different platinum among the precious metals. Silver and gold applications provides a deeper insight. For follow with EOL recycling rates > 50 % when industrial applications the recycling rate of coins and jewellery are taken into account in platinum is 80–90 %. However, the rate for addition to the technical applications (elec- platinum from automotive catalysts (50–55 %) tronics, dental etc.). Iridium which is used and electronics (0–5 %) is much lower. Obvi- mainly for industrial catalysts is ranked in ously, consumer applications are more dif- the > 25–50 % range for the EOL rate, and ru- ficult to address by recycling than industrial thenium used for electronics as well as for applications. This is a well-known phenom- industrial applications is estimated in the enon among recycling experts, and platinum > 10– 25 % category. Osmium is rarely used is merely an example for many other metals and no significant recycling data are avail- and applications. Therefore, enhancing recy- able. cling rates for consumer applications is a key strategy for platinum and many other metals.

25 EndEnd of of life life recycling recycling rates

1 2 H He

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Li Be B C N O F Ne Lithium Beryllium Boron

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar Magne- Aluminum sium

87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Sg Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uug Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

> 50 % 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 > 25–50 % La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Lantha- Cerium Praseo- Neodymi- Samarium Europium Gadolini- Terbium Dysprosi- Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium > 10–25 % num dymium um um um 1–10 % 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 < 1 % Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

26 RecyclingRecycling rates of specialtyof specialty metals metals

Overview of specialty metals The indium example

The 37 specialty metals are the largest group The report shows that for most (32) of the of the 60 metals that were investigated. Most 37 specialty metals the current end-of-life of these metals can be thought of as “new- recycling rates are very close to zero (< 1 %). comers” regarding their technological appli- The indium example exemplifies the story cations. Many of them show therefore a rap- for many specialty metals. Indium demand idly increasing relevance in the last 3 decades has grown rapidly in the last 20 years due to or even in the last few years, driven by inno- several modern and innovative applications: vative technologies with high potentials for liquid crystal displays (TVs, notebooks, etc.), a sustainable future. Lithium is very impor- semiconducters, solders, and solar cells. tant for modern batteries (hybrid and electric These widespread consumer applications of vehicles), gallium, germanium, indium, and indium constitute a major challenge regard- tellurium show growing relevance for solar ing recycling logistics and the development of cells, and the rare earth metals are essential a suitable legal framework. The concentra- for many applications such as catalysts, bat- tion of indium in old scrap is quite low, and tery constituents, and permanent magnets suitable sorting and pre-treatment infra- (electric power drives, wind turbines, etc.). It structure is rare. As a consequence, the end- can be expected that the demand for many of-life recycling of indium and many other specialty metals will grow rapidly in the next specialty metals is still in its infancy. few years due to the increasing market potentials of new and innovative technologies.

The figure presents information for the metals in what- ever form (pure, alloy, etc.) recycling occurs. To reflect the reliability of the data or the estimates, data are divided into five bins: > 50 %, > 25–50 %, > 10–25 %, 1–10 % and < 1 %. It is noteworthy that for only twelve of the sixty metals the experts estimate the end-of-life recycling rate to be above 50 %. Another eight metals are in the 25–50 % group, and four more in the 10–25 % group.For a very large number, little or no end-of-life recycling is occurring today. Indium bullion (photo by courtesy of 27 Umicore Precious Metals Refining) LessonsLessons

The global dimension of metal stocks

On a global scale, in-use stocks of metals in society are growing every year. More people need more houses and ask for more cars, electrical devices, and other consumer goods. More people ask for energy in their houses and for pharmaceutical products. The more industrialized countries show much higher per capita stocks of metals than do the less developed countries. But the emerging economies play the game too, and therefore further growth of metal stocks in human society can be foreseen. Despite the obvious ent. But the better results for some tradition- data gaps for many metals, it is obvious that al and important metals like steel, aluminum, the increasing in-use stocks are the mines of copper, and lead prove that there is a learn- the future. ing curve for recycling. In the 21st century this learning curve needs acceleration, because the variety and complexity of applica- The circular economy is a key tions which embed metals (in a mobile phone answer for the future at least 60 elements) is increasing. Further- more, more and more countries in the world The results of the investigations concerning face rapidly growing waste flows for which end-of-life recycling rates are disappointing they have no appropriate recycling infrastruc- at first glance – currently a large share of the ture. Therefore, enhanced technology trans- secondary metal resources are lost. For only fer and international cooperation should be eighteen metals (aluminum, cobalt, chromi- decisively accelerated by international recy- um, copper, gold, iron, lead, manganese, nio- cling conferences, technological implemen- bium, nickel, palladium, platinum, rhenium, tation programs in emerging economies and rhodium, silver, tin, titanium, and zinc) is the developing countries, and specific scientific very important EOL-RR above 50 % at pres- exchange programs.

28 UrgentUrgent issues issues

Research & development

Understanding the potential of urban mines is severely limited as a result of the sparse information currently available on in-use stocks and on recycling rates. Limitations in recycling technology also are strong con- tributors to low recycling rates. Enhanced government support for data acquisition and analysis, recycling technologies research, and other research and development efforts is thus a priority. Such efforts could focus on issues such as recycling demonstration plants, closed-loop recycling of rare earths from batteries, and tantalum from electronic scraps.

Continuous improvements of Stopping illegal waste transport legislative systems

Despite existing regulations like the Basel The growth of global metal demand is cur- Convention the shipment of waste to coun- rently faster than the adaption of legislation tries without basic waste treatment and re- concerning recycling. Continuous improve- cycling infrastructure is an increasing glob- ments of the legislative systems in the indus- al problem. The export is often incorrectly trialized countries are urgently needed in or- declared as export of second-hand goods. der to enable better recycling rates for many Therefore international organizations like metals and post-consumer goods. The more UNEP and OECD have to multiply their en- developed countries should reinforce their at- gagement in the monitoring and controlling tempts to help the less developed countries of illegal scrap exports, which often contain install appropriate legislative systems and metals with long-term supply concerns. ensure their enforcement in order to take advantage of metal stocks in society.

29 GlossaryGlossary

Ferrous Metals Specialty Metals V – Vanadium Li – Lithium Ta – Tantalum Cr – Chromium Be – Beryllium W – Tungsten Mn – Manganese B – Boron Re – Rhenium Fe – Iron Sc – Scandium Hg – Mercury Ni – Nickel Ga – Gallium Tl – Thallium Nb – Niobium Ge – Germanium Bi – Bismut Mo – Molybdenum As – Arsenic Se – Selenium Sr – Strontium Non-Ferrous Metals Y – Yttrium Zr – Zirconium Mg – Magnesium Cd – Cadmium Al – Aluminum In – Indium Ti – Titanium Sb – Antimony Co – Cobalt Te – Tellurium Cu – Copper Ba – Barium Zn – Zinc La – Lanthanum Sn – Tin Ce – Cerium Pb – Lead Pr – Praseodymium Nd – Neodymium Sm – Samarium Precious Metals Eu – Europium Gd – Gadolinium Ru – Ruthenium Tb – Terbium Rh – Rhodium Dy – Dysprosium Pd – Palladium Ho – Holmium Ag – Silver Er – Erbium Os – Osmium Tm – Thulium Ir – Iridium Yb – Ytterbium Pt – Platinum Lu – Lutetium Au – Gold Hf – Hafnium

30 31 THIS BOOKLET SUMMARIZES the first two reports of the Global Metals Flows Group – the full reports are available on CD-Rom (see page 27 of this summary booklet). In its first two metal reports, “Metal Stocks in Society: Scientific Synthesis” and “The Recycling Rates of Metals: A Sta- tus Report”, UNEP’s International Panel for Sustainable Resource Management addresses the issue of mines above ground.

Economic development is deeply coupled with the use of metals, but the growing demand implies a permanent pressure on the natural resource. In contrast, the growing metal stocks in our society can serve as mines above ground. However, there are considerable data gaps regarding the size of these metal stocks and their recycling potential. These gaps have to be filled. The recycling rates of many metals are low. Open material cycles are typical for consumer goods like appliances and electronics. Therefore, these product groups need special attention. Recycling rates are very low for specialty metals like indium, for which an appropriate recycling infrastructure still has to be developed. This development needs to be supported by policy instruments such as research and development, economic in- centives, and capacity building activities. Tapping the full potential of mining above ground and closing of material cycles with appropriate global infrastructure are essential if we are to establish a green economy and to secure sustainable development.