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ALTRUISM, RISK, ENERGY DEVELOPMENT and the HUMAN-ANIMAL RELATIONSHIP by Cameron Thomas Whitley a DISSERTATION Submitted to Michi

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ALTRUISM, RISK, ENERGY DEVELOPMENT AND THE HUMAN-ANIMAL RELATIONSHIP By Cameron Thomas Whitley A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Sociology – Doctor of Philosophy 2017 ABSTRACT ALTRUISM, RISK, ENERGY DEVELOPMENT AND THE HUMAN-ANIMAL RELATIONSHIP By Cameron Thomas Whitley Research shows that humans form relationships with animals that alter social, psychological and biological processes. However, within environmental decision-making and social psychological research, the importance of human-animal relationships has not been thoroughly explored. This dissertation extends social distance theories to include human-animal relationships and utilizes environmental values, particularly altruism, in a causal chain to assess how individuals perceive the risk high volume horizontal drilling hydraulic fracturing (HVHHF) poses to animals. HVHHF is an ideal lens to investigate this topic because this technology puts animals at substantial risk of harm and creates environments that simultaneously affect humans and animals. In Chapter 1 I conduct a thorough content analysis of peer-reviewed HVHHF articles to examine how animals and human-animal relationships are represented. The analysis demonstrates that existing research seldom acknowledges animals’ inherent value, instead focusing almost exclusively on the use of animals as sentinels for potential human health risks. Furthermore, there are no social science articles assessing the impacts of HVHHF on animals or human-animal relationships. This chapter serves as a call for additional research. I use Chapters 2 and 3 to respond to this call, exploring the social and psychological drivers of perceptions of the risk HVHHF poses to humans and animals. In Chapter 2 I use an experimental survey design to extend construal level theory of psychological distance (CLT) to interspecies relationships and test whether social distance between species influences human perceptions of HVHHF risk to animals. Multivariate regression results show that framing HVHHF risk in terms of animals can alter perceptions of HVHHF risk to animals, but that framing risk across different animal groups has varied impacts. This study makes a significant theoretical contribution to the risk literature by demonstrating the importance of including interspecies relationships in CLT. It also has practical implications for organizations interested in gaining public support for policies that address HVHHF harms to animals. Chapter 3 picks up where Chapter 2 leaves off, continuing to investigate how people perceive the risk HVHHF poses to animals. I draw on the environmental values literature (focusing on altruism) to evaluate the causal link between values and perception of risk to animals. The results from structural equation modeling and logistic regression show that those who adhere to altruistic values (both towards animals and the biosphere) perceive higher risks of hydraulic fracturing to all species. However, decreased social distance between humans and companion animals mediates this relationship, suggesting that decreased social distance in human-animal relationships is an extension of altruism. The findings have important implications for understanding how human-animal relationships influence risk perceptions and for environmental and animal rights movements pursuing policies that promote animal wellbeing. Finally, in the conclusion I connect my findings, address avenues for future research, and discuss policy implications. Copyright by CAMERON THOMAS WHITLEY 2017 This dissertation is dedicated to Mom. Thank you for always believing in me. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deep appreciation and gratitude to my advisors, Dr. Thomas Dietz and Dr. Linda Kalof for their patient guidance, mentorship and unwavering support. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Aaron McCright and Dr. Adam Zwickle for their assistance, thought-provoking suggestions and opportunities for collaboration. I also thank Dr. Scot Yoder and Joanna Bosse for their collaboration and friendship. In a similar vein, I would like to recognize Dr. Eleanor Hubbard, my undergraduate advisor, who I owe much of my success to. I thank my fellow animal studies friends: Seven Mattes, Kelly O’Brien, Rachel Kelly, Ryan Gunderson, Stephen Vrla, Molly Tamulevich, Jennifer Kelly, H. Max Pospisil and Meghan Charters for the stimulating discussions and constant encouragement. A special thanks to Katie LoSasso, Jai Leidy, Katie Leidy, Shauna Shames, Johanna Ettin and Kimberly Gordy for their steadfast friendship. And to my dear friend, Angela Palermo, who literally saved my life. A special thanks to my family: Phyllis Whitley (mother), Verda and George McCorkle (aunt and uncle), Michelle and Scott Butterfield (cousins), Michael Alexander (cousin), Ashley Carnwarth (cousin) and Zachary Baker (cousin) for labeling me the “smart one.” It would be remiss of me to not mention those who have passed, Ray Whitley (father), and Verda and Earl Morton (grandparents) who were a vital part of developing my interest in learning. I will never forget you. Three animal companions gave me endless love during these years. To Sir Palister Whitley (Pal) my best friend. You are deeply missed. To Cera and Dexter you provide me with such joy even in the most difficult situations. Last, but certainty not the least, I would like to thank Melanie Whitley (wife), the woman who calms my fears, challenges my ideas and makes me want to be a better person. There are simply no words to express my gratitude. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………………….......x LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………..…...…...xi INTRODUCTION…………………..………………………………………………………….....1 ANIMALS AS ENERGY PRODUCERS-FROM ANTIQUITY TO CONTEMPORARY LIFE………………………………………………………………...3 A Brief History of Animal-Powered Engines and Animal-Powered Machines in Antiquity………………………………………………………………………...3 A Brief History of Animal-Powered Engines and Animal-Powered Machines in Modern and Contemporary Life………………………………………………..5 DISEMBODIED ANIMALS FOR ENERGY GENERATION…………………………………..6 THE INTENTIONAL ANIMAL SENTINEL IN ENERGY DEVELOPMENT ………………...7 THE UNINTENTIONAL ANIMAL SENTINEL IN ENERGY DEVELOPMENT……………..9 Non-Conventional Development: Renewables and Alternatives………………………...10 Renewable energy………………………………………………………………..11 Biofuels as alternative energy sources…………………………………………..12 Conventional Energy Development……………………………………………………...13 Nuclear energy and disasters………………………………………………....….13 Coal mining……………………………………………………………………....15 Oil and gas production, spills and offshore extraction………………………..…18 Unconventional Energy Development…………………………………………………...19 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION………………………………………………………22 WORKS CITED…………………..……………………………...……………………………...25 EXPLORING THE PLACE OF ANIMALS AND HUMAN-ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS IN HYDRAULIC FRACTURING. DISCOURSE……………...….35 ABSTRACT…………...…………………………………………………………………………35 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………….36 BACKGROUND AND THEORY……………………………………………………………....38 Environmental Justice and the Place of Animals…………..……………………………38 DATA……………………………………………………………………………………………41 METHOD………………………………………………………………………………………..41 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………42 Animal-Focused Articles…………………………………………………………….…...43 Animal-Observant Articles………………………………………………………….……45 Animal Sentinel Articles…………………………………………………………….……47 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………………..50 WORKS CITED…………………………………………………………………….………...…55 IS MY DOG AT RISK? EVALUATING THE INFLUENCE OF INTERSPECIES PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTANCE ON RISK PERCEPTIONS….....…67 vii ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………...67 INSTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………...68 BACKGROUND AND THEORY……………………………………………………………....70 Construal Level Theory and Risk Perceptions……………………………...……………70 Psychological Distance and Animal Concern………………………………...…………72 Human-Animal Relationships and Risk……………………………………………….…74 DATA………………………………………………………………………………………...….76 Measurement of Variables……………………………………………………………….77 Risk frame (social distance activation) ………………………………………….77 Dependent variables……………………………………………………….…………….77 Risk perception scales…………………………………………………...……….77 Independent Variables…………………………………………………………………...79 Animal ownership (proxy for social distance) …………………………………..79 Demographic and control variables……………………………………………..80 Environmental beliefs……………………………………………………………82 METHODS……………………………………………………………………………………....83 RESULTS………………………………………………………………………………………..84 Social Distance Frame Activation……………………………………………………….84 Animal Ownership……………………………………………………………………….87 Controls and Additional Explanatory Factors…………………………………………..88 DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………………………89 CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………………..93 APPENDIX ……………………………………………………………………………………...96 WORKS CITED……………………………………………………………………….……...…98 ANIMALS AT RISK? ASSESSING THE INFLUENCE OF ALTRUISM AND INTERSPECIES RELATIONSHIPS ON PERCEPTIONS OF HYDRAULIC FRACTURING……………………..………....…108 ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………….108 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………...109 THEORY……………………………………………………………………………………….112 Values and Beliefs………………………………………………………………………112 Social Distance…………………………………………………………………………115 DATA AND METHODS………………………………………………………………………118 Data…………………………………………………………………………………….118 Measures………………………………………………………………………………..119 Risk perception………………………………………………………………….119 Value orientations………………………………………………………………120 Beliefs…………………………………………………………………………...120
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