Tsunami & Destruction The 1946 Aleutian Tsunami Produced by: Nobuo Shuto Height: 30m
The morning, the lighthouse could not be seen.
The 18 meter high lighthouse stood on a foundation 10 meters above sea level.
Height of the tsunami: 30m
1 Spreading over the Pacific Ocean The 1946 Aleutian Tsunami
The Pacific Ocean, with an average depth of 4.2 km, is but a shallow puddle for a 100 km wavelength tsunami.
And then the tsunami reached Hawaii
Although the children recognized that something was wrong and warned the adults, their warning fell on deaf ears. Events of April 1, 1946
(NOAA, NG Data Center)
(NOAA, NG Data Center)
2 Attempts to flee were too late, resulting in a tragedy. 159 deaths in Hawaii
(NOAA, NG Data Center) A worker in Hilo just before being overcome by the tsunami.
3 Basic Configurations of Shallow Water Tsunami
Fast Tide An offshore tsunami has a first tide The average water level rises and creates tiers. Breaking Bore The original height of the tsunami
From a water depth of 200 maters to Unduar Bore a shallower location
Illustration 3-9 Ass the depth grows shallower, a tsunami can assume a variety of shapes.
3 Breaking bore Tsunami Configuration
The 1946 Aleutian Tsunami
Lake Jusan during the 1983 Japan Sea The wind and waves decrease Chubu Earthquake Tsunami after the breaking bore strikes. photo： Noriaki Kondo
An undular bore developing on the ocean
At the head, the wind and waves give rise to other short lived waves.
The Oga shore during the Japan sea Chubu Earthquake Tsunami
photo：Torazo Seki
4 An undular Bore Advances up the river
The Chilean Tsunami which entered Kitakamigawa (river) caused boats to clash into the Nakai Bridge.
（Sendai District Weather station、1961）
An Undular Bore Developing on the Kitakamigawa (river) 1960 Chilean Tsunami
The 3rd wave
The 2nd wave
The 1st wave (Kahoku Shimpo Co.）
5 The dispersed 1st wave and the breaking bore of the 2nd wave The 1983 Japan Sea Chubu Earthquake Tsunami （coast of Iwami town, Akita Prefecture）
A reflected wave from the 1st wave The 2nd wave
（photo：Naotoshi Ohba）
A Breaking Bore Co-Existent with an Undular Bore
The Tokachigawa (river) 2003 Tokachioki Earthquake Tsunami
re bo ng ki e rea or b r b la du un （photo token from a Self-Defense Force Army）
6 Velocity of Tsunami and Tsunami Energy
(km/h) Speed of a jet
Faster than the Shinkansen Pacific (bullet train) velocity Ocean ＝（water depth×10）1/2
Suruga Bay fast in deep water
Carl Lewis slow in shallow water
(Depth)
An Indented Coastline Bending in the Shallow Direction
Bent by the geographical features of the shore, the Japan Sea Chubu Earthquake Tsunami concentrated on Minehama Village.
(Shuto et al., 1986)
7 The Japan Sea Chubu Earthquake After being reflected Tsunami was off the coast of the oga Peninsula, caught by the the tsunami curved shoreline due to the back toward the Shallow shore. indentation of the coast.
At least 7 waves struck the Noshiro shore.
(港湾技研資料 Ｎo.470, 1983) 2waves struck at Oga.
Shallow Water Effect
The shallower the water, the higher
The back of the wave reaches
land shallow deep
The fast rear point of the wave in deep water follows the forward point that reached the shallow end and has slowed. This is the way in the back of the tsunami wave grows.
8 The Accumulative Shirahama Effect Minato Ryori Bay The tsunami that entered the wide mouth of the bay is pushed towards the back and grows still higher. Next, it gains strength and runs up to even higher sites. Haruo Matsuo（1933）
The tsunami grew higher in the deep part of the by
Shirahama at Ryori Bay is a typical example. The Meiji period tsunami ran up to 38 meters, while the Syowa The opposite direction tsunami ran up to 28. of the tsunami
The wave was pushed in and grew higher
Resonance Effect: Like a Swaying Swing
Method of Investigating Tsunami Oscillation Water in container will oscillate only a little vibration.
The initial water level The method of in vibration is Drop line described to the left. In the top illustration, the support under the The water level immediately right side of the container is after dropping suddenly removed. The container falls and the water level slopes as in the middle illustration. The A half-wave is generated water flows from the higher level toward the lower, as in the bottom illustration, and then sways back and froth. Inner bay area Mouth of the bay In long bays, the oscillations are gentle. In this container most easily In short bays, the oscillations are fast. generated waves of half-wide length. If the tsunami cycles are similar to the characteristics of bay oscillations, the tsunami will grow larger in the inner bay of Within a bay, the most frequently investigation as a result of the resonance effect. generated are waves of 1/4 length. Long bays are a disadvantage for long tsunami distant from land just as short bays are a disadvantage for short tsunami close to land.
9 The tsunami waters met in a mountain pass between Ryori Harbor and Sirahama
Depth where water met：38.2ｍ
Haruo Matsuo（1933）
Ryori Harbor, Iwate prefecture immediately after the Meiji Tsunami
Photograph：伊木常誠
Graphical illustration
10 Ryori The Meiji Tsunami Historical Monument
Tsunami can come from far across the ocean A tsunami from a distant land … the 1960 Chilean Tsunami The Pacific Rim Earthquake Zone
Pacific Ocean
11 It is believed to the largest-scale tsunami occurring on the Pacific.
The characteristics of the 1960 Chilean Tsunami were forward by the earthquake
Height of the wave: just under 10 m.
Heading toward Japan, the tsunami had a wavelength of 700 km, much longer when compared to tsunami from nearby areas.
May 1960. the Chilean tsunami that occurred in South America affected the entire Pacific area.
Regardless of the direction taken, when you depart from the North pole, you will eventually The Chilean Tsunami approaching Hawaii arrive at the South Pole.
Tsunami was generated in Chile, then spread throughout the Pacific, and eventually accumulated on the opposite side of the ocean, Japan
The wavelength was a long 700 km. for this reason , despite the distance of 17,000 km, it only took 22 rises and falls to reach the coast of Japan, without any loss of energy.
(Oringumi Technical Research Laboratory, Tohoku University Disaster Control Research Center)
12 Death toll: 142 persons The Chilean Victims: 160,000 persons Cost of Damage: 3.5 billion yen Tsunami (2.2 % of the National Budget) Reaches Japan
For the most part, because of Conditions after the resonance 22 hours effect, it was a The tsunami huge disaster for was 5-6 m high the inner bay of from Kamchatka long bays. to Okinawa 40 minute to 2- hour cycle
(Oringumi Technical Research Laboratory, Tohoku University Disaster Control Research Center)
Long-cycle tsunami can reappear very well. The calculatedチリ・計算と実測の比較 measurements of the 1960 Chilean Tsunami (solid line) match the actual measurements (dotted line) very well.
Hakodate
Water level
Aomori
Ominato Uda
Hachinohe
（Takaoka, etc： 2001） (horizontal axis: Time)
13 Tsunami come after a strong earthquake.
If you feel a tremor that is so strong you cannot stand up at the beach, go to a place that is more than 20 m high.
（This rule is only 90% accurate.）
Even in the case of small tremors, there is a possibility of an extremely large tsunami (tsunami earthquake)
A pamphlet from the National Oceanic and Administration regarding tsunami refuge education in the event of tsunami from nearby areas.
Earthquake Magnitude & Tsunami Magnitude The Meiji Great Sanriku Tsunami with its 22 thousand fatalities was an earthquake tsunami.
The size of a tsunami is Decided by the size of vertical displacement on the ocean floor, resulting from fault movement.
A large tsunami earthquake for a rather small earthquake
14 Omori (1901) Weak Seismic Intensity The Meiji Great Sanriku Tsunami
June 15, 1896 (old calendar May 5) The Tsunami struck around 8 pm.
Along the coast, the seismic intensity was under 2.
（渡辺偉夫、１９８８） Illustration #119
The Misfortunes of Experience
Many experienced people died. Forty-one years ago a tsunami struck but it was only a mild one. Those who stayed on the second storey [of their house] were safe, waiting and coming down only after the sea water receded. Because of this experience, those who did not panic and were not vigilant during the tsunami this time, drowned. On the contrary, may of those panicked, ran away and survived. We should be aware that the size and type of the two tsunami were difficult.
Folkways Picture Magazine, 2nd volume
???? Ward Mayor Ando (whose [first] name) was Do [reading?], a person of careful thought and had a great deal of experience. When people were making a big fuss, saying that that a tidal wave was coming, he was smoking quite calmly. He said that tidal wave never come except after a big earthquake, and told the household people not to worry, when suddenly a tsunami came over the house and he died. This happened over 40 years ago, demonstrating that experience can be wrong as far as tsunami are concerned. Iwate Public Gazette, June 30, 1896
15 Unusual Aspects of the Ocean Just Before the Tsunami Hit Many people believe a tsunami begins will a pull, but…
A tsunami actually begins with a push. The fishing port is calm.
Suddenly, the surface of the sea rises. The tsunami overflows the breakwater. 1983 The Sea of Japan Chubu
Photograph：Fumio Sasaki Earthquake Tsunami at Hatake Fishing Port
The 1st wave of （今村明恒、昭和9年） the tsunami rose
The 2nd wave to Oura above the mountain pass
The Keicho Era Tsunami, Oura 1611 Yamada Bay The 1st wave at Oura was a tsunami that rose above the Oura mountain pass.
Koyadori Next, another tsunami came around the peninsula and struck from Yamada Bay to the north. Pacific Ocean Because of varying Funakoshi Bay geographical features, the location where the tsunami The 1st wave to Oura 1933 originated and it’s the size, it 1896 is not sufficient to focus only 1611 on the ocean.
16 A Strange Ocean Roar #1 Nov.4, 1854. in a flash, a large of earthquake struck… At that time, many who were extremely frightened heard an 地震海鳴りほら津浪 ocean roar. (Sagara Town, Osawa Temple Documents)
A breaking bore over 2.5 m in height produces continuous sound
The Sea of Japan Chubu Earthquake Tsunami in Yonashiro River
（Photograph： Kiyoshi Sato） The storm is getting closer. Many large dump trucks are coming. A monument in Aomori
A Strange Ocean Roar #2 When layers of waves 5m high and over smash into the cliffs, a loud noise occurs. Distant thunder, blasts, and the artillery guns can be head from far away
（尾形月耕、海嘯義捐小説）
Of the points within Hirota Bay, sounds could only be head around kurosaki, but since there is no shelter in Kakahama, the sound of the attacking tsunami colliding into the ocean cliffs was heard over and over again.（Shuto, 1997)
17 The Syowa Great Sanriku Tsunami that Struck after a Severe Earthquake
March 3, 1933 The tsunami struck around 3 am.
On the Sanriku coast, it was intensity 5. An intensity distribution map of the Syowa Sanriku Earthquake (Meteorological Administration, 1983) X marks the epicenter （渡辺偉夫、１９８８）
Ryori Shirahama immediately Where the after the Showa Sanriku Tsunami waters met
Port of Ryori
Ryori Shirahama
Because it was 10m smaller that the Meiji Tsunami, the tsunami waters did not meet at the Port of Ryori.
A tree 30 cm in diameter was bent over and broken.
（地震研究所彙報、別冊第1号）
18 Results of Trace Investigation The Syowa Sanriku Tsunami at Kuwagasaki, Miyako Bay
Anyone might expect it to be 3-4 meters, but…
It actually was 7-8 maters.
地震研究所彙報、別冊、第1号、昭和9年
Details of the Syowa Sanriku It’s not unusual to have Tsunami at Miyako, a difference of 3 m in Kuwagasaki height at a distance of 100 m. As a result of the collision of seawater running with great force, this sort of difference can develop. 7.2m 6.1m 4.5m 4.0m
500m Ministry of the interior, Sendai Public Works Branch Office, Miyako Bay repairs Office Inverstigation （土木試験所報告、第 号、昭和 年） (Public Works Experimentation Laboratory Report #24, 1933) 24 8
19 1933 Tsunami trace Figures from within Okushiri Port At a distance of 50 m there is a difference of 2m.
2.0m 4.0m 3.4m
2.1m
3.7m 5.7m
（Hokkaido Earthquake Measures Investigation Committee Data、1995）
Water level rises as structures collide in the intense velocity of the current. Differences with the part of water passing through roads give rise to new waves.
Waves are generated by collisions.
(Produced 4 minutes 35 seconds after the earthquake occurred by Unique)
20 At the same location, the map to the left shows5.1 m ,and to right, 7.8 m
Measurements of the Syowa Tsunami at Ofunato Bay
Because such things can occur, careful precision is needed Department of the Interior, Tokyo University Earthquake Research Laboratory Engineering Works Research Institute
Types of Tsunami Disasters Based on Past Experience
• Loss of life • Destroyed homes caused by tsunami & floating objects • Destroyed disaster damage from scouring, displacement prevention structures • Traffic obstruction railways, road, ports • Lifeline damage waterworks, electric power, communication, sewers • Damage to marine aqua-cultural rafts, fishing boats products industry • Damage of commerce value of goods falls due to flooding and industry • Damage of the agricultural industry products, cultivable land, irrigation ditches • Damage to forests physical, biological damage • Fires source of fire: kitchen fire, short circuits, etc. • Oil spills cause fire to spread, environmental pollution • Geographical change changes in sandbars, shoals, sandy beaches, etc.
（Nobuo Shuto, 1994）
21 Tsunami Strength and Form, degree of Damage
Tsunami strength 0 1 2 3 4 5
Tsunami height (m) 1 2 4 8 16 32 Tsunami Easy slope Builds up at Wall of water at Damaged object increase Even in the 1st wave, damage from rolling Form the coast the coast. Damage at the point wave occurs of 2nd wave Steep slope Fast tide fast Continuous noise from the damage in front (ocean roar, violent wind, thunder) Loud noises at the beach from the damaging rolling waves sounds (thunder, not recognized at a great distant) At the coast, loud crashing noises (thunder, and crashing heard from far away) Wooden house construction Partial Total destruction destruction Stone house construction Endures the attack (no documentation) Total destruction Steel, concrete building Endures the attack (no documentation) Total destruction
Fishing boat Damage occurs 50% rate of damage 100% rate of damage Damage to protected lakes, forests Slight damage Partial damage Overall damage Result of protected lakes, forests Reduction of tsunami Drifting object No results Drifting objects prevented prevented Aqua-cultural rafts Damage occurs Inundated costal communities Damage occurs 50% rate of damage 100% rate of damage Height achieved 2 4 8 16 32
（Nobuo shuto, 1992, 1993）
Human Damage
The tsunami occurred on June 15,1896. It was the Boys Festival in the old calendar, about 8 O’clock in the evening Typical tsunami earthquake Evacuation precautions taken - none
Deaths (persons)： Hokkaido 9 Aomori 343 Iwate 18,154 Miyagi 3,452
（山本松谷、風俗画報、明治29年）
22 No efforts ware made to evacuate during the Meiji Sanriku Tsunami. The number of homes washed away was proportionate to the number of deaths
The Meiji Great The Syowa Great Sanriku Tsunami Sanriku Tsunami Number of death Number Number of death Number
Numbers of homes washed away Numbers of homes washed away
Nobuo Shuto（1987）
The Disposition of the Dead
At kamaishi, there were not enough Straw Mates
As for Hirota, there were too many dead to gather at once. It was necessary to make two attempts to gather them.
（Storm Illustration）
23 Percentage of deaths upper limit The best and only
■ Meiji Sanriku ○ Syowa Sanriku way to save lives to ▲ Tonankai × Hokkaido Nanseioki ＋ Nankai early evacuation.
The death rate for tsunami of the same height can differ by 3 figures. Percentage of deaths Lower limit of Early evacuation results death percentage in this difference.
Tsunami height (m)
Tsunami height and death probability （河田恵昭、1997）
Can you take refuge while watching a tsunami?
The 1960 Chilean Tsunami: Photo of Onagawa Town, Miyagi Prefecture. With the Tsunami already at their feet, people are watching it while making their getaway. （National Geographic Institute, 1961）
24 Observers who Narrowly Escaped
1968 Tokachioki Earthquake Tsunami In front of the Kamaishi Fish Market People came to see the seldom seen ocean floor.
They barely escaped from （Transportation Ministry、Ports and Harbors Bureau, 1968） the 4th wave that followed.
Overtaken Even by a Small Tsunami
1983 Sea of Japan Chubu Earthquake Tsunami, Jusanko, Iwaki River Estuary And then no one was left. 9people running Depth of water: 70 cm strenuously
1 person （Photograph： Noriaki Nara） (left, engulfed by a wave)
25 Examples of the Sick and Wounded Meiji Great Sanriku Tsunami Miyagi Prefecture Case Symptoms of 1,329 hospitalized patients and [number of death] Bruised 292 [6] Sprains 196 [8] Respiratory diseases 152 [13] Digestive diseases 107 Neurological / sensory 82 [1] diseases Abrasions 69 [1] Lacerations 66 [3] Bone injuries 64 [3] Special record was made that noting could be done for those patients suffering from decorative pneumonia..
（宮城県震嘯誌、明治36年）
1983 Sea of Japan Chubu Earthquake Tsunami －Actual Results at Nosiroー
locate No. percent No. percent Deaths Injured Total during into the death tsunami ocean Object on ocean (Note 1) 53 53 (100) 24 (45) 24 (45) 48 (91)
Vessels (Note 1) No. on 35 31 (89) 3 (9) 15 (43) 18 (51) 13 out of At the small boat 15 overturned coast No. on 64 2 ( 3) 3 (5) 16 (25) 19 (30) 1 out of large ships 9 overturned (Note 2) No. on 29 8 (28) 3 (10) 3 (10) 6 (21) 3 out of Immedia small boat 11 overturned tely after No. on 5 0 (-) 0 (-) 1 (20) 1 (20) 1 ship, none the coast large ships overturned (Note 3) No. on 29 5 (17) 1 (3) 5 (17) 6 (21) 2 out of After small boat 12 overturned leaving No. on 62 0 (-) 0 (-) 0 () 0 (0) 12 ships, none coast large ships overturned (Note) 1. Those on vessels on the ocean away from the coast 2. Those on vessels at, just departing from, or 100 m or more from coast 3. ( ) percentage of （Sea of Japan Chubu Earthquake Overall 4. Values have been finalized for this investigation Investigation Report, National Land Agency, 1984）
26 Kamaishi after the Meiji great Sanriku Tsunami
Large volume of sand brought in by the tsunami
A photograph sold at the time （Property of the Sendai City Museum）
Gusting Wind Just Before the Tsunami Struck Gusting Wind Justas the wave came, our hands were thrown up and then we were twisted around and thrown down. It was the same before the wave hit the warehouses and homes; they were twisted and thrown down, offering no hindrance to the wave. Homes and warehouses all collapsed from the air pressure, move violet then a cannon. Report of the Meiji Great Sanriku Tsunami by Otsu Town, Iwate Prefecture Article from the Iwate Newsletter June 24, 1896
27 Deeds of the Wind the Case of a Certain House in
1993 Hokkaido Southwest Coast Earthquake Tsunami
Path of the tsunami
On the south side of the road, the tsunami hit the entire area. Degree of destruction moderate On the North side of the road, the walls of the houses were blown off by the strong wind
（ ： ） Photograph Nobuo Syuto 25 cm of flooding on the first floor
Destruction of Homes
Total destruction beams and entire building destroyed Major destruction most of the walls and beams destroyed Moderate destruction beams remain. Some walls destroyed Minor destructions windows are broken but walls remain Flooding only no mechanical damage
Some damage Little damage
（Photograph：Nobuo Shuto）
28 Yardstick for Estimating Damage to houses of Wood Construction
Flood water 1 m deep - partial destruction Initial conditions of destruction Flood water 2 m deep - total destruction Current velocity:4 m/s， 抗力1.1t/m
（Hideo Matsutomo, Nobuo Shuto, 1994）
Moderate damage Severe damage
（Photograph：Nobuo Shuto）
Drifting objects are more frightening than the water
（Yomiuri Newspaper） Shizugawa Town during the Chilean Tsunami Not released by copyright protection
A large Ship Beached at Ofunato Sakaicho Town during the Chilean Tsunami （Asahi newspapers）
29 Approaching the mountain Destruction of a and overflowing the dike, in a very short time, seawater Dike filled the area behind the dike. Next, overflowing water left the back and rear quarters scoured Due to the water overflow the back and rear quarters scoured Depth of water of Depth
Washed away dike
Not 1960 Funakoshi, Iwate Prefecture damaged
（Nobuo Shuto, 1999） Height of dike （Chilean Tsunami joint Investigation Summary, 1961）
Destruction of Wharfs, etc
Receding waters of the ebb tide expose the from quarter and beating against it, cause scouring.
Receding waters of the ebb tide, Hakodate 1960
（Chilean Tsunami Joint Investigation Summary, 1961）
30 Scouring, as a result of water flow, is the primary cause of destruction
The 2nd fish market of Konakano, Hachinohe Port during the 1960 Chilean tsunami.
The entire fish market was inundated.
The speed of the current at the entrance of the shipping port was 13 m/s at ebb tide (max.), 8 m/s at high tide (max.) The wharf at the Konakano fish market was previously constructed at (-)3m, But after scouring, upending, sinking and submerging, was (-)9m. （Hachinohe Port Engineering Office, 1961）
１ Gradually collapsing – the Konakado 2nd Fish Market Wharf
（Hachinohe Port Engineering Office, 1961）
２ ４
３ ５
31 Where water accumulates, protective construction is needed.
Taneichi Rikukan after the 1933 Showa Sanriku Tsunami The Makiya Ohashi (bridge), （Quarterly Journal of Seismology, 1933） Okinawa after the 1960 Chilean Tsunami
（National Meteorological Agency Technical Report, 1960）
Large-Scale Geographic Change
（チリ津波合同調査班、1961）
The 1960 Chilean Tsunami cut through kiritappu, Hamanaka Town, Hokkaido.
（Keiichiro Yamaguchi, Measurement, 1962）
32 An 8 meter high hill produced by a tsunami
Everything above the red line is accumulated sand. (From the tsunami of Ansei)
The entrance to Minami Izu Town
Aquaculture Rafts
No.2 The Cultured pearl industry of Kiinagashima district was destroyed. Many people are working on the rafts.
(National Meteorological Agency,（気象庁技術報告、昭和 Technical Report, 1970)35年） Damage to rafts begins No.1 Matoya Bay, Mie Prefecture Normally, the cultured pearl rafts are lined up in this way. from a current velocity of 1 m/s. （永野ほか、平成元年）
(1) Moving rafts no damage (2) Rafts that drifted away percent of shells dropped 10% Rafts repairable (1 m/s) (3) Rafts that collided, in disarray percent of shells dropped 20-20% Rafts repairable (>4 m/s) (4) Rafts piled on top of each other percent of shells dropped 70-80% Rafts not repairable (>10 m/s) (5) Rafts drifted out to open sea/sunk percentage of rafts/shells lost 100%
（佐藤忠男、水産増殖、1960）
33 Percentage of Damaged Fishing Boats
Actual results of the 1983 Sea of Japan Chubu Earthquake Tsunami 1960 Chilean Tsunami Hachinohe Niidagawa Port Wharf Tsunami Height 3.3m ○ Small boat Of approx. 400 boats, 90% ware ■ Large ship swept out to sea.
（National Meteorological Agency Technical Report, #8, 1970） （Nobuo shuto、 1992)
The 1968 Tokachioki Earthquake Tsunami Noda Fishing Port, Iwate Prefecture
When stranded by a surging wave, the backwash that follows is dangerous. It is dangerous to send boats out to the open sea for safety.
（Transportation Ministry, Ports and Harbors Bureau, 1968）
34 A large whirlpool formed at Hachinohe port during the 1968 Tokachioki Tsunami
撮影：海上自衛隊第二航空群
During the Showa Great Sanriku Tsunami 3 fires ware recorded. At Kamaishi, when the 3th wave Tsunami and Fires struck, Fires broke out. Could short circuits have been the cause?
Not released by copyright protection
（Asahi Newspaper Co.）
35 During the tsunami, fires could not be extinguished. Approximately 200 sites ware burned.
Kamaishi Town Earthquake Disaster Damage Illustration.
Washed away
Flooded Burned down （Haruyoshi Ogaki, 1933）
Tsunami, Fires and Combustible materials
Up to new, there are 5 examples of the most horrific secondary disasters.
An estimate of the area burned by petroleum A(m2)
A =325V
V(kilolitre) is the volume（Shuto,1991) ofiol reserves. Whittier, Alaska, 1964
36 The case of the 1964 Niigata Earthquake
Area where the tsunami and ground Burned area water collected
Mo/Da Time Recorded time of burned area
Legend Direction the fire spread Flooded area （Fire Prevention Agency, Niigata Earthquake Report, 1964）
First fires which broke out immediately after the earthquake
（Fire Prevention Agency, Niigata Earthquake Report, 1964）
During the earthquake, oil overflowed from the tanks and Condition of the fires in the afternoon on the day they broke out (June 16) was nearly entirely consumed in flames.
37 The Yamanoshita district covered in oil from a group of 100 tanks of sea of fuel oil.
（Niigata Nippo News）
5 hours after the earthquake, a second fire broke out
The 2th fire
（消防庁、新潟地震報告書、昭和39年度）
Afternoon fire conditions on the day All was burned by the flames from the crude oil around the Shoseki tanks. of the fire (June 16th) The building in the center is the Tohoku Electric and Heating Power Plant. The smoke on the right is from the Narusawa Oil tank fire. The 2th fire has not yet broken out.
38 About 300 sites ware burned.
（Niigata Nippo News）
Earthquake & Tsunami and the Destruction of Tanks
The 1964 Great Alaskan Earthquake Tanks ware destroyed by the earthquake and tsunami in Valdez.
（Earthquake Research laboratory, 1946）
(The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964, NAS, 1972)
During the Tonankai Earthquake, fuel oil tanks On Jinki Island ware washed away, But since they ware empty, disaster was avoided.
39 Tsunami can strike anywhere along the Japan coast. During this period, the worst recorded strike was at Miyako Island. Accumulated energy values of Tsunami strikes since 1600
Hokkaido
Hokkaido
Aomori Aomori Iwate Akita Miyagi Yamagata Niigata Ibaraki Fukushima Toyama Chiba Tokyo Ishikawa Kanagawa Fukui Shizuoka Kyoto Aichi Hyogo Tottori Mie Shimane Osaka Wakayama Hyogo Tokushima Kochi Ehime Oita Miyazaki Kagoshima （Soda, 1988）
Every Tsunami is unique.
Disasters are evolving.
40