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After Eden: Religion and Labor in the American West, 1868-1914 By

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After Eden: Religion and Labor in the American West, 1868-1914 By After Eden: Religion and Labor in the American West, 1868-1914 by Brennan L. Keegan Graduate Program in Religion Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ David Morgan, Supervisor ___________________________ Catherine Bowler ___________________________ Joseph Winters ___________________________ Elizabeth Olson ___________________________ Robert Orsi Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate Program in Religion in the Graduate School of Duke University 2018 ABSTRACT After Eden: Religion and Labor in the American West, 1868-1914 by Brennan L. Keegan Graduate Program in Religion Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ David Morgan, Supervisor ___________________________ Catherine Bowler ___________________________ Joseph Winters ___________________________ Elizabeth Olson ___________________________ Robert Orsi An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate Program in Religion in the Graduate School of Duke University 2018 Copyright by Brennan L. Keegan 2018 Abstract Variously romanticized as the repository of American Protestantism, free market capitalism, and self-sufficient individualism, or defined by material actions of conquest and colonization, the history of the Rocky Mountain West is a complicated constellation of myth and reality. This dissertation evaluates the efforts of three religious communities to negotiate a place within that constellation. Northern Arapaho wage laborers in central Wyoming, Mormon merchants in Salt Lake City, Utah, and Roman Catholic hard-rock miners in Butte, Montana, leveraged their religious and ethnic identities to negotiate places of sovereignty in the western landscape. While each case study presents a distinct relationship between religion and labor, each is grounded in the materiality of exchange and economics in order to show the inseparability of religion from the economic practices that enabled the creation and endurance of nineteenth-century Western communities. Despite the concealing mechanisms of a single, idealized trajectory of American nationhood, the narration of national space was haunted and disrupted by the persistence of alternate, but interconnected, religious geographies, which re- scripted hegemonic narratives of American religious and economic exceptionalism. Using the tools of archival research and the collection of oral histories, this dissertation explores the tension of the familiar and the unfamiliar in the pastoral heartland of the American myth. iv Dedication To my friends and family in and of the West. v Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. ix Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................... x 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 American Exceptionalism .................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Contextualizing the Rocky Mountain West ....................................................................... 12 1.3 Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................................... 14 1.4 Methodology ...................................................................................................................... 17 1.4.1 Archival and Ethnographic Inquiry .............................................................................18 1.5 Outline ............................................................................................................................... 20 2. Wind River Wage Laborers ....................................................................................................... 23 2.1 The People ......................................................................................................................... 27 2.1.1 Tribal Unity and Flexibility .........................................................................................31 2.1.2 Pre-Reservation Life ....................................................................................................39 2.1.3 A Changing World ......................................................................................................42 2.2 A Reservation of Two Cultures ......................................................................................... 44 2.3 The Ghost Dance and Wage Labor .................................................................................... 61 2.3.1 The Ghost Dance in Context .......................................................................................61 2.3.2 The Northern Arapaho Transition to Wage Labor ......................................................67 2.4 Mapping the Native Landscape ......................................................................................... 78 3. Mormon Merchants: Buying and Selling the Kingdom ............................................................. 82 vi 3.1 Early Mormon Settlement ................................................................................................. 85 3.2 The Sword of the Spirit: The Ute Indians and Mormon Settlement in Utah ..................... 89 3.3 Building the Great Basin Kingdom ................................................................................... 96 3.3.1 Mapping Zion ............................................................................................................101 3.4 Zion’s Cooperative Mercantile Institution ...................................................................... 104 3.4.1 Founding Cooperative Mercantilism .........................................................................108 3.4.2 Trouble in the Kingdom ............................................................................................116 3.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 122 4. Catholic Miners: Industrial Catholicism in Butte, Montana .................................................... 127 4.1 Showered with Gold, Ribbed with Copper: The History of Butte .................................. 131 4.1.1 A Catholic City ..........................................................................................................135 4.2 The Development of Butte’s Working Class ................................................................... 141 4.2.2 Industrial Capitalism in the Rockies ..........................................................................142 4.2.3 Catholicism on Labor ................................................................................................148 4.3 A Labor of Faith .............................................................................................................. 157 4.3.1 The Company ............................................................................................................158 4.3.2 Irish Need Only Apply ..............................................................................................161 4.3.3 Catholic Workers .......................................................................................................165 4.3.4 A Union Divided .......................................................................................................174 4.5 Industrial Heritage ........................................................................................................... 177 5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 183 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 194 vii Biography ..................................................................................................................................... 214 viii List of Figures Figure 1: American Progress by John Gast (1872) .........................................................................9 Figure 2: Pipe Bundle and Contents. Arapaho. .............................................................................31 Figure 3: ZCMI in 2016 (Photo by Author) ................................................................................111 Figure 4: "Butte City in 1875" ....................................................................................................143 Figure 5: “Famous ‘Anaconda Hill,’ showing different mines of the Parrot lode, the scene of early-day mining” (1900) ............................................................................................................144 Figure 6: Holy Savior Church as it is bulldozed to make way for expansion of the Berkeley Pit (1960) ..........................................................................................................................................179 Figure 7: Butte Uptown and Berkeley Pit ...................................................................................181
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