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The Diffuse Reflecting Power of Various Substances 1
. THE DIFFUSE REFLECTING POWER OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES 1 By W. W. Coblentz CONTENTS Page I. Introduction . 283 II. Summary of previous investigations 288 III. Apparatus and methods 291 1 The thermopile 292 2. The hemispherical mirror 292 3. The optical system 294 4. Regions of the spectrum examined 297 '. 5. Corrections to observations 298 IV. Reflecting power of lampblack 301 V. Reflecting power of platinum black 305 VI. Reflecting power of green leaves 308 VII. Reflecting power of pigments 311 VIII. Reflecting power of miscellaneous substances 313 IX. Selective reflection and emission of white paints 315 X. Summary 318 Note I. —Variation of the specular reflecting power of silver with angle 319 of incidence I. INTRODUCTION In all radiometric work involving the measurement of radiant energy in absolute value it is necessary to use an instrument that intercepts or absorbs all the incident radiations; or if that is impracticable, it is necessary to know the amount that is not absorbed. The instruments used for intercepting and absorbing radiant energy are usually constructed in the form of conical- shaped cavities which are blackened with lampblack, the expecta- tion being that, after successive reflections within the cavity, the amount of energy lost by passing out through the opening is reduced to a negligible value. 1 This title is used in order to distinguish the reflection of matte surfaces from the (regular) reflection of polished surfaces. The paper gives also data on the specular reflection of polished silver for different angles of incidence, but it seemed unnecessary to include it in the title. -
Mirror Images Georg Maier
Mirror Images Georg Maier The following article is excerpted from Chapter 3 of An Optics of Visual Experience, by Georg Maier. The text has been abridged and adapted for In Context. See the box on next page and the end of the article for further information. hen we see a rock in the landscape we feel sure that it is “really there!” Seeing is usually experienced almost like touching. Sight helps us to orient ourselves in our surroundings when we set off toward an as yet dis- tant goal, just as it lets us attend to our activities right here where we are. Thus seeing is generally thought to simply be our ability to keep an eye on objects. WAny attempt to use mirror images to orient ourselves in a similar way will lead to confusion. They do not seem to corre- spond to our other perceptions of bodies with respect to their location. They offer “extra,” “indirect” views, and as long as we are not clear about what we mean here by “indirect,” we will justifiably claim that they are unreal for us. In the following considerations the object that is mirrored will be referred to as the prototype. Our main task will be to understand the lawful relationships between mirror images and their prototypes. Mirror Images in a Quiet Pond It is worthwhile to study reflections in quite some detail in a moderately-sized pond. Memorable key experiences can be gained in such a situation. If the pond is small and sheltered from wind, its surface will normally be quiet. -
Chapter 25 the Reflection of Light: Mirrors
Chapter 25 The Reflection of Light: Mirrors 25.1 Wave Fronts and Rays Defining wave fronts and rays. Consider a sound wave since it is easier to visualize. Shown is a hemispherical view of a sound wave emitted by a pulsating sphere. The rays are perpendicular to the wave fronts (e.g. crests) which are separated from each other by the wavelength of the wave, λ. 25.1 Wave Fronts and Rays The positions of two spherical wave fronts are shown in (a) with their diverging rays. At large distances from the source, the wave fronts become less and less curved and approach the limiting case of a plane wave shown in (b). A plane wave has flat wave fronts and rays parallel to each other. We will consider light waves as plane waves and will represent them by their rays. 25.2 The Reflection of Light LAW OF REFLECTION FROM FLAT MIRRORS. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane, and the angle of incidence, θi, equals the angle of reflection, θr. θi = θr 25.2 The Reflection of Light In specular reflection, the reflected rays are parallel to each other. In diffuse reflection, light is reflected in random directions. Flat, reflective surfaces, Rough surfaces, e.g. mirrors, polished metal, e.g. paper, wood, unpolished surface of a calm pond of water metal, surface of a pond on a windy day 25.3 The Formation of Images by a Plane Mirror Your image in a flat mirror has four properties: 1. -
Infrared Deflectometry for the Inspection of Diffusely Specular Surfaces
Adv. Opt. Techn. 2016; 5(5-6): 377–387 Review Article Open Access Sebastian Höfer, Jan Burke* and Michael Heizmann Infrared deflectometry for the inspection of diffusely specular surfaces DOI 10.1515/aot-2016-0051 principles of thermal deflectometry, its special challenges, Received September 12, 2016; accepted November 5, 2016; previously and illustrates its use with examples from the inspection published online December 8, 2016 of industrially produced surfaces. Abstract: Deflectometry is a full-field gradient technique Keywords: deflectometry; infrared displays; metrological that lends itself very well to testing specular surfaces. It instrumentation. uses the geometry of specular reflection to determine the gradient of the surface under inspection. In consequence, a necessary precondition to apply deflectometry is the 1 Introduction presence of at least partially specular reflection. Surfaces with larger roughness have increasingly diffuse reflection This section presents the basic ingredients needed for characteristics, making them inaccessible to usual deflec- understanding the technique of deflectometry and appre- tometry. However, many industrially relevant surfaces ciating the rationale for extending the wavelength range exist that change their reflection characteristic during into the infrared. production and processing. An example is metal sheets that are used as car body parts. Whereas the molded but otherwise raw metal sheets show a mostly diffuse reflec- 1.1 Deflectometry tion without sufficient specular reflection, the final car body panels have a high specular reflectance due to the When testing and/or measuring reflective objects, the lacquering. In consequence, it would be advantageous well-established technique of fringe projection [1] is not to apply the same inspection approach both for the raw available because there is not enough scattered light avail- material and for the final product. -
Geometrical Optics / Mirror and Lenses Outline Reflection Plane Mirrors Concave/Convex Mirrors Refraction Lenses Dispersion Geometrical Optics
Geometrical Optics / Mirror and Lenses Outline Reflection Plane Mirrors Concave/Convex Mirrors Refraction Lenses Dispersion Geometrical Optics In describing the propagation of light as a wave we need to understand: wavefronts: a surface passing through points of a wave that have the same phase and amplitude. rays: a ray describes the direction of wave propagation. A ray is a vector perpendicular to the wavefront. Reflection and Refraction When a light ray travels from one medium to another, part of the incident light is reflected and part of the light is transmitted at the boundary between the two media. The transmitted part is said to be refracted in the second medium. http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hall/6645/propagation/propagation.html *In 1678 the great Dutch physicist Christian Huygens (1629-1695) wrote a treatise called Traite de la Lumiere on the wave theory of light, and in this work he stated that the wavefront of a propagating wave of light at any instant conforms to the envelope of spherical wavelets emanating from every point on the wavefront at the prior instant. From this simple principle Huygens was able to derive the laws of reflection and refraction incident ray reflected ray refracted ray Types of Reflection When light reflects from a smooth surface, it undergoes specular reflection (parallel rays will all be reflected in the same direction). When light reflects from a rough surface, it undergoes diffuse reflection (parallel rays will be reflected in a variety of directions). The Law of Reflection For specular reflection the incident angle θi equals the reflected angle θr: θi =θr (Known since 1000 BC) The angles are measured relative to the normal, shown here as a dotted line. -
False Reflections
View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Apollo Penultimate draft. Forthcoming in Philosophical Studies Please cite published version, available at Springer via http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1007/s11098-016-0752-x FALSE REFLECTIONS by Maarten Steenhagen Standing in front of a bathroom mirror, looking straight ahead, you seem to see your own face. You seem to be able to look at your countenance from where you are. But of course your face is not there, where you see it; it is not on the other side of the mirror. It is where you are, on this side of the mirror. That should be obvious to anyone familiar with mirror re- flections. Some, however, take this to be one respect in which mirror appearances are illus- ory. They deem it obvious that what you see in an ordinary plane mirror appears to be over there, behind the mirror’s surface, while it is not in fact located there. For this reason they take mirrors to introduce some kind of optical illusion to visual experience. Call this view specular illusionism.1 Specular illusionism may seem like an entirely natural position to arrive at. Yet its natural- ness obscures the possibility of reasonable disagreement over whether this view is plausible or even correct. Here I will show that the specular illusionist’s claim rests on substantive as- sumptions about how things must appear to us; assumptions that fall within the purview of philosophical catoptrics, the philosophical study of the optical properties of mirrors. -
Ch. 25 the Reflection of Light 25.1 Wave Fronts and Rays We Are All Familiar with Mirrors
Ch. 25 The Reflection of Light 25.1 Wave fronts and rays We are all familiar with mirrors. We see images because some light is reflected off the surface of the mirror and into our eyes. In order to describe the reflection process in some detail, we need to define a few things: Consider again sound waves: High density areas of air are called The areas of condensation are also called condensation. wave fronts, and they propagate out away from the source. We can draw in radial lines which point out from the source and are perpendicular to the wave fronts. Rays These are called wave rays, or just rays. Speaker The rays point in the direction of the wave velocity. Think of the ray as a narrow beam of light showing the direction of the Low density areas of air are called rarefaction. light’s path. This was an example of curved wave fronts resulting from a spherical source. We could also have plane wave fronts: Rays In plane waves, the rays are all parallel to each other! 25.2 The Reflection of Light Most objects will reflect at least a portion of the light that hits them. How the light is reflected depends largely on the condition of the object’s surface. If the surface is flat and smooth, then the reflected rays are all parallel: Reflected rays Incident rays Incident rays Reflected rays This is called specular reflection. If the surface is rough, like wood or paper, then the reflected rays point in random directions. This is called diffuse reflection. -
5 Locating Images in a Plane Mirror
Locating Images in a Plane Mirror Notes_5_SNC2DE_09 - 10 A plane mirror is used to demonstrate the path of light when it hits the mirror. A plane mirror is a mirror with a flat, reflective surface. An object placed in front of a mirror is referred to as the object. The likeness, (a reproduction), that is seen in the mirror of the object is referred to as the image. Characteristics of an Image in a Plane Mirror The characteristics, i.e. the kind of image, where it will be and what the image will look like, may all be predicted by applying the laws of reflection. An image can be described by four characteristics: size, (or magnification), attitude, location (or position), type (i.e. kind). Size, ( or Magnification): of the image compared to the object may be the same size, enlarged or diminished. The height of the object, h0, in relation to the height of the image, hi. ( M = hi / h0 ) Attitude: of image may be erect, (upright) or inverted compared to the object. Location (or Position): of an image created by a plane mirror is measured with reference to the reflecting surface (i.e. closer than, further than, or the same distance as the object to the plane mirror). Distance between the object and the lens, d0, and the distance between the image and the lens, di. Type of Image (or Kind): describes whether the image is real or virtual. A real image is one that can be seen on a screen: light rays converge to a point. A virtual image, (i.e. -
Lecture 15 Reflection & Refraction
LECTURE 15 REFLECTION & REFRACTION 18.1 The ray model of light Endoscopes use fiber optics. Seeing objects Shadows 18.2 Reflection The plane mirror 18.3 Refraction Total internal reflection Learning objectives 2 Use the ray model of light—how light is emitted from objects, how we see objects, and how shadows are formed. Use the law of reflection to locate images formed in plane mirrors. Apply the laws of reflection and refraction to relate indices of refraction, and angles of incidence, reflection, and refraction. Describe how total internal reflection occurs and calculate or use the critical angle. 18.1 Seeing objects / Demo Demo: Laser beam Why can you not see the laser beam? In order for our eye to see an object, rays from that object must enter the eye. https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/LaserHallway Group exercise: 18.1-1 (Evolution of eyes) 4 a) The eye can sense light and dark. b) How does this eye allow directional sensitivity? Group exercise: 18.1-1 (Evolution of eyes) answer 5 a) The eye can sense light and dark. b) How does this eye allow directional sensitivity? Evolution of eyes 6 c) Pinhole eyes have tradeoff of light collection and sharp imaging. d) Humor allows refraction to converge rays. f) Our eyes see by focusing a bundle of rays using lens. 18.1 Shadows An opaque object can intercept rays, creating a shadow behind it. A point source creates a completely dark shadow with a sharp edge. An extended source often creates a true shadow that no light reaches, surrounded by a fuzzy region of increasing brightness. -
Basic Geometrical Optics
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHOTONICS Module 1.3 Basic Geometrical Optics Leno S. Pedrotti CORD Waco, Texas Optics is the cornerstone of photonics systems and applications. In this module, you will learn about one of the two main divisions of basic optics—geometrical (ray) optics. In the module to follow, you will learn about the other—physical (wave) optics. Geometrical optics will help you understand the basics of light reflection and refraction and the use of simple optical elements such as mirrors, prisms, lenses, and fibers. Physical optics will help you understand the phenomena of light wave interference, diffraction, and polarization; the use of thin film coatings on mirrors to enhance or suppress reflection; and the operation of such devices as gratings and quarter-wave plates. Prerequisites Before you work through this module, you should have completed Module 1-1, Nature and Properties of Light. In addition, you should be able to manipulate and use algebraic formulas, deal with units, understand the geometry of circles and triangles, and use the basic trigonometric functions (sin, cos, tan) as they apply to the relationships of sides and angles in right triangles. 73 Downloaded From: https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/ebooks on 1/8/2019 DownloadedTerms of Use: From:https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/terms-of-use http://ebooks.spiedigitallibrary.org/ on 09/18/2013 Terms of Use: http://spiedl.org/terms F UNDAMENTALS OF P HOTONICS Objectives When you finish this module you will be able to: • Distinguish between light rays and light waves. • State the law of reflection and show with appropriate drawings how it applies to light rays at plane and spherical surfaces. -
Chapter 26 Geometrical Optics Chapter 26 Geometrical Optics
Chapter 26 Geometrical Optics Outline 26-1 The Reflection of Light 26-2 Forming Images with a Plane Mirror 26-3 Spherical Mirror 26-4 Ray Tracing and the Mirror Equation 26-5 The Refraction of Light 26-6 Ray Tracing for Lens 26-7ThiL7 Thin Lens Equa tion 26-1 The Reflection of Light Light propagation can be described in terms of “wave front” and “rays”. Wave front is mostly associated with physical optics (difficult to understand), while rays are mostly associated with geometrical optics (easy to understand). Wave front: Think about water wave! Figure 26-1 Wave Fronts and Rays of a point light source • The rays are always traveling in straight line and they indicate the traveling direction of the light--- in Geometrical Optics! • Rays are always at right angle to the wave fronts. More wave fronts Figure 26-2 Spherical (point source light) and Planar (sun light) Wave Fronts In ggpeometrical optics,,y a few rays are used for the representation of the light traveling. The Law of Reflection Figure 26-3 Reflection from a Smooth Surface The Law of Reflection θr = θi The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence (Fig 26-3). The applications of Reflection Law • Reflection on smooth surface (figure a): Specular reflection. • Reflection on rough surface (figure b): Diffuse reflection. Figure 26-4 Reflection from Smooth and Rough Surfaces 26-2 Forming Images with a Plane Mirror Imaging process of the human eye: The imaging process of human is a point – to – point matching process between the distant object and the retina image, in which the image is focused by the eye “lens on the retina for sensing. -
Class VII Physics Chapter 4 Light Energy
Class VII Physics Chapter 4 Light Energy When light falls on an object the following may occur : (i) It may get scattered. (ii) It may get reflected. (iii) It may pass through the object. (iv) It may completely get absorbed by the object. Depending upon whether light gets reflected, passes or gets absorbed through the object, we can classify the objects into different types as follows: 1.Translucent : An object which absorbs some light falling on it and reflects the rest of the light is called a translucent object. 2.Transparent: An object which does not reflect any light falling on it and allows all the light to pass through it is called a transparent object. 3.Opaque: An object which absorbs all the light falling on it and allows no light to pass through it is called an opaque object. 4.Smooth and polished: A smooth and polished object absorbs negligible amount of light and reflects almost all the light falling on it. REFLECTION: Reflection takes place from a smooth and and polished surface through which light cannot pass. Definition of reflection: The bouncing back of light rays from surface is called reflection. Examples: Seeing your face in a mirror. Formation of a bright patch of light on a wall when you hold a mirror in sunlight. ACTIVITY: Aim: To show that reflection takes place from smooth and polished surface. Material Required: Small plane mirror ( looking glass),a highly polished brass plate and a book. Procedure: Let the sun rays fall on the mirror. Now turn the mirror through various angles, such that the light of the sun striking the mirror falls on the wall.You will find that as the angle of mirror is changed the position of light on the wall also changes.Thus we observe that the plane mirror reflects light.