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The Sonification of Middle Easterns and Muslims in Hollywood Film

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The Sonification of Middle Easterns and Muslims in Hollywood Film CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY SAN MARCOS THESIS SIGNATURE PAGE THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE MASTER OF ARTS IN HISTORY THESIS TITLE: Sounds of Fear: The Sonification of Middle Easterners and Muslims in Hollywood Film, 1950-The Present AUTHOR: Katie Gressitt-Diaz DATE OF SUCCESSFUL DEFENSE: May 3, 2017 THE THESIS HAS BEEN ACCEPTED BY THE THESIS COMMITTEE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN HISTORY. Dr. Ibrahim Al-Marashi r:/p ot?- THESIS COMMITTEE CHAIR Dr. Kimber Quinney THESIS COMMITTEE MEMBER D~I~ /'H!1- _D_r_.Z_hi_. _w_e1_·Xi_._ao~~~~~~~~-·· :S-/s / 2ol7- THESIS COMMITTEE MEMBER SIGNATURE DATE Sounds of Fear: The Sonification of Middle Easterners and Muslims in Hollywood Film, 1950-The Present by Katie Gressitt-Diaz California State University, San Marcos Department of History © 2017 Table of Contents Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................................... iv Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................... v Introduction: “Flying While Muslim” ............................................................................................................. 1 On Image ...................................................................................................................................................... 6 On Sound ..................................................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 1: Sounds of the Exotic Orient, 1950-1969 .................................................................................. 14 Sounds of Orientalism .............................................................................................................................. 18 Cold War Orientalism ............................................................................................................................... 25 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 33 Chapter 2: Sounds of Arab Terrorism, 1970-1989 ..................................................................................... 37 Sounds of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict ............................................................................................. 45 Sounds of the Oil Crisis ........................................................................................................................... 52 Sounds of Arab Terrorism ....................................................................................................................... 56 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 64 Chapter 3: Sounds of Islamophobia, 1990-The Present ............................................................................ 65 Sounds of Muslim Terrorism .................................................................................................................. 69 Sounds of 9/11 .......................................................................................................................................... 79 Sounds of Islamophobia .......................................................................................................................... 81 Conclusion: Sonic Repercussions ........................................................................................................... 87 Conclusion: Reclaiming Sonic Identities ...................................................................................................... 90 Filmography ...................................................................................................................................................... 94 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 97 ii On Sound ................................................................................................................................................... 97 On Representation .................................................................................................................................... 97 On Representation in Film ...................................................................................................................... 98 Media ........................................................................................................................................................... 99 Mainstream Media and Blogs ................................................................................................................ 100 iii Acknowledgements Thank you Mama, for plying me with alcoholic beverages for a solid two semesters, without which I surely would not have been able to manage the stress of watching upwards of 90 films, most of which were not at all enjoyable. Feeding me, providing a roof over my head and unconditional love is also really great. I love you. Thank you Papi, for sending me the always-encouraging graduate student emoji at least three times a day, and for always being positive beyond a shadow of a doubt that I would be successful. I love you. Thank you Chelsea Snover for making sure I balanced out my serious working time with a slightly disproportionate amount of fun watching Supernatural and The Voice while eating disgusting junk food and buying overpriced Korean pens online. I love you. Thank you to my many wonderful professors who miraculously never yelled at me for being a colossal annoyance on a regular basis, and who always managed to encourage me even on my darkest days. Dr. Quinney, Dr. Al-Marashi, and Dr. Watts in particular, I love you. And thank you Zane, for loving me as much as I love you…even when I haven’t showered in three days and I just spent an hour crying about how much work I have to do but instead of doing it I watch Netflix for two days straight. This thesis is for you. iv Abstract The Middle East has been a subject of wonder and derision in U.S. cinema since Americans began producing film in the late 1800s. Disparaging portrayals of Middle Easterners, Arabs in particular, have been a steady staple of American-made films regarding the region and its peoples. To a lesser degree Islam has also been critically portrayed. In the past few decades, expressions of Islamophobia in Hollywood film have increased both in frequency and in vehemence. Much has been written about the way that image and narrative communicate anti-Arab and Islamophobic messages in popular film, but most scholarship has ignored the central role that sound plays in the construction of these messages. Film sound deserves much greater attention, because like image, sound communicates beliefs, attitudes and ideological messages to audiences, and in this thesis, I chart a large portion of its long history of being used to communicate messages about the middle East and Middle Easterners in Hollywood film produced between 1950 and the present. Sound has a long history of being used to communicate messages about the Middle East and Middle Easterners in Hollywood film. Attending to the changing roles that sound has played in film over the years reveals a connection between U.S.-Middle East relations and American filmic portrayals of the latter that have thus far gone unexamined. The changing use of the sounds of the adhan—the Muslim call to prayer—and Islamic language--including such phrases as “Allahu akbar,”—correspond with changing attitudes toward Islam and Muslims that have been influenced by key historical events including the Iranian Revolution, the so-called “Islamic Revival,” the events of 9/11, and the subsequent wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. The way that the use of the adhan in particular has changed reveals that the popular discourse surrounding the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as the experiences of American soldiers involved in both wars, have significantly influenced popular non-Muslim American attitudes toward Islam and Muslims, more so even than the events of 9/11. v Introduction: “Flying While Muslim” In 2006, six imams were removed from a US Airways flight, arrested, and interrogated for six hours. Their crimes included allegedly speaking ill of America, asking for extension seat belts, switching seats, moving around the airplane before takeoff, and praying at the gate before boarding the flight. All six imams had just attended a conference of the North American Imams Federation, where they had discussed “how to build more bridges with non-Muslims, [and] how to be open- minded imams.”1Reported by Amy Goodman for Democracy Now, “Andrea Rader, a spokesperson for the airline, told the Associated Press that prayer was never the issue.”2 Yet multiple news reports make note of the praying. According to a Washington Post article, “Witnesses said the men prayed in the terminal and made critical comments about the Iraq war,”3 and in another Washington Post article, “The imams, who were returning from a religious conference,” and “had prayed
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