Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 X 2, April - June 2018

Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018

Editorial

The first five papers of this issue were presented by the respective Key Speakers inthe66th National Town and Country Planners Congress held at Hyderabad during 2-4 February, 2018. The first paper was written by S. Chithra on the theme “Sustainable Environment and Master Plan – A case Study of Chennai Metropolitan Area” in which she highlights large scale urbanization and resultant factors that have led to tremendous pressure on environment causing deterioration of environment. She shows the key challenges involved in environment planning of cities as they are related to build environment. She suggests that city planning has to strike a balance in developments by conserving natural resources and at the same time supporting varying requirements of cities. The second paper on the theme “Urban Environmental Commodification – Development Constructs and Impacts: A Case of Urban Floods in Chennai” is written by Priya Sasidharan. The author notes that with the advent of unbridled urbanization, expansion and sprawl, and urban serviced land is transformed into its catalytic potential as a priced market commodity. Planned development interventions that should spearhead responsive urban integration become precursors to unauthorized accelerated exploitation. Urban greed and quest for cheaper land extends its frontiers engulfing the fragile ecosystems – green, blue and brown parcels. Physical delineation, functional demarcation and social connotation referring to natural resources is caught in a quagmire of controversy, delay in master planning process and non-coordinated data sourcing and sharing. The paper concludes by emphasizing preparedness of Chennai city in terms of braving the cyclone prone monsoons, which have planned and unplanned destruction of natural systems. She recommends to prepare action plans not in a reactive mode but prepare for making cities resilient. S. P. Bansal in his paper titled “Integrating Environmental Concerns in Development Plans: Lessons from MPD”, highlights that in India urbanization is increasing fast, whereas, this process of urbanization is an opportunity for progress of the country, it is also posing a serious environmental threats. Extreme climatic events of intense rainfall, flooding, draught, heat waves, cyclone and high speed winds, etc.; have compounded problems of inadequate city infrastructure. However, the author advocates that well planned and effectively governed and managed cities together with mitigation measures towards climate change would be most challenging tasks of the twenty first century in India. The paper concludes that the only alternative is well planned and effectively governed and managed cities. V. R. Hegde authored a paper on “Urban Flooding – Can we Design the Difference?” In this paper he argues that floods are natural phenomena that have been affecting human lives since time immemorial. However, the phenomenon becomes a disaster when it has an impact on human settlements and activities indicating the importance of natural science and social aspects of floods. Urban flooding occurs due to societal actions in providing inadequate drainage. High intensity rainfall causes flooding when the carrying capacity of the sewage system and storm water drains exceeds its design capacity. Current research indicates a trend of more intense precipitation, which could cause more flooding if not properly planned. Urban planning therefore, should include long–term strategies with best practices and forecasting systems. The paper on “Urban Flooding – Case Study of Hyderabad” is authored by B.V. Subba Rao underlines that major cities like Paris, Bangkok, Dallas, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata,Chennai and Hyderabad are no exception to the phenomenon of urban flooding. Indian metropolitan cities are experiencing increased intensity and frequency year after year, causing huge economic and considerable human losses. Causes for urban flooding are generally attributed to climate change impact. However, the facts indicate that lack of early preparedness, absence of water centered infrastructure and unregulated growth cumulatively aggravates the crisis. The paper makes an attempt to review existing urban development, brings out lacunae and gaps in existing system and suggests strategies to reorient development plans towards making “Flooding Resilient Cities”, through a case study of Hyderabad city. The next two papers in this issue focus on urban flooding but these were not presented at the Congress in Hyderabad. The paper on “Preventive Measures for Urban Flooding in Bhopal, Madhya

Cover Design by Diwakar S. Meshram i Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018

Pradesh” is jointly written by Jagdish Singh and Rajni Taneja. In this paper authors underline that mechanism of urban flooding is essential to understand the location specific issues. In the recent years due to global warming flash flood frequencies have increased creating havoc in urban areas. Bhopal has witnessed flooding during 2006 and 2016. The root cause of this flooding is the extensive spell of rains in few hours and absence of roadside drains, encroachment on nallahs, unauthorized constructions and unauthorized colonies, blocking the drainage of this excessive rain water. To overcome this phenomenon planned approach towards sustainable and resilient planning inclusive of master plan needs to be adopted. The paper also states that measures are required to be taken to overcome impact of excess rains occurring in few hours by preparing location specific road maps so that after effects of surplus storm water generated could be harnessed for future in the form of ground water recharge, and rain water harvesting, etc. Pratap M. Raval in the paper on “Addressing Urban Flood through Spatial Distribution of Potential Storm Water Recharge Zones in Development Plan” argues that densely compacted cities can increase flooding risks for local residents, besides sprawling, suburban development can also lead to flooding. Current urbanization pattern and climate change have large caused urban flooding. This paper also discusses the importance of managing storm water sustainably by recharging groundwater sources. It indicates the potential of storm water harvesting, when properly managed, as a tool to counter depleting water sources and partially controlling urban floods. The paper suggests that groundwater recharge potential map for a sub watershed in Pune city should be prepared, which could be useful for development plan preparation by using GIS. A jointly written paper by H. S. Kumara and S. Gopiprasad on “Rapid Urbanization and Infrastructure Financing for Mega Cities: Indian and Chinese Experiences” discusses that mega-cities with a population of over 10 million have a significant position in the urban system of the countries. Mega-cities are characterized by population size, growth and structure that are distinctive. Infrastructure plays crucial role in servicing large populations, mitigating negative externalities and in supporting a larger region of these mega-cities. Adequate financing of the mega-city urban infrastructure is vital for better living conditions and to support economic activities both within the city and its region. Select Chinese and Indian mega cities are compared with respect to growth and population to understand rapid urbanization and corresponding investments. The next paper is written jointly by Rajdeep Kaur and Ashwani Luthra on “Inclusive Infrastructure Assessment in Slum Environs of Amritsar City”. Infrastructure plays a crucial role in improving the livability conditions of the society and its economic development. Availability of transport, electricity, safe water and sanitation and other basic facilities have tremendous impact on improving the quality of life of inhabitants, especially in the case of poor. Urban poor play an important role in urban economy. They are indispensable to cities as they keep the city dynamics going by providing various services. They in fact provide urban services and facilities but their own life is endangered by poor facilities available to them. They are the worst sufferers in the context of housing, which lacks safe, secure and healthy shelters and absence of supporting infrastructure such as piped water supply and sewerage, drainage, electricity, adequate sanitation and solid waste management and less accessible educational and health facilities. The last paper is also jointly written by Ramakrishna Nallathiga, and Suyog Jadhav, Tejashri Mane, and Aniket Lohar on the theme “Development Planning and Environment in Coastal Zone: Conflicts and Violations in Mumbai”. The authors highlights that metropolitan area of Greater Mumbai is one of the large urban areas in India, administered by the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM). The area of Greater Mumbai is surrounded on three sides by the seas: by the Arabian Sea to the west and the south, the Harbor Bay and the Thane Creek in the east. Mumbai falls under CRZ and has all the CRZ areas within city limits. The CRZ legislation effectively reduced the land available for development. Accordingly, this paper focus on conflicts and violations between development planning and environment taking case study of Mumbai.

Dr. Ashok Kumar Editor

ii Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018

Content

Sustainable Environment and Master Plan of 1 Chennai Metropolitan Area S. Chithra

Urban Environmental Commodification – Development 10 Constructs and Impacts: A Case of Urban Floods in Chennai Priya Sasidharan

Integrating Environmental Concerns in Development Plans: 20 Lessons from MPD S. P. Bansal

Urban Flooding – Can we Design the Difference? 31 V. R. Hegde

Urban Flooding – Case Study of Hyderabad 36 B. V. Subba Rao

Preventive Measures for Urban Flooding in Bhopal, 42 Madhya Pradesh Jagdish Singh, and Rajni Taneja

Addressing Urban Flood through Spatial Distribution of 53 Potential Storm Water Recharge Zones in Development Plan Pratap M. Raval

Rapid Urbanization and Infrastructure Financing for 63 Mega Cities: Indian and Chinese Experiences H. S. Kumara, and S. Gopiprasad

Inclusive Infrastructure Assessment in Slum Environs of 78 Amritsar City Rajdeep Kaur and Ashwani Luthra

Development Planning and Environment in Coastal Zone: 92 Conflicts and Violations in Mumbai Ramakrishna Nallathiga and Suyog Jadhav, Tejashri Mane and Aniket Lohar

Cover Design by Diwakar S. Meshram iii Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018

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Sustainable Environment and Master Plan of Chennai Metropolitan Area

S. Chithra

Abstract This paper attempts to examine how environment issues have been addressed in the planning of Chennai Metropolitan Area (CMA), especially with reference to the Second Master Plan for Chennai Metropolitan Area. In spite of the fact that the Chennai region has such large length of drainage (158 km) and extensive water storage systems of tanks and reservoirs, the region and the city of Chennai particularly suffers from regular annual flooding in developed and settled areas. The last century records have shown that there were several catastrophic flooding. In fact cities are part of specific eco–systems. However,in the process of development, cities have become prone to environment hazards, especially natural eco-systems such as water bodies, natural drains, marine eco-systems, etc. Any plan prepared for the city needs to address the issues related to safeguarding the environment and provide a road map for up scaling the quality of environment. Accordingly, development plans prepared for any area should be holistic plans covering physical, economic, social, and environment aspects.

1. INTRODUCTION Sustainable cities are the key to environment friendly development. Large scale urbanization and the resultant factors have led to tremendous pressure on environment, which has led to the deterioration of environment. Management of cities involves addressing the issues related to environment. City planning has to strike a balance in developments by conserving natural resources and at the same time supporting varying requirements of cities. Metropolitan environment has two elements i.e. environment per se and built in environment. The environment per se relates to natural features and resources including the air, noise, water and land (open spaces, forests, etc.). The habitat is related to built environment and infrastructure such as water supply, sewerage, and solid waste disposal. The key challenges involved in environment planning of cities are related to built in environment mainly scrupulous conversion of productive lands for urban uses, encroachments in the natural features especially water bodies, pollution, traffic congestion, climate change, etc. Addressing these key issues and providing viable solution is the key concern for city planners and environment planning. This paper seeks to attempt how environment issues related to urban floods have been addressed in the planning of Chennai Metropolitan Area (CMA), especially with reference to the Second Master Plan for CMA.

S. Chithra, Former Member and Chief Planner, Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority, Email: [email protected]

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2. ENVIRONMENT PROFILE OF CHENNAI Chennai city and its environs are very flat with contours ranging from 2.0 m to 10.0 m above MSL, with very few isolated hillocks in the South West. It is a coastal city and the coastal line of Bay of Bengal flanks the city in the east throughout its length. It has the worlds widest beach running for 3.2 km which is traversed by three major rivers namely Kosasthalaiyar River, Cooum River and Adyar River. Apart from this, it is dotted by number of lakes. Chen- galpattu district which is part of Chennai Metropolitan Area (CMA) had the largest number of lakes in the world. Sholavaram Tank, Red Hills Tank and Chembarambakkam Tank are the major tanks in the CMA. These tanks are main source of water supply to the city and these tanks are monsoon fed. There are about 320 numbers of tanks / lakes that are earlier used as water source for irrigation and now serve as flood accommodators. CMA is also traversed by number of natural drains such as Virugmabakkam Arumbakkam drain, Mambalam drain, otteri nullah, etc. Buckingham Canal is a man-made canal, which was constructed during the year 1806 mainly as inland water way. At present this canal is not used for transport since it is highly polluted and encroached. All the water bodies in CMA are interconnected through various natural channels.

CMA has small hillocks scattered around. CMA’s environment is characterized by reserved forest. It has rich wet lands and in the southern and western part of the CMA, agriculture is still practiced. The CMA has rich aquifers in the south. Pallikarnai swamp is a marshy land, which acts as a flood moderator and is a home for several natural species. It also attracts migrant birds. Adayar and Ennore creeks are natural habitat for several species.

3. ENVIRONMENT CHALLENGES CMA has witnessed rapid developments in the past four decades. Its population has increased two fold from 1960 to 2011. Rapid urbanization has led to proliferation of slums and conversion of valuable wet lands for urban uses. 50 percent of wet lands have been converted for urban uses. Sea Coast is a natural environment which has to be conserved and preserved. CMA’s beautiful coast is deteriorated by non-conforming unauthorized developments. The salt water intrusion has led to poor quality of water. The South CMA has emerged as an IT Corridor and the aquifer rich southern coastal stretches have succumbed to urban pressure resulting in poor yield. These coastal aquifers which supplemented city water supply but no longer could be used to support city water supply, now.

Pallikarnai swamp which is part of the coastal marine system and natural flood moderator have been converted for urban uses which is one of the main

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cause for flooding and dumping of solid waste have led to pollution of ground water and soil. Pallikarnai Swamp is being restored by developing the area as forest and the earlier allotment made for various urban uses have been cancelled.

The major rivers in CMA are highly polluted due to letting of untreated sewer. Cooum river is highly polluted throughout its length in the city and it is the eyesore for the city landscape. Most of the water courses in CMA are also polluted. The encroachments in the water bodies in CMA have reduced their capacity. The restoration of water bodies to their original state is one of the challenges that planners and environmentalist face in CMA.

Disposal of e - waste and Bio - Medical Waste is the biggest challenge that the city faces. Chennai being the health capital of India generates lot of bio - medical waste which is being disposed of, by using local incinerators. Improper disposal of e-waste has created environment hazard. In CMA except Chennai Corporation and few municipalities other local bodies do not have any solid waste disposal site. Solid waste is being disposed of into water bodies and open ground which pollutes the water bodies and land.

4. FLOODING THE KEY CHALLENGE In spite of the fact that the Chennai Region has such large lengths of drainage (158 km) and extensive water storage systems of tanks and reservoirs the region especially the city suffers from regular annual flooding of developed and settled areas. The last century records have shown that there were several catastrophic flooding in Chennai in 1943, 1978, 1985, 2002, 2005 and 2015 caused by heavy Fig. 1: Flooding of Airport rain associated with cy- clonic activity. These events of catastrophic flooding were found to be attributable to failure of the major rivers and other drainage systems. Flood- ing of less catastrophic nature occurs regularly in low-lying areas of the city (Fig. 1) and its suburbs because of inadequacy or in- operativeness of the local drainage infrastructure.

Floods in 1943 were historic and damaged Cooum River very badly (Fig. 2). Based

S. Chithra 3 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 on the A.R. Venkatachary’s Fig. 2: Damage to River Report, the Government had improved the Cooum River and provided a sand pump at the river mouth for removal of sand bar. In 1976, there was catastrophic flooding in Chennai and this time it was the turn of the Adyar River. P. Sivalingam Committee had given its recommendations for prevention from further damages from floods and recommended schemes to be implemented in the short and long terms. Floods that occurred in 2015 were the worst in the living memory. The entire CMA was marooned except a very few pockets. The main cause of flooding is unprecedented rainfall in single day, which made all water bodies in spate especially the Chembarmabakkam Lake. Several residential areas were affected and in areas such as Mudichur, Kotturpuram, Madipakkam, the flood has reached up to the first floor level.

The reasons for this state of affairs are three-fold. Most of the existing waterways are silted and their flow channels and banks are obstructed with encroachments and structures. Similar is the case with the reservoirs and tanks. Secondly several of the areas under tanks and their anicuts have been developed as residential neighborhoods over the years. T Nagar, Nungambakkam, Vyasarpadi are instances in this respect. Taramani area has been developed as an institutional area. Third, the geological structure particularly in the south-west is not conducive to water infiltration.

5. EFFORTS OF MASTER PLAN IN ADDRESSING ENVIRONMENT ISSUES For CMA since its inception, CMDA has prepared two Master Plans. The First Master Plan was in operation from 1975 to 2008. The Second Master Plan (SMP) came into operation in 2008. Both the Plans have taken into consideration the environmental aspects and proposed the appropriate spatial strategies for absorbing the growth. The plan period for the First Master Plan was 1991. CMA has witnessed rapid developments after 1990s especially in the IT corridor. The IT boom in CMA has led to rapid growths in rest of CMA and in this process the haphazard developments are taking place without regard to the environment. The IT Corridor is nearer to the Sea Coast and the pressure on land has led to rapid developments in the villages abutting the sea front

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which are governed by Coastal Zone Regulations. The Village Panchayats have regis- tered higher population growth in the last decade and these areas lack infrastructure faculties to support the population. The pressure on land and lack of infrastructure facilities has resulted in poor environment quality. The city is also posing several environment challenges which have been detailed out in the previous paragraphs. The SMP have discussed all the major environment issues in detail and recommended appropriate spatial strategies and sectoral policies. A separate Chapter has been dedicated for Environment in SMP. The SMP have attempted to preserve the eco - sensitive areas (Fig. 3) by appropriate zoning and special regulations which are incorporated in Development Regulations to protect the eco fragile areas apart from CRZ.

Fig. 3: Ecologically Sensitive Areas of CMS 5.1 Planning Prin- ciples Adopted in the SMP Land Use and DR are the major tools through which the SMP have protected the eco - sensitive areas and the planning principles adopted in SMP through land use are:

• The land use plan has identified the critical areas vulnerable for annual flooding and these areas have been dis- couraged for urban developments; • All the water bodies as per the revenue litho - map have been zoned as water bodies considering the eco-sensitive nature; • The channels including surplus channels of all the water bodies including the river courses have been identified and zoned as water bodies;

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• The encroachments in the water bodies have not been recognized in the SMP; • The land use plan identifies all the important macro drainage features and prescribes the extent to which the conservation area extends; • In the flood plains of Adyar River, the lands have been reserved for agriculture use zone / non - urban use zone to safeguard these areas from flood hazards the proposed land use pattern in these areas indicates that the developments have been prohibited for urban use; • In the areas adjoining Cooum River also, major chunk of lands have been reserved for agriculture and non - urban use zone; • The land use plan have also identified the areas where developments other than those appropriate to use them as open spaces have to be prohibited or severely restricted. These include the Pallikkaranai swamp and the Redhills catchment area; • Pallikarani Swamp is an important eco - system in CMA which acts as a flood moderator. To revive this eco - system 3 studies have been carried out by CMDA. The latest study was carried out through the Consultant NEERI in 1998 on the EIA of the Drainage and Redevelopment Proposal for Pallikaranai Swamp. The study has recommended the diversion of substantial portion of run-off from upstream catchments, along a cut-off drain linking the existing surplus channel with the Kovalam backwaters. Protection to the area is to be provided by three interceptor drains, which carry over flows from local catchment around the boundary of the Pallikaranai Drain Area. An arterial drain has to be constructed along the centre of the Pallikaranai Drain Area, which will pick up drainage flows within the area. In SMP, the arterial drain has been proposed; • During the preparation of SMP, the Ikonos satellite imageries have been extensively used to extract the ground conditions. The low lying areas in CMA have been identified based on the satellite Ikonos imagery and these areas have been zoned for non - urban use zone to prohibit urban development; • Catchment area for the Red Hills Lake which is a major source of water supply to the city has been preserved; and • To preserve the Aquifer, in the Aquifer Recharge Areas, only restricted development is allowed for which special Development Regulations have been devised.

5.2 Development Regulation Provisions • The parameters for safeguarding waterways and water bodies from undesirable developments are incorporated in the Development Regulations i.e. Special Regulations of Aquifer Recharge area, Special Regulations for Redhills catchment area; • Special regulation for Aquifer Recharge Area prescribes lower FSI and higher coverage to safeguard the aquifer. Major urban developments are not

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permitted in this area, besides multi storied buildings; only ordinary buildings are permitted, that too for certain activities like research centers, tourism related facilities in large plot extent buildings up to 17.25 m are allowed; and • The special regulations for preservation of Red Hills Catchment have restricted the developments in 27 villages in the northwest part of CMA. In the Red hills catchment area, the developments are being permitted only in the areas zoned as primary residential, mixed residential and industrial use and in the areas along Outer Ring Road. In rest of the areas, the developments are prohibited. As per Development Regulation, no lands shall be reclassified for urban use zone in the Redhills catchment area.

As per Development Regulation, the site will not be considered for development:

• If the site is near a water body or a water course and the proposed development is likely to contaminate the said water body or water course; • If the site is likely to be inundated and satisfactory arrangement for proper drainage is not possible; • While examining the Planning Permission Application it will be ensured that the proposal satisfies the land use and the Development Regulations (DR); • The land use have been proposed in such a manner that it discourages the urban developments in the low lying areas, flood plains of rivers, natural water courses and water bodies; • If the site is moderately low lying and adjoins the water body, the NOC from PWD is being insisted; • The applicant has to comply with the conditions stipulated by PWD in their NOC and the Local Body has to ensure the execution of the same; • At the time of issuance of Planning Permission, it is also to be ensured that the necessary culverts to the width suggested by PWD are being constructed wherever the site crosses a channel / drain; • For the developments exceeding 20,000 sq m Environmental Clearance is being insisted; and • For all the developments falling within the Coastal Regulation Zone, the developments are permitted according to the regulations stipulated by the CRZ notification

6. POLICIES PROPOSED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN THE CMA In the past, the CMDA have conducted the following studies to analyse the situation and find solutions to mitigate the problems of flooding and cleaning of the environmentally degraded water ways:

• Madras Metro Flood Relief / Storm Water Drainage Master Plan Study, 1993;

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• Storm Water Drainage Master Plan for Madras city and Pre-feasibility Study for CMA, 1994; • EIA of the Drainage and Redevelopment Proposal For the Pallikkaranai Area, 1995; and • Review of EIA by NEERI, 1998

These studies have recommended the structural and non - structural measures for the improvement of the waterways and to mitigate the flooding in CMA. Study recommendations have been forwarded to PWD, Corporation of Chennai and other stake hold departments for implementation. The Government in G.O. Ms. No. 321 dated 12 August 1998 have accorded administrative sanction for the improvement of macro and micro drains recommended in the MMFR study to the tune of Rs. 300 crore over a span of 5 years.

Components involved are de-silting of the waterways, re-sectioning and strengthening of banks, provision of flood protection measures, structural measures like replacing all old bridges with proper design, resettlement and rehabilitation of encroachers wherever necessary, provision of new drains, improvement of existing drains and provision of pumping arrangements, etc. PWD and CoC were responsible for execution of macro and micro drainage components respectively.

SMPs policies and strategies for the improvement of drains were based on the recommendations of these studies. The specific policies and strategies proposed were:

• The CMDA’s Land Use Plan identifies all the important macro drainage features and prescribes the extent to which the conservation area extends. The lakes and water bodies need to be protected from encroachments and existing encroachments should be removed bringing the water bodies to their original state; • Remedial measures to be taken up for the flood prone areas by local bodies in collaboration with the PWD; • The parameters for safeguarding waterways and water bodies from undesirable developments are incorporated in the Development Regulations. • All the water bodies in CMA have to be restored to their original status; • The SMP have recommended that for each Local Body, a micro drainage plan have to be prepared by the Local Body concerned in consultation with PWD and implemented within a time frame; • For the sustained water sources the plan have recommended that recharge structures like check dams, percolation ponds and other rain water harvesting structures to be constructed; • The drainage system around Pallikkaranai has to be designed based on the recommendations of the MMRF Study and NEERI report;

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• These studies have recommended the constructions of 3 interceptors, arterial drain and cut-off drain in the catchment of Pallikaranai swamp area. The constructions of above drains have to be taken up by PWD to mitigate the problems on a priority basis; • In the SMP an arterial channel to a width of 40 m have been proposed to drain the excess over flow from the catchment area to Okkiyammedu. The arterial drain has to be taken up for implementation on priority; • The SMP has also recommended the renovation and refurbishing about 320 surface tanks for augmenting local resources of potable water. The tanks that can be taken up for renovation on a priority basis have been identified; • Make available the road metal recycling machinery (associated milling machine) to the contractors or include in the contract document use of the machinery mandatory to ensure that new road surface is laid without increasing the height of the pavement, considering the avoidable nuisances, caused by the constant raising of the road levels, to the properties on either side; • Dewater vehicular sub-ways promptly during monsoon and use the same for rain water harvesting, construct foot-over bridges and pedestrian sub-way connecting shopping complexes on either side in commercial centres; and • Develop new roads with ducts for services and utilities.

To oversee the implementation of the policies and strategies of SMP, sector wise committees have been constituted by drawing members from the Government Departments / Agencies, NGOs, academicians and experts in the field. The SMP Investment and Infrastructure review and Monitoring Committee reviews the implementation of the strategies related to infrastructure, including the micro and macro drains.

CMDA regularly convenes the Investment and Infrastructure Committee and one of the action point discussed is to improve the Macro and Micro Drains in CMA. PWD has been desired to evolve a holistic plan for integration of Macro and Micro Drains. PWD have also been requested to develop a network of open spaces which could be used as flood moderators.

7. CONCLUSIONS Cities are part of specific eco - systems. In the process of development, cities are prone to environment hazards, especially natural eco systems such as water bodies, natural drains, marine eco - systems, etc. Any plan prepared for the city shall address the issues related to safeguarding the environment and provide a road map for up scaling the quality of environment. Development plans prepared for any area should be as holistic plans as possible covering physical, economic, social, and environment aspects.

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Urban Environmental Commodification – Development Constructs and Impacts: A Case of Urban Floods in Chennai Priya Sasidharan

Abstract The natural systems define urban functions and dictate developmental interventions that integrate community participation. With the advent of unbridled urbanization, expansion and sprawl, urban serviced land is transformed into its catalytic potential as a priced market commodity. Planned development interventions that should spearhead responsive urban integration become precursors to unauthorized accelerated exploitation. Urban greed and quest for cheaper land extends its frontiers engulfing the fragile ecosystems – green, blue and brown parcels. Physical delineation, functional demarcation and social connotation referring to natural resources is caught in a quagmire of controversy, delay in master planning process and non-coordinated data sourcing and sharing. The paper concludes by emphasizing preparedness of Chennai city in terms of braving the cyclone prone monsoons, which have planned and unplanned destruction of natural systems. The paper concludes by suggesting to prepare action plans not in a reactive mode but prepare for making cities resilient.

1. INTRODUCTION Cities and natural systems are synchronous entities that intertwine in a multitude of dimensions from outlining natural drainage, aquifer Fig. 1: Symbolic Landscape Modes or recharging mechanisms, and flood moderation to regulation Eco-Modes (“Thinai”) – Sangam of micro climate. Traditional settlements that have evolved Era, Tamil Nadu on the primordial base of site and nature responsive dictum have evolved and integrated planning parameters in its innate nexus with the natural systems. The spatial (Fig. 1) and functional classification of urban land layered on the structure of the natural systems is evident in the traditional settlements of the classical Sangam era in Tamil Nadu. The defining development control rules were principles laid on the topology in its intrinsic connect with the natural systems, habitats and ecosystems (Table 1) thus, directing people, functions and settlement hierarchy.

2. CITY AND ITS NATURAL CONSTRUCTS Chennai city has a unique compendium of natural systems that metaphorically form axes and grids. The rivers defining the blue axis divide the city into sectors with the man-made Buckingham Canal forming the Source – Thinai en.svg, 2013

Priya Sasidharan, MEASI Academy of Architecture

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Table 2: Attributes of the Eco-Modes (“Thinai”) – Sangam Era, Tamil Nadu Name of the Kurinci Mullai Marutam Neytal Palai region and poetic name Landscape Mountains Forest, pasture Cultivated Seashore Wasteland countryside Season Cold season, early Rainy season All seasons All seasons Summer, late frost dew Time Night Evening Dawn (to begin to Sunrise Midday grow light after the night) Hero Poruppan, verpan, Natan, tonral Uran, makilnan Cerppan, Vrtalar, kalar, cilampan, natan pulampan mili Heroine Kuratti, kobcci Manaivi, kilatti Kilatti, manaivi Nulaicci, paratti Eyini People Kuravar, kanavar Itaiyar, idaicci Ularar, kataiyar Nulavar, paratai, Eylnai, alavar maravar Dccupation Guarding millet Pastoral Agriculture Drying fish, selling Wayfarers, fields, honey occupation, field salt robbery, gathering work fighting Pastimes Bathing in water- Bull-fight, Bathing in ponds, Bathing Dancing, falls and streams kuravai dance festivals, arts fighting Settlements Cirrur, cirukuti Cirrur, pati Perur, mutur Pakkam, pattinam Kurumpu Waters Water-fall, hull Pond, rivulet River, pool, well wen, sea, sait- waterless well, pond marches stagnant water Beasts Monkey, tiger, bear, Deer, hare Buffalo, Crocodile, shark Wild dog tiger, elephant freshwater fish, hard, elephant otter (Animals) any freshwater Birds Peacock, parrot Jungle hen, Heron, stonr, swan Sea-gull, marine Dove, eagle, sparrow crow kite, hawk Trees Teak, sandal, Konrai, waterlily, Mango, lotus Punnai, talai - Ulna), oman, bamboo, Jade red kantal, shrub, muntakam, cactus pitavam atampu Food Millet, mountain- Varaku, tuvarai Rice Fish - rice Instrument Tontaka - drum, Erru - drum, Mana-drum, kinai, Pampai-drum, utukkai-drum, mountain lute forest - lute field-lute vitari lute desert-lute Melody type Kurincippan Catari Marutappan Cevvali Curam God Murugan Mayon (Tirumal) Intiran verunan Korravar (Kali) Sources: Zvelebil, Kamil (1992), Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, Leiden: Brill Gros, Francois, (1984), Poetry in a landscape; the world of Sangam - Indian literature, UNESCO Courier, March Ramanujam, A. K. (1967). Interior Landscape.

linking element. The city was dotted with nearly 600 small water bodies in 1980s (Centre for Science and Environment CSE, 2015) each combined with natural flood discharge channel which used to drain the spill over. The freshwater marshland at Pallikarani, the only surviving wetland ecosystem of Chennai city is among one of the 94 identified wetlands under the National Wetland Conservation and Management Program (NWCMP).Topography of the swamp always retains some storage, is endowed with natural aquifers and recharge systems thus, forming an aquatic ecosystem with a rich biodiversity. The marshland receive the excess spill over from nearly 36 tanks in its precinct and acts as a connecting link to Okkiam Maduvu before it drains into the sea, an innate network formed in its natural process. Natural systems formed unique grids, axes, and chain of tanks that networked the urban ecological layout of Chennai city.

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2.1 Axes and Grids – Blue, Green and Brown Systems Chennai has not been an exception to the natural planning axiom with the initial settlements dotted along the coastline, the natural edge to the city to the sporadic agrarian settlements defined by temple and tanks (eris). The urban defying factor was that the river as a lifeline was an exception for the settlement theory in its visible manifestation. The intangible connotation was the demarcation of the city into distinct zones bounded by the 3 water courses – “ABC” of Chennai city – Adyar River, Buckingham Canal and Cooum River.

The green, blue and brown axes and grids of the city are the public realm and landscapes in its ground reality, as manifested in the coast, the water bodies and the marshlands. Eris was an interconnected network or a chain respecting natural topography serving agricultural and drinking water supply needs outlining larger social and at times religious connotation. The bonding of the community in the erstwhile settlements stood testimony to the “Kudimaramath” system wherein the public maintained the water body, its bund, spillway channels and water spread areas.

The city of Chennai is no exception with the Korattur and Ambattur link between the lakes, Adambakkam – Velachery and Pallikarani marsh, Virugambakkam drain and the Nungambakkam tank clearly depicting the natural systems that form the natural urban axes. The Pallikarani marshlands are an active eco space holding aquifers and recharge zones that function as an effective flood moderator and modifier of microclimate. The marsh formed the culmination point of the surplus water from the nearby lakes including the Velachery Lake. The creek or the estuary at River Adyar is another naturally endowed asset of the city maintaining the critical ecological balance. These formed the basic network of blue, green and brown (Fig. 2) that has helped the city function purely on innate systems.

Fig. 2: Chennai City and its Natural Systems

Sources: Public Works Department, Chennai. S. Muthiah, 2012, Madras Miscellany: The Battle of the Adyar, www.thehindu.com

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The spatial location and functioning of these systems is crucial database in understanding areas and zones massively affected in the floods of 2015. Thus, Chennai city is vested with a natural hydrological system that has a natural construct in strategic vantage urban point.

3. URBAN DEVELOPMENTAL DE-CONSTRUCTS Urban developmental deconstruction on land and the commodification of natural resources had its layered permutation in multiple stakeholders, varied urban dimensions and clearly documented but delayed policies. The urban stage for development being not limited to land extended to availability of large parcels at strategic spatial proximity rendering water bodies, green spaces, wetlands and marshes its vulnerability. The floods of 2015 in Chennai has brought the focus onto developments conceived by planning authorities, mooted by private agencies and encroachments by unauthorized land mafia. The role of multiple actors has to be analyzed to understand the significance the interventions on vulnerable eco-fragile systems. Having and not having a Plan remains a paradox of planning.

3.1 Urban Interventions and Interruptions Chennai city in its sprawling development along transportation corridors and radial suburbs has engulfed the green open spaces, catchment and water spread areas of the city. The floods of 2015 stood testimony on the ravages of natural disaster on a city that had failed to synchronously merge development and the natural course. The preliminary precursors were established by the planning authorities which cited housing projects on land owned by the Public Works Department (PWD) with a strong bearing on avoiding land acquisition, the relevance of spatial location and the user end profile in housing project.

The legacy of urban planning and development of the city has had technological intervention to support as in the Housing Board’s Sites and Services Scheme at Ambattur and Velachery Lake (Fig. 3) funded by the World Bank. The holding capacity and volume of the lake were balanced by deepening a portion of the lake, and simultaneously filling the other half so as to create land for citing the housing project. Although criticized for altering the ecological properties of the water body, it was also reviewed for best practices for looking at technological intervention in negotiating the challenges posed by natural systems. The trade- off in urban development finds an avenue in ecological vulnerability as urban development projects are a catalyst to growth which has to be planned and guided but not dictated. Tremendous urban pressure, power dynamics and the need to catapult urban progress creates a podium for experimental projects, a one-time pilot intervention. The danger lies in not creating an access to the complete database, public awareness, which triggers similar unauthorized developments floated by the land mafia.

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Fig. 3: Velachery and Adambakkam Lake in its Urban Transformation

Sources: Survey of India map, 1970 and Google maps, www.scroll.in, Chennai Floods, 2018.

Introduction of road network across Porur Lake in the city practically divided the lake into two portions creating vulnerability to both sides and the proliferation of unauthorized developments, slums and squatter that was influenced by the enhanced accessibility and improved infrastructure. Creation of the public realm at Valluvar Kottam on the defunct portion of the Nungambakkam Long Tank area (Fig. 4) was a major intervention on the formation of a public park that was Fig. 4: Nungambakkam Long Tank in its Urban Transformation

Sources: Survey of India map, 1970 and Google maps, www.scroll.in, Chennai Floods, 2018.

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planned to take cognizance of the water course, but the developments that triggered had to be negotiated on a reactive measure.

The citing of the garbage dump yard of the city, several institutional spaces, and government agencies in and along the Marshlands of Pallikarani touted to be the erstwhile urban periphery, unbounded and not demarcated exposed the vulnerability. Though a major portion was classified as Reserve Area, and the draft of the Second Master Plan (2008) clarified the need to conserve the marsh, the reactive stand caused concern. Authorized urban interventions in all cases cited on eco - fragile zones and systems have largely formed classic illustrative examples to follow and emulate but with minimal guidelines for influence / impact areas and an absence of detailed development plans for eco-specific zones triggered spurt of uncontrolled expansion. Servicing the land, extension of infrastructure that evolves from the primordial project further becomes catalytic to unauthorized sprawl. The urban floods of 2015 in Chennai clearly outlined the spatial and functional connotations of natural Fig. 5: Flood Risk Hotspots in Chennai Metropolitan systems and the development construct of Area ecological fault lines. The floods spatially hit areas that were earlier an integral part of the wetland and water body network, such as the southern localities around the Pallikarani marsh, Velachery Lake and its environs extended to Medavakkam. While Kotturpuram Lake Area in its Housing Board colonies and areas in the low lying water spread zones of Adyar River have been the frequented examples, a deeper understanding of the citing of urban interventions outline the intangibles.

3.2 Urban Development Documenta- tion and Policy Framing A plethora of urban development data compendium and policies that foster eco assets have never reached grass root level, and in specific cases among the multi-disciplinary agencies. The lack of coordination or the data sharing agenda remains unaddressed and this becomes a great lacuna that impacts preparedness of the city. The mapping of the flood risk hot Source: Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority, spots in Chennai city (Fig. 5) was a touted www.cmdachennai. gov.in to be a priced document post 2015 urban

Priya Sasidharan 15 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 flood scenario, which the Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority(CMDA) had drafted much earlier but the access to information or strategizing curbing of developments if implemented could have raised levels of awareness.

Tamil Nadu Water Policy (1994) in its detailed provisions on flood mitigation, management and nuances of the water systems is a document that had hardly reached the needed awareness. Involvement of the people, participatory planning and dissemination of policies and regulations could strengthen the monitoring mechanism as the public could play a significant role of ecological watchdog. There is no dearth of information, research compendium, exhaustive data base that each nodal agency has collated and compiled. The access to information pertaining to the profile, statistics, and topographical and micro climatic support data on the natural systems (water bodies and rivers) of Chennai city seemed to flood the post urban flood scenario in 2016.

The top down and bottom up planning theorization was challenged by the ground reality in the case of Chennai’s concerted efforts at various levels to weave the threads together.

The draft of the second Master Plan (2008) has integrated the protective and conservation measures with specific reference to the Pallikarani wetland ecosystem. Chennai City River Conservation Project launched in 2000 was aimed to improve the waterways, while the Madras Metro Flood Relief / Storm Water Drainage study outcomes in the form of structural and non-structural measures and the projected possibilities and guidelines of the special Feasibility report by Mott and McDonald Consultants was never utilized to its full potential. The State Government’s measures in launching flood mitigation programs and improvement strategies under the JnNURM funding have been the varied approach to the context of urban floods. While the concerted efforts from various agencies have been strongly imprinted, the coordination and bridging the differences between agencies, stringent legal mechanism and monitoring systems had to be strengthened.

4. PLANNING PRACTICALITIES AND PREDICAMENT The need for large urban parcels of land has always been the pressure head on the urban planners combined with the parameters of strategic location, along networks and transportation corridors and areas that could catalyze growth. The classic examples of urban interventions by the development authority though mired in criticism needs to be hailed for the experimental approach, but the failure rests on lack of proactive strategizing against planning priorities at a static point of time. The testimony to the Chennai floods 2015 (Figs. 6a and 6b) was a failure of the human construct on nature in its totality to be addressed from developmental perspective, policy making and preparedness action plans.

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Fig. 6: (A) Adyar River in Full Spate, (B) Saidapet Submerged in 2015 Floods

Source: Kannal Atchuthan, 2015, Floods swamp Chennai and suburbs, www.thehindu.com Nithyanand Jayaraman, 2016, Unbuilding our cities, www.thehindu.com

Planners are trained experts and visionaries, who have to reflect on transforming urban conditions in the interest of citizens, particularly the urban poor. The efforts to revive and reclaim the land and canals lost on encroachments have begun as a reactive measure after the devastating floods of 2015. The preparedness of the city to face threats from monsoons; unprecedented rainfall is a ground reality situation and Chennai being no exception. Combined efforts of the agencies could bring in desired change with the Development Authority creating the guidelines, strategies, policy and implementation mechanism collating specific network and system related measures in its wider spectrum. The urban planner is caught up in a quagmire of vision, mega city mania, while strengthening the base surfaces and resurfaces as an aftermath, a predicament in the planning profession. The need to synchronize futuristic mega projects alongside strengthening the existential could be the practicality that planners have to be trained for in future.

5. WAY FORWARD 5.1 Experiential Learning – Lessons of Resilience Chennai city has taken cognizance of its various urban interventions and the approaches, though in pockets and parts could add and multiply to the eco responsive whole. The restoration of the Adyar creek and creating a large lung space, green and open as a public park and knowledge centre, the Eco lake at Chetpet, a revival of the lake and its environs have been defined contributions to the ecology and public realm. The Marina Beach Beautification saw the promenade with the needed infrastructure facilities that could cater to the public, diverse age groups and highlighting the coast as the largest open accessible public space. The experiential learning quotient has greatly played its part in reinforcing physical boundaries, revitalizing compatible activities and giving nature back to the public as a symbol of civic pride. Piecemeal development should pave the way for an integrated approach as addressing fragments that could muster identity for a while does not answer the larger question.

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The reactive approach has to pave way for holistic development that clearly brings into focus the most visible and the invisible spaces into the limelight. The voids of the city as in below the MRTS line, Flyovers and the subways if in closer proximity to natural assets are the most vulnerable to proliferate into encroachments, wherein activity, safety and control – physical and visual has to be part of the planning measures. The need to draft detailed plans that would address the environs of large mega projects in its influence areas with specific pointers to the proximal eco-assets would be the new order in urban planning – ‘Chennai Model’.

5.2 Creating the Interface – The Chennai Model Interface is actually a podium that would serve to bring in the community to participate, as in the restoration of the Pammal Lake and make them take pride. The coordinated proactive measures by the various Government agencies that have to plan not just in pockets but in parcels that lead to the big picture is vital for the city in its mammoth expansion. The spatial connotation alone cannot become a success as Chennai has a rich legacy, heritage and an intrinsic culture that has to be preserved and mooted so that several of the smaller green areas / water bodies become community hold areas for preservation either through ritual spaces or creation of buffer areas that have a predominant activity.

This interface that would become the model is not just a bridge between the people and power, but amidst decision makers and policy planners being the preliminary step forward. Preparedness plan of action rather than a resilient action plan would be the urban agenda for Chennai city. The wake of smart city promises potential in integrating technological expertise in data sharing, cloud computing, and creating city dashboards – a plethora or panorama of access to information that moots awareness that translates to monitoring and regulatory mechanism. City dashboards are digital dashboards that could generate the compendium of information on urban areas, ecological assets, development projects and mapping disaster prone areas at the tap of a button as the development authority creates and monitors the platform for public access. Urban Interface of the Chennai Model would become holistic in terms of mechanism, digital intervention, power and public arenas and the planning and decision making layers.

5.2.1 To the roots Restore, Regulate, and Reinterpret: The Three Rs A resolution lies in tying up the spatial and the growth dynamics together to integrate the 3 Rs i.e. Restore, Regulate, and Reinterpret. The restoration of areas that are crucial has to be undertaken on a war-footing basis in the core area of the city, while the emerging corridors of development need regulatory mechanism to guide development compatible with ecology. The reinterpretation at the spaces between corridors, extensions from core, void spaces of the city,

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paves the way to revive and revitalize the natural spaces by creating the public domain, accessible and adding to the green percentage of the city. The public realm of universal access itself forms a protective measure to conserve these vulnerable areas.

The need to reinterpret stakeholders in the ecological revamping exercise are not only the Government, Planning agencies but also educational institutions, private corporate enterprises in their corporate social responsibility (CSR) agenda. Large campuses, institutions should showcase internal networking systems of rain water harvesting and effective storm water drainage that could become a self-addressed agenda. The corporate giants, stakeholder of SEZ’s have to take the surge forward and demonstrate internalized mechanisms of managing flood waters, efficient surface drainage and storage or retention zones that could recharge and add to self-sustaining sustainable quotient. Gated communities, industrial estates, townships and privatized corporations have to join the foray in streamlining the flood waters as in parcels that form part of a larger zone wise flood mitigation and drainage scheme.

6. CONCLUSIONS Sustainable development does not only imply reuse, reduce and recycle. As a planning approach it also means Restore, Regulate and Reinterpret. It is a point in time that the planning process in Chennai city undergoes transformation to enhance transparency in power delineation, sharpened futuristic vision and preparedness imperatives on a real time mode of proactive resilience.

REFERENCES CMDA (2007) Master Plan - II for Chennai Metropolitan Area - 2026, March 2007, Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority, Tamil Nadu. CPREEC (2008) Urban Flood Studies for Chennai under NIDM Project, CPR Environmental Education Centre, Chennai. Seminar on Waterways in Chennai (2010) Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority, Tamil Nadu. http://www.cmdachennai.gov.in/pdfs/SeminarOnWaterways/5.pdf (Session 2 - Improvements To Waterways – Experiences of Other Cities Session 3 - River and Drainage System in CMA Session 4 - Water Bodies in Metropolitan Environment Session 5 - Studies on Chennai Drainage System – Rivers, Canals, Creeks, Stuaries and Lakes) Lavanya, A.K. (2012) Urban Flood Management–A Case Study of Chennai City, Architecture Research, Vol. 2, No. 6, pp. 115-121. Gupta, A.K. and Nair, S.S. (2010) Flood risk and context of land-uses: Chennai city case, Journal of Geography and Regional Planning, Vol. 3, No. 12, p. 365. Centre for Science and Environment (2016) CSE Press Note: Chennai in crisis, cseindia. org. http://www.cseindia.org/content/cse-press-note-chennai-crisis (accessed May 29, 2016)

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Integrating Environmental Concerns in Development Plans: Lessons from MPD

S. P. Bansal

Abstract The well planned and effectively governed and managed cities besides climate change are the most challenging issues of the twenty-first century. Only well planned and effectively governed and managed cities can provide the solution to rapid urbanization. Adoption of geo-spatial data and use of information technology in the planning process; defining of measureable benchmarks and milestones for periodic monitoring and evaluation of plans would go a long way. Besides integration of sector specific plans advocated by different ministries, and missions programs such as Smart City Development, Slum Redevelopment Plan, City Development Plan, City Investment Plan, Comprehensive Mobility Plan, City Sanitation Plan, Swatch Bharat, District Credit Plan, Making Cities Resilient Campaign, Coastal Zone Management Plan, Environmental Conservation Plan, Riverfront Development Plan, Water Resource Management Plan, Heritage Conservation Plan, Tourism Master Plan, etc.; with the statutory development plan merit close consideration.

1. INTRODUCTION Urbanization in India is increasing fast. The level of urbanization which was 31 percent in 2011 is likely to be over 50 percent by 2050. Whereas, this process of urbanization is an opportunity for progress of our country, it is also posing a serious environmental threat. Extreme climatic events of intense rainfall, flooding, draught, heat wave, cyclone and high speed winds, etc; have compounded problems of inadequate city infrastructure. Intense rainfall causing flooding in Chennai, Mumbai, Bihar and Orissa; deteriorating air quality of Delhi and NCR; draughts in Maharashtra; shortfall in essential services and transportation; haphazard developments and increasing pressure on land beyond its carrying capacity are the major concerns of degraded environmental condition of most our cities.

While many new development projects in our cities in the name of modern, economic and technological progress have created a higher quality of life for some; they have also dumped the negative social, economic and environmental consequences on the rest of the population, particularly the vulnerable and marginalized sections. Urban development challenges in India are multi-faceted and appear to be overwhelming at times. They include insufficient provision of basic infrastructure and ever increasing backlogs - geographical imbalances and

S. P. Bansal, Professor Design Chair, School of Architecture and Planning, Graphic Era Hill University Clement Town, Dehradun, Email: [email protected]

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disparities in distribution, excessive wastes, increasing pollution, severe traffic congestion, overcrowded slums, rapidly growing urban sprawl, degradation of urban and peri-urban ecosystems, high levels of inequality and underemployment. Many of these local challenges are aggravated by climate change, as well as the rigid, outdated and lengthy planning process. Therefore, there is a need for planners, policy makers and others involved in the development process to recognize the importance and the urgent requirement to promote a sustainable, participatory and renewed planning approach by creating more equitable, environmentally low-impact, and useful urban spaces for all inhabitants within cities. Paying attention to the environmental impacts of growth, providing adequate housing, energy, water, sanitation and mobility needs of the people (to address social and economic issues mentioned above) in a manner that does not cause major depletion of natural resources endangering future generations. This essentially brings environmental concerns to the forefront as an integral part of the planning efforts to bring about sustainable urbanization.

2. REVIEW OF THE EXISTING DEVELOPMENT PLANNING SYSTEM Many states in India not encouraging to terminology of Master Plan / Development Plan. In fact it is a statutory plan prepared (under relevant Act) often within the framework of a perspective plan. The objective of a development plan is to promote planned development by providing development strategies depending upon the socio-economic needs and aspiration of the people, within the available resources and priorities.

Development Plan contains a land use plan, sectoral development policies, planning norms and standards, and a development code, often with an evaluation framework. It makes known publicly the intention of the local authority regarding physical, social and economic development, the details of facilities and the services that are proposed to be provided in the near future. The approved Development Plan allows all the local authorities to take-up development of specified land under the plan, with the help of detailed local area plans, layout plans and projects.

Planning for development is a continuous process, which envisions a sound assessment of the ground realities and provides options for sustainable development within the bounds of the demographic, physical, socio-economic, jurisdictional and financial aspects. Development Plans have often been criticized to be rigid and static having little regard to investment planning efforts and taking very long time in formulation and approval. Statutory land use plans have implications on the land use and development control mechanism. Despite statutory backing, Development Plans are not implemented fully and meaningfully. Various Plan proposals / estimates do not keep pace with the growing requirement of cities or the aspirations of the city dwellers.

During 1995, a National Workshop on “Master Plan Approach: Its Efficacy and Alternatives” was held, by Town and Country Planning Organization under the

S. P. Bansal 21 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 agies of Ministry of Urban Developed, which examined the entire process of urban development planning and implementation. This Workshop made a number of recommendations to make the process more effective and, the first national level planning guidelines ‘Urban Development Plans Formulation and Implementation’ (UDPFI) were framed in 1996 by Institute of Town Planners, India. Later over the years it was realized that since the towns and cities have become more dynamic in nature and are subjected to unprecedented changes in terms of requirements of infrastructure and other amenities, emerging aspects of inclusive planning, sustainable habitat, disaster management concepts, and other reforms require a renewed planning process, besides to cover aspects of regional planning. To address these emerging aspects, the UDPFI Guidelines were revised by MOUD and the ‘Urban and Regional Development Plans Formulation and Implementation Guidelines (URDPFI -2015) were framed after widespread consultations with the planning peers in the various Ministries, experts, professional and academic institutions and other stakeholders. Simultaneously, over the years various sector specific plans have also been advocated by different Ministries.

3. ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY CONSIDERATIONS OF MPD 2021 The process of planned development of the National Capital began with enactment of the Delhi Development Act 1957, followed by the promulgation of the Master Plan in 1962 (MPD-62). The Master Plan 2001 (MPD-2001) reiterated the planning process, which had been outlined in MPD-62; however, incorporating the norms for informal sector, mixed use and re-densification, based on ground surveys. After the review and analysis of achievements, shortfalls and difficulties of implementation of MPD-62 and MPD-2001; the Master Plan - 2021 was formulated. MPD - 2021 was also comprehensively reviewed in 2011 - 15. The review process was highly participatory and unique.

Realizing the concern for the environment, MPD-2021 has a focused emphasis and a separate chapter on environment, besides the environmental friendly sectoral development policies. Creation of a sustainable physical and social environment for improved quality of life for all- is one of the major objectives of the plan. A threefold approach and strategy proposed in the Plan is:

• Management of Natural Resources and the related infrastructure services in a manner that would lead to optimization of use of natural resources, and abatement of pollution; • Conservation and Development of the Natural features with a view to enhancing their environmental value; and • Development and preservation of open spaces and greens areas.

3.1 Natural Resources The major natural features of Delhi are the river Yamuna, a network of drains that empty into the river, and the Aravalli Range. These are in a state of considerable

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degradation, and it is of vital importance to conserve and rejuvenate these ecosystems. Surrounding states also have to contribute towards their conservation and rejuvenation.

River Yamuna: The length of the river in the NCT of Delhi is 48 km with a total river bed area of around 97 sq km (about 7 percent of Delhi’s area). Apart from being the main source of water supply for Delhi, it is also one of the major sources of ground water recharge. However, rapid urbanization, encroachments on its banks, over extraction of water, and serious deficiencies in sanitation, lack of waste water management, have resulted in the dwindling of water flow in the river with extremely high levels of pollution in the form of BOD and Coli forms, etc.; and is not even fit for bathing purposes. The major source of the pollution in the river (about 80 percent) is the discharge of untreated waste water by 19 major drains that outfall into it. Measures for rejuvenation of River Yamuna include:

• To implement recommendations of the cleaning and rejuvenation of the Yamuna constituted by Supreme Court Committee • To augment ground recharge from the river. Creation of ‘regulated flood plain reservoirs’, for storing the excess monsoon overflow at suitable locations; and • To implement Master Plan strategy for the conservation/development of the Yamuna River Bed area in Zones O and P, and River Front Development in a systematic manner.

Groundwater: The Ground water in Delhi occurs in confined and semi-confined conditions up to a depth of 70 m. A large number of the traditional water bodies in the form of ponds, have either been encroached or have become defunct. Based on average annual rainfall of 611 mm, the annual rainwater harvesting potential has been assessed as 2500 mld. Roof water harvesting is assessed at around 27 mld. The existing drainage basins are to be made self-sustainable in water management by integrating water-sewerage-drainage systems. Promote water conservation through an integrated and a community driven model.

Aravalli Ridge and Regional Park: The Aravalli Range in the NCT of Delhi comprises the rocky outcrop stretching from the University in the North to the NCT Border in the South and beyond. Over a period of time, part of it has already been brought under urbanization. MPD –2001 has designated the total ridge as Regional Park, which is divided in four parts:

-- Northern Ridge: 87 ha; -- Central Ridge: 864 ha; -- South Central Ridge: 626 ha. (Mehrauli); and -- Southern Ridge: 6200 ha.

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It was also notified as Reserve Forest under Section 4 of the Indian Forest Act, 1927 vide notification dated 24.5.94. The final notification under Section 20 was not issued, due to discrepancies between the area notified and the physical boundaries of the area owned by various agencies – DDA, CPWD, NDMC, MCD, Forest Department and the Ministry of Defence. Till the exact boundaries are identified by the Forest Department the 7777 ha indicated in the land use plan in MPD-2021 as Regional Park shall continue.

3.2 Air In Delhi despite initiatives like introduction of CNG and EURO - II norms, etc., the air pollution levels are very high. It is causing a number of respiratory diseases, heart ailments, eye irritation, asthma, etc. The three main sources of air pollution in Delhi are vehicular emission (around 70 percent), industrial emissions (around 20 percent), and from other sources such as diesel generator sets and domestic cooking, burning of biomass, etc. There has been a phenomenal growth in the number of personalized vehicles, almost 8-10 times in the last two decades, with limited modal split. It creates tremendous pressure on road space, parking, pollution and congestion. The major area of planning intervention relate to: making public transport a popular mode through improved reliability, quality and element of clean transport. To address issues of vehicular congestion and pollution, a carefully considered policy of mixed land use is recommended along with relocation of non - conforming industries and control of pollution from power plants.

3.3 Noise Noise is emerging as a major pollutant, irritant and a health hazard. Against a permissible level of 50-60 dB (A), the sound level in Delhi often exceeds 80 dB (A). Faulty and leaking silencers, over-use of horns by vehicles, noise from few commercial and industrial activities, increasing use of sound amplifiers, generator sets and fire- crackers, etc.; are the main contributors. By proper land use planning, provision of green buffer, land formations, mounds, embankments, etc. along major roads could provide effective barriers. Plan recommends effective implementation of the Noise Pollution (Level) Rules, 2000 and, notification of certain areas as ‘No Horn Zones’. Local authorities to prepare-area wise traffic calming schemes, and a Noise Monitoring and Control Plan (NMCP). Working in night shifts for household industries or non-conforming industries in the residential areas is prohibited. Areas located within the air funnel are to be planned with due consideration of noise. Environmentally stressed zones in Delhi should be identified and local area environment management plans are to be prepared for such areas, together with regular monitoring.

3.4 Green and Recreational Areas Delhi has a much larger green cover than any other metropolitan city in the country. As per MPD - 2001, the recreational use constituted 8,722 ha (19 percent

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of urban area). In addition to this MPD-2021 proposed Neighborhood Parks / Tot lots in the gross residential use zones, roadside green, and plantation along drains, etc. Further,in the Urban Extension Plan for 2021 the green cover is to be provided at the rate of 15 percent of the total land excluding the Regional Park. A hierarchy of formal parks are to be developed at Sub-City Level; and at neighborhood level. In addition to formal parks Multipurpose Parks are proposed for marriages and public functions. Amusement parks of about 20 ha each along National Highway, be permitted in the proposed green belt.

The Plan in its Environment Chapter is silent about two important issues that are closely linked with environment, these are - waste management and energy efficiency. However, specific policies on both these are covered in the Chapter on Infrastructure e.g. use of alternative / renewal sources of energy, new technology of energy recovery from waste, energy conservation by energy efficient design, strategy to reduce, reuse, recycle and recover waste.

3.5 Lessons Learnt NCT Delhi continues to face serious problems and Challenges in spite of comprehensive developmental policies as well as elaborate provision for improving the environment. Some of these include: deteriorating city environment and the natural resources; rising pollution; growth of Vehicular traffic, congestion, parking problem and mixed modes; and sharp contrast and divide in socio – economic and physical pattern of development e.g. Bungalow Zone – squatter settlement; unauthorized colonies / urban villages-planned colonies; walled city – big farmhouses; mixed use - segregated land use developments, etc.; and many others. In view of this, area by area Carrying Capacity Analysis merit consideration. Carrying Capacity of an area can be defined as the maximum number of population that can be supported by the environment of that area through optimum utilization of the available resources. A close look on the reasons for some of these problems relate with:

• Inspite of Comprehensive Provisions, Slow and Ad-hoc Implementation of Plan Policies - specially related to long term planning, time and cost over runs and legal impediments, duplications, lack of inter agency coordination. It is desirable to lay down measurable goals for evaluation; • Weak Plan Enforcement Mechanism with lack of accountability, timely inter sectoral review, weak institutional capabilities particularly at grass root level, gaps in development controls and zoning regulations, etc. The Plan being a statutory policy document, a coordinated action oriented attention at all levels by different agencies is required; • Need for Progressive Planning to Suit the Changing needs of the city and its population with greater focus on environmental improvement, pollution

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control, protection of natural feature by timely preparing and implementing local area plans, greater use of IT, GIS, Satellite Imagery and other digital technologies for speedy planning, approval , implementation and monitoring. Also there is a need to promote design of “Green Buildings”; • Focused effort on inclusive urban planning. It is felt that engaging trained professionals and better inter - agency coordination, are urgently required; • Two major challenges of unauthorized colonies and squatter settlements require effective measures, not only to deal with their present manifestation, but also in terms of future growth and proliferation; • NCT of Delhi with 1483 sq km area would continue to act as a magnet for the people from all over the country. Seamless planning and development of (DMA) in a spatial context beyond administrative boundaries, in the adjoining areas is required; • The NCT of Delhi is divided into 15 Zones from A to P. There is a need for adopting a methodology by which the Zonal Plans can be expeditiously prepared and implemented in the context of MPD - 2021, in a manner which would be conducive to their actual and timely realization; • The planning norms and standards, zoning regulations, development controls, etc.; need to be reviewed comprehensively in view of their direct impact on environment, natural resources and sustainability. Compact development with mixed use is environment friendly. A comprehensive redevelopment strategy for accommodating a larger population, strengthening of infrastructure facilities, creation of more open spaces, would be desirable; • Focused action oriented attention is required on protection of Ridge, pollution control in river Yamuna and speedy development of River Yamuna Front with a view to enhance environment; • Rapid Rail Transit System (RRTS) –the concept has been there since a long time together with revitalization of Ring Rail. In view of merits they need further re-examination by appropriate restructuring of land uses; and • The TOD is a desirable concept as accepted all over the world. However, in the context of Delhi, detailed pilot studies are required to firm up its boundary controls, based on the principle of sustainability.

4. RECOMMENDATIONS Framework for a Renewed Planning System In the 20th century western planning models had a strong influence on Asian urban planning culture. Many countries in Asia attempted to plan the future development of their cities based on the idea of becoming modern and in a way ‘catching up with the west’. However, the associated urban modernism proved unsuitable and has often aggravated environmental and socio-economic challenges. Climate change is intricately linked to development. The energy

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demand of rapidly growing cities; fast growing car ownership rates; their population size, expose them to the effects of climate change such as droughts, heat waves, floods and cyclones. These affect all aspects of life and the urban poor are particularly vulnerable as they are often forced to settle on the most vulnerable land. In view of this a renewed planning framework is urgently required with following features:

Adopt Principles of Sustainability in Planning: Sustainable urbanization is understood as a process which promotes an integrated, gender-sensitive and pro-poor approach to the social, economic and environmental development, to meet not only the needs of the present but also safeguard the future. In order to shape urbanization in this manner, it is essential that policy makers, both locally and nationally, understand and establish the key principles that need to be considered while formulating development strategies.

As per the provision of URDPFI Guidelines-2015 all the urban and regional plans, should focus on sustainability, from financial, social, governance and environmental point of view. Financial sustainability requires working out the complete cost and provide for recovering the same from the users. However, cross subsidies could be provided for. Social sustainability relates to inclusion, i.e., the project should provide benefit to all residents equitably. Governance / managerial sustainability would require the project to meet all the statutory and regulatory requirements throughout the project lifecycle. Environmental sustainability would require that each project should aim at improvement in the environment, rather than on ‘minimizing the damage’. The sustainability issues have also been highlighted in the Twelfth Five Year Plan and have been further detailed out in the National Mission for Sustainable Habitat. In other words Sustainability requires that all forms of development and associated policies be judged on the basis of three criteria (the 3 E’s i.e. Economy, Equity, Ecology) be it on a national or local scale. This guarantees that any action is not only environmentally sound but also economically viable and socially just. Good planning, governance and management are a necessary condition for achieving sustainability.

An Integrated Approach to Urban Development: Achieving sustainability by engaging in comprehensive planning, governance and management may seem like a daunting task, especially when faced with limited budgets and restrictions at the local level. However, with innovative thinking and identification of, as well as building on, existing resources, it is possible to move towards sustainability through equitable and feasible eco-efficient development. Currently sector policies and actors continue to be the primary drivers of urban development. Different local government departments, the private sector and other urban stakeholders focus on small “parts” of their

S. P. Bansal 27 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 city without meaningfully integrating their approaches for overall sustainable development. Sustainable urbanization requires an approach that combines different strategies and ideas in order to efficiently create a city that excels in competitiveness and quality of life, while safeguarding the environment. Below are three strategies that can aid local governments in formulating an integrated approach to urban development:

• Assets Based Approach - As opposed to needs based approach that leads to dependency on external resources, starting with existing assets and opportunities helps create ‘development from within,’ promotes partnerships to collaboratively take on issues of importance to the community and creates opportunities for growth; • Horizontal Integration Approach - this has to occur between sectors. It allows local authorities to identify new opportunities for sustainable urban development within the spaces in between sectors, and to address development challenges that are crosscutting in nature; and • Vertical integration - this has to occur between institutions and actors. It is required for the design and execution of policies and strategies and derived from a decentralized, multi-actor arena. Vertical integration has two dimensions: top-down (e.g. from national to local government, from city agencies to community boards) and bottom-up (e.g. from local government to national and from community boards or CBOs to city agencies).

Building Cities for the People, with the People: Public participation in planning and designing urban infrastructure and services in the real sense is essential for identifying what, why and how change should occur. Participation of all stakeholders in a particular city ensures that any action taken and services provided are accurate reflections of the needs of people and that the benefits of development are shared more equally. Well managed participation can bring out concerns of different stakeholder groups such as women, youth, older people and people with disability; participation can also deal with conflicting development objectives; furthermore, it is a method by which all available options can be explored. There are a number of conditions and guidelines that play a significant role in ensuring that participation goes beyond superficial consultation and becomes a form of meaningful practice. The relevance of this was experienced during the midterm review of MPD - 2021.

Building Environmental Concerns into today’s Development Strategies: Because of high unemployment and poverty, governments often give a high priority to economic development by means of industrialization. Though, it is acknowledged that environmental issues are important, they are still perceived as a luxury that can be addressed after achieving a desired level of economic development.

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This cure rather than prevention approach often causes unnecessary costs and immense damage to the environment, all of which have numerous negative impacts on urban inhabitants.

Green areas contribute to improved environmental conditions by increasing air quality, reducing the heat island effect, and sequestrating carbon. Air pollution is reduced when dust and smoke particles, especially from vehicle exhausts, are trapped by trees and vegetation. Trees can influence the degree of solar radiation, air movement, humidity and air temperature and they provide protection from heavy rains. Vegetation in dense urban areas can reduce the urban heat island effect produced by the concentration of pavements and concrete.

The growth model that have been adopted have not benefitted all urban dwellers equally. Over 40 per cent of India’s urban dwellers are forced to live in substandard housing and overcrowded slums. Currently all our cities suffer from severe environmental problems ranging from pollution, congestion, excessive waste, etc.; due to rapidly increasing urbanization. Paying attention to the environmental impacts of growth necessitates the provision of adequate housing; energy, water, sanitation and mobility of the people in a manner that does not cause major depletion of natural resources. Based on existing consumption patterns, our natural resource base will soon be lower than that of any other region in per capita terms. In this context it is important to refer and adopt the guidelines prescribed by the Ministry of Environment and Forest and URDPFI Guidelines -2015, while preparing spatial development plans at all levels.

Setting Sectoral Goal and Targets: The development plan prepared based on sustainable approach as mentioned earlier must contain measurable sectoral targets that can be evaluated periodically.

5. CONCLUSIONS The well planned and effectively governed and managed cities beside climate change are the most challenging issues of the twenty-first century. However, well planned and effectively governed and managed cities can provide the solution to the rapid urbanization.

The framework for Renewed Spatial Planning System as narrated above and the experiences drawn from the Best Practices, subject to local variations provide the way forward. The adoption of geo-spatial data (Bhuwan Geo Portal of ISRO, etc;) and use of information technology in the planning process; defining measureable benchmarks and milestones for periodic monitoring and evaluation of the plan would go a long way. Finally Integration of sector specific plans advocated by different Ministries, such as Smart City Development, Slum Redevelopment Plan, City Development Plan, City Investment Plan, Comprehensive Mobility Plan, City Sanitation Plan, Swatch Bharat, District Credit Plan, Making Cities

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Resilient Campaign, Coastal Zone Management Plan, Environmental Conservation Plan, Riverfront Development Plan, Water Resource Management Plan, Heritage Conservation Plan, Tourism Master Plan, etc.; with the statutory Development Plan merits consideration. These measure can put cities on the right path and result in thriving, dense, green, resilient and sustainable cities. Housing, employment, accessibility and safety are key concerns for urban dwellers and are strongly correlated to environment and urban form. The correct policies on density, land use, public space and the layout of infrastructure and services can make a difference to the delivery of good quality of life at the right price. Designing a spatial pattern that addresses citizens’ concerns is a means for delivering a better city. “The Growth Story of India shall be written on the canvass of planed urban development and the script writers shall be the town and country planners!”

REFERENCES Bansal, S.P. (2012) An Innovative Approach to Structured Spatial Transformation: Case Delhi, Journal Spatio-economic Development Record, Vol. 19, No. 1. Bansal, S.P. (2012) Inclusive Planning Initiatives for Improved Access to Basic Infrastructure; 58th NTCP Congress, Nagpur. Delhi Development Authority (1962) Master Plan for Delhi 1981, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi. Delhi Development Authority (1990) Master Plan for Delhi 2001, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi. Delhi Development Authority (2007) Master Plan for Delhi 2021, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi. Ministry of Environment and Forests (undated) Government of India’s Guidelines for Site Planning, New Delhi. Ministry of Urban Development (2015) Urban and Regional development Plans Formulation and Implementation (URDPFI) Guidelines, Volume 1, New Delhi. NCRPB (1988) Regional Plan for NCR 2001, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi. NCRPB (2005) Regional Plan for NCR 2021, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi. UN-HABITAT (2011) Planning for Climate Change: A strategic, value based approach for urban planners. Version 1: for field testing and piloting in training Available from:http:// www.unhabitat.org/ UNHSP (2012) Sustainable Urbanization in Asia- A Sourcebook for Local Governments, Nairobi. UNHSP (2013) Urban Planning for City Leaders, Nairobi. World Bank (2001) Guide to Climate Change Adaptation in Cities, World Bank, Washington D.C. Yuen, B. and Kong, L. (2009) Climate change and urban planning in Southeast Asia, Cities and Climate Change,

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Urban Flooding – Can we Design the Difference?

V. R. Hegde

Abstract Floods are natural phenomena that have been affecting human lives since time immemorial. Throughout history, the nature has been warning people about the consequences of unwise occupancy of its right of way. The phenomenon becomes a disaster when it has an impact on human settlements and activities indicating the importance of natural science and social aspects of flood. Urban flooding occurs due to societal actions in providing inadequate drainage. High intensity rainfall causes flooding when the carrying capacity of the sewage system and storm water drains exceeds its design capacity. Urban areas are centres of economic activities with vital infrastructure that need to be protected. Current research indicates a trend of more intense precipitation, which could cause more flooding if not properly planned. Urban planning therefore, should include long–term strategies with best practices and forecasting systems. Accordingly, this paper explores best practices of anticipatory planning and preventive measures to tackle urban flooding.

1. INTRODUCTION Floods are natural phenomena that have been affecting human lives since time immemorial. Throughout history, the nature has been warning people about the consequence of unwise occupancy of its right of way. Flooding in general and urban flooding in particular is not unknown event in the world and also in India. Uneven distribution of rainfall coupled with unscrupulous urbanization, encroaching upon and filling up natural drainage channels and urban lakes to use the high value urban land for buildings are the cause of urban flooding. Illegal filling of urban water bodies in cities like Bengaluru, Kolkata, Delhi, and Hyderabad, etc., are rampant.

Flooding has several aspects such as climatic, social, economic, institutional, and technical that is differently addressed for rural and urban conditions. Climatic aspects of flooding deal with the climatic conditions that may lead to the occurrence of floods. In urban conditions, short and intensive showers proved to be just as critical as long lasting rains. Urban flooding problems are increasing due to different reasons. Urbanization is an accelerating trend and the statistics indicate that currently about 54 percent of the global population lives in cities and by 2050 almost two third of the world’s population will live in urban environments. Thus, urban areas are growing and in many cases, they are becoming denser. Many cities are striving to reduce their negative, environmental impact and densification of existing urban areas has become

V. R. Hegde, Pixel Softek Pvt.Ltd. Bangalore, Email: [email protected]

V. R. Hegde 31 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 the dominating urban planning strategy in order to meet a rapid urbanization needs with limited expansion on agricultural land. Large extent of impermeable surfaces makes built-up land more vulnerable to flooding than the surrounding environment.

2. FLOODING IN URBAN ENVIRONMENT Population increase is inevitable in urban areas causing obvious advantages and disadvantages. Among others, provision of water supplies, sewers and drains, garbage collection, telecommunication, transportation and various forms of health, educational and emergency services are to be provided. But the concentration of domestic, commercial and industrial wastes causes major environmental and health problems for the inhabitants that are spread by water movement. Cities have been regularly developing their water-related infrastructure and discharging their urban waste water into water bodies within and nearest water bodies. Once natural, undisturbed, discharging conditions are becoming deteriorated due to gaps in implementation or mismanagement of the systems. The problems of discharging urban waste waters are manifested at the sites where waste water and storm water are being conveyed in common trunks due to submergence of the out falls and possible back-flow during high water stages. It is not uncommon that normal flood control measures between the flood protection infrastructure are performed simultaneously with the emergency where mixed waste and storm waters overflow into basements or flow out onto the streets.

3. HYDROLOGICAL IMPACTS OF URBANIZATION Urbanization has been a process of artificial land use alteration over a period of time. Temporal dimension of urbanization is normally quantified by a design or plan period in which forecast of urban changes can be made. Common practice is to keep the range between 15 and 25 years. Conversion by people of pervious natural surfaces to less or non-pervious artificial surfaces are responsible for increases in both the storm water runoff rates and the total runoff volumes due to decreasing the natural water storage capacity of the soil. The often neglected facts is that changing of natural water storage as a consequence of urbanization causes significant changes to the temporal characteristics of runoff from an urbanized area such as shortening the runoff travel time and giving to the event a flashing appearance. Urbanization is also responsible for increasing pollutants in natural water bodies. Storm water runoff contain organic wastes, suspended solids, heavy metals, oils, animal waste, street litter and sediments from construction sites.

The social aspect of flooding in urban conditions is always towards negotiating with the intensity and frequency of the disruption of public life and traffic while the economic aspects deal with the issues of financing the capital improvement,

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operation, and maintenance of flood protection schemes. The technical aspects deal with the concepts and works usually applied in flood estimation and protection.

4. IMPROVING URBAN FLOOD RESILIENCE In urban areas one of the growing concerns has been flooding due to increasing densification of urban areas, changes in land use, and climate change. Traditional engineering approach to flooding is designing drainage systems. As experienced, these methods are known to increase the long-term flood risk and harm the ecosystems in urban areas. Planning and designing for urban systems shall lay emphasis on integrated analysis of landscape, simulation of flood and routing than simple empirical estimates of land requirement, and water requirements. It is required to embark on improving urban flood resilience involving collaborative management mainly to handle storm water runoff and improved experiential and functional quality of the urban environments. One can identify research needs as well as experiments for improved sustainable and resilient storm water management including flexibility of storm water systems, energy use reduction, efficient land use, priority of transport and socioeconomic nexus, climate change impact, securing critical infrastructure, and resolving questions regarding responsibilities.

5. RED-GREEN-BLUE (INTEGRATED) APPROACH TO URBAN PLANNING AND DESIGN Holistic viewpoints and deployment of an integrated approach are essential to manage floods in a sustainable way as explained below.

5.1 Beyond Traditional System Absence of trans-scale thinking has resulted in the urban drainage systems relying on combined sewage and drainage that are prone for overflow of untreated sewage which may increase over a period of time as the population increases and capacities would have been obsolete. As the urban areas are getting denser less space will be available for underground infrastructures including extensive use of drainage pipes. Urban development should therefore lead towards less and slower surface runoff systems. Applying surface solutions and evolving the drainage systems appear to be useful strategies for the reduction of flood impacts. Treating urban localities as integrated parts of the drainage system provides promising opportunities.

It may not be wise to focus separately on the water issue solely when planning water infrastructure. Integrated approach is important for economical as well as environmental reasons. Integrated flood management approaches therefore shall not restrict to estimation of floods once in 50 or 100 years as the solutions have functions to perform every day. There is a need to increase the capacity

V. R. Hegde 33 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 of storm water system as urban growth has been rapid and climate change is also imposing pressure. Since urban areas are becoming more complex including more and more high-tech and sensitive infrastructures, the economic value is increasing leading to larger flooding sensitivity. Therefore, more flexible systems are needed that can adapt to future changes.

5.2 Integrated Approaches Designing open water management solutions in the urban landscape is a multi- disciplinary task that requires a combination of scientific and artistic approaches and a new kind of interaction between green and blue assets. In blue-green infrastructure, the urban greenery (G) and water (B) management are combined in order to protect the urban landscape and its ecological and hydrological values. Certain sensitive, inevitable and economic infrastructure and assets of public convenience are also to be kept in mind. The blue-green infrastructure not only mitigates flood impacts and improves adaptation to climate change, but also increases the quality and living conditions of urban environments in terms of improved heat alleviation, increased biodiversity, and better air quality. Transfer towards red, green blue, solutions will be slow and many challenges regarding responsibility, economy, and maintenance are to be considered.

Water planning and urban planning integration are the key to flood resilience and therefore while introducing flood preventing measures above the ground, several considerations like retention ponds, permeable surfaces, open spaces are important. The focus should be placed on improving the spatial and economical values of the use of water in the city, protecting the city against storm discharge and increasing resilience to storm water. Solutions should consist of combination of planning, technology and design. Accordingly, merging different urban projects and taking advantage of various sectors, working groups and experts are necessary.

5.3 Sensitive Infrastructure As floods pose threats to society through the effects on developed infrastructure, it is important that effective planning measures are put in place for protecting infrastructure. Considering the damages caused by floods worldwide, there is still much to do when it comes to protecting the sensitive infrastructure from being damaged or affected by flooding. Not only flooding, but also other potential threats to a functional society have to be taken into account when designing and building infrastructure. We have to make sure that water, transportation, energy, and other important infrastructures are protected in non-normal situations, like during flood events.

A way to prepare the society is to simulate different scenarios by applying disturbing factors. Using modern technology like up-to-date spatial planning techniques makes it possible to integrate a large number of societal threats and optimize solutions.

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5.4 Flood Management - Multi Stake Holders Water sector is arguably the local activity that is first to be exposed by a changing climate and increased flood risk. However, the water sector cannot be expected to handle the complex problems by itself only. To find cost-effective solutions, public and private actors at the local and national level must cooperate and share the responsibility to reduce the negative effects of flooding. For the water sector, this would call for measures to integrate water management with a wider planning system such as land use planning and development of transport systems, and decentralized red-blue-green solutions to handle storm water.

This calls for solutions where it is possible to illustrate and visualize how exposed the infrastructure is to flooding and collectively analyze what the effects flooding may have on infrastructure and society. The analysis can be refined by clarifying the sensitivity of different infrastructures, their interdependences, and functions they support. An exciting way to perform this analysis may be to use social media and techniques in virtual reality (VR) or augmented reality (AR). A common denominator is to improve the communication between stakeholders before, during, and after flood events. Context capture technology that facilitates capturing of the structure in three dimensional aspects and further 3D modelling of the land scape would add substantial value in understanding the scenarios and plan. Modern technologies like drones to capture real time spatial images and converting in to analytical models are useful. We need to know whether monitoring systems have been set up at close spatial intervals that provide useful information. Combined with spatial data, weather parameters and history of flood locations would also be of great value in planning.

5.5 Geographic Information System Geographic Information System (GIS) is an effective tool for building databases and analyzing spatial data, and may be of great help for accomplishing learning across organizational boundaries. GIS enables numerous types of analyses based on, e.g., proximity and network. In addition, the effective visualization capability of GIS makes it highly suitable for learning and communication activities. As a result, different forms of collective GIS-approaches have emerged, e.g., community mapping and participatory GIS. GIS is also used and developed for improving flood risk management. GIS has been used for identifying interdependencies between local infrastructures, modelling and simulation of infrastructure elements interdependencies, and modelling urban surface water balances.

6. CONCLUSIONS In urban flood resilience and several other related areas where the society needs to change its thinking in order to reach the goal flood free cities. This is improbable without an integrated flood management system that can cope with changing risk levels by increasing urban resilience.

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Urban Flooding – Case Study of Hyderabad

B. V. Subba Rao

Abstract Indian metropolitan cities are experiencing increased intensity and frequency of urban flooding year after year, causing huge economic and considerable human losses. The situation not only undermines economic growth but also shatters social fabric and further challenges existing development models. However, causes for urban flooding are generally attributed to climate change impacts, but lack of early preparedness, absence of water centered infrastructure and unregulated growth cumulatively aggravates this crisis. The paper makes an attempt to review existing urban development, and bring out lacunae and gaps in the existing system before suggesting strategies to reorient development plans towards making ‘Flood Resilient Cities’ through a case study of Hyderabad city.

1. INTRODUCTION Hyderabad is the capital of the newly established state of Telangana. Located between 17.3850°N, 78.4867°E, occupying 650 sq km and metropolitan area of 7,257 sq km along the banks of the Musi River. It has a population of about 6.7 million and a metropolitan population of about 7.75 million, making it the fourth most populous city and sixth most populous urban agglomeration in India. At an average altitude of 542 meters above MSL, Hyderabad has undulating terrain. The city was popularly referred to as the City of Lakes and Gardens and it had more than 3,000 man made lakes offering salubrious environs. Hyderabad has a tropical wet and dry climate bordering on a hot semi-arid climate. The annual mean temperature is 26.6°C, and monthly mean temperature is 21–33°C. Summers (March – June) are hot and humid with average high in the mid-to- high 30 Celsius; maximum temperatures often exceed 40°C between April and June. The coolest temperatures occur in December and January when the lowest temperature occasionally dips to 10°C. May is the hottest month when daily temperatures range from 26 to 39°C. December, the coldest, has temperatures varying from 14.5 to 28°C. The city receives 2,731 hours of sunshine per year and a maximum daily sunlight exposure occurs in February. Heavy rain from the south-west summer monsoon falls between June and September, supplying Hyderabad with most of its mean annual rainfall. The city receives an average annual rainfall of 800 - 1100 mm. Since November 1891, the highest temperature ever recorded was 45.5°Con 2 June 1966, and the lowest was 6.1°C on 8 January

B. V. Subba Rao, Adviser Center for Climate Change, Engineering Staff College of India, Hyderabad, Email: [email protected] | [email protected]

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Fig. 1: Rainfall in Hyderabad

1946. The heaviest rainfall recorded in a 24 - hour period was 241.5 mm on 24 August 2000.

2. HISTORY OF FLOODS: CHANGING FLOOD PATTERN Historically the Musi River was the cause of frequent flood devastation of Hyderabad city. According to historians,15,000 people were killed and over 80,000 were rendered homeless. Hyderabad had experienced 15.32 cm of rainfall on 28 September 1908, consequently witnessed catastrophic floods on 28 September 1908 causing death of 15,000 people and rendered homeless more than 80,000 people. As many as 600,000 people were affected by the river’s fury. Two reservoirs were constructed under the technical guidance of Sir Moshagundam Visvesvarayya, whose services were requested by the Nizam’s government. In order to keep sewage from flowing into the river and prevent mosquito breeding, he built a sewage farm and laid pipes to carry the city’s sewage to the farm. A dam was built in 1920 across the river,16 km up stream from the city, called Osman Sagar. In 1927, another reservoir was built on Esi (tributary of Musi) and named Himayat Sagar. These lakes prevent flooding of the River Musi and are major drinking water sources for Hyderabad city. Subsequent recorded floods were on 1 August 1954 having a rainfall of 190.5 mm and in 1970 recorded rainfall was 140 mm. Year wise record of heavy rainfall events during the past two decade are given below:

• On 24 August 2000, recorded rainfall was 240 mm in just 24 hours. Total rainfall in the August month was 469 mm. This has been the worst calamity for the city in almost 50 years, with as many as 90 residential areas in the

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city were under water (in some places under 10 to 15 feet) and many parts of the roads were washed away; • In August 2001, recorded rainfall was 230.4 mm; • In August 2002, recorded rainfall was 179.4 mm; • In 2006, recorded rainfall was 218.7 mm; • In August 2008, recorded rainfall was 220.7 mm in 36 hours; • In September 2016, recorded rainfall was 156 mm in 3 hours; and • In September 2017, recorded rainfall was 90 mm in 3 hours.

3. NATURAL DRAINAGE AND LAKES OF HYDERABAD Hyderabad has a cascade of inter - connected lakes in each zone which form a natural drainage system. The drainage system in Hyderabad comprises of a hierarchy of natural and man made drains and water bodies that ultimately discharge surface runoff into River Musi. Natural drainage system has distinct basins and sub-basins, they are: Hussain Sagar, Mir Alam, Osman Sagar, Himayat Sagar, the runoff from basins and water sheds join the Musi and ultimately the river Krishna (about 10 percent of runoff of rain water) join river Manjira and ultimately to river Godaravari. Numerous lakes and nallahs constitute the major storm water drainage system for the city.

The nallahs are the major carriers of storm water finally disposing into the river and water bodies in the catchment. Currently the storm water drainage system of the city construction and maintenance are being dealt by the GHMC. There are 150 water bodies in the city. The most important are Hussain Sager, Miralam tank, Saroornagar tank, Safilguda lake and Langaur House lake. All the major drains flowing in the city of Hyderabad fall under the catchment area of Musi River. Length of all major storm water and primary drains passing through the city of Hyderabad is around 390 km and carries the storm water finally draining into the Musi or other lakes located in the city. Tertiary storm water drains are roadside drains discharging storm water into primary drains and water bodies.

City’s man made link tanks or lakes speaks volumes on their technical merit to regulate and manage the surplus flood waters to ensure a flood resilient city up to the second half of 1980’s. Interestingly then engineers constructed several surplus flood water diversion channels across the major water sheds and also all along the river Musi. Since early 1990s city experienced marked difference in flood pattern, a shift from flood plain flooding to localized inundations within the city land locked zones. However, the high intensity flooding is observed in the micro - watershed basins around the lakes.

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4. IMPACT OF UNREGULATED URBANIZATION, NATURAL DRAINAGE, WEATHER AND ENVIRONMENT Newton’s Third Law of Motion propounds that "Every Action has an Equal and Opposite Reaction". This quote aptly fits in to all the anthropogenic activities in the field of development. Moreover so for urban planning, have a direct and indirect bearing on all the five natural resources i.e. land, water, wind, energy and space. This phenomenon can be observed at the individual dwelling level, to a city level planning as well as regional planning. In nature land and space are stationary and the water, wind, energy is in constant motion and to have equilibrium in nature, it is essential to plan the use of land and space to facilitate movement of water, wind and energy. Generation of urban heat islands and increasing trends in high intensity short duration rainfall clearly indicate sun regulated rapid urban growth. The heat and radiation generated by the cities is contributing towards climate change.

High intensity short duration rain fall manifested through sudden cloud burst is a clear indication of climate change impact. Consequent urban flooding and its devastation pinpoints the absence of climate adaptive infrastructure to regulate the sudden storm water flow. High density unregulated urban growth paved way towards formation of “Heat Islands” Hyderabad is experiencing increased heat radiation for the past two decades. Once highest temperature of 43 degree Celsius got stabilized by 2016, where this high temperature sustained for more than 11 days, city experiencing increased humidity, warm winters, early and prolonged hot summers. Also, Hyderabad experiencing short duration high velocity whirl winds of 80 km per hour, causing physical damages. The incident on 25 April 2016 resulted in a financial loss of more than Rs. 30 crore in 15 minutes time period.

Urbanization has direct impact on natural drainage system and drastically alters the dynamics of urban hydrology. Increased paved surfaces and loss of open green spaces has resulted increased storm water run off, within and around municipal limits. Unregulated high - density development, disturbed natural drainage, loss of rainwater storage capacity due to siltation and encroachments, cumulatively aggravated the localized flooding in different parts of the Hyderabad. Consequent runoff flows to river Musi got obstructed and delayed. Rate of storm water runoff increases from 1 to 5 times from pre-urban to post-urban status. This phenomenon is significant in smaller watersheds and its impact depends on slope, relief and percentage of paved surface and storm sewer coverage. More than 70 percent of city is served with dedicated storm water drains. The existing natural nallah and streams serve as combined sewers. City has less than one sq mt of open spaces per capita as against national recommendation of 20 sq mt.

5. CRITICAL CONCERNS There is absence of dedicated storm water and sewer drains in more than 80 percent of urban sprawl. Recent hi–tech city development witnesses maximum

B. V. Subba Rao 39 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 number of municipal violations including lake and stream encroachments. Ironically newly developed IT, completely lacks both storm water and sewer network and became a subject of serious concern in handling increasing flooding situations. It is an alarming situation challenging sustainable economic growth. Also, the west zone is experiencing damages due to whirlwinds, probably generated because of heat generation. Interestingly this zone experiences frequent and increased cloud bursts, causing high intensity short duration rainfall in recent years. Increased conflicts between the colonies located in down and upstream of lakes are:

• The engineering sections managing the lakes have little capacities in understanding the dynamics of urban hydrology; • Aggravated flooding is due to poor management of municipal solid waste, which is often dumped in lakes and drains. Also, lack of scientific safe disposal of construction debris. No facility is in place for recycling and reuse of this debris material, which often finds its place in water bodies; • Poor monitoring of industrial wastewaters discharges particularly during the flooding periods; • Emergence of toxic froth and foam from highly contaminated lakes brought out new set of challenges to city managers; • Lack of synergy among the concerned departments, responsible for proper management of sewage, storm waters, lakes and streams in catchment lake / catchment areas, including municipal solid waste; and • Absence of sewage and storm water gazing stations, including weather monitoring systems.

It is very vital to monitor the intensity of rainfall rather than working out mitigation measures based on average rainfall trends.

6. RECOMMENDATIONS • Adopt the guideline prepared by National Disaster Management of Authority [NDMA], GOI issued in the year 2012; • Promote and conduct awareness workshops for planners at all levels on the 74th Constitution Amendment, with specific focus on preparing Joint Development Plans by city municipal corporations in consultation with adjoining local governing bodies – Panchayats, Nagar Palikas and Municipalities. This is vital considering the proposed EIA clearances by local governing bodies; • Organize capacity building training programs to design and develop integrated city / town Master Plans, with super imposed layers of status of natural environment, which includes natural drainage, water bodies, streams and rivers, and disaster prone zones due to urban flooding;

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• Protect and improve the open green spaces of the city; • Promote conducting modeling studies on basin and major watershed basins. Adopt flood water diversion structures and rapid infiltration or groundwater recharging structures and also restore and enhance the rain water storage capacity of existing city lakes; • Studies must be carried out on urban heat island generation and mitigating measures to minimize the increasing heat and radiation impact; • Clear all the illegal constructions located in lake bed, sand streams / nallas. Further, do not encourage such structures through building or land regulation schemes; • Develop drainage superimposed maps on city master plans, marking the urban watersheds and indicating vulnerable sites under flooding situations; • Enhance the capacity of engineering manpower on changing urban hydrology and carry out modeling studies basin wise. This will help in better preparedness and promote flooding mitigation strategies; • Review the existing Nala and Sikhma Patta issues and bring out legal instruments to address this perennial problem; • Vision and provision for facilities to ensure proper scientific systems to recycle and reuse the construction debris in the Master Plan; • Restore the link tank and lake systems and further technically explore devices to ensure in / out flow lake water systems, and; • Design training modules and conduct workshops on Urban Watersheds – impact of urbanization on natural drainage, including pre-assessment of expected changes in storm-water runoff, urban flooding and dynamics of urban flooding.

7. CONCLUSIONS Present situation calls for a paradigm shift in storm water management and adaptation of mechanisms and techniques to manage storm water at water shed levels. Hyderabad city is loosing more than Rs. 400 crore annually due to flooding. This challenge is enough for taking to protect economic sustainability of the city. The World Urbanization Prospects Report says that more than 50 percent of population in developing countries will live in cities. Present situation and trends are quite alarming, and the situation calls for review and re-orientation. It is time to develop flood resilient cities through climate adaptive urban development initiatives.

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Preventive Measures for Urban Flooding in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

Jagdish Singh and Rajni Taneja

Abstract This paper underlines the importance of urban flooding for comprehending location specific issues about floods. In the recent years due to global warming flash flood frequencies have increased creating havoc in urban areas. Bhopal has witnessed flooding during 2006 and 2016. The root cause of this flooding is extensive spell of rains in few hours and absence of roadside drains, encroachment on nallahs, unauthorized constructions and unauthorized colonies, blocking of drainage necessary for free movement of rain water. To overcome urban flooding, planned approach to sustainable and resilient planning inclusive of master plan needs to be adopted. The paper also states that measures are required to be taken to overcome impact of excess rains occurring in few hours by preparing location specific road maps so that after effects of surplus storm water generated could be harnessed for future in the form of ground water recharge, and rain water harvesting, etc.

1. INTRODUCTION In order to determine a proper approach for suitable urban planning in our country, an in-depth study of water in all its forms merits consideration. Various governments, semi - government organizations, and NGOs are working in this direction to produce utmost sustainable planning issues for precise functioning of the city. It is a huge task for any individual department to procure data related to it. Better opportunity for jobs and availability of better infrastructure facilities leads to migration from rural vicinity to urban areas. This has caused extra burden on city infrastructure and led to over development in urban fringe areas, which tends to shift urban fringe boundaries to further green belt of the city. Thus, present fresh supply of drinking water is under threat due to over exploitation and degradation. On the other hand unplanned and unauthorized constructions are the major cause for flooding of storm water during rains and unplanned collection of garbage tends to collection of solid waste, which creates unhygienic conditions, thus deteriorates surface water, psychology and sentiments related with heritage zones. Thus, water both in scarcity and in abundance cause problem, proper approach to rule out this, need to be implemented to meet present ground water available on or beneath the surface

Jagdish Singh, Associate Professor, Department of Architecture and Planning, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal, Bhopal, Email: [email protected] Rajni Taneja, Associate Professor, Department of Architecture, Jagannath University.Bahadurgarh, Delhi, Email: [email protected]

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of earth and to control the solid waste at the city level, and to keep water fresh. The demand and supply is required to be considered on priority basis so as to create proper balance i.e. recharge of ground water aquifers, recharge of surface water due to natural flow of rain water as gravity flow and finally to plan structures with due consideration of chocking / blocking of storm water creating flood situation during rains similarly solid waste generated in city areas must be properly managed for sustainable human planning.

Every planned settlement need water free from pollutants i.e. provision for pure and fresh water, disposal of rain water, and conservation of water bodies, over flooding caused by rain water, meet out the demand of fresh water with pace of urban development and presently available water bodies, solid waste management options, sustainable planning for heritage areas and water responsive issues that has to be taken care of properly and issues related to this have to be determined to enhance the quality and availability of fresh ground water. Proper coordination amongst different departments and stakeholders related to these issues is necessary for reducing pressure on storm water drains and for proper functioning in the form of procuring physical planning data related to enhancement of city planning for future need. In this paper attempt has been made to come up with issues that are important during surplus storm generation till strengthening urban planning process. In Bhopal urban flooding is expressed by heavy rainfall hampered by encroachment on nallahs and inadequate drainage capacity. It already has large economic, environmental and social impacts. These are very likely to increase if no changes are made to the unplanned development of buildings and infrastructure and poor management of urban drainage. Urban floods are a great disturbance of daily life in the city.

For management of natural resources like water, it is said in India long ago by poet Abdul Rahim that “Rahiman Paani Rakhiye Bin Paani sab suun, Paani gaye na Ubare moti manus chum”, which means always save water, there is

Fig. 1: Causes of Urban Floods in Bhopal - 2006 Fig. 2: Urban Floods in Bhopal - 2006

Jagdish Singh and Rajni Taneja 43 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 nothing without water. Over the years watershed approach has conventionally been applied for the purpose of arresting rainwater runoff, its harvesting and in-situ soil and moisture conservation in the country. When Rahim wrote this in the first decade of the 17 century, he was preaching what he practiced. As Subedar of Burhanpur constructed Deccan ka Darwaza or gateway to the south, a marvelous water management system to quench the thirst of over two lakh army men stationed in the town. Rahim was one of the nine jewels of Emperor Akbar’s court. The question arises: what would be the policy if the water were surplus. In both conditions the environment is prone to situation of epidemic.

So to prevent state of our planet with continues deterioration at an alarming rate, pure water and oxygen both have same importance for human sustenance, and are the most important single substance for human survival. Human beings like all other creatures are extremely dependent upon pure and freshwater and can survive much longer without food but will die without fresh water. In spite of 16 percent as total world’s population, 2.45 percent of land area and 4 percent of water resources is available in India. Total volume of water stored under land areas may be around 80 million cubic km, which may be at depth less than 800 m (Nace, 1960). This is about 35 times the quantity of fresh water available on the surface of earth and is about one third of volume stored as ice in Polar Regions and mountains ranges. Surface water is generally easy and economical to harness but its availability varies with seasons. To explore the issues for preventing water from pollutants, the proper development and management of ground water resources requires knowledge of extent storage, the rates of discharge from and recharge to both underground and ground reservoirs. Surface runoff seeps into streams and through streams to reservoirs thus, ground water reservoirs can be used to store surface runoff and water can be used at the time of scarcity. Only part of precipitation runoff the ground surface to flow into the lakes or streams. Some amount of water infiltrates into the soil to augment the groundwater aquifers. A part is intercepted in the plant root and is drawn back to the surface by the plants. Part is precipitated as a hail or snow and may in course of time melt and flow as surface runoff.

Urbanization in developing countries doubled from less than 25 percent in 1970 to more than 50 percent in 2006. By 2020, seven of the world’s ten largest economies will be from Asia. At the same time Asia in one of the fastest urbanization regions in the world. In 2000, 37 percent of its population lived in cities and the proportion is projected to reach more than 50 percent by 2025. Across India, in the recent times, many cities have experienced floods. This paper, also reviews urban flood causes within India in recent past. Floods, extreme weather events, have occurred with frequent regularity over last two decades causing severe urban flood related inundations. In the present scenario, rapidly growing mega cities, due to migration of people from rural belts are facing many problems. The

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four mega cities viz. Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai are the most populated cities of India are also in the race for urban flooding. Uncontrolled growth of mega cities has increased their vulnerability to flooding. Their spatial variation, frequency and trends of urban floods have been computed and discussed. Some measures are suggested to minimize the losses from such natural hazards. This paper describes why it is important to study urban floods scenarios and what is the need for this study. It highlights the types and causes of the local flooding conditions as well as its impact and remedies.

2. URBAN FLOOD IN BHOPAL - 2016 During the months of April- June, there is always water scarcity in Bhopal. In spite Bhopal is situated on hills, its natural topography always resists flood situation. The Upper Lake, in a linear east-west alignment, has a catchments area of 361 sq km and at present water spread area of 31 sq km having capacity of 117.05 million m3.

The Upper Lake has a partial city component in its catchments on the eastern end while the remainder is Rural. On 14 August 2006, the usual rain has broken the records of previous eighty years, total rainfall was 762 mm during 12 hours (whole night). The whole Bhopal was under tremendous storm water city flood caused by nallahs (large drains). The upper lake of Bhopal (life line for city water supply) was at its full level; all the 11 exit gates of Bhadbhada dam were opened for extraction of surplus water to river Betwa. At least 11 people were killed and 8 others reported missing (UNI Report) and about 20,000 people were shifted from low-lying areas to 66 relief camps opened in school buildings. Nearly 5,000 government employees were engaged in massive rescue and relief operations. Heavy rains in the state capital affected nearly six lakh people. The district authorities launched massive operation to provide relief to the affected and to disburse compensation. Train traffic was disrupted as the engine of one Express train derailed near Bhopal division and water logging of tracks near the state

Fig. 3: Flood in Bhopal - 2016 Fig. 4: Flood Damage in Bhopal - 2016

Jagdish Singh and Rajni Taneja 45 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 capital and flight operations from Bhopal were also badly disturbed. Vehicular traffic from Bhopal to neighboring areas remained paralyzed as floodwater was flowing over bridges and culverts on many rivers and rivulets. Vehicular traffic was suspended.

Heavy monsoon rains continue to wreak havoc over Bhopal on Saturday morning, leading to flood-like situation. The city has recorded whopping 111 mm of rain from 6:30 am to 11:30 am. Incessant showers were lashing Bhopal, which is likely to worsen the persisting flood situation. Heavy rains lashed Bhopal again on 12 July 2016 creating a flood-like situation. Bhopal city recorded 36.4 mm of rainfall on Tuesday at 8.30 am for preceding 24 hours, said officials of IMD Bhopal Centre. Between 8.30 am and 5.30 pm, Bhopal recorded 57.6 mm rainfall. For the next 24 hours in Bhopal starting Tuesday, IMD Bhopal has predicted heavy rainfall. Low lying areas flooded, over 500 houses damaged Low lying areas of new and old Bhopal were flooded and water logged and dug up roads increased the civic mess. Rain water flooded several houses, drains and the poor sewerage network led to overflowing of rain water on road and streets. More than 500 houses in Bhopal were damaged due to incessant rainfall. District administration declared a holiday in all schools on Wednesday 13 July 2016, school children did not get any respite as they had to wade their way through water-logged streets to reach their school despite an alert sounded by the weather forecast department. However, the district administration had declared a holiday in all the schools on Wednesday. Areas like Ashoka Garden, Nehru Nagar, Shahpura, Shabri Nagar and Rangmahal location were the worst affected. Jail road, New Market road, MP Nagar zones, polytechnic square roads and many other areas were pockmarked which led to traffic snarls. To prevent diseases in rain-affected areas CM Chief Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan directed officials to ensure arrangements to prevent rain-generated diseases in rain-affected areas and hold health camps in the state. The Bhopal Municipal Corporation began an anti-encroachment drive on Monday. However, it had to take a break from the drive to focus on rescue

Fig. 5: Flood 2016, in Anna nagar, Bhopal - 2016 Fig. 6: Flood in Sharda Nagar, Bhopal - 2016

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operations on Tuesday. Mayor Alok Sharma said, “Encroachment was the reason behind water logging and flooding in Bhopal. We will remove encroachments at the earliest. For now, we have to focus on saving lives and rescuing people.”The mayor is expected to soon hold a meeting with the public works department and the Bhopal Development Authority officials to discuss the civic mess in the city. The BMC emergency call centre has received over 1,000 complaints related to rain, water logging, falling of trees and flooding. The Madhya Pradesh Tourism had felicitated boatmen including on Wednesday for saving many lives on 9 July 2016.

Floods are the natural hazards caused directly due to weather - like heavy rains in inland area and cyclones in the coastal belt. They often become disastrous, due to human activities that interfere with natural ecology. During the last two decades there has been a major shift of population in urban areas, especially in major metro cities of India. By 2025, the population of tropical Asia is projected to rise to 2.4 billion. A significant number of the world’s most populated cities are located in Asia viz., Tokyo, Mumbai, Shanghai, Kolkata, Jakarta, Delhi, Seoul, Manila and Dhaka. Three of these are located in India. This demographic explosion enhances further the vulnerability of these urban conglomerations to floods and flash floods. Since the ecological intervention is minimal due to lesser population in United States, which is a developed nation even though floods cause about $ 6 billion worth of damage the human loss is limited to about 100-150 people every year. In contrast in China’s yellow river valley (a densely populated region), where some of the world’s worst floods have occurred, millions of people have perished in floods during the last century. During the past 25 years, there have been over three million deaths, of which 90 percent were in developing countries (Bedritsky, 1999). Several authors have studied increase in frequency of very heavy rainfall and impact of urbanization on meteorological variables (Guhathakurta et al, 2011; Ghosh et al, 2009; Goswami et al, 2006; De and Rao, 2004; Khole and De 2001; De et al 2005; Rao et al, 2004; Sinha Ray et al, 1999). Some of the growing urban mega cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai are likely to undergo severe resource stress in coming decades due to rising population. Residents of flooded cities face another type of disaster where unavailability of clean water and improper sanitization facilities after and during flood lead to outbreaks of deadly waterborne diseases like typhoid, hepatitis A and cholera. Rapid industrialization and urbanization always spread within the population around the expanding fringes of the mega cities. Due to improper planning of growing mega cities there is a very low capacity of such societies to absorb climatic shocks proper resiliency measures to be adopted for it.

3. URBAN FLOOD CAUSES India is primarily an agricultural country. In the past, rural infrastructure was adequate to sustain population of country. Migration of population towards mega

Jagdish Singh and Rajni Taneja 47 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 cities has resulted in random expansion of urban sector. Such migrations are due to industrial growth. Presently some of the urban agglomerations accommodate more than 10 million people. According to a recent estimate, by 2015 India will have 34 cities in the population range of 1.5 million and above. Four mega cities selected for the present study would have crossed 10 million mark, in which Mumbai would have the largest population density of more than 27 million. A majority of the poor live in informal settlements in India. In future these settlements would grow in a random way due to inadequacy of space and resources. Thousands of illegal colonies have emerged in the mega cities resulting in constriction of natural drainage causing urban floods. Urban areas get flooding by different types of floods like river floods, flash floods, coastal floods, release of excess water from reservoir or failure of dam on the upstream side; etc. Heavy rainfall is the main cause of urban flood. Due to intense and periodic rain, huge quantity of water flows, beyond the capacity of old drainage systems of the mega cities. Drainage system gets blocked due to silting, dumping of waste material at the inlets of drainage, encroachment over natural drainage and water bodies.

Urban flooding is caused by heavy rainfall while cities are having limited drainage capacity for run off this water. It already has large economic and social impacts. These are very likely to increase if no changes are made to the management of urban drainage. Urban floods are a great disturbance of daily life in the city. Roads can be blocked; people can’t go to work or to schools. The number of casualties of human life also occurs and also the economic damages are high. The water slowly rises on the city streets. When the city is on flat terrain the flow speed is low and you can still see people driving through it. The water rises relatively slow and the water level usually does not reach life endangering heights (Agrawal, 2014). Then, if an intense rainfall burst occurs, causing a large amount of rain within a brief period, flash flooding may occur with little or no warning. Flood is influenced by various factors - rainfall, river-flow and tidal-surge, topography, measure of flood control, and alterations due to infrastructural. Some floods grow and discharge gradually, while others can develop in just a few minutes and recede quickly such as flash flood. Flood events are happening for the last many years and centuries but urban floods are getting studied moderately of late (Brown, 2011).

Urban areas have been constructed upon without drain in Bhopal and now it is too late to plan and tackle the problem of flooding for such centers. Yet if the people want to save themselves from the rage of the floods and the government wants to avoid paying recurrent compensations to the people one of the way out is to control the unauthorized colonies which have been developed by the local colonizers on the agriculture land, earlier being used for crop has been purchased at profitable prices from farmers, without consideration to the master plans ,drainage, sewerage, etc., thus subjected to flooding during heavy rain falls.

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Advantage of storm generated can be taken by construction of large tanks where rain water could be stored and also to puncture the ground at several places like it is done for rain water harvesting. This would augment the seepage capacity of the ground. In addition a holistic drainage system for every urban complex would save many lives, economic losses and inconvenience due to floods. Seepage holes will prevent waterlogging and the threat of the mosquitoes. These floodplains, often under the control of built infrastructure i.e., levees or dams, have been exploited worldwide for food production, reducing these benefits and making agricultural production and associated human settlements vulnerable to flood damage. Knowledge of the spatial and temporal patterns of flooding, as influenced by the combination of natural flood regimes and human-built controls, is critical in maintaining the ecological functioning of floodplains (Townsend and Walsh, 1998).

Reasons of urban flooding are a series of storms moving over the same area can cause areal flash flooding. A muddy flood is produced by an accumulation of runoff generated on cropland. Sediments are then detached by runoff and carried as suspended matter or bed load. Muddy runoff is more likely detected when it reaches inhabited areas. A lot of the sewerage and drainage network is old and its condition is unknown. They cannot handle with the volume of water or are blocked by garbage and by non-biodegradable plastic bags. Sewers overflow because of illegal connections and the sewer system cannot handle the increased volumes. As new developments occur on previously permeable ground, the amount of rainwater running off the surface into drains and sewers increases dramatically. Developments encroach floodplains, obstructing floodways and causing loss of natural flood storage. The proportion of impermeable ground in existing developments is increasing as people build portico and pave over front gardens. Increased impervious areas such as roads, roofs and paving, due to increasing development densities means more runoffs (Singh and Singh, 2011). Some of the major hydrological effects of urbanization are: (a) increased water demand, often exceeding the available natural resources; (b) increased wastewater, burdening rivers and lakes and endangering the ecology; (c) increased peak flow; (d) reduced infiltration, and (e) reduced groundwater recharge, increased use of groundwater, and diminishing base flow of streams. According to natural hydrological phenomena, due to increased impervious area precipitation responds quickly reducing the time to peak and producing higher peak flows in the drainage channels.

Consequences of Urban Flooding: Urban Floods results in stagnation of water on roads, railway tracks and in few cases even at airports because of the inadequate storm water drainage capacity. This results in traffic jams and traffic diversions resulting in loss of man hours. In the events of heavy rainstorms air traffic gets diverted. Telecommunication gets disturbed and maintenance of supply of essential commodities becomes difficult. As communications is disrupted industrial production

Jagdish Singh and Rajni Taneja 49 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 gets hampered. Prices of essential commodities shoot up. During and after urban floods the immediate task is restoration of damaged roads, railway tracks, damaged buildings, the collapsing of which is very common for buildings out lived its life and other structures making rehabilitation of residents difficult from low lying areas. Damages of assets are significant in warehouses and buildings due to flooding by storm and sewage water. Perishable articles add to economical loss. Accidents and fire due to short circuit are also common. Hence there are a lot of financial burdens on relief measures. There is a psychological stress as safe returns of family members are not sure. Schools and colleges get closed. Displacement of population in low lying areas and collapsed structures generally meets stiff resistance. Disruption in supply of essential commodities including power supply results in unrest. Water bodies get polluted (Ganaie et al, 2013). Waste disposal gets hampered due to traffic disruption. The stagnation of water, pollution of potable water and accumulation of waste at dustbins result in epidemics. Accidents take place due to open pits and as manholes hidden under accumulated water which adds to main cases and problems. Disrupted traffic is also pose problem to assist medical assistance.

3.1 Sustainability and Resiliency Issues of Floods Sustainability and resiliency issues and effects by floods in the form of economic, environmental, social, human centric and technology includes:

• Economic Effects: include damage to public buildings, public utility works, housing and household assets; loss of earning in industry and trade; loss of earning to petty shopkeepers and workers; loss of employment to daily earners; loss of revenue due to road, railway transportation interruption and high prices for essential commodities. After flooding, government has to put many resources for aiding e.g., police force, fire control, aid workers and for restoration of flood affected structures, persons, live-stock, etc. The flooding causes a great economic loss to the state, individual and to the society. • Environmental Effects: includes damage to surroundings, forests, ridges, wild-life, zoo, urban community-trees, water bodies, shrubs, grass, fruits / vegetables in go downs, etc; result imbalance of eco-system of the city. • Effect on Traffic: Flooding results in the damages of roads, collapse of bridges causing traffic congestion which affect day-to-day life and other transportation system. • Social Effect: on human beings in terms of human lives every year floods in India cause more than 50 lac people affected dead and become homeless. • Psychological Impact: includes the people of all ages who stranded in flooding suffer a great Psychological impact disturbing their whole life and the society as whole.

Livestock includes the most affected living being due to urban floods. It is difficult to care for them particularly when human being itself is in trouble. Spread of

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disease usually brings infectious diseases, e.g. military fever, pneumonic plagues, dermatopathia, dysentery, common cold, Dengue, break bone fever, etc. Chances of food poisoning also become more where electric supply interrupted in food- storage area due to flooding. Public Inconveniences by the flooding causes impairment of transport and communication system due to which all people of all section get stranded e.g. school children, college students, office goers, vegetable, milk venders, etc. The basic and essential commodities also do not reach to the common person. This result either starvation to poor persons or high priced to the common persons.

4. SOME PREVENTIVE AND ACTIVE MEASURES Urban flood management in developing countries requires an evaluation of socio- economic issues related to land use and urban development in context to the frequent urban flooding (Tucci, 2004). Deaths due to natural hazards associated with floods are inevitable. However, impacts can be reduced by various measures, some of which are given below.

• Better forecasting of heavy rain over mega cities with the help of advanced technology viz Doppler radars; • Identification of vulnerable zones in and around the mega cities against risk of floods and improved disaster management procedures; • Improvement of old drainage systems, re-enforcement of weak and old buildings and introduction of area specific building codes; • Implementation of health and sanitation measures to prevent spreading of diseases; • Preparation of a long term plan aimed at diversification of industries and employment opportunities to prevent large scale migration of population and overcrowding of the mega cities; • Greater awareness among the public for the weather warning and forecasts; and • Pollution control measures with planning of green cities, including urban reforestation.

5. CONCLUSIONS Mechanism of urban flooding is very necessary to understand with location specific issues. In the recent years due to global warming flash flood frequencies have increased creating havoc in urban cities. Natural topography of settlements in Madhya Pradesh is totally towards equilibrium condition since last several decades the state as a whole did not witness any major disasters in the form of severe form of flooding or earthquake except a mild earthquake happened at Jabalpur last to last decade. Bhopal has witnessed flooding during 14 August 2006 and 9-12 July 2016, the root cause of this flooding was the extensive spell of rains in few hours and

Jagdish Singh and Rajni Taneja 51 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 absence of roadside drains, encroachment on nallahs, unauthorized constructions and unauthorized colonies. To overcome these issues a planned approach towards sustainable and resilient planning inclusive of master plan and subdivision planning seems the way ahead. Implementation of bottom up approach in conformity with 73rd and 74th CAA also merit consideration. Measures are also required to overcome the situation of excess rains occurring in few hours. Location specific Road map has to be prepared for it including all of above discussed terms and issues so that after affects of surplus storm generated could be harnessed for future in the form of ground water recharge, rain water harvesting and fully harnessing the surplus water. Flood and other disasters are alarming towards resiliency. Government alone cannot do much; awareness amongst all the stakeholders like departments, NGOs, parastatal bodies, municipal corporations, municipalities, public health departments, public works departments, zonal offices, ward level committees, public participation, volunteers, etc; needs to cooperate and coordinate this situation to overcome the effects of flooding.

REFERENCES Agarwal, A. (2000) Nil, ‘Drought? Try Capturing the Rain’, Center for Science and Environment, New Delhi. Biswas, A.K. (1998) Water Resources, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New Delhi. Expert Committee (1991) Manual on water supply and treatment, Ministry of UrbanDevelopment,Government of India, New Delhi. Garg, S.P. (1993)Ground Water and Tube Wells, Oxford IBH Publishing Company, New Delhi. Indian National Academy of Engineering Water Management (1990)Perspectives, Problems and Policy Issues, New Delhi. Rao, K.L. (1975)India’s Water Wealth: Its Assessment, Uses and Projections, Orient Longman, New Delhi. Shah, T. (1993) Groundwater Markets and Irrigation Development, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Shah, M. and Others (1998)India’s Dry Lands, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Shankari, U. and Esha, S. (1993)Water Management Traditions in India, PPST Foundation, Madras. Singh, C. (1991)Water Rights and Principles of Water Resources Management, Tripathi, Mumbai. Fresenius, W.,Quentin, K.E.,Schneider, W.(1988) Water Analysis, Springer Verlag Berlin Heidel Berg, New York. Walton, W.C. (1970) Ground Water Resource Evaluation, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New York. How to Harvest Rainwater, http://www.dot.co.pima.az.us/flood/wh/. Water conservation, http:// www.ci.tucson.az.us/water/tsnwtr/conserve/outdoor/ harvest.htm. 10 killed, 8 missing in rain havoc in Bhopal, http://news.oneindia.in/2006/08/14/10- killed-8-missing-in- rain-havoc-in-bhopal-1155551937.html. http://www.tucson.ars.ag.gov/dap/images/WaterBalance.gif

Jagdish Singh and Rajni Taneja 52 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018

Addressing Urban Flood through Spatial Distribution of Potential Storm Water Recharge Zones in Development Plan Pratap M. Raval

Abstract This paper discusses the importance of managing storm water sustainably by recharging groundwater sources. It indicates the potential of storm water harvesting, when properly managed, as a tool to counter depleting water sources and partially controlling urban floods. The study aims at developing a groundwater recharge potential map for a sub-watershed in Pune city which could be useful for development plan preparation by using GIS. In the present study, five classes of thematic maps have been used to prepare the final recharge potential map. Each class is assigned a weightage depending on its influence on the ground water recharge. The resultant map (groundwater recharge potential map) is classified into four classes: very good potential, good, moderate and poor. These sub basin level maps are useful for locating land uses and further storm water infrastructure development. Development plan needs to address this issue by locating land uses where maximum recharge of storm water is possible.

1. INTRODUCTION The world’s human population is increasing at an unprecedented rate with much of this growth taking place in urban areas. At the turn of the century, almost half the population lived in urban areas. This is expected to increase up to 60 percent by 2030. Major interest in the relationship between urban development and water began during 1960s when accelerating urban growth began to generate a wide range of hydrological problems (Howard and Gelo, 2002).

The hydrological cycle in cities is seriously affected due increasing impervious areas as result of urban development which has enhanced the risk of urban flooding. Cities in the India are facing the challenges of protecting water bodies, drinking water and public health with a rapid pace of population growth and urban sprawl. Large quantities of storm water runoff arising from increased imperviousness on urbanizing watershed will cause municipal drains to overflow and discharge of untreated runoff into waterways, and as a result, it will be polluting local water bodies and affect drinking water quality in the long run.

The covering and replacement of natural rocks, soil and vegetation by pavements, foundations, buildings and other structures has a profound impact on the hydrology of an area. It is a well known fact that natural groundwater recharge is inhibited in urban areas as impervious cover enhances runoff and limits infiltration. Urban

Pratap M. Raval, Professor of Town Planning, College of Engineering, Pune, Email ravalpratap@ gmail.com

Pratap M. Raval 53 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 development alters all aspects of the water cycle. The processes of urbanization exert multiple pressures on the hydrologic cycle. Specifically, increases in impervious surface result in increased hydraulic efficiency in urban catchments, and can cause substantially decreased capacity for a given landscape or region to infiltrate precipitation, with a concomitant increase in the production of runoff, shorter times of concentration or lag times and decreased recharge of water tables with a corresponding decline in base flows (Shuster et al, 2005). Urban development and population growth increase water demand. Sustainability of urban water supply is one of the core issues the planners across the world are facing at present. In India this problem may get aggravated in near future mainly due to improper management of water resources, environmental degradation and rapid pace of urbanization. Concurrently, the stress on ground water system has increased tremendously due to extraction resulting in steep water level declines in and around the urbanized cities.

With increasing urbanization and degradation of receiving water quality, it has become essential to manage storm water in a holistic, sustainable way. A variety of techniques for managing the storm water sustainably have developed world over in the last 2-3 decades. Some of them include Low Impact Development (LID), Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD), Sustainable Urban Drainage system (SUDS), etc. All these techniques basically aim at source control of storm water either by retention, detention or infiltration / groundwater recharge. The main hurdle in adopting these techniques in urbanized cities of developing countries like India is the extremely limited availability of green open spaces. Apart from limited availability of space, the maintenance of these may create further problems in Indian conditions. Thus, detention or retention techniques have a limited scope, particularly in highly urbanized cities. Such problems in the adoption of sustainable storm water systems in developing countries can be alleviated to some extent by providing techniques promoting artificial recharge of groundwater. This study aims to identify suitable sites for artificial recharge, where rainwater can be used for recharging the groundwater in sub basin in Pune city.

In the urban environment, the selection of suitable storm water recharge sites is of prime importance for the town planners and hydrological planners. In this regard, Geographic Information System (GIS) has been recommended as a decision making tool to facilitate the identification of potential storm water harvesting sites during the decision making process (Mbilinyi et al, 2005). GIS can serve as a screening tool for preliminary site selection as it offers a unique capability for spatial analysis of multi-source data sets with their integration (Malczewski, 2004). As it can integrate huge volumes of multi disciplinary data, both spatial and non-spatial, within the same geo referencing frame, GIS techniques are being popularly used by many researchers in water resources

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planning and development, delineation of land capability classes and many other areas (Chowdary et al, 2009; Kinthada et al, 2013).

There is extensive literature available on the use of GIS for the assessment of site suitability for storm water harvesting in rural areas across the world. In India, potential sites for water harvesting structures have been identified within a GIS environment mostly for rural watersheds to arrive at a groundwater potential zone map (Kumar et al. 2008; Singh et al. 2009; Mishra et al. 2010; Kaliraj et al, 2013). GIS based decision support systems have been developed in South Africa for delineating suitable locations for water harvesting in numerous studies (De Winnaar et al, 2007; Mbilinyi et al, 2007; Kahinda et al, 2008).

Analysis of potential groundwater recharge sites in urban areas has been rarely documented in literature. GIS was applied in identifying suitable storm water harvesting locations in the Central Business District of Adelaide and to a portion of Melbourne City Council in Australia (Inamdar, et al, 2011; Shiptonand Somenahalli, 2010). The focus was on developing a robust methodology for evaluating and ranking suitable storm water harvesting sites using GIS. Recently a study regarding mapping of groundwater recharge potential zones of Allahabad city in India has been carried out (Singh et al, 2014).

From the literature review conducted in this study, it was observed that GIS has rarely been applied to existing urban areas in identifying artificial recharge sites suitable for storm water harvesting. The present study aims at developing a groundwater recharge potential map for a sub watershed in Pune city, India using GIS. This map would be further used to identify artificial recharge sites for various sustainable storm water management techniques in the selected watershed, subsequently.

2. A CASE STUDY OF PUNE CITY Pune is the second largest city in the state of Maharashtra and the seventh largest city in India. The current population of the city is 3.6 million and is projected to be 7.7 million in year 2041. There has been a two fold increase in built up area in less than a decade since 1999. In Pune, storm water is being managed in the traditional way by providing storm water drains. There are 362 km length natural streams in the city which drain the runoff in Mutha River (Oak, 2010). Every year during monsoon, the roads in the city are getting damaged with increasing number of potholes and craters. The Pune Municipal Corporation has come up with an eightfold theory to explain this situation. Improper storm water drainage is cited amongst the top 3 causes by the corporation in this regard (Pune Mirror, Aug. 6, 2013). Increased urbanization in the city has resulted in a rising demand for water in the city. In Pune city, the groundwater has emerged as an important source to meet the water requirements of various sectors. Pune’s groundwater is disappearing fast due to

Pratap M. Raval 55 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 increased use through wells and bore wells. According to Groundwater Survey and Development Authority (GSDA) report, groundwater levels in the city have dropped by more than 8.75 meters.

It is now well established that the traditional practice of urban storm water management contributes to the degradation of receiving waterways, and it’s value as an alternative water source is being recently recognized. Consequently, this traditional practice is increasingly considered out of touch with the environmental values of society and impedes the broader pursuit of advancing more sustainable urban environments (Thomas, et al. 1997, Newman, et al, 1999, Wong, et al, 2000).

Pune needs a paradigm shift in the way storm water is managed currently. One of the sustainable ways to manage storm water in such condition would be artificial recharge. This paper discusses the factors affecting artificial recharge of groundwater. A case study of a drainage basin in Pune city is selected for further analysis. The aim is to identify potential groundwater recharge zones in the selected watershed on GIS platform.

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS The selected Kothrud watershed in Pune city is bounded by 18º29’16.91” and 18º31’14.357”N latitudes and 73º46’51.91” and 73º50’6.84” E longitudes. The total area covered by the selected drainage basin is 11.71 sq km. A drainage map of the study area prepared by Pune Municipal Corporation was used as a base map for this study. This map was geo-referenced using Survey of India topo-sheets (no. 47/F/14 and 47/F/15). The study area is one of the 23 sub watersheds of Pune city. This drainage map along with the contours was digitized and taken on GIS platform.

The selection of suitable site for artificial groundwater recharge depends on several parameters. The parameters that play an important role in site selection are geological data, geomorphological data, slope, landforms, land use/land cover; water table level fluctuation, etc. Hence, the required data for the selected catchment was collected from various sources, namely Groundwater Survey and Development Agency (GSDA) and Pune Municipal Corporation.

The methodology utilized for the present study is shown in the figure below. The non-spatial data like well-inventory is converted into a thematic map of water level fluctuation using GIS software. The spatial data like geomorphology, geology, land use, etc. has been digitized, geo-referenced and then integrated with the non spatial data with the help of GIS software to generate various thematic maps. Each thematic map represents a parameter affecting the recharge potential of the selected area. The following methodology was adopted in the present study:

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Fig. 1: Flow Chart Depicting Methodology Adopted

• Bringing the spatial and non-spatial data on to a common GIS platform by digitizing and geo referencing with the help of Survey of India topo sheets; • Preparation of various thematic maps for different parameters influencing the recharge potential; • Assignment of appropriate weightages to all the maps based on the influence of each parameter on the recharge potential; • Carry out weighted overlay analysis; and • Generate recharge potential zone map for the selected drainage basin.

Slope in a given catchment has a direct effect on the runoff quantity or indirectly controls the infiltration. The Kothrud drainage basin map was scanned and first geo-referenced to the specific coordinates and was used to generate a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) in the GIS environment. The slope map was then generated from the DEM and reclassified into three categories as good, moderate and poor with respect to the objective of the present study.

Well inventory of the given area was studied and the pre and post monsoon water level data for the selected area was obtained from it. The summer water level ranged from 3 to 9 m and winter water level was observed to be in the range of 1.4 to 7.3 m. This data was used for generation of thematic maps

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Fig. 2: Slope Map

for summer (pre-monsoon) water level, winter (post-monsoon) water level and fluctuation in the water level before and after monsoon season. The water level fluctuation data is an important factor in determining recharge potential of the area since it indicates the average water table level and recharge taking place in the selected drainage basin. Using the pre and post monsoon water levels, the map was reclassified into 3 classes as good, moderate and poor.

Landforms have a different type of impact on the recharge and runoff patterns and hence should be considered independently. The study area consists of a range of landforms including butte, mesa, escarpment slope and plateau. The runoff generation and infiltration is a dependent factor and is affected by the type of landform. Hence, geomorphology is considered separately and independent of slope. Geomorphology map was further classified into good, moderate and poor classes like other thematic maps.

The actual recharge condition will also depend upon the level of weathering of the strata and available soil condition. The thematic map on recharge condition indicates the recharge potential based on this aspect. This thematic map was also prepared incorporating the above mentioned final classification based on recharge potential.

The land use in the selected area affects the opportunities available for recharge of storm water. Thus the land use map of the area was acquired from Pune

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Fig. 3: Summer Water Level Map Fig. 4: Winter Water Level Map

Fig. 5: Pre and Post Monsoon Water Level Fig. 6: Geomorphology Map Difference Map

Municipal Corporation, geo-referred and digitized to generate thematic map of land use. The area was classified into various categories including residential, industrial, open, forest, barren, etc. Each category was then evaluated for its impact on the recharge potential and the final land use map was generated.

The groundwater recharge potential in a given area is affected by a number of parameters. Each parameter influences the recharge potential and the relative influence of each parameter is different. Hence, weights were assigned to each thematic layer indicating its relative importance in determining recharge potential. Ranks were assigned to individual classes in each thematic map. All the thematic

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Fig. 7: Recharge Condition Map Fig. 8: Land Use Map

Fig. 9: Final Recharge Potential Map

maps were converted into raster format and superimposed by weighted overlay method using ArcGIS software. This involves multi criteria analysis using ranks and weightages assigned to each thematic layer and their integration through GIS. The final groundwater recharge potential map was derived from this overlay analysis

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incorporating all thematic layers along with their relative ranks and weights. This map is classified into 4 categories, very good, good, moderate and poor.

3. CONCLUSIONS This study has demonstrated application of GIS technique in the identification of favorable groundwater recharge zones in the selected Kothrud drainage basin in Pune, India. This technique along with remote sensing has been popularly used for delineation of potential recharge zones for rural areas. This study presents the application of this technique to urban areas for managing the storm water through various recharge techniques. The final recharge potential map presents the delineation of selected Kothrud drainage basin into various classes. Each class indicates suitability of application of various recharge techniques. The study focuses on an area which is from a rapidly urbanizing and growing city of India. Since most of the study area is residential, availability of rainwater from the rooftop is very high. This rainwater can be managed at source by using LID techniques that promote recharge. This storm water which otherwise is not managed properly creates lots of problems. Managing storm water sustainably is the need of the hour. This storm water can be diverted and used for artificial recharge. Based on the recharge potential map generated in the present study, various techniques can be identified to harvest. Rooftop rainwater as well as storm water generated from other impervious areas before it reaches the natural drains. In development plan, land uses could be located according to recharge zones. Thus, the GIS screening tool methodology has provided a rational approach in identifying potential sites for storm water harvesting in existing urban areas. This map along with the land use map can be used to develop suitable techniques which promote recharge and their appropriate location for sustainable management of storm water.

REFERENCES Chowdary, V.M., Ramakrishnan, D., Srivastava, Y.K., Vinu ChandranJeyaram, A. (2009) Integrated water resource development plan for sustainable management of Mayurakshi watershed, India using remote sensing and GIS, Journal Water Resources Management,Vol. 23 No. 8 pp. 1581-1602. De Winnaar, G., Jewitt, G.P.W. and Horan, M (2007) A GIS-based approach for identifying potential runoff harvesting sites in the Thukela River basin, South Africa, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, Vol. 32, Nos. 15-18, pp. 1058-67. Howard, K.W.F. (2007) Urban Groundwater- Meeting the Challenge, Taylor and Francis Group, London. Howard, K. and Gelo, K.K. (2002) ‘Intensive groundwater use in urban areas: the case of megacities’, In: Intensive Use Groundw. Chall.Oppor. CRC Press, p. 484. Inamdar, P.M., Cook, S., Sharma, A., Corby, N., O’Connor, J. and Perera, B.J.C. (2011) Development of a GIS based screening tool for evaluating storm waterharvesting sites in urban areas, 19th International Congress on Modelling and Simulation, Perth, Australia, 12–16 December 2011. http://mssanz.org.au/modsim2011 Kahinda, J., Lillie, E., Taigbenu, A., Taute, M. andBoroto, R. (2008) Developing suitability maps for rainwater harvesting in South Africa, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Vol. 33, Nos. 8-13, pp. 788-99.

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Kaliraj, S., Chandrasekar N., Magesh N. S. (2013)Identification of potential groundwater recharge zones in Vaigai upper basin, Tamil Nadu, using GIS- based analytical Hierarchical process (AHP) technique, Arabian Journal of Geosciences, DOI 10.1007/s12517-013-0849-x. Kinthada, N.R., Gurram, M.K., Eedara, A., Rao, V.V. (2013)Remote sensing and GIS in the geomorphometric analysis of micro watersheds for hydrological scenario assessment and characterization – A study on Sarada river basin, Visakhapatnam district, India, International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences, Vo. 4, No. 1. Kumar M.G., Agarwal A.K., Rameshwar, B. (2008) Delineation of Potential Sites for Water Harvesting Structures using Remote Sensing and GIS, J. Indian Soc. Remote Sens,Vol. 36, pp. 323–334. Leopold, L.B. (1968) Hydrogeology for urban land planning – A guidebook on the hydrologic effects of urban land use, US Geological Survey Circular 554, 18 p. Leopold, L. B. (1973) River channel change with time; an example, Geological Society of America Bulletin, Vol. 84, No. 6, pp. 1845–1860. Malczewski, J. (2004) GIS-based land-use suitability analysis: a critical overview, Progress in Planning, 62(1), 3-65. Mbilinyi, B., Tumbo, S., Mahoo, H., Senkondo, E.andHatibu, N. (2005) Indigenous knowledge as decision support tool in rainwater harvesting, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Vol. 30, Nos. 11-16, pp. 792-8. Mbilinyi, B.P., Tumbo, S.D., Mahoo, H.F. and Mkiramwinyi, F.O. (2007) GIS-based decision support system for identifying potential sites for rainwater harvesting, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, PartsA/B/C, Vol. 32, Nos. 15-18, pp. 1074-81. Mishra, R.C., Biju C., Naik, R.D. (2010)Remote Sensing and GIS for Groundwater Mapping and Identification of Artificial Recharge Sites, Geo-environmental Engineering and Geotechnics: pp. 216-223. doi: 10.1061/41105(378)30. Newman, P., Kenworthy, J. (1999)Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming automobile dependence, Island Press, Washington, D.C. Shipton, M.D. and Somenahalli, S.V.C. (2010)Locating, appraising, and optimizing urban storm water harvesting sites. Shuster W.D., Bonta J., Thurston H., Warnemuende E. and Smith D.R. (2005) Impacts of impervious surface on watershed hydrology: A review, Urban Water Journal, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 263-275, DOI: 10.1080/15730620500386529. Singh, S., Samaddar, A.B., Srivastava, R.K. and Pandey, H.K. (2014)Ground Water Recharge in Urban Areas – Experience of Rain Water Harvesting’, Journal Geological Society of India, Vol.83, pp. 295-302. Thomas, J. F., Gomboso,J., Oliver, J. E., Ritchie, V.A. (1997)Wastewater re-use, storm water management and the national water reform agenda: Report to the Sustainable Land and Water Resources Management Committee and to the Council of Australian Governments National Water Reform Task Force, Background Positions Paper 1, CSIRO, Land and Water, Canberra. Wong, T.H.F. and Eadie, M.L. (2000)Water sensitive urban design—A paradigm shift in urban design, A paper in CD ROM presented at The International Water Resources Association for the Xth World Water Congress, 12th–16th March 2000, Melbourne.

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Rapid Urbanization and Infrastructure Financing for Mega Cities: Indian and Chinese Experiences H. S. Kumara and S. Gopiprasad

Abstract Adequate financing of the mega-city urban infrastructure is vital for better living conditions and also to support economic activities both within the city and its region. Accordingly, some Chinese and Indian mega cities have been selected for comparison with respect to growth and population in order to understand rapid urbanization and corresponding investments. Within the context of mega city, government role in funding is emphasized both for the short to medium term. With review of the current practice of funding for urban infrastructure in India for mega-cities, the augmentation of finances is seen as a necessity to meet large demand. Use of master planning is to be expanded not only as an instrument of coordination but also to provide crucial framework for making investments at mega-city level in order to encourage use of fiscal and non- fiscal instruments such as TDR, sale of rights, provision of schemes that allow for cost recovery and participation.

1. INTRODUCTION Financing urban infrastructure and development in the mega cities requires city specific contextual interventions within a planned framework. The size of investment for the mega cities are determined by population, their functional character, the capacity of institutions and the future potential role that they can play at the global and the national level. The global survey conducted by Price Water house Coopers LLP (2015) found that infrastructure spending will grow from $4 trillion per year in 2012 to more than $9 trillion per year by 2025. Overall, close to $78 trillion is expected to be spent globally between 2014 and 2025. Cohen (2006) has identified emerging mega cities have received a disproportionate amount of attention, while smaller developing cities are extensively under served with respect to basic services and lack the necessary institutional capacity Sustainability to be able to manage their rapidly growing populations. The emergence of mega cities in Asia and in India, through the urbanization process is of importance.

About 54 percent of the world’s population lives in urban areas (UN –DESA 2006; 2007; 2014). According to the United Nation (UN) forecasts by 2050 more than 70 percent of the world’s population will be living in cities. Urban areas

H. S. Kumara, Assistant Professor, School of Planning and Architecture, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru – 570006, Karnataka, Email: [email protected] S. Gopiprasad, Director, Infrastructure Development and Engineering Services (IDES) Consulting Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore, Karnataka, E-mail: [email protected]

H. S. Kumara and S. Gopiprasad 63 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 account for half the world’s population, but generate around 80 percent of global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Seto and Dhakal, 2014). The rate of urbanization and economic growth has a positive correlation. In 2014, the percentage of people in South Asia living in urban areas averaged 33 percent and Gross Net Income (GNI) per capita was $ 1,045 or less, while in high income countries 81 per cent and GNI per capita was $12,736 or more (World Bank, 2014).

Urbanization is a demographic phenomenon; it refers to the increasing number of persons living in urban areas. This is primarily the outcome of net migration from rural to urban areas. This may be also be due to the expansion of urban boundaries and the formation of new urban centres (Gordon McGranahan and David Satterthwaite, 2014). Urbanization is explicitly a global phenomenon, but it is not following the same pattern everywhere. Urbanization is also considered as the key driver for ending extreme poverty and boosting economic prosperity. This process also contributes to economies of scale, which allows for more cost – effective delivery of critical services such as transport, health and education. Recent data released by the Government of India indicates that nearly 62,000 million liters per day (MLD) sewage is generated in urban areas, while the treatment capacity across India is only 23,277 MLD, or 37 percent of sewage generated. It is also observed that out of 816 municipal sewage treatment plants (STPs) only 522 are in working condition. With almost 70 percent of sewage generated in urban India left untreated, this has serious health implications for the large population that inhabit these cities (Ramachandran, 2012).

2. RAPID URBANIZATION TRENDS Urbanization process is varied and distinctive in different parts of the world. The development of industrial nations is further advanced: in Europe the level of Urbanization is 73 percent in 2014, while in North America is 81 percent. Europe, Latin America and Caribbean, Northern America and Oceania on account of advanced level, already attained highest level of Urbanization. In Asia and Africa the process of urbanization has picked up pace slightly (UN – DESA, 2014). The growth rate for urbanization is highest in Asian countries while comparing with global urbanization trend is decline over the past half century (Fig. 1). The urban population of India has increased ten - fold during the last century, from 25.86 million in 1901 to 286.25 million in 2001. The level of urbanization in India was 17 percent in 1950, 26 percent in 1990 and 31 percent in 2010 and recent data reveals that more than 32 percent (UN – Habitat, 2015). In comparison, China urbanization level was 12 percent in 1950, 26 percent in 1990, and 40 percent in 2010 and recent data revels that more than 54 percent. Asia is currently the fastest urbanizing region; in particular China leads this process rapidly (UN – Habitat, 2015).

H. S. Kumara and S. Gopiprasad 64 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018

Fig. 1: Urbanization Levels 1950-2050 by Geographical Region (%)

*Dotted line UN Projection Source: United Nation Demographic Division, 2014

Fig. 2: Population and Annual Growth rate of Mega-cities in the World

Source: UNPD, 2014

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2.1 Emergence of Mega Cities Mega cities are considered as vital economic, cultural and political nerve centers. The United Nations in 1986, defined ‘mega cities’ as an urban agglomeration with ten million or more inhabitants. The literature on mega city issues is very large. The United Nations, the World Bank, and the Organization for Economic Co - operation and Development are among the major sources of information on the subject. In 1950, there were only two Mega - cities: New York and Tokyo. In 1975, Mexico City became the world’s third mega city, in 2000. Today, there are 28 mega cities - cities with more than 10 million people (UN – DESA, 2006; 2007 and 2014). In India alone, there are three: Mumbai, New Delhi, and Kolkata. By 2030, it is estimated an additional dozen cities will be added to the list, creating more than 41 Mega cities around the world (Richard, 2015).

The World’s largest three mega cities are from Asia - Pacific region - Tokyo, Delhi and Shanghai (UN – Habitat, 2015). Annual average growth rate of mega cities in India and China are typically growing from 1 to 50 percent from 1990 - 2014 (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4).

2.2 Externalities The World Bank study shows that about 75 per cent of global economic production takes place in cities; the share of developing countries is rapidly increasing. Rapid urbanization in Asia - Pacific also indicates that the urban population has grown faster than the cities’ capacity, often leading to unsafe, low - quality,

Fig. 3: Annual Average Growth rate of Mega-cities of India and Peoples Republic of China

Source: UNPD, 2014

H. S. Kumara and S. Gopiprasad 66 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018

Fig. 4: Population in Mega-Cities in India and Peoples Republic of China

Source: World Urbanization Prospects the 2014 revision, Highlights, UNDESA, 2014

and / or informal employment (Hildebrand, Kanaley and Roberts, 2013). The high population density and large number of businesses and production facilities not only turn these Mega cities into hot spots of economic activity but also into large sources of pollutants that impact on their environment (Folberthet al, 2015). The 20 largest cities consume 80 percent of the World’s energy and urban areas generate 80 percent of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide (International Federation of Surveyors, 2010). The negative externalities emerging from the urbanization especially of the large cities such as pollution, congestion, loss of open spaces, poor housing, etc; will have to be suitably mitigated for its sustenance of the urban areas.

3. MEGA CITIES The development challenges for the mega cities are unique and specific; there can be some key aspects that can be identified with some commonality such as the regional hinterland with a few settlements that may be dependent on the mega city, a large population base, and presence of multiple bodies handling various aspects of the services delivery and strong urban economy with presence of offices / industries / administrative services. They can also be characterized by their capability to attract, grow and demonstrate a “push pull” effect, as exemplified by Delhi, Mumbai, and Shanghai. Beijing, for example offers a good base for growth in terms of a favorable climate, skilled labour, favorable infrastructure, etc. Often the favorable conditions coupled with poor rural productivity encourage strong migration into Mega - cities. Beijing and Shanghai have been long - established as the political and financial capitals of the country, and their growing prosperity fed a construction boom that drew in migrants

H. S. Kumara and S. Gopiprasad 67 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 from other provinces (Economist Intelligence Unit Limited, 2012). Shenzhen is now the most crowded city in China; with more than 10 million people living in Shenzhen it has a population density higher than Guangzhou, Beijing and Hong Kong (Jones Lang Lasalle, 2015). Shenzhen has highest annual growth rate among the India and China Mega cities between 1990 to 2014 i.e. 46.69 percent and Delhi becomes a fastest growing mega city in India (Fig. 3). Moreover, all Mega cities have now became a emergence of mega - urban regions that include cities, towns, villages and rural areas, some of which even cross national boundaries in the form of planned or unplanned urban corridors.

3.1 Indian Mega Cities Though the definitions for mega cities are various, going by the population, there are the three mega cities- Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata in India. Though the stabilization of the population is observed in these cities, growth is on, in the regional context and a constant stream of investment is required to keep the cities sustenance. The cities have a huge role in the regional urban framework. Due to the legacy of poor investment in these urban centers, a huge backlog has been created. The delivery of infrastructure services is slowly improving due to the various reform and programs but this is in no match to the rapid increase of population and the required overall development. In 2011, there were 13.7 million slum households in the country accounting for 17.4 percent of the total households. The slum population is largely concentrated in Class - I cities (73.5 percent). The share of slum population residing in towns is only 26 per cent (HUDCO – HSMI, 2016). Fringe areas development poses difficulties for infrastructure provision, as the development is at the sub - urban or periphery of the city, sometimes beyond the municipal boundaries. There is increased pressure on the transport infrastructure as the trip lengths and number have increased substantially between the city center and the peripheral areas. Inter - regional and intra - region movement is another key aspect that mega cities have to cope with. Often, the city structure also does not support for the mass transport initiatives. Large cities will require substantial support to remain relevant in the urban regional framework. Additional investments are not only the way to clear the backlog but to enable the fringe areas growth and depending settlements in the region needs to be supported. The investment has to be led by the regional and local imperatives, in a participatory, democratic and systematic effort. This can be in form of regional spatial plan that offers a framework and directs the investments in an equitable and balanced manner.

3.2 Peoples Republic of Chinese Mega Cities: Investment and implementation The constitution of the Republic of China pronounces the country as ‘a socialist state under the people’s democratic dictatorship. China’s constitution stipulates that ‘sub - national governments’ power and responsibilities delegated by the central authority. At the sub - national level, china’s administrative system is

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Box 1.1. Structure of local government debt in Chinese Cities

There are 154,000 borrowers in government organizations and state-owned enterprises using more than 30 financing tools, according to a recently released provincial-level local government audit conducted by the National Audit Office. It reveals two main patterns: first, traditional bank or trust loans are associated with financially stable localities. This is expected, as financially stronger municipalities are viewed as more creditworthy by market participants. At the same time financially weaker municipalities are more likely to register debt directly with local government, as market participants are likely to discount the implicit guarantee issued to a special financing vehicle created by these weaker municipalities.

Second, the use of debt differs widely among municipalities. Poorer municipalities use debt to finance economic activity directly, such as capital investments, while richer municipalities use debt as leverage to finance investments for land conversion (such as compensation to farmers and infrastructure for rezoning) (World Bank, 2014).

extremely complex both in structure and its relationships. It works as a nested hierarchy in which each level of government interacts only the provincial governments; provincial governments report to the central government above and direct the prefectural level below and so on down the hierarchy (OECD, 2015). The China Mega cities governance structure vest with the sub - national governments, recently 2014 financial reforms allowing sub - national governments issue bonds to access financing is a positive initiative (Box 1.1). National and international development banks such as KfW (German Government Owned Development Bank) and the private sector will play an increasingly important role in closing funding gap. Moreover, initiatives such as the Cities Development Initiative for Asia (CDIA), which was co - founded by the German government, support cities in building capacities and connecting them with potential funding sources.

Per Olof Berg and Emma Bjorner (2014), pointed out that the Central Government of China already stepped forward to promote China’s Mega cities to the World. While preparing for Beijing Olympics, the Shanghai World Expo and Guangzhou Asian Games the basic infrastructure of these three Mega cities improved and developed. The particular use of the debt instruments, efficient project implementation, cost recovery mechanism and the user pays for the services are well built in the system. The use of Plans as blue print for the implementation is note worthy as they do not only serve as the communication / collaborative tool, but bring in various synergies and integration at the project level. Though, the working system cannot be compared between the countries, some key principles are useful for managing the Indian mega cities.

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4. INVESTMENT IN URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE The urban infrastructure deficit in Asia is estimated to be over $60 billion per year (ADB, 2006 and 2013). The share of infrastructure investments in GDP in China is 7.7 percent, whereas, in India: 5.7 percent of GDP during the last 50 years, with 25 - 35 percent of that investment coming from the private sector (Seto and Dhakal, 2014). Urban Infrastructure investment in the country constitutes 0.7 percent of GDP in 2011 - 12 as compared to the Chinese investment of 2.7 percent of their GDP over a 7 year period from 2000 towards urban infrastructure (HPEC, 2012; Gerhaeusser Klaus, Yoshihiro Iwasaki and Tulasidhar, 2010).

The Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012 - 17) envisages infrastructure requirement over 1.0 trillion USD, half of which is supposed to come through private investments (Planning Commission, 2013). The recently concluded High Powered Expert Committee (HPEC 2012) study pegs the Urban infrastructure investment over the 20 - year period from 2012 - 13 to 2031 - 32 at 39.2 billion (about US$ 870 billion) based on 2009 currency rates. The change will still mean that investment in urban infrastructure will increase to 1.1 percent by 2031 - 32

Though the estimates of requirements of investments for the mega cities are not readily available, the mega cities in the country alone will require about nearly 15 - 20 percent of the total investments to be invested in the city and its regions. The sheer scale of the requirement of funds offers opportunities of using well tested approaches and augmentation with or without alternate means. Apart from the raising of the finances for the implementation, the introduction of PPP model is to bring both the capital and the expertise to augment the capacities of the government for implementation. It is believed that private sector will bring about good practices, savings and efficiency for service delivery. This has been supported with the creation of appropriate regulations and institutions to stimulate long term investment.

5. FINANCING THE URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE OF MEGA CITIES Historically, investment in the infrastructure has been forte of the public sector. This has been through the government budgetary allocations and use of its internal resources. This has changed over the past decade and today, the private sector is emerging as significant player, with private investment about 50 percent of total infrastructure investment. India is poised to grow at least with 9 percent per annum and the investments are needed to keep the desired momentum.

Though the opportunities for investment are vast in the mega cities, this has been limited by some of factors identified by various authors; some of them hamper the effective private participation. The services cannot be unbundled, lack of priority through statutory plans, difficulty in cost recovery through user fees, etc., political interferences, poor contractual conditions, lack of private sector to handle complexity, engagement with community, etc.

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Fig.5: Consumer Expenditure Forecasts in India and China Mega-cities: 2015-16

Source: Ugne Saltenyte,2016, http://blog.euromonitor.com/2016/02/top-Mega-cities-for- growth-in-2016.html accessed on 15th March, 2016

This is also coupled with the fact that the low income levels and low levels of expenditure along with the willingness to pay for services. Cost recovery and user pays for the infrastructure are still difficult to implement given the economic situation at the end user. Ugne Saltenyte (2016) forecasts per capita consumer expenditure during 2015, as highest in Shenzhen, followed by Guangzhou, Shanghai and Beijing while Kolkata having least. Whereas growth rate of consumer expenditure estimated during 2015 - 16, highest is Shanghai (11.20 percent), followed by Beijing (11 percent), Guangzhou (7 percent) and least is Kolkata (1.20 percent) respectively (Fig. 5).

As per McKinsey Global Institute (2010) estimates, India spends only US$17 per capita annually on urban capital investment as compared with US$116 per capita in China, US$127 in South Africa and US$391 in the United Kingdom. At this rate, India has to boost its annual per capita urban capital spending eightfold from US$17 to US$134.

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5.1 Current Practices The means of financing infrastructure in the country in general are through the following means:

Equity: Raising or accessing the Initial Public Offering (IPO) for the infrastructure projects is limited, for example the Delhi - Noida Toll Bridge Company (Pargal, 2007). The IPO is mostly raised at the entity / firm level. The number of IPO’s focused on servicing the urban infrastructure markets are few, less than 20,000 crores in the past decade. Bond markets: The use of municipal bonds has been limited and the growth of bond market very slow in the country. While Ahmedabad and Bangalore were at forefront, the bonds have not become the mainstream funding source (Pathak, 2016).

Central Grants and Subsidies: As the urban local bodies who share the bulk of burden of development and delivery of infrastructure and services, their relative weakness financially makes it imperative for the centre and state to support in form of grants and subsidies. Multilateral funding for urban programs and for specific sector are still viable based on Government guarantees.

The recently concluded JnNURM has enabled urban local bodies to avail the central and state grants for identified projects. Mega cities have prepared a city development plan (Non - Statutory city investment Plan with a vision statement drawn up for a time horizon having very little linkages to the land use/master plans). The City Development Plan gives a list of projects that it proposes to take up on a priority basis. These relate to civic infrastructure (storm water drainage, water supply, sewage disposal, water distribution system, solid waste management river development), urban transport (ongoing and new), housing and slum development including the reconstruction of cess imposed buildings and redevelopment, city beautification and tourism promotion, health and education infrastructure, and tourism development, and tourist development.

The appraisal document of the three Mega cities show the extent of the funds required for clearing some prioritized investments amounts to about Rs.19,000 crore and about 6500 crore contribution in form of grants. (35 percent share in the ratio of 50:15:35 ULB, State and Central respectively) combined for the three mega cities (Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata). While the CDP had to map the infrastructure investments required for achieving the “vision” of each city, the power, social or health and rolling stock are not considered in the costing. Several projects financed by National Highway, Ports, etc; are not included in the CDP documents. The cost estimates are also not comprehensive as they are not “the only priorities”, other priorities were being set by other plans and they are expected to be incorporated in the CDP in form of annual updates.

The implementation of the various projects under the JnNURM and their outcome has not been evaluated for its impact on the working of the city or benefits

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accrued to the citizens in a comprehensive manner. Many of the engineering oriented projects taken up in the JnNURM were delayed beyond the original time line. The delays can be attributed to land acquisition, procedures, poor capacity, lack of finances, unable to undertake the reforms in a timely manner and finally the ownership of the vision and its implementation (Public Accounts Committee, 2015). Projects envisaged to be carried under the PPP format were changed to regular funded projects as the feasibility or the viability could not be established. Procedures are also lengthy for the PPP project and time consuming as it requires various clearances and inter - departmental co-ordination.

The proceedings of the World Bank (2013) brings out the fact on the dilemmas for the investment to be made in the city or to spread investment across, changing from the project mode to the program mode for implementation and to bring some incentives for reform and implementation as well as development of the cadres for capacity building are addressed. Integrated projects within a program and use of participatory scheme where the participants get to contribute are necessary for greater implementation. The larger question would be whether infrastructure demand / supply can be matched with use of planning and development prioritized through participatory approaches within the democratic framework. This could possibly enable greater ownership for the infrastructure implementation and prudent use of the resources.

Foreign Direct Investment / ECB: The inflow of FDI in the infrastructure and real estate space has been steady, but slower than expected, as the existing regulations have various restrictions on the nature, extent, type of investment, project cycle, etc. Much of the investment in the construction and infrastructure amounts to about 10.5 percent of the total funds inflow through the FDI (FIPB, 2015). Urban infrastructure investments are still seen risky and difficult.

Commercial Borrowings from Domestic Banks: Reliance on the foreign capital is one of the means for financing. This has its limitation as the size of the investment required is enormous. The strengthening of the domestic financial system is necessary in the long run and the current system of financing infrastructure through the banking system has served its limited purpose. The next wave of investment required will need financial intermediation and channeling domestic savings into infrastructure, as the quantum of funding has to be increased by 4 - 6 times within short span of almost 5 - 7 years. The innovative arrangements such as “take out financing” has been used in specific cases and have not gone mainstream, by addressing the problem of mismatched Assets / liabilities of the lending banks and also allowing the risk to be distributed widely. Securitization of the loan assets have not been received enthusiastically given the recent global experience (use of complex financial instruments based on securitization and meltdown). However, with care and necessary safeguards, it will be necessary

H. S. Kumara and S. Gopiprasad 73 Institute of Town Planners, India Journal 15 x 2, April - June 2018 to develop a system in the long run. The recommendation by Rajiv B Lall and Ritu Anand (2009) is to have Indian Infrastructure Financial Corporation Limited (IIFCL) as a nodal agency - empowering a government - sponsored agency to refinance, purchase, and repackage infrastructure loans originated by banks and NBFCs for sale with suitable credit enhancement to domestic insurance companies and pension funds will be very vital for the banking sector for infrastructure financing.

5.2 Augmenting the Infrastructure Finances A shift in government policy to encourage FDI and PPP has played out in a limited way in the past decade, especially for the urban infrastructure of the mega cities. The number of projects that have attempted in the past decade is very limited. Given the risks involved and low interest evinced by the foreign players, within the overall global economic conditions, brings the focus of funding on the domestic funding through specialized banks and other ways to augmentation of funds for infrastructure. The alternatives available are mainly based on the land value capture mechanism and the revisit of development plans to enable the land value capture along with the use of other fiscal and non - fiscal instruments such as the TDR, sale of development rights, etc.

The land value capture mechanisms have been attempted and been successful in the creation of ring roads, BRTS, Bus stations, for Transit oriented developments. In order to capture value around the stations, especially the newly introduced BRTS project at Ahmadabad and the Metro transport system in Bangalore, there is a provision for increase in Floor Area ratio (Bangalore, with FAR of 4.0 around the metro stations (BDA 2015). However, enabling detailed plans for implementation are not put in place. Mumbai in its draft Development Plan - 2013, estimated the generation of funds from sale of development rights to enable development of the plan proposals without external financial support. The use of Town Planning Schemes which are based on land pooling and re - adjustment techniques, with the development contribution from the beneficiaries allows for the development to be reasonably “self - financed” without great burden on the urban local bodies or authorities. The variants of the existing planning tools and techniques with necessary political will give the authorities much financial freedom to implement. A re-think on the use of the Master Plans / spatial plans and its end use is necessary along with the advances of the financial instruments / methods of raising finances.

The dependence on the real estate market to generate funds / surplus for financing infrastructure is valid as long as the real estate market works effectively, i.e.; good demand and supply conditions, number of transactions, lower interest rates and sometimes even slightly speculative conditions are encouraging for the instruments to work. In any case, the real estate market is too linked with the

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overall economic conditions. Government funding and action as catalyst, seems the only major and stable source for the infrastructure development in the urban areas of the mega cities.

6. CONCLUSIONS Global experiences especially that of the Chinese cities for the mega city infrastructure development offer some key points that can be emulated in the Indian context. With growing infrastructure supply the end users must be given the responsibility of bearing the costs to a large extent. The excessive subsidy given to the end users without building efficiency is risk prone and is not desirable for long term sustenance. Efficiency enhancement within the state owned enterprises can enable the delivery of services with high social benefits and with reasonable rates of return. Fiscal discipline should be extended to all infrastructure development actors with high priority for implementation and execution of the projects on time without delays and cost overruns.

We should revisit the planning system for using plans for not only coordination (IDFC, 2012), but to give certainty and thereby stimulate long term investment. The role of regional planning in providing framework of investments is crucial. Mega cities not only require infrastructure in the core areas, but in the entire region as the relationship is very strong. Explore augmentation of funds by leveraging of government lands (George, 2007) to raise funds. Given the governance and political biases, the sale of lands or its leverage is not popular. Introduction of new taxes have their problems of administration, efficiencies and constitutional validity. Such taxes must also have necessary buoyancy to allow serving the current and future needs. Mega cities have their own history, geography and talent pools, which hold promise for transformation into significant cities of the world, for example by attracting higher services sectors such as the financial services. Facilitating such transformations in a democratic manner will require new ways, planning, decision making, regulations and procedures along with the key changes in relationship between urban local bodies, state and centre.

REFERENCES Asian Development Bank (2006) Special Evaluation Study on Urban Sector Strategy and Operations, Manila. Asian Development Bank (2013) Urban Operational Plan 2012–2020 (https://www.adb. org/sites/default/files/institutional - document/33812/files/urban - operational - plan - 2012 - 2020.pdf). Bangalore Development Authority (2015) Revised Master Plan - 2015, Zoning of Land Use and Regulations. (http://www.bbmp.gov.in/documents/10180/504904/Zoning_ Regulations_RMP2015f.pdf/0a916060 - b198 - 4903 - b7cd - d18db7096ebd). BMC (2013)Mumbai in its Draft Development Plan, BMC, Mumbai. Cohen, B. (2006) Urbanization in Developing Countries: Current Trends, Future Projections, and Key Challenges for Sustainability,Technol. Soc.,Vol. 28, pp. 63–80.

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Economist Intelligence Unit Limited (2012) Supersized cities China’s 13 megalopolises (http://www.liaa.gov.lv/files/liaa/attachments/eiu_accesschina_megalopolises_0.pdf). Folberth, G.A., Timothy M. Butler, William J. Collins, and Steven T. Rumbold (2015) Mega Cities and Climate Change - A Brief Overview, International Journal of Environmental Pollution, pp. 235 - 242. Foreign Investment Promotion Board (2015)FIPB Notes, Government of India, New Delhi. High Powered Expert Committee (2012) Report of the Sub - committee on financing urban infrastructure in the Twelfth Five year plan, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India, New Delhi. Hildebrand, M., Kanaley, T., and Roberts, B. (2013) Sustainable and Inclusive Urbanization in Asia Pacific,UNDP Strategy Paper. Housing and Urban Development Corporation Limited and Human Settlement Management Institute (2016) Towns of India - Status of Demography, Economy, Social Structures, Housing and Basic Infrastructure, HSMI – HUDCO Chair – NIUA Collaborative Research, (https:// smartnet.niua.org/sites/default/files/resources/Hudcopercent20Phasepercent20III.pdf). IDFC (2012) Evolving Perspectives in the development of Indian Infrastructure. Vol ii, Orient Black Swan, Hyderabad, p. 918. International Federation of Surveyors (2010) Rapid Urbanization and Mega Cities: The Need for Spatial Information Management,Research study by FIG Commission 3. FIG, KalvebodBrygge 31–33, DK - 1780 Copenhagen V. Denmark. Jones Lang Lasalle (2015) China 60: From Fast Growth to Smart Growth, Cities Research Centre - China60(http://www.joneslanglasalle.com.cn/china/en - gb/Documents/ China60/China60 - EN.pdf ). Klaus, G., Yoshihiro Iwasaki and V. B. Tulasidhar (2010) Resurging Asian Giants: Lessons from the People’s Republic of China and India. ADB, Manila. (https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/28001/resurging - asian - giants. pdf). Lall, R.B. and Anand, R. (2009)Financing Infrastructure. First published in Business Standard India 2009, Business Standard Books, New Delhi, December 2008. (http://www. idfc.com/pdf/white_papers/bs_infra_funding.pdf). McGranahan, G. and Satterthwaite, D. (2014) Urbanization Concepts and Trends,IIED Working Paper.IIED, London (http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10709IIED.pdf). McKinsey Global Institute (2010) Indian’s Urban Awakening: Building inclusive cities and sustaining economic growth. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (2015) Urban Policy Review, China. Pargal, S. (2007) Concession for the Delhi Noida Bridge. Planning Commission.Government of India.(http://planningcommission.gov.in/sectors/ppp_report/4.Casepercent20Studies/ 6.Concessionpercent20forpercent20Delhipercent20Noidapercent20Bridge.pdf). Pathak, A. (2016)Municipal Bond Market in India,Market Express (http://www. marketexpress.in/2016/09/municipal - bond - market - in - india.html). Per Olof Berg and Emma Bjorner (2014) Branding Chinese Mega - Cities: Policies, Practices and Positioning. Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, United Kingdom. Peterson, G.E. (2007) Land Leasing and Land Sale as an Infrastructure Financing Option in Financing Cities. (eds)., World Bank and SageWashington DC.

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Planning Commission (2013) Twelfth Five Year plan (2012 - 17). Volume - 1, Sage Publications (http://planningcommission.gov.in/plans/planrel/12thplan/pdf/12fyp_vol 1.pdf). Price Waterhouse Coopers LLP (2015) Capital project and infrastructure spending: Outlook to 2025.Research finding.(https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/capital - projects - infrastructure/publications/cpi - outlook/assets/cpi - outlook - to - 2025.pdf) Public Accounts Committee 2014 - 2015 (2015) Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, Ministry of Urban Development and Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation, Lok Sabha Secretariat New Delhi (http://164.100.47.134/lsscommittee/ Publicpercent20Accounts/16_Public_Accounts_18.pdf). Ramachandran, S.K. (2012) Urban renewal mission a failure: CAG. (http://www. thehindu.com/todays - paper/tp - national/urban - renewal - mission - a - failure - cag/ article4152567.ece). Richard, V.V. (2015) Megacity Security: Challenges and Opportunities. (https:// in.usembassy.gov/remarks - by - u - s - ambassador - richard - verma - on - megacity - security - challenges - and - opportunities/). Seto K.C. and Dhakal, S. (2014) Chapter 12: Human Settlements, Infrastructure, and Spatial Planning. In Climate Change: Mitigation of Climate Change.Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Saltenyte, U. (2016) http://blog.euromonitor.com/2016/02/top - Mega cities- for - growth - in - 2016.html). United Nations-Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2007) World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision and World Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revision. (http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2007/2007WUP_Highlights_web. pdf) United Nations - Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2014) World Urbanization Prospects The 2014 Revision Highlights. United Nations New York, (https://esa.un.org/ unpd/wup/publications/files/wup2014 - highlights.Pdf0). United Nations Human Settlements Programme (2015).The State of Asian and Pacific Cities - Urban transformations Shifting from quantity to quality. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP). World Bank (2013) Republic of India Workshop on Innovations in Urban Governance, Summary of the proceedings: Conference on “Innovations in Urban Governance” 26 - 27 August, 2013, Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi, SASDU South Asia, World Bank. (http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/977121468050985432/pdf/ ACS58130WP0P1400on0Urban0Governance.pdf). World Bank (2014) China Economic Update Special Topic: An Update of China’s Fiscal and Tax Reform,World Bank, Washington D.C. World Bank (2014) World Development Indicators: Urbanization, (http://wdi.worldbank. org/table/3.12#).

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Inclusive Infrastructure Assessment in Slum Environs of Amritsar City

Rajdeep Kaur and Ashwani Luthra

Abstract Infrastructure plays a crucial role in improving livability conditions of the society and economic development. Availability of transport, electricity, safe water and sanitation and other basic facilities have tremendous impact on improving the quality of life of inhabitants, especially that of the poor. Urban poor play an important role in urban economy. They are indispensable to cities as they keep the city dynamics going by providing various services. They in fact provide urban services and facilities but their own life is endangered by poor facilities available to them. Urban poor face many deprivations associated with exclusion in urban areas on account of physical, social and economic dimensions. The paper concludes that they are the worst sufferers in the context of housing, which lacks safe, secure and healthy shelters and absence of supporting infrastructure such as piped water supply and sewerage, drainage, electricity, adequate sanitation and solid waste management and less accessible educational and health facilities.

1. INTRODUCTION Infrastructure plays a crucial role in improving the livability conditions of the society and economic development. Availability of transport, electricity, safe water and sanitation and other basic facilities have tremendous impact on improving the quality of life of the inhabitants, especially in the case of poor. Urban poor plays an important role in urban economy. They are indispensable to cities as they keep the city dynamic by providing various services. However, urban poor faces many deprivations associated with exclusion in urban areas on account of physical, social and economic dimensions. They are the worst sufferers in the context of housing, which lacks safe, secure and healthy shelters and absence of supported infrastructure such as piped water supply and sewerage, drainage, electricity, adequate sanitation and solid waste management and less accessible educational and health facilities.

2. URBAN POOR AND INCLUSION Urban poor’ is a complex phenomenon, however, this term, first introduced in Sixth Five Year Plan, defined on the basis of parameters related to income, housing, and environment, access to health, education and employment opportunities. According to Planning Commission (2012) urban poor is defined on the basis of income i.e. a person whose monthly per capita consumption

Rajdeep Kaur, Research Scholar, Institute of Town Planners, Haryana Regional Chapter, Panchkula Ashwani Luthra, Professor, Guru Ramdas School of Planning, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar

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expenditure is Rs. 1,407 in urban areas as poverty line. However, it preferred to use ‘monthly expenditure of household of five’ for the poverty line purpose which came out to be Rs. 7,035 in urban areas. According to the World Bank (2008) ‘Urban poor are those who live with many deprivations and face daily challenges which may include limited access to employment opportunities and income, inadequate and insecure housing and services, unhealthy environment, limited or no social protection mechanisms and limited access to adequate health and education opportunities’. But there are also other terms in vogue to define similar situations like below poverty line (BPL) families, slum dwellers, squatters, pavement dwellers, vulnerable and marginalized groups. These terms are interchangeably used to address the urban poor. Although, the term BPL is more legitimized because it authorizes the poor to avail benefits of centrally sponsored schemes associated with housing and infrastructure to make the lives of the poor little more tolerable.

UNESCO (2005) while defining inclusion stated it as ‘a dynamic approach of responding positively to pupil diversity and of seeing individual differences not as problems, but as opportunities for enriching learning’. But Planning Commission of India (2006) made it much simpler by stating that ‘inclusion’ means ‘not excluding any section of society’. While preparing the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2006) the Commission specifically focused on ‘Inclusive Growth’. According to the Commission, in urban settings term ‘inclusive’ incorporates (i) inclusive of the informal sector in general and informal settlements in particular, (ii) inclusive of the urban poor (whichever way the poor are defined), (iii) inclusive of the new migrants, (iv) inclusive of the communities on the margins, (v) inclusive of all the religious groups, (vi) inclusive of all the disadvantaged (the old, the young, the disabled, etc.); and (vii) gender equality. However, Meshram and Meshram (2013) note that inclusion refers to find a way to include such excluded groups to achieve the goals of creating a ‘society for all’ that not only aims for the higher purposes of social integration and equalization of opportunities for societies. But Banerjee and Dhote (2015) are of the view that ‘it is a concept open to a variety of interpretations and, in turn, is shaped by diverse influences’. Inclusive approach in infrastructure provisions to all, but urban poor in particular, intends to help in reducing poverty directly and indirectly.

The term ‘inclusion’, meaning not excluding any section of society, is widely used globally. Inclusive approach is making the fruits of development available and accessible to all, particularly the poor. It is including those who are too often excluded and marginalized by seeming development, both in geographical and social terms. Those who are left behind or relegated to the margins, geographically live in slum areas, while those who are excluded socially tend to be small or landless farmers, women and indigenous groups. The common citizen, especially the poor and marginalized, must be enabled to have access to descent shelter, basic amenities, livelihoods and a voice in governance. The vulnerability of urban poor in terms of socio, economic, health, water and sanitation indicators become evident.

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There are mainly three dimensions of exclusions (social, physical and economic) faced by urban poor in urban areas, which result in various deprivations such as poor quality, insecure, hazardous and overcrowded housing; inadequate provision of public infrastructure and basic services; and high prices paid for many necessities. So, a fresh look is needed to understand the elements of inclusive approach in infrastructure such as physical inclusion in terms of ability of all the residents to access affordable land, housing, basic facilities and services such as water supply, sewerage connections, sanitation facilities, solid waste management, electricity, etc. Social inclusion in terms of ability of all the residents (including the most marginalized people) to participate in development and decision making and accessibility to education, health and community development facilities and economic inclusion in terms of ability of all the residents (including the disadvantaged people) to share in and contribute to rising prosperity by creating job opportunities and provide accessibility to public transport routes for urban poor results into creating of opportunities and ensures equitable access.

3. INCLUSIVE INFRASTRUCTURE FOR THE URBAN POOR Policies, programs and schemes related to urban poor responses to urban inclusion through public housing projects, affordable housing, basic facilities and service provision. Basic Services for Urban Poor (BSUP) scheme under Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) programme, Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme, National Urban Livelihood Mission, Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY), AMRUT and UN-Habitat guidelines made a specific mention of infrastructure for urban poor that leads to inclusion. According to BSUP (2005), accessibility to housing, basic facilities and social services are the three components covered in this scheme results into physical and social infrastructure which should be provided at site, at household level.

Physical Infrastructure comprises of housing for poor which must be planned within house metered water connection, toilets linked to underground sewerage / septic tanks and metered power supply, water supply to individual households and where house connections are not possible to provide, these could be improved by providing community stand posts to small group metered connections, individual toilets and where private toilets cannot be provided, community toilets must be planned, solid waste management with door to door waste collection and regular disposal from the community to the waste collection site of the municipality, covered drains / underground drainage systems for wastewater disposal, internal roads should be paved, efficient public transport system that improves connectivity and enables poor people to participate in sustainable income generating activities.

Social infrastructure comprises of access to schools with good quality education facilities close to low income settlements, access to health care services such as

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health posts, hospitals close to low income settlements with doctors, medicines, facilities for testing, etc; access to community development facilities such as community hall, night shelter, street children rehabilitation centre, old age home, self-help groups, youth associations and women associations.

So, including the poor in terms of infrastructure means including their aspirations within the cities which would mean creating spaces within the city for them to live, to work, and increasing their mobility through improved accessibility options and ensuring their participation in city level development priorities. According to BSUP (2005), inclusive infrastructure can be defined to ‘provide basic services (including water supply and sanitation) to all poor including security of tenure, and improved housing at affordable prices and ensure delivery of social services of education, health and social security to poor people’”. Similar views are expressed by Planning Commission in 2006, who said that inclusive infrastructure includes physical environment such as water supply and sewerage to individual

Table 1: Indicators for Inclusive Infrastructure for Urban Poor under RAY, 2011

Infrastructure Sub-components Indicators Housing Up-gradation of shelters Water Supply Individual piped water supply Community stand posts where house connections not possible and WTP Sewerage/ Individual toilets Sanitation Community toilets where cannot be provided Underground sewers Septic tanks Solid Waste Door to door waste collection Physical Management Regular disposal from the community to waste collection site of the Infrastructure municipality Drains Concrete and covered drains connected with city networks/underground drainage system Roads Connected to city roads Internal paved roads Electricity Metered electricity connection to individual households Street Lighting Street lights ( 1 per 30 mts of road length) Public Transport Efficient public transport to their work places by providing bus stops Education Pre-schools/Anganwadis Primary schools Health Primary health centre Health posts Social Maternity centre close to slums with doctors, medicines, facilities for testing Infrastructure Community Community hall Development Self-help groups/Youth associations Women associations/Slum dwellers association Recreational Public park/Green space Playground

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Table 2: Benchmarks for Inclusive Infrastructure under RAY Infrastructure Indicators (Score 1) (Score 2) (Yes Inclusive Benchmarks) (Not Inclusive Benchmarks) Housing condition ≥ 60% have pucca houses < 60 % have pucca housing Housing dilapidation ≤ 25% dilapidated houses >25% dilapidated houses Housing space per 60% or more houses having ≥ 3 sq.m/ <60% having ≥ 3 sq.m/person person person(Assuming avg. DU of 5 persons i.e. 15 sq.m/DU) 60% or more houses having light and Less than 60% houses having Light and ventilation light and ventilation. ventilation in house Water Supply 60% or more of household have Less than 60 % of households individual connection having individual connection Sewerage/ 60 % or more of household have Less than 60 % of households Physical Sanitation sewerage connection. having sewerage connection Infrastructure 60 % or more having individual toilet Less than 60% use individual units. toilets. Solid Waste Every day/Alternate removal by Removal of waste in frequent/ Management Municipal arrangement once in fifteen days/ No arrangement Drains 60% or more of area drains are covered/ Less than 60% of area drains are Pucca drains covered/Pucca drains Roads 60 % or more of the area roads have a Less than 60 % of the area roads min of 3 m width have a min of 3 m width Public Transport Less than 1 Km/ availability of facility More than 1 km within area Education Less than 1 Km/ availability of facility More than 1 km within area Social Health Less than 1 km/availability of facility More than 1 km Infrastructure within area Community Less than 1 km/facility within area More than 1 km Recreational Less than 1 km/facility within area More than 1 km households, individual toilets, roads and paving, storm water drainage, solid waste management, street lighting and landscape, etc. and community development and social infrastructure such as active involvement of women and youth groups, education and health facilities for all. Various policies / programmes / schemes have been introduced by Government of India under various five year plans to tackle various dimensions of poverty, housing and livelihood, etc; in urban areas since independence. These respond to urban inclusion through public housing projects, affordable housing, basic facilities and service provision. Basic Services for Urban Poor (BSUP) scheme under Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) programme, Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme, National Urban Livelihood Mission, Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) made a specific mention of infrastructure for urban poor that leads to inclusion. RAY has proposed indicators and benchmarks for inclusive infrastructure for the urban poor as mentioned in Table 1 and 2.

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4. AMRITSAR AND IT'S SLUMS With the economic growth, Amritsar city has expanded in the last 30- 40 years and this has led to the development of new residential colonies, including slums, mainly on the outskirts of its Walled City. Many colonies were initially established by migrant labour engaged in various commercial activities (loading, unloading, industrial labour, drivers, construction workers, unskilled workers, etc.) on the outskirts of the city and therefore, were mostly inhabited by the poorer sections of society in which poor reside in high number. These include informal settlements, slum dwellers, and pavement dwellers, vulnerable and marginalized group. Amritsar’s poor, often along with lower class, mostly live in localities that have officially been categorized as slums where large number of labour class reside. According to Amritsar Master Plan (2010), during the last 2 decades, number of slum dwellers in Amritsar has increased from 32,632 (1981) to 4,07,428 (2011) recording more than nine fold increase in slum population. In 2001, 30 percent of the city population was living in slums i.e. every fifth household was a slum dweller. According to Municipal Corporation Amritsar, in 2011, slum population has increased 4,07,428 which is 36 percent of total city population, resulting into various types of problems faced by them. According to the Municipal records, these people are residing in 63 slums (Fig. 1) depicting poor quality of life such as poor condition of housing, lack of basic infrastructure facilities such as sewerage, drainage, water supply, electricity, absence of open spaces, unhygienic condition due to dumping of garbage, accumulation of waste water and open drainage, poor condition of roads, lack of basic health and education facilities within slums and poor accessibility to public transport routes.

Fig. 1: Location of Slums in Amritsar City

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Looking at the spatial distribution of slums, majority of slums located in the southern part of city in close vicinity of Walled City of Amritsar and rest are along the national highway, railway line and along industrial area, etc. Concentration of slums on the southern part is largely on account of haphazard and unplanned development in the area due to absence of development schemes taken up by Improvement Trust and Municipal Corporation Amritsar. On the other hand Northern side of city is better placed due to lesser number of slums. This is due to the fact that majority of development schemes and better quality of development has taken place in these areas.

5. EMPIRICAL EXAMINATION OF INCLUSIVENESS OF SLUMS IN AMRITSAR Adopting the benchmarks proposed under RAY (Table 2), an empirical examination of inclusiveness of 63 slums of Amritsar reflects the need to adopt inclusiveness approach in planning, development, operation, maintenance and management of physical and social infrastructure in slums by prioritizing them to propose strategies for their improvement and development. Their inclusiveness is examined by adapting the benchmarks and cumulative inclusion level ranges as proposed in Table 3 and 4 respectively. Based on the proposed benchmarking criteria social and physical infrastructure have been analyzed individually to rank the inclusiveness of each slum. Subsequently, combined ranking is worked out to assess the overall inclusiveness level of the slums.

5.1 Level of Inclusion for Social Infrastructure in Slums of Amritsar Social infrastructure refers to the facilities that help community development for better quality of life of the inhabitants of an area. Generally, with increased population and city’s expansion, the gap between demand and supply of essential services increases, which deteriorates the quality of life in urban areas.

Table 3: Adapted Benchmarks for Inclusive Infrastructure Under RAY Infrastructure Very Good Good Moderate Poor Very Poor Physical More than 80% 60-80% coverage 40-60% coverage 20-40% coverage Less than 20% coverage coverage Social Availability of Availability of Availability of Availability of Availability of facility within facility within 1 facility within 1.5 facility within 2 facility more than the area km km km 2 km

Table 4: Cumulative Inclusion Level Ranges for Physical and Social Infrastructure

Physical Social Physical + Social Infrastructure (total score of Physical + Infrastructure Infrastructure Social) 10-15 = Very Good 0-5 = Very Good ≤ 2 = Rank 1 (Inclusive) 15-20 = Good 5-10 = Good 2-3 = Rank 2 (Moderately Inclusive) 20-25 = Moderate 10-15 = Moderate >3 = Rank 3 (Not Inclusive) 25-30 = Poor 15-20 = Poor 30-35 = Very Poor 20-25 = Very Poor

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Fig. 2: Inclusion Level of Social Infrastructure

Assessment of inclusion level of social infrastructure in slums of Amritsar city depicts that most of them are under inclusive or not inclusive (Fig. 2). Results reveal that 39 slums i.e. 62 percent could attain score of 15-20 marks only, which reflect poor level of social infrastructure. Social facilities such as health facilities, community development facilities, and recreational facilities, etc; are absent up to 2 km even and local authorities have not taken care of their development. It is clear from Figure 2 that majority of such slums are located in the central part of the city. Another 22 slums (35 percent) have moderate level of social infrastructure as the facilities are available within 1.5 km. Majority of them are located in the northern part of the city. Only 2 slums (3 percent), each in east and west of the city, have good level of social infrastructure as educational, medical and community facilities are present in these slums, but recreational facilities are absent in these areas. Thus, only 3 percent of the slums are under inclusion, where Municipal Corporation has developed social facilities under urban basic services scheme for the poor.

5.2 Level of Inclusion for Physical Infrastructure in Slums of Amritsar Sustainability and quality of life in urban areas is closely linked to the quality and efficiency of physical infrastructure i.e. provision of housing, water supply, sewerage, drainage, solid waste management, roads, street lighting and public transport, etc. Based on these indicators of physical infrastructure, an assessment of level of inclusion in slums of Amritsar city (Fig. 3) reveals that 6 slums (9 percent) have very poor level of physical

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Fig. 3: Inclusion Level of Physical Infrastructure

infrastructure as municipal water supply, sewerage system, paved roads, street light, pucca houses, etc.; are absent and Municipal Corporation has not taken up any development works in them. These slums are located in the southern direction of the city.

Nearly 16 percent slums (10 in number), randomly distributed in the city,have poor level of physical infrastructure, scoring marks between 25-30, as less than 40 percent of their areas have provision of municipal water supply, sewerage, drainage, paved roads and street lighting. About 43 percent slums (27 in number) have moderate level of physical infrastructure because they have the municipal water supply and drainage facilities, but sewerage and street lights are absent. Such slums are primarily located in the central and western parts of the city (Fig. 3). Nearly 27 percent slums (17 in number) have good level of physical infrastructure as they have piped municipal water supply, sewerage connection, drainage facilities, and pucca houses. Their distribution, as shown in Figure 3, reveal efforts of the Municipal Corporation to take up slum improvement works in almost all the directions of the city. Only 3 slums (5 percent) have very good level of physical infrastructure. Two such slums are located in the southern parts of the city. More than 80 percent of their areas have piped municipal water supply, sewerage connections, drainage, paved roads, pucca houses and street lights developed by the Municipal Corporation under urban basic services scheme for the poor.

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5.3 Cumulative Inclusion Level of Slum Population in Amritsar With an objective to assess the overall inclusion level of the slums of Amritsar city, cumulative ranks are calculated for physical and social infrastructure by summing up the rank of each indicator of both infrastructure divided by the total number of indicators of infrastructure. Slums attaining value less than or equal to 2 are designated as inclusive followed by moderately inclusive slums scoring value ranging 2-3. Slums scoring the value more than 3 are designated as not inclusive slums.

Only 3 slums (5 percent) fall under inclusiveness category as they have presence of municipal water supply, sewerage system, brick paved roads, street light availability, maximum pucca houses, educational and health facilities within the area or available within 1 km distance. Two such slums are located in the northern direction of the city, which has maximum planned development (Fig. 4). About 71 percent slums (45 in number) have moderate inclusiveness as they possess piped water supply, drainage facilities but no underground sewerage network, no street lighting. Educational and health facilities do exit but community and recreational facilities are missing. These slums are spread randomly across the space of Amritsar city (Fig. 4).About 24 percent slums (15 in number)are not inclusive as they have poor level of physical infrastructure having absence of piped water supply, sewerage network, drainage facilities and maximum house are either semi-pucca or kutcha. Social infrastructure is also missing largely.

Fig. 4: Cumulative Inclusion Level of Slums of Amritsar City

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An analysis of Below Poverty Line Fig. 5: Inclusiveness and BPL Population (BPL) population in the slums of Amritsar reveals that in all the inclusive slums 40-60 percent population belongs to BPL category (Fig. 5). The figure shows that of the 45 moderately inclusive slums, 27 slums (60 percent) have 60 percent BPL population, 14 slums (31 percent) have 40-60 percent BPL population and 4 slums (9 percent) have less than 40 percent BPL population inhabiting them. Nearly 80 percent slums (12 in number), which are not inclusive, are inhabited by majority of the BPL population. Only 20 percent slums have 40-60 percent BPL population residing in them. As the BPL population cannot afford to pay for the infrastructure, therefore, it is devoid of water supply and sewerage connections. Its accessibility to social infrastructural facilities such as educational, health, community development and recreational facilities is also very poor. There is a clear indication that wherever the BPL population is less the level of inclusiveness of that slum in better. So, not inclusive areas need attention and infrastructural facilities are required to be provided at affordable price or free of cost to the needy people i.e. the BPL families. Also, their accessibility to social infrastructure in required to be improved by providing the educational, health, recreational and community facilities within the slums for their convenience, which will results into their increased efficiency and quality of life.

6. STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING INCLUSIVENESS Analysis of inclusiveness of slums of Amritsar city reflects that the strategies suggested under Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) 2011 have not been implemented by the local authorities. There is dire need to implement the slum development and upgradation approach of RAY in-situ. This will act as milestone shift towards bridging the gap of exclusion of slum dwellers in various aspects and at various phases of slum upgradation. It will also help them empower to avail basic infrastructural facilities and services at par with the other city inhabitants.

Poverty contributes to physical and social exclusion. Thus, to make in-situ slum upgradation strategy, successful adoption of inclusive approach is necessary, which will improve the well-being/quality of life of the poor consequently. This can be attained by providing access to clean water, improved sanitation and solid

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waste management services and supporting affordable housing, which in turn will govern the sustainability of slum improvement initiatives. Following generalized curative and preventive strategies are proposed for inclusive infrastructure planning for the slums.

6.1 Curative Strategies Assessment of present status of slums

• Update list of slums in the city (de-notify the inclusive slums); • Mapping of slums using GIS; • Preparing data profile of slums; and • Prioritization of slums through vulnerability/deficiency Analysis.

Formulation of slum development options on the basis of prioritization, as given below:

• First Priority - very poor and poor level of physical and social infrastructure (not inclusive); • Second Priority - moderate level of physical and social infrastructure (moderately inclusive); and • Third Priority - good and very good physical and social infrastructure (inclusive)

6.2 Preventive Strategy It provides opportunities to urban poor i.e. planning for increasing urban poor population by improving access of the urban poor to services through employment generating initiatives such as implementation of programmes such as National Urban Livelihood Mission (NULM). The Mission focuses on organizing the urban poor in their strong grass root level institutions, creating opportunities for skill development leading to market based employment and helping them to set up self-employment venture by ensuring easy access to credit.

6.3 Specific Curative Strategies for Slums Following specific curative strategies are proposed for inclusive, moderately inclusive and not inclusive slums.

6.3.1 Inclusive Slums: These slums have most of the physical and social infrastructure within or within 1 km of the area. Therefore, their cumulative inclusion rank is also high. These slums require efficient operation, maintenance and management of infrastructural facilities and services by the Municipal

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Corporation of Amritsar. Implementation of various programmes such as Education for All and Sarva Siksha Abhiyan, which strengthen the existing school infrastructure through provision of additional classrooms, toilets, drinking water, maintenance grant and school improvement grants, mid-day meal programs for the urban poor, will help in further improving their inclusiveness level and quality of life of the inhabitants.

6.3.2 Moderately Inclusive Slums: Moderately inclusive slums are the ones where 40 percent to 60 percent area is served by physical infrastructure and social infrastructure is available within 1.5 km. Their cumulative inclusion rank lies in the range of 2-3, meaning thereby that some facilities are present and some are absent in them. So, it is proposed to extend the physical infrastructure in unserved areas of slums and provide it wherever it is absent. However, where water supply network is not possible, that area should be provided with community taps and public stand posts, etc. It is proposed that elementary schools and Anganwadis centers should be provided within the area or at a distance of 1 km along with the implementation of various programmes such as Education for All and Sarva Siksha Abhiyan as proposed for inclusive slums. Provisions of National Urban Health Mission should be implemented to provide free services to the urban poor and also community development facilities such as community organizations and recreational facilities such as green spaces / public parks and children playground should be provided to upgrade their level of inclusion.

6.3.3 Not Inclusive Slums: Not inclusive slums require immediate attention of the Municipal Corporation of Amritsar as most of the physical and social infrastructure is either absent or is far away located. Therefore, programs and projects should be undertaken for the upgradation of houses, provision of affordable municipal water supply, underground sewerage network, street lighting, public transport, elementary school, health and recreational facilities. Education and health programmes and missions as proposed for inclusive slums should also be implemented to upgrade their level of inclusion. Stress should be given on efficient operation, maintenance and management of infrastructural services to improve the efficiency and quality of life of their inhabitants.

7. CONCLUSIONS Assessment of level of inclusiveness by adopting the benchmarks as proposed under RAY has provided an insight into the infrastructural deficiencies in the slums of Amritsar city. Categorizing the slums into inclusive, moderately inclusive and not inclusive helps us in assessing that most of the slums of the city have moderate inclusiveness. This shows that Municipal Corporation has been undertaking the projects in different parts of the city to improve the level of inclusiveness and

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quality of life of the inhabitants. However, continued and further efforts are required to undertake projects under different programmes and missions of the central government and even the state government to better the inclusiveness levels.

REFERENCES Banerjee, S. and Dhote, K.K. (2015) Exploring Inclusive dimension for the assessment of level of inclusion,Research Journal of Engineering Sciences, Bhopal. Dhaliwal S.S. (2004) Urban Infrastructure Development in Small and Medium Towns, Deep Publications, New Delhi. Goltsman, S. and Iacofano, D. (2007)The Inclusive City: Design Solutions for Buildings, Neighborhoods and Urban Space, Journal of the American Planning Association. Goodman, A. and Hastak, M. (2006) Infrastructure Panning Handbook, American Society Publication, United States of America. Government of India (2012) Poverty Estimates in India for 2009-2010, Planning Commission,New Delhi. Göran Ekström (2008)An inclusive approach – Strategy for diversity in central government sector’, Department of Information, Swedish Agency for Government Employees. Meshram, S. and Meshram, D.S. (2013)Inclusive – Sustainable Planning and Development, Institute of Town Planners India, New Delhi. Municipal Corporation Amritsar (2006)City Development Plan, Amritsar. Planning Commission (2006) Eleventh Five year Plan, Oxford University Press,New Delhi. Planning Commission (2012) Report of Expert Group to Recommend the Detailed Methodology for Identification of Families Living BPL in Urban Areas, Government of India, New Delhi. Provision of Basic Services to Urban Poor, 2005 retrieved from jnnurm.nic.in accessed on January 11, 2016 Punjab Urban Planning and Development Authority (2010)Amritsar Master Plan: 2010- 2031, Sai Consulting Engineers Private Limited, Ahmedabad. Support to National Policies on Urban Poverty Reduction (a DFID and MoHUPA Partnership) retrieved from http://mhupa.gov.in accessed on January 11, 2016 Water and Sanitation Programme (2009) Global experiences on expanding services to the Urban Poor, retrieved from http://www.wsp.org accessed on January 11, 2016.

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Development Planning and Environment in Coastal Zone: Conflicts and Violations in Mumbai Ramakrishna Nallathiga, Suyog Jadhav, Tejashri Mane and Aniket Lohar

Abstract The Metropolitan area of Greater Mumbai is one of the large urban areas in India, administered by the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM). The area of Greater Mumbai is surrounded on three sides by the seas: by the Arabian Sea to the west and the south, the Harbor Bay and the Thane Creek in the east. Mumbai falls under CRZ and has all the CRZ areas within city limits. The CRZ legislation effectively reduced the land available for development. Accordingly, this paper focus on conflicts and violations between development planning and environment taking case study of Mumbai.

1. INTRODUCTION Development and environment are two important dimensions of cities, which traditionally conflict with each other. Therefore, planning and regulation of such conflict areas becomes very important for achieving the balance between the two. However, much of the development in Indian cities is not well planned because it is not well regulated, thereby, giving rise to the conflict with environment and violations of the regulations. Coastal cities are good examples where such conflicts and violations come in stark contrast to the need for achieving balance. Coastal Zone, which is the meeting point of land, sea and air, is a dynamic area with many cyclic and random processes owing to a variety of resources and habitats. Nearly three quarters of the world population live near or on the coast, as found to be true in India also, which has about 7,500 km of coastline with many sprawling and still growing coastal cities. The coastal zone is thus a place of hectic human activity, followed by intense urbanization, resulting in human interference because of rapid development.

The coastal ecosystem is now highly disturbed and very much threatened, by problems like pollution, siltation, erosion, flooding, saltwater intrusion, storm surges and ever expanding human settlements. As the only way to combat these problems and to preserve the Coastal Zone for future generation, the concept of Coastal Zone Management (CZM) has been

Rajdeep Kaur, Associate Professor, National Institute of Construction Management and Research, Pune Suyog Jadhav, National Institute of Construction Management and Research, Pune Tejashri Mane, National Institute of Construction Management and Research, Pune Aniket Lohar, National Institute of Construction Management and Research, Pune

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Fig. 1: Evolution of CRZ

Source: Workshop on CRZ 2011-Coastal regulation zone 2011 & island protection zone notification 2011

developed by many countries around the world, which is done through planning and regulating the development activities in these zones. The need for such a program in our country was also highly imperative. Therefore, to conserve the coastal ecosystem, the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi suggested to keep the coastline free from all developmental activities within 500 m of the High Tide Line (HTL) and made an announcement in the Parliament and also advised the Coastal States to regulate development along the coast. Accordingly, the term Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) has come into existence on 27 November 1981. Fig. 1, shows the evolution of CRZ in India.

2. CRZ LEGISLATION IN INDIA India has adopted a formal CRZ legislation in 1991 and then revised it in 2011, which are described in the following.

2.1 CRZ Legislation, 1991 Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India issued the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification on 19 February 1991 under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, with the aim of providing comprehensive measures for the protection and conservation of our coastal environment. The 1991 CRZ Notification sought to regulate all developmental activities in the inter-tidal area and within 500metres on the land ward-side. In the 1991 Notification, the CRZ area is classified as:

• CRZ-I (Ecological sensitive); • CRZ-II (Built-up area); • CRZ-III (Rural area); and • CRZ-IV (Water area upto the territorial waters and the tidal influenced water bodies)

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However, over the next two decades, the following issues emerged while implementing the 1991 CRZ Notification (Nallathiga, 2003):

• The 1991 CRZ Notification stipulated uniform regulations for the entire Indian coastline which includes 5,500 km coastline of the main land 2,000 km coastlines of the islands of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep. It, therefore, failed to take into account the fact that the Indian coastline is highly diverse in terms of biodiversity, hydrodynamic conditions, demographic patterns, and natural resources, geo-morphological and geological features. It is therefore considered as ‘blanket legislation’ of the Union government imposed on the states. • In the 1991 CRZ Notification, no clear procedure for obtaining CRZ clearance was laid down and no time lines were stipulated. Furthermore, there was no application format given for the submission of clearance applications. • It may also be noted that the 1991 CRZ Notification did not provide a post- clearance monitoring mechanism or a clear-cut enforcement mechanism to check CRZ violations. • No concrete steps were indicated in the 1991 CRZ Notification with regard to the pollution emanating from land based activities i.e., area between high and low tide lines. • The restrictive nature of the 1991 CRZ Notification caused hardships to the persons and communities living in certain ecologically sensitive coastal stretches. These included slum dwellers and other persons living in dilapidated and unsafe buildings in Mumbai, communities living in islands in the backwaters of Kerala, local communities living along the coast of Goa and other traditional coastal inhabitants, and • The 1991 CRZ Notification has been amended almost 25 times in consideration of requests made by various State Governments, Central Ministries, NGOs, etc. In addition, there are also several office orders issued by Ministry of Environment and Forests clarifying certain provisions. The frequent changes to the 1991 Notification have been consolidated in the 2011 Notification.

2.2 CRZ Legislation, 2011 The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2011 was made with the objectives of - ensuring livelihood security to the fishing communities and other local communities living in the coastal areas, conserving and protecting coastal stretches, and promoting development in a sustainable manner based on scientific principles, taking in to account the dangers of natural hazards

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in the coastal areas and sea level rise due to global warming. The CRZ Notification, 2011 clearly lists out the areas that fall within each category of CRZ as below.

2.2.1 CRZ-I CRZ – I Areas

• Ecologically sensitive areas and the geomorphological features that play a primary role in maintaining the integrity of the coast. -- Mangroves, in case mangrove area is more than 1000 square metres, a buffer area of 50 metres shall be provided; -- Corals and coral reefs and associated biodiversity; -- Sand Dunes; -- Mud flats which are biologically active; and -- National parks, marine parks, sanctuaries, reserve forests, wildlife habitats and other protected areas under the provisions of Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 (53 of 1972), the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (69 of 1980) or Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986); including Biosphere Reserves encompassing; ◦◦ Salt Marshes; ◦◦ Turtle nesting grounds; ◦◦ Horse shoe crabs habitats; ◦◦ Sea grass beds; ◦◦ Nesting grounds of birds; and ◦◦ Areas or structures of archaeological importance and heritage sites; • The area between Low Tide Line and High Tide Line.

CRZ-I Activities The activities permitted in CRZ-I under the 2011 Notification are those that were permissible under the 1991 Notification as amended from time to time. These relate to the following:

• No new construction shall be permitted in CRZ-I except: -- Projects relating to the Department of Atomic Energy; -- Pipelines, conveying systems including transmission lines; -- Facilities that are essential for activities permissible under CRZ-I; -- Installation of weather radar for monitoring of cyclones movement and prediction by the Indian Meteorological Department;

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-- Construction of trans-harbor sea link and roads on stilts or pillars without affecting the tidal flow of water, between LTL and HTL; and -- Development of Greenfield airport already permitted at only Navi Mumbai. • Between Low Tide Line and High Tide Line in areas which are not ecologically sensitive, the following may be permitted: -- Exploration and extraction of natural gas; -- Construction of dispensaries, schools, public rain shelter, community toilets, bridges, roads, jetties, water supply, drainage, sewerage which are required to meet the needs of traditional inhabitants living within the biosphere reserves after obtaining approval from concerned CZMA; -- Salt harvesting by solar evaporation of sea water; -- Desalination plants; -- Storage of non-hazardous cargo such as edible oil, fertilizers and food grain within notified ports; and -- Construction of trans-harbor sea links, roads on stilts or pillars without affecting the tidal flow of water.

2.2.2 CRZ-II The Notification defines CRZ-II as the areas which are developed up to or close to the shore line and falling within municipal limits.

CRZ-II Activities Buildings are permissible on the land ward side of the existing road and proposed road or authorized structure as on 19.02.1991 or hazard line where there are no authorised structures. Other activities such as desalination plants and storage of non-hazardous cargo are also permissible. The Floor Space Index and Floor Area Ratio for construction projects shall be as on 19.2.1991 except for those specified in the CRZ Notification, 2011 which is mainly for slum redevelopment and redevelopment of dilapidated structures.

2.2.3 CRZ-III Areas are those areas that are relatively undisturbed and do not fall under either in Category I or II and also include rural and urban areas that are not substantially developed.

CRZ-III Activities • Between 0-200 metres from HTL is a No Development Zone where no construction shall be permitted. Only certain activities relating to agriculture, horticulture, gardens, pasture, parks, play field, forestry,

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projects of Department of Atomic Energy, mining of minerals (those minerals not available outside the CRZ area), salt manufacture from sea water, Facilities for receipt, storage, re-gasification of petroleum products and liquefied natural gas, facilities for generating power by non- conventional energy sources and certain public facilities may be permitted in this zone; and • Between 200-500 metres of HTL, construction and repair of houses of local communities, tourism projects including Greenfield airport at Navi Mumbai, facilities for receipt, storage, degasification of petroleum products and liquefied natural gas, storage of non hazardous cargo, desalination plants, facilities for generating power by non-conventional energy sources are permissible.

2.2.4 CRZ-IV The water area, from low tide line up to 12 nautical miles is classified as CRZ-IV including the area of the tidal influenced water body.

CRZ-IV Activities In CRZ-IV areas, there is no restriction on the traditional fishing and allied activities undertaken by local communities. However, no untreated sewage, untreated effluents or solid waste shall be let off or dumped in these areas. A comprehensive plan for treatment of sewage generating from the city must be formulated within a period of one year from the date of issue of this Notification and be implemented within two years thereafter.

2.3 Special Provisions for the Fisher - Folk / Communities As the fishing communities traditionally live on the coast, they have been given primary importance while drafting the CRZ Notification 2011. One of the stated objectives of the Notification is “to ensure livelihood security to the fisher communities and other local communities, living in the coastal areas and to promote development through sustainable manner based on scientific principles taking into account the dangers of natural hazards in the coastal areas, sea level rise due to global warming.”

The following are the provisions in the 2011 Notification that address the issues relating to fishermen community:

• Water area up to 12 nautical miles from HTL and the tidal influenced water bodies have been included under the Coastal Regulation Zone areas in order to:

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-- Control the discharge of untreated sewage, effluents and the disposal of solid waste as such activities endanger the fish and their ecosystem; -- Conserve and protect habitats in the marine area such as corals and coral reefs and associated biodiversity, marine sanctuaries and biosphere reserves, sea grass beds etc. which act as spawning, nursery and rearing grounds for fish and fisheries; -- Regulate activities in the marine and coastal waters such as dredging, sand mining, discharge of waste from ships, construction like groyne, break waters, etc. including reclamation which have serious impacts on fishing and allied activities; and -- Enable studies of the coastal and marine waters with regard to the impact of climate change and the occurrence of disasters which have serious impacts on the livelihood and property of the fisher-folk communities.

It may be noted that no restrictions are being imposed on any fishing activities and allied activities of the traditional fishing communities in this area.

• At several coastal stretches of the country the fishermen and their dwelling units are in danger due to erosion which is occurring primarily due to man made activities. The development of such man made foreshore activities shall be regulated after identifying and demarcating the coast falling in the high eroding category, the medium eroding category or the stable sites category; • While preparing the Coastal Zone Management Plans the infrastructures essential for fishing communities must be clearly demarcated and fishing Zones in the water bodies and the fish breeding areas shall also be clearly marked; • The 2011 Notification requires the Coastal Zone Management Authorities to invite comments on the draft Coastal Zone Management Plan from stakeholders. This will ensure that for the first time, local communities including fishermen communities will have a say in the preparation of the CZMPs; • The Notification allows infrastructural facilities for the local fishing communities to be constructed in the CRZ-III area; • Reconstruction, repair works of dwelling units of local communities including fisheries in accordance with local Town and Country Planning Regulations has been made permissible; and • In CRZ-III areas where 0-200 metres from HTL is a No Development Zone(NDZ), to meet the demands of dwelling units of traditional coastal communities

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including fisher - folk, the NDZ has been reduced to 100 metres. Hence, dwelling units of such communities can be constructed 100-200 metres from High Tide Line along these a front with the approval of the State Government and the MoEF.

Special provisions have also been incorporated for the fishermen communities living along the coastal areas in Maharashtra, Goa, Kerala, Sundarbans and other ecologically sensitive areas. For the traditional fishing communities (namely, the Koliwadas) living in Greater Mumbai a provision has been provided, wherein, the area concerned shall be mapped and declared as CRZ-III and development including construction and reconstruction can be taken up as per local Town and Country Planning Regulations.

2.4 Special Provisions for Mumbai Coastal Stretches The 1991 Notification provided for the uniform regulation of the coastal areas in the entire country irrespective of the environmental diversity, socio-economic conditions, development pressures, etc; In the 2011 Notification special provisions have been made, keeping in view the diverse problems faced by local communities like those individuals living in slums, those inhabiting old and unsafe buildings in Mumbai. The special dispensations given to Greater Mumbai, keeping in mind the fact the Mumbai faces some unique environmental and social issues the following provisions have been drafted:

2.4.1 CRZ-I Area • All approved roads and links must be constructed on silts to ensure free flow of tidal waters, and • Five times the number of mangroves destroyed/ cut during the above construction process shall be replanted.

2.4.2 CRZ-II Area • The State Government may undertake slum redevelopment schemes as identified as on 6 January 2011 in the CRZ-II areas in compliance with the Floor Space Index or Floor Area Ratio as specified in the Town and Country Planning Regulations, prevailing as on 6 January 2011. However, the stake of the State Government or its agencies shall not be less than 51 percent in such projects; • Redevelopment and reconstruction of old, dilapidated, and unsafe buildings as identified as on 6 January 2011 in the CRZ-II area shall be allowed. All such projects must be taken up by the owners of the buildings, directly or with private developers. All construction must be in accordance with the Town and Country Planning Regulations prevailing as on 6 January 2011;

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• In order to protect and preserve the “green lung” of the Greater Mumbai area, all open spaces, parks, gardens, playgrounds indicated in development plans within CRZ-II shall be categorized as CRZ-III, that is, “no development zone”. Only construction of civic amenities and facilities for recreational sports shall be permitted if the floor index is up to 15% Residential and commercial use of such spaces is prohibited; and • Reconstruction and repair of the dwelling units belonging to local communities in CRZ-II areas shall be permitted by the Competent Authorities on a priority basis.

Fishing settlement areas Fig. 2: Coastal Zone Management Plan for Greater Mumbai including Koliwada, and those identified in the Development. Plan of 1981 or relevant records of the Government of Maharashtra shall be mapped and declared as CRZ- III so that any development, including construction and reconstruction of dwelling units within these settlements shall be undertaken in accordance with applicable local Town and Country Planning Regulations.

3. DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONFLICTS IN MUMBAI The Metropolitan area of Greater Mumbai is one of the large urban areas in India, administered by the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM). It is divided in two revenue districts - Mumbai city and Mumbai suburbs – and Greater Mumbai is entirely urban. The area of Greater Mumbai is surrounded on three sides by the seas: by the Arabian Sea to the west and the south, Source: CZMP for Greater Mumbai city map

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the Harbor Bay and the Thane Creek in the east. Mumbai falls under CRZ and has all the CRZ areas within city limits as shown in Fig. 2.

It is the capital city of Maharashtra, Mumbai has global importance as it has an international sea port and air port. Many multinational companies have setup their commercial base in Mumbai. It is also well connected with other parts of India and important to offices of Army, Air force and Coastguard. Greater Mumbai covers an area of 458.28 sq km that constitutes 0.14 per cent of the total area of the State of Maharashtra. The importance of Greater Mumbai is also apparent from the fact that it supports a population of about 22 million as per 2015.

3.1 Impact of CRZ Legislation on Development of Mumbai The CRZ legislation effectively reduced the land available for development and along the development of city as well. This is also reflected by large slum population. More than 50% of the population are slum dwellers without adequate access to the most basic services. State government development efforts –such as increasing FSI and creating incentives for slum redevelopment– were aimed at improving the lives of the city’s poor.

Mumbai is particularly affected by CRZ due to both its unusual geographical as well as socio-economic topography. The city is spread over in seven islands now this narrow islands are joined which stretch northwards and southwards. This means that a very large section of the island city falls into CRZ (500 metres from either side of the island). Mumbai city also has constraint due to topography. It is surrounded by sea on three sides and land only on northward direction. As result, there is very limited amount of land available in a Mumbai for various uses – residential, commercial, industrial, recreational, institutional and natural environment.

While the land is limited in Mumbai, the CRZ further reduced the availablity of land which falls under various categories of CRZ, thus, availability of developable and usable land has become acute in Mumbai.

CRZ rules have resulted in the back and forth exchange between the state and central government on slum redevelopment, with the central government sticking to its position of neither recognizing slums nor allowing the state to make reforms. The current study attempts to understand and assess the impact on development of Mumbai.

3.2 CRZ Violations in Mumbai The regulation of development along Mumbai coastline is violated by informal development (or, slums), residential development and infrastructure facilities.

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Fig. 3: CRZ Violations and Issues in Mumbai

Fig. 3 shows some violations with respect to areas in western suburb of Mumbai.

As developmental activities in the CRZ area of the Greater Mumbai are taken up for residential and commercial built space, it raised the environmental issues relating to the degradation of mangroves to be dealt with while meeting the need to provide decent housing to the poor. As a very large part of Mumbai falls into CRZ area, it means that no construction is allowed on the seaward side of existing roads or authorized structures and also the FSI in CRZ - II area is frozen. Further, the design and construction has to be consistent with the surrounding landscape and land on either side of a creek also fall into CRZ - II

There were some mistakes / errors in the Development Master Plan for Mumbai. It excludes the urban villages such as Koliwadas and Gaothan from the existing land use map, making their existence questionable. As per CRZ Notification 2011, the Koliwadas and Gaothan areas are recognized urban

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Fig. 4: Koliwadas along Coastline in Mumbai

spaces and it also provides the list of permitted activities as well as facilities to be provided for the fisherman's livelihoods e.g., fish drying to traditional boat building yards. Fig. 4 shows the location of Koliwadas, in island city of Mumbai. As in the Development Plan land use map Koliwadas and Gaothan, has not been shown these areas are susceptible to unauthorized development and violation of CRZ regulations.

CRZ legislation forces many of the people to live in slum settlements, as unchecked land / property prices make housing unaffordable to poor, which results in the mushrooming of slums and squatter settlements on the coastal areas under CRZ. Fig. 5 shows the mushrooming slums in Mumbai that would fall under CRZ-II. It is also observed that slum areas are left out from Development Plan due to inadequacy of accurate data of city’s slums that could not be recorded in the draft DP.

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Fig. 5: Mushrooming of Slums along Coastline in Mumbai

4. CONCLUSIONS Indian cities face the challenge of balancing environment and development in their planning of urban spaces. The coastal cities have fragile environment requiring their conservation. The Government of India has notified CRZ areas with a view to achieve it, but at ground level problems emerge as the coastal settlements are not given attention in development planning, making them vulnerable to informal development resulting in large scale development violations.

REFERENCES Government of India (1991) Notification of CRZ 1991, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi. Government of India (2011) Notification of CRZ 2011, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi. Nallathiga, R. (2003) Coastal Regulation Zone Legislation: Issues in the context of cities’, The City, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 40-42.

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