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BIOL 1020 – CHAPTER 13 LECTURE NOTES Chapter 13: and Sexual Life Cycles

1. Why is alone insufficient for the life cycle of sexually reproducing eukaryotes?

2. Define:   meiosis  homologous  diploid  haploid

3. With a partner, do the “ dance” for meiosis. Make sure that you distinguish between tetrads, chromosomes, and chromatids, and note at each stage the number of sister chromatids per chromosome.

4. Summarize the key events of I.

5. In which phase do sister chromatids segregate? In which phase do homologous chromosomes segregate?

6. Compare and contrast meiosis and mitosis.

7. Draw zygotic meiosis, gametic meiosis, and sporic meiosis (alternation of generations). For each, note the organisms that use it.

8. Describe Miller’s Ratchet, DNA repair, and the Red Queen hypotheses for sex.

1 of 5 BIOL 1020 – CHAPTER 13 LECTURE NOTES Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles

I. Different modes of reproduction require different types of cell division

A. creates offspring that are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell (clones)

1. only mitotic cell division, or something very similar, is required

2. the parent may split, bud, or fragment; sometimes, this involves mitotic cell division with unequal partitioning during

cytokinesis (cellular budding)

3. asexual reproduction is typically rapid and efficient compared to

B. sexual reproduction occurs when specialized sex cells called fuse to form a single cell called a zygote

1. usually the gametes that fuse are produced by different individuals, but they may be produced by the same individual

2. in and the gametes are called the and the

3. the offspring are not genetically identical to their parents

4. this may render the offspring better adapted to the environment than either parent, or it may be

more poorly adapted than either parent

5. sexual reproduction must contain a mechanism to half the number of chromosomes at some point

 without such a mechanism, the number of chromosomes would double with each generation

 halving the chromosome number is accomplished through meiosis

II. Diploid cells give rise to haploid cells during meiosis

A. the somatic (body) cells of animals and higher plants are diploid cells

1. each chromosome in a diploid cell has a partner chromosome

2. the partners are called homologous chromosomes

3. one member of each pair came from the father (paternal homolog), and one from the mother (maternal homolog)

4. thus, for , the 46 chromosomes are in 23 pairs

5. most pairs of homologous chromosomes contain very similar, but not identical, genetic information in each member of

the pair (more on this in the next unit, genetics)

6. sex chromosomes aren’t strictly homologous (an has different genes than a ), but they act

as if they are homologous during meiosis

7. a set of chromosomes (n) has one member for each homologous pair; a diploid cell has two complete sets (2n), while a

haploid cell has one set (n)

8. sometimes, cells have extra sets (3n or more; polyploid cells – common in plants, rare and usually fatal in animals)

B. meiosis reduces chromosome number, producing up to 4 haploid cells from one diploid cell 2 of 5 BIOL 1020 – CHAPTER 13 LECTURE NOTES 1. meiosis has two successive cell divisions after only one DNA replication

2. the two cell divisions are called meiosis I and meiosis II

 homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis I

 sister chromatids separate during meiosis II

 meiosis is best understood by following the chromosomes (and their kinetochores) – don’t confuse homologous

chromosomes with sister chromatids

III. Meiosis I and meiosis II are each divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase (PMAT) with accompanying

cytokinesis

A. prophase I – chromatin condenses to form chromosomes, and homologous chromosomes pair

1. the process of homologous chromosomes pairing lengthwise is called synapsis

 the resulting structure, with 4 total chromatids (two sisters from each homologous chromosome), is called a bivalent

or a tetrad

 the tetrad is held together by a synaptonemal complex during early prophase I

 typically, enzymes cause breaks in the chromatids and genetic material may be exchanged between chromatids

(crossing-over or genetic recombination)

 genetic recombination greatly increases the potential for genetic variation in offspring

2. as in mitosis, sister chromatids are held together at centromeres and have kinetochores, but their kinetochores are

side-by-side and attach to spindle fibers from the same pole (thus both sister chromatids are later pulled to the same

pole)

3. by the end of prophase I:

 the spindle has formed

 the nuclear membrane has vesicularized

 nucleoli have disintegrated

 homologous chromosomes are attached by their kinetochores to spindle fibers from opposite poles

 homologous chromosomes are held together only at chiasmata, the sites where crossing-over occurred

B. metaphase I – tetrads line up along the midplane of the cell – the presence of tetrads (bundles with 4 total chromatids) is the

key distinguishing feature of metaphase I of meiosis

C. anaphase I – homologous chromosomes separate and are moved toward opposite poles

1. each pole gets one set of homologous chromosomes

3 of 5 BIOL 1020 – CHAPTER 13 LECTURE NOTES 2. the initial “maternal” or “paternal” chromosome sets are mixed and distributed randomly (crossing-over largely blurs

such identity anyway)

D. telophase I – after anaphase is completed, generally:

1. the spindle fibers disintegrate

2. the chromosomes partially decondense

3. nuclear membranes may form around the genetic material

4. cytokinesis occurs

E. interkinesis, the period between meiosis I and meiosis II, varies in length and distinctiveness

1. interkinesis differs from interphase because there is no S phase (no DNA replication)

2. typically, interkinesis is brief (some cells skip it altogether)

F. prophase II of meiosis is similar to prophase of mitosis, but is usually very short because the chromatin did not completely

decondense after meiosis I

G. metaphase II – similar to metaphase of mitosis

1. chromosomes line up along the midplane of the cell

2. sister chromatids are connected by their kinetochores (now on opposite sides) to spindle fibers from opposite poles

H. anaphase II – like mitotic anaphase, sister chromatids segregate toward opposite poles

I. telophase II – much like mitotic telophase:

1. the spindle is disintegrated

2. the chromosomes decondense

3. nuclear membranes reform around the genetic material to form nuclei

4. nucleoli reappear, and interphase cellular functions resume

5. cytokinesis usually begins during telophase II and ends shortly thereafter

IV. Summary: key differences between mitosis and meiosis

A. mitosis has one DNA replication and one division, resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells; homologous

chromosomes do not pair, do not cross-over, and are not segregated

B. meiosis has one DNA replication but two divisions (reductive division), resulting in up to four genetically distinct daughter

cells; in the process, homologous chromosomes pair (synapsis), cross-over (homologous recombination), and segregate

during meiosis

V. The products of meiosis can vary between sexes and between

4 of 5 BIOL 1020 – CHAPTER 13 LECTURE NOTES A. in many eukaryotes, the zygote undergoes meiosis, and most of the life cycle is spent as haploid cells; gametes are then

produced by mitosis and fuse to make the zygote

B. in animals, the somatic (body) cells are typically diploid, and special germ line cells undergo meiosis to form haploid

gametes ()

1. male gametogenesis () typically produces 4 haploid sperm for each that undergoes meiosis

2. gametogenesis () typically produces 1 haploid (ovum) for each germ cell that undergoes

meiosis; the rest of the genetic material goes to polar bodies, cells that get little of the original cytoplasm and

eventually die

3. a sperm and an egg fuse to make a diploid zygote, which gives rise to the multicellular

C. plants and some algae have distinct alternation of generations

1. produced after meiosis divide (mitotically) into a multicellular haploid , from which gametes are

eventually derived

2. the zygote gives rise (through mitotic divisions) to a multicellular diploid , which produces specialized cells

that undergo meiosis to produce spores

VI. The origin and maintenance of sex is an evolutionary puzzle

A. Sexual reproduction dilutes the genes from the “best adapted” individuals, and thus must offer a significant advantage or

asexual reproduction will win out

B. Even when sex clearly benefits a or species, it must directly benefit individuals or it will lose out via

C. There may be no single hypothesis that explains “Why sex?” for all sexually reproducing organisms

D. Leading hypotheses for why sex occurs include Miller’s Ratchet, DNA repair, and the Red Queen

1. Miller’s Ratchet – asexual tend to accumulate harmful by chance over time, with no good way to

get rid of them – like turning a ratchet, you can’t go back; recombination can overcome this

2. DNA Repair – many species reproduce sexually only during times of stress; some types of DNA repair (such as fixing

double-strand breaks) can only take place with a diploid cell, and that type of repair is most likely needed in times of

stress (also, this allows these species to overcome Miller’s Ratchet by simple recombination)

3. Red Queen – sex allows for populations to “store” genetic diversity so that it is available for each generation; this only

provides an advantage if the environment provides ever-changing physical and/or biological constraints; an

‘evolutionary arms race’ between parasites and their hosts may be a key factor in producing such ‘treadmill

evolution’

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