Psychological Warfare: How Nazi Appealed to and Impacted the German Youth

Shannon Hutchins

HIST 395: History Seminar

11/24/14

War is frequently thought to be fought on the battlefield. The lesser known battles occur behind closed doors or are artfully disguised within the public communication channels. To be successful, military campaigns require the backing of the citizenry, and in order to sustain a war effort, continued popular support is needed till the end. Without the approval of the common people, a country can be quickly dismantled. When Germany invaded Poland in September of

1939 Germany needed all, if not most, of the internal support of their own. To gain the foundation needed to launch their efforts, the Third Reich employed massive amounts of propaganda in schools, businesses, over the radio, in mass rallies, and in other public places.

Adolf Hitler and Joseph Goebbels’ heavy indoctrination of the ideologies of the National

Socialist German Worker’s Party revolutionized propaganda in Germany. The nature of propaganda was forever changed throughout the world because of the enthusiasm and effectiveness the Third Reich achieved with it. The audience of this type of persuasion was everyone, the naivety of children made them particularly easy targets of manipulation. Special attention and care was taken of the German youth leading up to and during the war, as the children symbolized the promise of a better future. The Third Reich’s vision of the future included world domination. utilized propaganda as a form of psychological warfare in World War II. In order to gain the support and devotion of the children of the Third

Reich, tactics like the formation of state led youth groups and the distribution of propaganda films were used.1

1 Psychological warfare was researched using Lynette Finch, “Psychological Propaganda: The War of Ideas on Ideas During the First Half of the Twentieth Century,” Armed Forces & Society 26, no. 3 (2000): 367-12 and John W. Meaney, “Propaganda as Psychical Coercion,” The Review of Politics 13, no. 1 (1951): 64-87. The nature of Nazi propaganda was defined and elaborated on in Julius Yourman, “Propaganda Techniques within Nazi Germany,” Journal of Educational Sociology 13, no. 3 (1939): 148-163; David Welch, “Nazi Propaganda and the : Constructing a People’s Community,” Journal of Contemporary History 39, no. 2 (2004): 213- 238; David F. Crew, Hitler and the Nazis: A History of Documents (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); and David Welch, The Third Reich: Politics and Propaganda (London: Routledge, 1993). The group was mentioned in various articles previously mentioned, but was the center feature of Stephen Pagaard, “Teaching the

1

At the heart of psychological warfare lies manipulation, coercion, intimidation, and persuasion, all of which were evoked in Nazi propaganda. Psychological warfare is a mind game. To be successful, it has to make people question their already set beliefs. Its goal is to win unwavering support by its target audience, much like propaganda. For Germany during

WWII, listeners included other countries of Europe, in addition to the German people themselves. Propaganda was just one of several the tactics used in psychological warfare.

Although not commonly thought of as integral to a war effort, psychological warfare was, and is, a key factor in combat. Nazi Germany used propaganda as its main weapon in psychological warfare, especially as a form of mental coercion. The Third Reich needed to bolster their own civilian and military morale while crippling and demolishing the successes of their enemies. The Ministry of Propaganda2 used persuasion to benefit the Nazi Party in the best way possible. Lies were created and broadcasted to German civilians and soldiers as well as enemy civilians and soldiers. Adolf Hitler articulated in his book, Mein Kampf, that propaganda was “not to weigh and ponder the rights of different people, but exclusively to emphasize the one right which it has set out to argue for.”3 In addition, its “task is to serve our own right, always and unflinchingly.”4 It did not matter if false reports were given to the masses, as long as it served the government in a helpful manner, inaccuracy was expected. The Nazi Party

Nazi Dictatorship: Focus on Youth,” The History Teacher 38, no. 2 (2005): 189-207. Nazi film propaganda was the focus of Jay W. Baird, “From to Neubabelsberg: Nazi Film Propaganda and the Hitler Youth Quex,” Journal of Contemporary History 18, no. 3 (1983): 495-515; and Eric Rentschler, “Emotional Engineering: Hitler Youth Quex,” Modernism/Modernity 2, no. 3 (1995): 23-44. Primary sources referenced included Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, trans. Ralph Manheim (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1943); Joseph Goebbels, The Goebbels Diaries:1942-1943, ed. and trans. Louis P. Lochner (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1948): and Alfons Heck, A Child of Hitler: Germany in the Days when God Wore a Swastika (Colorado: Renaissance House, 1988). The German Propaganda Archive, trans. Randall Bytwerk, accessed September 15, 2014, http://research.calvin.edu/german-propaganda-archive/index.htm provided a collection of speeches and images that were consulted throughout the research process. 2 The office was created once Hitler became Chancellor in 1933. 3 Hitler, Mein Kampf, 182. 4 Ibid.

2 unashamedly published lies or half-truths to their audiences. German military setbacks were downplayed, while victories were headlined.

When used against enemies, psychological warfare intends to demoralize and subvert them. In order to penetrate the mind of their foes, individual weaknesses were exploited, which provided a point of entry within the psyche that allowed psychological warfare and propaganda to influence the thoughts of the enemy. The introduction of new ideologies led to an internal struggle between an individual’s original set of beliefs and the newly developed ones. This internal divide fostered self-doubt, which made enemy soldiers even easier targets for manipulation, coercion, and exploitation. Enemy civilians, as well, were subjected to propaganda that undermined their faith and trust in their own leaders. Print and radio broadcasts were designed to make them uncertain and afraid of their own resistance to German forces. Both the Allied and Axis powers utilized pamphlets against each other’s militaries. Millions of pamphlets were dropped via aircraft on enemy camps throughout the war. Those simple sheets of paper sought to convince the other side to surrender and abandon their cause. The pamphlets became effective when supplies were limited, retreats were implemented, and when ground troops were disorganized. When used against Germany’s enemies, propaganda sought to dishearten and unsettle the civilians and the soldiers.5

Repeated exposure to the propaganda impacted every German. Those that were in favor of the Nazi Party were constantly reminded of the cause they supported. After 1933 pictures or portraits of Hitler were set up in every public building. Poster, newspapers, film, radio, youth groups, political groups, and education reform showcased the power and might of the NSDAP.

By the time WWII had begun, the political party had practically complete control over the daily

5 Meaney, “Propaganda and Psychical Coercion,” 64-87 and Lynette Finch, “Psychological Propaganda,” 367-12 and Crew, Hitler and the Nazis.

3 lives of its citizens. It is those civilians that disliked, or merely tolerated, the Third Reich’s ideologies that truly showcase the effects of propaganda and psychological warfare. With the shutdown of opposing political parties and activists, the German public heard and saw only what the government set out for its citizenry. Even if the people did not want to listen, they were still part of the German audience. The people that dismissed the seemingly overzealous political group were not immune to its reach and influence. If an idea was repeated often enough, people were likely to conform to it. An individual’s change in mindset was more probable to have been a subtle change over time. Slowly what one thought was preposterous began to seem more and more reasonable.6

The NSDAP came to power in Germany in 1933. The harsh treatment relegated by the

Treaty of Versailles after World War I and the precarious Weimar Republic prompted German citizens to look elsewhere for political and economic stability.7 The global financial collapse in

1929 did not help with the ever growing internal dissatisfaction with the German government.

By the late 1920s the Nazi Party had a substantial amount of support. The captivating leaders of the political group offered a respite from the economic turmoil and humiliation the country had suffered after the first Great War. Hitler’s Mein Kampf outlined his intentions for Germany’s future. He dedicated two chapters of his book to propaganda and the critical role it played in politics. In his book, Hitler stated that “the art of propaganda lies in understanding the emotional ideas of the great masses and finding… the way to the attention and thence to the heart of the

6 John Meaney, “Propaganda and Psychical Coercion,” 64-87. 7 Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost territory, was forced to pay heavy war reparations, military forces were cut severely, and the Rhineland territory was demilitarized. The most humiliating aspect of the treaty forced Germany to accept the full blame for starting WWI. If anything, these actions only further sponsored enmity between Germans and the rest of the world.

4 broad masses.”8 Nazi propaganda employed an emotional appeal, instead of an intellectual one.

By targeting the public’s sentiments, the party reached their large audience more efficiently.

Hitler believed propaganda to be a weapon when in the right hands. Its primary goal was to gain the support of the German masses and to maintain it for years to come. Propaganda had to be simple, direct, attractive, appealing, and most importantly repetitive. The more an idea was repeated, the greater a number of people were likely to believe it. This type of persuasion was used leading up to the Nazi Party’s control over Germany. Hitler was appointed Chancellor by the then president Paul von Hindenburg in 1933. In the same year, the NSDAP was declared the only political party in the country. Upon Hindenburg’s death in 1934, Hitler assumed the title of

Führer, the Weimar Republic had been replaced by the Third Reich.

The newly created dictatorship effectively placed the media in the hands of the government. Strict censorship was implemented, which cut off the German people from the rest of Europe, and the world. The daily news the citizens received was entirely fed to them by the government. A drastic increase in radio production enabled the Nazi Party to reach more households. According to the International Historical Statistics of Europe from 1750-2005,

Germany in the early 1930s had just over 3,000 households with radios. By 1938, the amount of households that had the devices was over 9,500. Through this manufacturing, the Third Reich made an effort to reach more of its citizenry. Common broadcasts on the radios included recorded speeches from the officials and leaders.9 Even the advertisements revolved around the war effort and how individuals and households could contribute. The radio allowed civilians to

8 Hitler, Mein Kampf, 180. 9 Speeches made by Hitler, Goebbels, and were just some of the notable public figures that graced the German radio waves.

5 hear their leaders in the convenience of their own homes. The broader audience made it easier for the Nazi Party to preach their ideologies to the public.10

With Hitler’s rise of power came the accession of Joseph Goebbels. Goebbels became involved with the Nazi Party in 1924 and became the editor of “Der Angriff” in 1927 and of

“Das Reich” from 1940-1945.11 During the 1920s and 1930s, the NSDAP was on the rise. With

Goebbels’ help, the party and its leaders became more popular and favorable to the common people of Germany. As the NSDAP gained power, they expanded their sphere of influence.

With more newspapers, pamphlets, political films, and radio broadcasts, they were able to extend to more households, thus a reaching greater audience. Charismatic and well-spoken leaders enabled the citizens to hope for a better future. Those authority figures promised the German people of a world where the Third Reich ruled supreme and answered to no other country. That promise proved true, if only for a short time. Once Hitler was named Chancellor, Goebbels was named Minister of Propaganda. He was given control of the press, radio, film, theatre, and fine arts. By 1933 the Nazi Party practically eradicated any opposing political parties within the country.

The propaganda seen in the Third Reich changed over time. In the late 1920s and early

1930s, the Nazi Party utilized propaganda to gain a following. In order to make a difference on the national level, the party needed to occupy positions in the national government. The party officials were endorsed via propaganda, while opposing candidates were slandered. Once the

Nazi Party took control of Germany in 1933, the usage of propaganda changed. It sought to reaffirm the people that originally supported the party that they made the right choice. For those

10 Brian Mitchell, International Historical Statistics: Europe 1750-2005, 6th ed. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 735. 11 “The Attack” and “The Reich” were newspapers published within Germany. Both newspapers published pro- Nazi views that helped popularize and endorse the Nazi Party and its leader, Adolf Hitler.

6 that did not initially back the political group, they were subject to propaganda that sought to convert them to the Nazi Party. The start of WWII was received by a variety of viewpoints.

Some individuals became so wrapped up in the politics that they fully supported the invasion of the neighboring countries of Germany. Others were more apprehensive, especially those that recalled the devastation of World War I. In this context, the goal of propaganda was to reassure the war fanatics and convince the non-believers that it was the right move. To sustain the military campaign, full devotion was needed. In Joseph Goebbels’ personal diary, he stated “the

German people must remain convinced… that this war strikes at their very lives and their national possibilities of development, and they must fight it with their entire strength.”12

Propaganda sought to make the war personal, thereby including everyone in the war effort.

In the early years of the war, when Germany won battle after battle, propaganda was used to highlight the military victories. It helped bolster the public opinion of the war, especially those individuals that were initially uncertain or against the conflict. As the war progressed, and the Third Reich began to suffer heavy casualties, propaganda became more desperate and defensive. The anti-Bolshevik propaganda was increased as the Soviet forces began to close in on Germany. By claiming the Soviets were dangerous, ruthless, and barbaric, they instilled in the German people a fear that could only be countered by fighting against the Soviets and protecting the German land and its people. It played on the German citizens’ distrust of Soviets, much like psychological warfare.

As Minister of Propaganda in the Third Reich, Joseph Goebbels used his influence to the fullest. He was incredibly active in the communication process from the government to the

German people. Prior to and during the war, Goebbels was effective in bolstering support.

12 Goebbels, The Goebbels Diaries, 147.

7

Without the Minister of Propaganda, the Nazi Party might not have been as successful. Radio, film, youth groups, press, school curriculum, and prints were all adapted and used by German government as channels to communicate with the public.

Youth groups played arguably the most important role in introducing and promoting Nazi ideologies to the German children at a young age. The primary youth organization during the

Third Reich was the Hitler Youth.13 The subgroups of the Hitler Youth included the German

Young People14, the HJ15, the Federation of Young Maidens16, and the Federation of German

Maidens17. The Hitler Youth was effective in eliminating other organized groups for children.

Over time other youth groups were outlawed, or became absorbed within the Hitler Youth.18

Participation in the organization became mandatory in 1939. For many of the Reich’s leaders, the Hitler Youth provided a basis for future SA and SS19 members.

Within the Hitler Youth, both boys and girls were taught different skills that were aimed at preparing them for their future lives as adults. Boys were taught how to use weapons, how to navigate the terrain, and basic survival skills.20 Physical fitness was glorified in the group, along with competition. Individuals were encouraged to outperform their peers, while group activities sponsored rivalry. The male youth groups served as a foundation that would prove useful if they joined the military when they reached the proper age.21

13 Hitlerjugend in German. 14 Deutches Jungvolk in German. Included young boys from age 10-14. 15 Also called Hitlerjugend in German, it included boys from the age of 15-18. 16 Jungmaedelbund in German. Included young girls from age 10-14. 17 Bunddeutscher Maedel/BDM in German. Included girls from age 15-18. 18 Other notable youth groups that competed with the Hitler Youth included Communist, Jewish, Protestant, and Catholic organizations. With the every growing popularity of the Nazi Party, other youth groups were scorned, while the membership count grew for the Hitler Youth. 19 The SA, Sturmabteilung, and the SS, Schutzstaffel, were both military personnel groups during the Third Reich. 20 Similar to the American Boys Scouts of today, the German Young People and the HJ were taught to be resourceful of the land. The German youth learned techniques that could prove useful in their future careers as soldiers of the Third Reich. 21 Stephen Pagaard. “Teaching Nazi Dictatorship,” 189-207.

8

A military division was created in 1943 that consisted of members of the HJ. By that time, Germany was on the defense and began to suffer military defeats. The 12th SS

Hitlerjugend Panzer Division primarily consisted of volunteers, while others were drafted. With ever-increasing casualties, the Third Reich needed to tap into their remaining resources. The devotion and loyalty to one’s country was emphasized in the youth groups and military service was seen as an obligation. The adolescence were told from an early age that dying for one’s country was the ultimate sacrifice and they would become martyrs for doing so. Since the teenagers had been exposed to that type of wartime fanaticism from an early age, enlisting in the

Hitlerjugend Panzer Division seemed like a logical route. The division was sent to the

Normandy beaches on June 6, 1944 to combat the landing Allied forces. Although devoted to their cause, the division suffered heavy casualties and eventually had to retreat from the invading

Allies.22 The Hitlerjugend military group was used again in the Battle of the Bulge from late

1944 to early 1945. They were part of the German forces that were instructed to reclaim

Antwerp, Belgium from the Allies. The campaign ultimately proved unsuccessful due to lack of supplies. The overall German casualties reached 100,000 troops.23

The Federation of Young Maidens and the BDM were subject to a very different type of training in the Hitler Youth. The girls were taught domestic skills that helped prepare them for their roles as wives and mothers. In fact, the motto for women in the Nazi Party was “kinder, kirche, küche,” meaning children, church, and kitchen. Females were lauded for their skills in the household. By exposing the girls in the youth groups to what was expected of them in the

22 By July 9, 1944 the division had endured a 60% casualty rate. 23 Jon Latimer, “World War II: 12th SS Hitlerjugend Panzer Division Fought in Normandy,” World War II, June 12, 2006, accessed November 3, 2014, http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-12th-ss-hitlerjugend-panzer-division- fought-in-normandy.htm and “The Battle of the Bulge,” History Learning Site, accessed November 3, 2014, http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/battle_of_the_bulge.htmn.

9 future, they preselected their role as wives and mothers. Whether or not a girl wanted that in her life, she was still encouraged to follow that path. In order to fortify the Aryan race, couples were given monetary incentives to produce children. Mothers were given medals if they had a certain number of children. Nazi Germany glorified the role of motherhood, which was reflected in what the Hitler Youth girls were told to value and ultimately achieve.24

In Alfons Heck’s autobiography titled A Child of Hitler, he recounted his childhood growing up in Nazi Germany and his membership in the Hitler Youth. After Hitler had taken control of the country, the oaths of loyalty changed. Within the military, soldiers pledged their allegiance to the Führer, instead of the nation. That was also seen in the youth groups. Part of the oath sworn by the children in the group was “I promise in the Hitler Youth to do my duty at all times in love and faithfulness to help the Führer-so help me God.”25 It singled the authority of the country to Hitler, and him alone. The oaths reaffirmed his dictatorship and the divine aura created about him. Special attention was given to the Hitler Youth by the Führer. After all, it was the only youth group named after him. Heck continued in his book that Hitler “instilled in us the immensely flattering conviction that we were his most trusted vassals.”26 It was recognized before WWII even started that the youth were the key to the future. The Third Reich was confident in its ability to win the war.27 The youth at that time would have been the next generation that ruled the country and its empire. Youth groups instilled early on in childhood the

Nazi ideologies that were needed if the war was won by the Germans and they continued on their path to world supremacy.

24 Stephen Pagaard. “Teaching Nazi Dictatorship,” 189-207. 25 Heck, A Child of Hitler, 9. 26 Heck, A Child of Hitler, 21. 27 Thoughts began to change after the German defeat in Stalingrad in 1943. After that particular battle, the German forces and leaders began to retreat inward, thus weakening their European empire.

10

In Joseph Goebbels 1940 speech at the Youth Film Festival, titled “Youth and War,” he outlined the expectations of the HJ and the BDM. Goebbels spoke directly to the German youth at the event, opposed to speaking of them to their parents, teachers, or other adult figures in their lives. He addressed them in mature fashion and encouraged them to assume adult like responsibilities, especially with the demands of the war. Most children would have enjoyed that type of attention and recognition from a Nazi Party official. Goebbels stressed the importance of obedience and the sacrifice of personal freedom. Sometimes decisions that benefit the greater whole were more important than an individuals’ personal choice. This type of obedience, respect, and self-sacrifice was crucial to the everyday society of Germany. It was expected from children, soldiers, officials, and ordinary citizens. Many children’s parents were involved in the war effort or ran the households. Goebbels believed it fell to the HJ and the BDM to assist in the raising of their younger siblings and/or peers and were instructed to help educate the younger children. Goebbels’ version of education revolved around the Nazi principles taught in the Hitler

Youth and in the revamped school curriculum. By speaking directly to the HJ and the BDM, the

Minister of Propaganda signified the importance of the youth groups.28

Although the Third Reich was successful in controlling and managing the affairs of the

German children via the Hitler Youth, not every child was compliant. Youth resistance groups did appear. However, they did not have a severe impact on the popularity of the government sponsored organizations. The punishment for opposition against the Third Reich ranged from fines, imprisonment, work or concentration camps, or death. Despite the older members, the

White Rose proved to be a public disturbance to Germany. The group was created by two siblings, Sophie and Hans Scholl, who attended the University of Munich in 1942 and 1943.

28 Joseph Goebbels’ “Youth and War” speech from German Propaganda Archive.

11

Even though the group was centered in Munich, the organization did spark interest and expanded to other universities. Some students that attended university at , Freiburg, Berlin, and

Vienna showed interest in the Munich-based movement. The printed and distributed anti-Nazi pamphlets on campus. The group condemned the Nazi regime and the genocide it called for. In a world where obedience was expected, their outspoken and questioning manner disturbed the fabricated world the Third Reich had established. In 1943 the group was disclosed to the by a faculty member at the University of Munich. The Scholl siblings and several others, including a professor, were arrested and later executed for their opposition to the government. Even though the White Rose was disbanded and had no lasting effect on the Third

Reich, the group resisted the totalitarian control and spoke out against injustice against European

Jews. The members chose to resist the effects of Nazi propaganda. 29

Other notable youth groups that arose in opposition of the Hitler Youth included the

Edelweiss Pirates and the Swing Youth.30 Neither of the groups posed much of a threat to the

Nazi Party, or won much renown within the Third Reich. Both groups consisted of adolescents that sought to oppose the local Hitler Youth leaders. They exhibited looser morals and did not abide by the strict authoritarian Nazi Party youth groups. The consisted of working class teenage boys, while the Swing Youth included adolescents from the upper classes.

Although they were not revolutionary in their opposition to the Nazi Party, they showed that not every child agreed with the mandatory membership of the Hitler Youth.

The Hitler Youth played an important role in shaping the minds of German children during the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s. Not only was the youth group physically active, but it was

29 Stephen Paagard “Teaching Nazi Dictatorship,” 189-207 and Holocaust Encyclopedia, s.v. “White Rose,” accessed November 12, 2014, http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007188. 30 Edelweisspiraten and Swingjugend in German.

12 featured in a number of propaganda films that aired under the Third Reich. In 1933 a film titled

Hitler Youth Quex31 was shown to the public. The main character, a German boy named Heini

Voelker, was based on a real person. The inspiration for the movie was Herbert Norkus, a Hitler

Youth member that lived in Berlin, who was killed by a group of communists in 1932. A novel was written about Norkus later that year. It eventually became a required text for the German youth. Norkus was quickly created into a martyr and a role model that was exploited by the

Ministry of Propaganda. In the movie, Heini defied the will of his father, a communist, and joined the Hitler Youth organization in his hometown. The father enlisted Heini as a member of the local communist party, without consulting Heini. In retaliation, Heini eventually left his home and joined the Hitler Youth. The communist members of the community were portrayed as bawdy, drunk, inappropriate, vulgar, undisciplined, and dangerous. The Hitler Youth in the film were depicted as clean, polished, honorable, and impressionable. By making the two groups distinctly separate in appearance and values, the film clearly endorsed the Nazi Party and its message.32

In in the Third Reich the Hitler Youth was also taught that self-sacrifice was necessary for the country. The group also displayed intense nationalism. That loyalty and dedication was seen in the film with the death of Heini. His last words were part of the anthem sung by the

Hitler Youth. After his death, the screen rolled to black and the rest of the anthem was sung by a children’s chorus with a montage of the Hitler Youth. The song and film ended with “the banner is greater than death.”33 Heini was a martyr for the German youth to look upon. He died at the

31 Hitlerjenge Quex in German. 32 “Hitlerjunge Quex 1933 English Subtitles,” Youtube video, 1:25:09, June 29, 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HlPAfx1mAJ8 and Eric Rentschler, “Emotional Engineering: Hitler Youth Quex,” 33 “Hitlerjunge Quex 1933 English Subtitles.”

13 hands of the communists because he refused to renounce his views of the Nazi Party. Heini showed an unwavering dedication to the political party and the youth organization.34

Since Heini Voelker was a German youth, he was a relatable character for many children in the country. He came from a family that did not support the Nazi Party, but he forged his own path and became part of the movement that revolutionized Germany. He very well might have been an inspiration to other children that were in the same circumstances. Throughout the film the Hitler Youth was portrayed as the admirable group for children. The Hitler Youth dominated the lives of German children outside of their schooling. It essentially controlled the extracurricular activities of the youth. Children that were not in the organization were frowned upon by their peers that were members. In order to be accepted by the other children, non- members were expected to join the Hitler Youth. In the film, Heini wanted to become a member of the group in order to be accepted by them. The membership provided a gateway to the approval of an individual by the Hitler Youth.35

The film poster for Hitler Youth Quex also alluded to Nazi propaganda. Heini Voelker was featured on the print wearing his Hitler Youth uniform. The majority of the poster was in black and white. However, the title and the swastika were printed red. The significance given to the arm band further emphasized that the Hitler Youth was an organization overseen by the Nazi Party. The caption read “a film about the sacrificial spirit of the German

34 Ibid. 35 Ibid.

14

Youth.” The character Heini served as a martyr and a rallying point for German children under the Third Reich. One of the messages of the film was that sacrifice was necessary of everyone, and no one, even children, should shy away from their duty to their country. Heini stood for what he believed in, or more importantly, what the Hitler Youth and Nazi Party believed in.36

Many of the German children participated in the state-run youth organizations and therefore listened to and accepted the Nazi Party and the ideologies it preached. It was easier for the German people to accept the political party and its beliefs than to resist it. The NSDAP instilled in the German people an excitement that helped pull the country out of the depressive state created after WWI. The Hitler Youth was the main contributor that influenced and shaped the mindsets of German children from the 1920s to 1940s. Other methods that targeted the youth included propaganda films, school curriculum, prints, and youth rallies. For many of the children, especially the younger ones, retaliating against the government seemed preposterous.

Government officials, parents, school teachers, and other adult figures were a constant reminder to children that the Nazi Party was the correct path toward a better future. The youth were told to join the Hitler Youth and support Germany, and therefore the NSDAP. The younger children did not have the skills and experience to make their own decisions. It was not until the children reached adolescence that any organized opposition arose in the Third Reich. Even then, the adolescent groups formed in retaliation to the Hitler Youth were only a minor nuisance to the government. Many children bought into the Nazi propaganda and therefore the psychological warfare behind it. Prior to, and during, the war German children were pieces in a game controlled by the Nazi government. The mobilization of the German youth into the Hitler Youth only further demonstrated the might and power of the Third Reich.

36 Film poster retrieved from Google Images. English translation courtesy of Google Translate.

15

Annotated Bibliography

I. Primary Sources

Goebbels, Joseph. The Goebbels Diaries: 1942-1943. Edited and Translated by Louis P. Lochner. Garden City: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1948. Goebbbels’ diary from 1942-1943 provided an insight toward the German mindset. The diary also showcased Goebbels’ fierce dedication to the Nazi Party’s cause. As the dates progressed, the urgency and desperation was evident in his entries. The Goebbels Diaries reaffirmed Joseph Goebbels’ heavy involvement in the war effort, especially in the field of propaganda.

Heck, Alfons. A Child of Hitler: Germany in the Days when God Wore a Swastika. Colorado: Renaissance House, 1988. Alfons Heck’s autobiography told the reader what life was like for a German child during the Third Reich. Heck’s membership in the Hitler Youth provided a backdrop to learning what children we taught while in the government sponsored youth program. Heck’s honest opinions of the leaders, rallies, and overall excitement about the Hitler Youth was an indicator of the effect the Nazi Party had on German children.

Hitler, Adolf. Mein Kampf. Translated by Ralph Maneim. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1943. Adolf Hitler’s Mein Kampf was a critical source when analyzing the methods and tactics Nazi propaganda employed. Hitler detailed his expectations of propaganda offices and how they could be effective. The book also gave insight as to what the Führer thought of the German citizens and how to best convince them that the Nazi Party was the one and only political party.

“Hitlerjunge Quex 1933 English Subtitles.” Youtube video, 1:25:09. June 29, 2014. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HlPAfx1mAJ8. This propaganda film was widely used by the Nazi Party. It was targeted at the German Youth and was successful in garnering support by them. The main character, a Hitler Youth member, was a relatable character for many children at that time. The film reaffirmed the devotion and obedience that was expected of Hitler Youth members, and the rest of the German population.

Mitchell, Brian. International Historical Statistics: Europe 1750-2005. 6th ed.New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. This collection of statistics displayed helpful information about radio production that was used in the research paper. The focus on each country was very helpful in the research process.

The German Propaganda Archive. Translated by Randall Bytwerk. http://research.calvin.edu/german-propaganda-archive/index.htm.

16

The German Propaganda Archive provided a very large amount of primary sources that ranged from posters to speeches given by Nazi officials. Although few were incorporated in the research paper, many of the images and speeches provided a background that helped establish the nature of Nazi propaganda. All written works were translated by Randall Bytwerk.

II. Secondary Sources

Baird, Jay W. “From Berlin to Neubabelsberg: Nazi Film Propaganda and the Hitler Youth Quex.” Journal of Contemporary History 18, no. 3 (1983): 495-515. http://www.jstor.org/stable/260548. Baird’s evaluation on Nazi film propaganda was particularly helpful in the initial search for film propaganda. It also provided a summary and analysis of the Hitler Youth Quex movie, which was used in the research paper.

Crew, David F. Hitler and the Nazis: A History of Documents. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Crew’s book outlined some of the visual propaganda used during the Third Reich. It also discussed the importance of Hitler’s public image and how that was altered over time. Several images were used or referenced in the oral presentation portion of the research project.

Finch, Lynette. “Psychological Propaganda: The War of Ideas on Ideas During the First Half of the Twentieth Century.” Armed Forces & Society 26, no. 3 (2000): 367- 12. Finch’s article gave an insight to psychological warfare and how propaganda is a key factor in it. It also explained the different ways propaganda was used depending on the targeted audience. Public opinion was a factor when devising propaganda.

Latimer, Jon. “World War II: 12th SS Hitlerjugend Panzer Division Fought in Normandy.” World War II, June 12, 2006. Accessed November 3, 2014. http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-12th-ss-hitlerjugend-panzer-division- fought-in-normandy.htm. Latimer’s research of the Hitler Youth members that fought in the war helped the researcher develop a better understanding of the youth’s physical involvement in the war effort.

Meaney, John W. “Propaganda as Psychical Coercion.” The Review of Politics 13, no. 1 (1951): 64-87. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1404637. Meaney’s article explained how propaganda was a form of psychological coercion and manipulation. The author concluded that no one is immune to the effects of propaganda. Although it might not have been obvious, one’s mindset was likely to change after such a long exposure to Nazi propaganda.

17

Pagaard, Stephen. “Teaching the Nazi Dictatorship: Focus on Youth.” The History Teacher 38, no. 2 (2005): 189-207. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1555719. Pagaard’s detailed explanation of the German youth’s daily lives was central to developing an understanding of their lives. From school, extracurricular activities, and resistance movements, the article clearly described the effects of Nazi propaganda on the lives of German children.

Rentschler, Eric. “Emotional Engineering: Hitler Youth Quex.” Modernism/Modernity 2, no. 3 (1995): 23-44. Renstchler’s article provided a background and summary of Nazi film propaganda that was used prior to and during WWII. Hitler Youth Quex was a prominent film that was based off of a true story. The author’s analysis of film propaganda was helpful in understanding the nature of it.

“The Battle of the Bulge.” History Learning Site. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/battle_of_the_bulge.htmn (accessed 3 November 2014). This source included information on the Battle of the Bulge during WWII. The military division that included Hitler Youth members was involved in the battle, thus showcasing the need for troops that were still merely children. Statistics and dates helped the researcher better understand the conflict.

Welch, David. “Nazi Propaganda and the Volksgemeinschaft: Constructing a People’s Community.” Journal of Contemporary History 39, no. 2 (2004): 213-238. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3180722. Welch discussed the importance of the Volksgemeinschaft, or people’s community, in German propaganda. In an attempt to unite the German people, the term was used and endorsed. Welch also outlined the four major themes he believed Nazi Propaganda had: national unity, racial purity, hatred of enemies, and charismatic leaders.

Welch, David. The Third Reich: Politics and Propaganda. London: Routledge, 1993. This particular book by Welch outlined how politics influenced propaganda, especially in Nazi Germany. The author also described how Nazi propaganda was effective, but its reach was limited because of the preexisting beliefs held by the German people prior to the Third Reich taking control.

“White Rose.” Holocaust Encyclopedia. http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007188 (accessed 12 November 2014). This webpage was helpful in identifying and evaluating the White Rose, a resistance movement within the Third Reich. It provided a basic understanding of the movement, its members, and its impact.

Yourman, Julius. “Propaganda Techniques within Nazi Germany.” Journal of Educational Sociology 13, no. 3 (1939): 148-163.

18 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2262307. Yourman’s article addressed the context for which the Nazi Party came to power in 1933 and how the propaganda only fueled the growing support for the political party. It also described the different tactics used in the propaganda throughout the years.

19