DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 142 497 SO 010 202
TITLE The Social Science Teacher, Vol. 6, No. 3,February 1977, Vol. 6, No. 4, April 1977 [And] Vol. 6, No.5, June 1977. INSTITUTION Association for the Teaching of the SocialSciences (England). PUB DATE 77 NOTE 131p.; For related documents, see ED 098 083, ED102 069, ED C98 117, and SO 010 200-201; Not availablein hard copy due to small type size oforiginal documents
EDRS PRICE MF-$0.83 Plus Postage. HC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Community Study; *Comparative Education;Curriculum; Demonstration Programs; *Educational Trends; Elementary Secondary Education; ForeignCountries; Learning Activities; *Periodicals; PoliticalScience; Sex Rcle; *Social Sciences; *SocialStudies; *Teaching Methods IDENTIFIERS England
ABSTRACT The first three issues for 197-' of TheSocial Science Teacher are presented. Each issue is devoted to aspecial topic relevant to social science instruction inelementary and secondary grades in England. The February issuecontains five articles focusing on the teaching of politics.Included are discussions of politics as a compulsory course, anexperimental program of political education for nine to 13-year-olds, and a reviewof the work of the Political Education Research Unit at the University ofYork. Articles about sex roles in society comprise the Aprilissue. These explore sex roles as stereotyped in social science textbooks, areview of resources on family roles, discussion starter activities for a sexroles course, and a source list for studying womenin society. Community studies teaching is the theme of the June issue. Onearticle describes a community volunteer program to involvestudents in activities. It analyzes problems in developingcommunity service programs in schools. Another article presents adirectory of useful.organizations for teaching community studies, such asAlcoholics Anonymous and the Confederation of British Industry. (AV)
*********************************************************************** Documents acquired by ERIC include manyinformal unpublished * * materials not available fromother'sources. ERIC makes every effort * * to obtain the best copyavailable. Nevertheless, items of marginal * * reproducibility are oftenencountered and this affects the quality * * of the microfiche and hardcopyreproductions ERIC makes available * * via the ERIC DocumentReproduction Service (EDRS) .EDRS is not *- * responsible for the qualityof the original document. Reproductions* * supplied by EDRS are the best that canbe made from the original. ********************************************************************** t1'
ASSOCIATION FOR THE TEACHING OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
U.S. DEPARTMENT OE HEALTH. REPRODUCE THIS -PERMISSION TO EDUCATION & WELFARE BY MICRO. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF COPYRIGHTED MATER,ALRANTE BY F1C E ONLY HASBEEN EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO. RAT DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM ORGANIZATIONS 0 NA TO ERIC ANDAGREEMENTSWITH THE THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN- ING UNDER OF EDUCATION ATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS TIONAL INSTITUTE OUTSIDE STATED DC, NOT NECESSARILY REPRE FURTHERREPRODUCTIONREQUIRES PERMIS SENT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF THE ERIC SYSTEMCOPYRIGHT OWNER EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY SION OF THE
THE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHER
Edition on The Teaching of Politics VOL.6 No.3 FEBRUARY 1977
PRICE 7bn THE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHER
Journal of the Association for the Teaching of the Social Sciences Vol. 6,No. 3 Edition on the Teaching of Politics Edited by Clive Herber
(Published by A.T.S,S. Copyright A.T.S.S. 1977)
PAGE CONTENTS Viewpoint by David Davies 1 2 A.T.S.S. News 7 Correspondence 9 Articles:1. Political Education for the Nine to Thirteens? AnExperiment by John Riches 2. Politics in the Compulsory Course? by Veronica Ellis 11 3. Teaching C.S.E. Politics by Clive Herber 14 4. '0' and 'A Level Government Teaching in Further Educationby Mick McGuiness and Richard Upright 17 the Work of the Political Education Research Unit 5. Researching Political Education 21 by Garth Allen 26 Reviews 30 Resources Exchange
Section Cartoon Headings by Beverly Curl
Views expressed in contributions to this journal do not necessarily representthe view of A.T.S.S. or the editors. The journal provides opportunities for the expressionof divergent ideas and opinions.
3 approaches from non-neutral but relatively "objec- VIEWPOINT ON "VIEWPOINT" tive" perspectives is of course a highly political act "Viewpoint" is strictly speaking a ten week course (and the IBA decision should be viewed in this in mass-communications contracted byThames light). Viewpoint comes to a Marxist, though some Television and broadcast in Autumn 1975 on the might argue Sociology of Knowledge, perspective. ITA educational network. The series is divided into What isto be evaluated and the mode of that evaluation is itself an outcome of struggle and con- three parts.Firstly, Communication in Society shows how beliefs and ideas are !ormed through flict. Knowledge gained in this area by teachers and communication and that communication itself is a pupils i4 part of a process of engagement in which everyone takes part. There can be no neutral means of cOntrol. Secondly, Meditation,consisting media chairperson. Education is practice and practice is of five programmes looks at messages in the highly problematic. Viewpoint succeeds in its aims end the processes through which fictional and non-, fictional messages pass. Thirdly, Structures exam- partly because the aims are correct but mainly organisations which because it presents a challenge. Pupils are not seen inesthelargeindustrial rather as effectively control mass-communications and looks as passive recipients of information but active agents of change within the situation in which at possibilities for alternatives. The Viewpoint programmes were seen by 9.1 they find themselves. They must think, question, discuss and the programme having stated its per cent of all secondary schools in the country challenges them to query and test what and most of these were non-selective. The response position from teachers and pupils was favourable. The has been said. Independent Broadcasting Authority's memoran- For the social science teacher the meaning of dum on Viewpoint (published in full in Screen Viewpoint is surely that possibly for the first time Education, Summer 1976 No.19) noted ... "The visually and imaginatively he can have material appetite among schools for such a series is perhaps which communicates to children the notion that v.hen we experience the world we experience a indicated by the unusually high take for the fltt political transmission of a secondary school series ... CA st.'ic:ure of values and beliefs which has the whole teachers seem to have appreciated the meanir.g. The way is shcwn for the teacher to get uzq:ind :.urf ace appearances and expose the false series Right-wing teachers observed that the programmes were 'anti-establishment' butfound rh.eds acquired under capitalism and simultaneoaslv they could provoke good discussion in difficult,to confront the depoliticisatior. of yetanother school generation. The teacher has the material classes." The whole series was due to be repeatedin the possibility of presenting reality as changeable in a 1976/77 ITA schedules but was withdrawn by the meaningful way within the learning situation in IBA after protests from Southern Television.No the classroom. complaints were received from teachers. Southern As far as the accusation of bias by the IBA goes, were concerned about "bias" in the programmes it exemplifies how little the media interests are pre- and the possible effect on the audience. Southern pared to defend access to the means of expression. is a private company owned jointly by theRank If capitalism facilitates freedom of expression then D.C. why could its media interests not contain and fur- Organisation, Associated Newspapers, and fact Thompson Ltd. As Screen Education noted ... ther facilitate Viewpoint? The series did in "Those who have seen Viewpoint will remember investigate "freedom of expression" and argued that the Rank Organisation and its interests was that capitalism restrictedit. For the IBA then impartiatity appea,s to be an uncritical acceptance given specific attentioninthe series and that generally Viewpoint took a critical line on the of capitalism's ability to foster a supposedpairality ownership of mass-communications byprivate of views laving moreor-less equal access to the means of expression. The banning ofViewpoint commercial interests." have already said Viewpoint is strictly gives the lie to this .nyth. The category oc "impar- As I tiality" has been used the privately owned speaking a course in mass-communication. In reality to suppress views INhich could it is much more as the media interests have been media interests quick to realise. The two main aims of theseries potentially subvert the ideology of the dominant media interests. The Screen Education i'.see above) are set out in the teachers' notes asfollows ... their editorial comment :1anposite "No statement 1. To direct the attention of educators and existence students towards the mass media. can be neutral or non-par isan, by ,ts v%:.y 2. o examine from a social viewpoint therelation- it negates and excludes an infinity of unarticulated shios between the mass media and philosophy, possiblealternative statement:, that cam? with economics, culture and education. them a different order of values and views of the A more fundamental intention 'can be discerned world. To say that something is neutral P;mply and this is concerned with pioneering a critical mystifiesits relation to value systems, but that mystification is an importent strategy in naturalisino sociological approach to understanding and changing is this mystifi- the structure of ownership and control as well as the view of the world it carries. It "Consensus" cation Viewpoint challenges." (P.75). to challenge the dominant ideological Since Viewpoint is primarily an educational of capitalist mass-communications. The series was by quite explicit in asserting the point of view that a programme the questions for teachers raised to media educationi5 the banning are very serious. What will be allowed "valuefree" approach to count as knowledge within thecurriculum? How inappropriate.Theevaluation ofconflicting 4 (Continued on page eight) 1 A-LEVEL ANTHROPOLOGY An A level syllabus in Social Anthropology has not yet emerged but it is possible that the JMB might be interested in one if there was a demand for it. We would therefore like to hear from people who wouldliketo see the possibilityof studyin9 Anthropology made available to students outil,:z higher education. It would also be helpful to know of those who would be prepared to the Anthropology Panel on the developmera ..uch a syllabus if this should pro..:e necessa e. write to the convenor of the Panel. Mike the Royal AnthropologicalInstitute, 36 Craven St., London WC2N 5NG.
LANGUAGE ACROSS THE.CURRICULUM The National Association 'forthe Teaching of English has set up what it calls a commission to studyin depth chapter twelve of the Bullock ATM NEWS Report. This is the chapt3r which discusses the formation of a school policy for language in 311 Compiled by Chris Brown subjects, not just English. NATE has invited the co-operation of other subject associations and be- HELP! cause socialscientists have a special interest in Some of the executive Committee had heard language ATSS hopes to make a contribution to rumours of an economic crisis but we thought that the NATE initiative. I would therefore be grateful IMF stood fOr International Marxist Federation. to hear from any members who are interested in However, this is not so and it seems that ATSS the language of social sciences in the classroom must take account of recent economic trends. We and would like to be involved in this particular were forced to recogr,ise this when the billfor development. printing tie last Social Science Teacher arrived and we had no money to pay for it! EDUCATION TOWARDS FREEDOM Now, partlythisisa matter of 'cash-flow' Thisisthe title of a book translated from the (which makes it seem like no problem at all German about the work of the Waldorf schools. except to the printer!). For some reason people These schools are the realisation of the philosophy think that Christmas and the New Year is a time to of Radolf Steiner and the book describes how this lash out extravagently in every direction except philosophy is translated into educational practice. ATSS. However, iz seems that we may also have to The book includes a brief discussion of the place accept that we are trying to do a little more than of History and, Sociology in secondary schools. It we can afford. Thus this issue of SST is slightly is available from The Lanthorn Press, Peredur, East trimmed and does not include a Briefing. Also we Grinstead RH19 4N F price £7.00 plus packing and have had to inform members of our advisory panels postage, or from bookshops. that they may only claim expenses for two meetings in this acedemic year. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION TEACHER The situation is not desperate. Membership is The second issue of this new publication contains risingat an increasing rate and income from useful details about Local Ombudsmen and some advertising is also promising. But there are two statistic_ relating to the operation of Administrative immediate courses of action we urge on those Tribunals. It is available, not from the Editor as members who want ATSS to survive wrongly said in vol. 6, No. 1, but from The Politics 1. Renew immediately.If you have received a Association, 66 Aldwickbury Cres.. Harpenden, reminder that your subscriptionisdue for Herts. AL5 5S0. renewal, please send it off promptly (or let us know that you are not renewing and why). FOOD AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACH 2. Recruit a neW member. Forms are not necessary The Royal Anthropological Institute has recdntly but I can supply thew, if requi, ed. Cheques for published a set of filmstrips with sound commen- -£4 or £6 direct to Lorraine Judge, 10 Spiers Rd.. tary dealing with anthropological ideas relating to Lochwinnoch, R mfmwshire, Scotland are all food and eating habits. The filmstrips were de- we need. Any way in which jou can publicise veloped at Bristol Polytechnic under the direction of ATSS will help. Mr Richard Thorn and were inspired by the ideas of. It is certain that we shall have to raise the sub. among others. Professor Mary Douglas and Professor scriptions soon but if we can conti -ue to increase Edmund Leach .The approach is novel and entertain- our membership it may not be necessary to ask ing, and it is hoped that the subject matter will be of people to pay more until 1978. Remember, an interest to teachers of geography, social studies and ATSS subscription is a legitimate allowance against home economies, as well as to those reponsible for income tax. general studies courses. 2 The material is in four parts. Radical Education is a lively magazine, well Part 1 Everyday Eating Habits worth looking at. Further details from 86 Eleanor Part 2 Eating Habits in Other Cultures Road, London E8. These two parts compare British eating habits with those of other peoples, and aim to show the fundamental logic which can be detected with NOVEMBER COUNCIL , regard to food and eating. They are suitable for In November the ATSS Council met in Leeds and lower and middle secondary pupils, though they several new faces appeared to take on some of the May be used at 6th form level in conjunction with tasks of running ATSS. Lewis Derbyshire of Epsom & Ewell CFE is taking on the arduous job of Branch Parts 3 and 4. Development. Jim Beard of Oakham School, Part 3 Food Groups Rutland will be looking after the initiation and Part 4 Eating and Relationships co-ordination of conferences. And Heather Clark These two parts examine attitudes to food in becomes Sales Officer to try to increase our income more detail. Part 3 considers the restrictions which from sales of publications. There is plenty of room we place on certain categories of food. Part 4 for more people to help and Ishall be happy to suggests a fascinating correlation between these hear from anyone interested. , categories and other areas ofculture. Parts 3 and 4 Also at the November Council we agreed that are rather more difficult than Parts 1 and 2, and ATSS should prepare a poSition statement on the would be suitable for 6th forms. place of social studies in schools with a view to The price of the complete set, comprising two making our views know,i in the current curriculum compact cassettes, two oouble frame colour film- debate. More news of this in the next issue. strips and teacher's notes, is £7.00 including VAY and postage. Parts 1 and 2 are available as a separate pa.-.;k. SOCIAL STUDIES PROJECT price £3.60 including VAT and postage. Our submission to Schools Council continues to Similarly Parts 3 and 4 are available as a sepuro' 4 make headway in that it has got through Round 1 pack, price £3.60 including VAT and postage. in the Programme Committee. It now goes back to Pleasesend your orders to: Royal An thropolo the Social Sciences Committee for detailed discus- Institute, 36 Craven Street, London WC2N ENG. sicns. However, Schools Council finances have been sev7rely cut so that a September 1978 start is the RADICAL EDUCATION very earliest we can envisage if all the remaining I think it would generally be agreed by ATSS mem- Rounds are successful. The co-ordinator of the bers that the most difficult problem faced by Project, as selected by ATSS, is Ivor Goodson who anyone trying to teach about society is the problem is currently working on the Environmental Educa- of perspective. How do you convey to students tion Project at the University of Sussex. Geo`i that wnat they take for granted about society may Whitty is Chairman of the Co-ordinating Committee. only be nne persper.:tive? The problem is two-fold. Not only do alternative perspectives often appear illegitimate, biased or 'politically motivated* but ATSS NEWS a'so students can be so soaked in the dominant This section of the journal is for any small items of pt,rspective that they cannot treat it as an object information which could be of use to readers. It is of study. In this situation the dominant perspective produced mainly from material that is sent to me However, there is a set of unexamined assumptions which are the or anything I get to know about. tools of study rather 1han the object of study. must be a gre,t deal of useful information which Radical Education is a magazine which I have does no come my way so please feel free to send come across recently which could be useful resource me anything you think is relevant. The same is true material for teachers of sociology, politics and of the Diary Dates. We make no charge for publish- this section but we would not normally socialstudies,as wellashaving considerable ingin intrinsic interest. it is sometimes strident in its neo- include in it straight:orward commercial matter. Marxist position but the articles are 'written with impress:ye clarity. Superficial in some respects, it nevertheless articulates an approach to education DIARY DATES 'with which most students will not be familiar. Feb. It is thus an excellent vehicle for demonstrating 25/27 Eastern Europe: New Societies and New ao alternative perspective. Of course, newspapers International Actors. Dr. G. Sakwa. Bristol are often used to demonstrate differentpolitical University.DetailsfromDerekSmith, perspectives but, given the fragmented nature of University of Bristol Dept. of Extra-Mural our social science, other areas like thefamily or Studies, 32 Tyndall'sParkRd., Brislol education are often assumed implicitly to be not- BS8 1HR. political. People expect political differences, but not differences in education. Radical education 26 W.Midlands Politics and Economics Assocs. shows how education can be viewed from an CurriculumProjectsinEconomics and alternative perspective and thus the *social' as well Politics. University of Birmingham School as the 'political' can be seen to have differentfaces. of Education. 3 Mar RAIN. No.16. Oct. 1976 5 N.Midlands KISS. Teaching theFamily. Theinitialsstandfor Clarendon CFE, Nottingham 10-1. Royal Anthropological 26 Institute News which is published six timesa year W.MIdlands ATSS. Socialisation. Univ. of in the form of a 12-page broadsheet. Thereare Birmingham School of Education. 10.00. regular film and book reviews and lively correspon- 28/ dence from issue to issue arising out of Apr. 1 BritishSociological these Association.Annual reviews and other matter. Inthisissue Colin Conference.PowerandtheState. Turnbull responds to Mike Sallnow's review of Peter Details from BSA, 13 Endsleigh St., London Brook's production of The lk which was basedon WC1 COJ. Turnbull's book The Mountain People,a book 12/16 ATSS Easter Course. Social Studies and which I find forces my students to think very, hard Humanities in Schools, Loughborough Col- indeed about the whole concept of society. There lege of Education. is also a stylish report of a recent conferenceon 15/18 Economics Association. Annual National Race and Ethnicity in Britain by Jonathan Benthall. Economics Teaching Course. Neville's Cross RAIN is available from the RAI, 36 Craven St., College of Education,University of Durham. London WC2N 5NG. Details from Econcmics Assoc., Room 340, Hamilton House. Mabledon Place, London PSYCHOLOGY TEACHING. Vol.4, No.2. Nov. WC1H 9BH. 1976 Thisis May the Bulletin of the Association for the 14 Teaching of Psychology. It contains a fascinating W.MidlandsATSS.SocialScienceand variety of articles, reports, news and an extensive Humanipes. Univ. of Birmingham School of reviews section. There is a long report ona recent Education. 10.00. conference on A-level Psychology teaching 20 Pressure Groups and British run by Politics. Dr. ATP and some comments on Psychologyat CSE A.W. Wright. Birmingham University. Details level in general and the CEE in Psychology estab- from Dept. of Extra-Mural Studies, Univ. of lished recently by the N.W.Regional Exams Board Birmingham, P.O. Box 363,Edgbaston, in particular by the Chief Examiner ofthe latter. Birmingham B15 2TT. There are also bibliographies of Firsthand Accounts of Coping with an ill, Handicapped or Deviant Sept. Child(it does not include a discussion of the 15/18 ATSS Annual Conference.LeedsPolytechnic. rationale for lumping these three categoriesto- gether) and of feature films for teaching Psychology. Thislasthas considerable relevancefor social science and social studies generally. The Bulletin also contains one of thoserare, TEACHING POLITICS. Vol.5, No.3. Sept. 1976 and therefore welcome, articles on school staff- In his editorial for this issue, Derek Heater appeals rooms. The basic concepts used inthis social for more contributions offering help and adviceon psychological study are integration and differenti- the everyday classroom situation. From this point ation but in the end the article does not get very of view this issue of Teaching Politics is perhaps far. The author seems to imply that teachersare somewhat arid but, as in most issues, the main a right bolshy lot when it comes to being re- articles are interesting. Hugh Berrington writes on searched I would say that they were a right Personality Studies and Politics and David Ennals bolshy lot anyway. Psychology Teaching seemsto on New Relationships in the United Nations. But be available from David Rose, Dept. of Psychology, perhaps the most important article is in the form Goldsmiths College, New Cross, London 5E14 6NW. of a critique of the Programme for Political Educa- tion by Pat and John White.While they are basically Pat Lewes, ATSS rep. on the Schools Council in sympathy with the project as a whole, they sub- History Committee, writes: ject it to fairly rigorous criticism both at thelevel The History Committee has about 20 members. offundamentalarAumptionsas wellas more These include teachers from Primary and Middle specific issues. Schools, Heads of History Departments, Head- Most of the trouble they feel stems froma masters, representativesof Higher and Further failure to work out in sufficient depth the aims of Education, Advisers for History and Social Studies the project. While this seems to me to be probably and History and Geography, members of the true it must also be said that any lengthy discussion Inspectorate, and representatives from the ATSS of aims could well have sabotaged the enterprise and the NUT.This provides a wide range of interests from the outset. The aims of political education and covers History at all age-levels. must themselves be intensely political so that it is The Committee deals with a large number of safer to identify apparently value-free notions like subjects under the general heading of 'History'. political literacy and procedural values rather than Becauie of the overlap which canoccur between be too specific on why you want to do this at all. 'History'and'SocialSciences',jointscrutiny It is perhaps unfair to suggest that it is rather like exercises are held in Economic History at A-level. elaborating the rules of the game before deciding Thisisin addition to the normal work of the what the object of the game is. History A-level Examinations sub-committee which 4 not only scrutinises the examination and marking SOCIETY TODAY of existing syllabi (inciuding scripts of examination Last autumn IPC Magazines launched their Society candidates), but also comments on proposed new Today for social science students. Members of ATSS syllabi at A-level. The History Committee also con- at Grantliam CFE complained to IPC that by only siders the relevance of other types of modes of making itavailable on a minimum of ten copies examination and recently recommendedthe teachers were being lslackmailed into acting as adoption of the CEE examination. unpaid canvassers for IPC. Teachers could hardly The Committee is particularly concerned with refuse to order it but they ran some risk then of curriculum development and the aims and objectives not being able to collect money from stbdents. of History teaching..lt therefore monitors projects Either way they were in an embarrassing positio'n. such as the 'Integrated History of England and ATSS was asked to make representations to IPC Wales', and the role of the computer in the Curricu- and the ensuing correspondence is printed below lum in general and the teaching of History in for the information of all members. particular. Proposed projects are brought before the Committee for evaluation. The Schools Council History 13-16 Project which was first introduced into trial scliools in 1972 is now being used by an increasing number of schools. An interim report Association for the Teaching of the Social Sciences has been circulated to members of the Committee by the evaluator, and a shortened version should be generally available some time in the future. An 19 Mandeville Gardens, article about the History 13-16 Project by the Walsall WS1 3AT director,Mr. A. Boddington, appearedinthe October 18th 1976 Autumn 1976 issue of 'Dialogue'.Iwould be happy to hear from any members on matters con- The Editor, cerning overlap between history and social studies Society Today, or courses in which the two subjects are combined. IPC Magazines, Please contact me at West Park High Schooi, Spen Kings Reach Tower, Lane, Leeds L516 5BE. London SW1.
DavidDavies,editor of the proposed'Ideas Dear Sir, Exchange', writes: We have received a letter from Grantham College The next edition of 'The Social Science Teacher' of Further Education in which ATSS is asked to willcontaina new sectioncalledan"Ideas advise it's members not to buy Society Today until Exchange". It Will consist of ideas for classroom the subscription scheme is changed. My Executive use for the social science teacher. have discussed the matter and I am instructed to The ideas themselves need not necessarily be write to you in the following terms. new; tried and tested ideas also need discriminating among colleagues. Given ideas which have failed in The Executive Committee of ATSS supports the practice or are still far from perfected in a teaching ,representations made to you regarding the terms of context can be useful to someone else. The point sale of Society Today by staff at GranthamCollege is,that practising social science teachers them. of Further Educatton. We note, however, that selves should be able to publish short accoun3 of recent publicity for tha first time makes individual strategies, methods, techniques which they have subscriptions possible and we welcome this. Used or are currently developing. In ,....rdar to tacilitate the exchange perhaps the Nevertheless, anind:vidual subscription costs a following points might serve as a tentative sat cf . substantial amount payable in advance and will guioa lines for contributions: therefore be beyond the reach of most students. i..engtn: up to 400 words (approx.) This still leaves teachers therefore in a potentially Leve: age range or group, ability level - embarrassing position. Specification of subject area or disoiplini In these circumstances we should be glad if you area Conceptual content methodologies used would consider making Sczty Today available in Problems encountered, techniques adopted the normal way through newsagents. This would Name of school/college of the person sub- ease the position for teachers and might even lead, mitting the idea. in the case of some stud:fits, to a regular order for The complete range of social science studies New Society. should be included. Emerging areas such as media studies, social work teaching, and cc nmunity edu We await your reply be:fore consioering the matter cation will be coverud. Hopefully some ickas will further. be useful in a number of contexts. Please send contributions to: Yours faithfully, Dave Davies, Sociology Section Bulmershe College of Higher Education C.H. Brown, Woodlands Ave., Woodley, Reading. Hon. Sec. C.H. Brot Esq., Kon. Sec., for the first issue have exceeded our 19 Mandeville Gardens, Walsall WS1 3AT. forecasts, with 2let October, 1976 over 5,000 copies sold, and nearly 300 schoolsor college; involved already. We have increased the Dear Mr. Brown, print-run for ism No. 2. Of course, in "easier" days one would have Thank you for your letter, whichcame to me direct.I am General Editur: the actual Editor of hoped that LEAs themselves could have helped towards purchasecosts. Perhaps, inindividual Society Today is Patricia Holland. But Ihave con- sulted both her and our Publisher before replying. LEAs, your members could suggest this.But unfortunately, thisis often not likely to be feasible. I think that this therefore isas full a reply as we I hope I can make it. have spelled this out fully enough to Naturally, from the point of view of New show that we have gone about this as bestwe can, and to indicate that quite a number of studentsand Society's own reputation. I would want onlythe schools are already finding this of service. fairest possible terms to be offered. Obviously,it isforindividualinstitutions, The general situation is this: teachers or students to decide whether they do in It is obviously crucial to keep thecost of this fact want to make use cf this resource. I hope new resource as low as possible, for the kind of they will. It has the inevitable shortcomings ofany new reason that you yourself outline. We would ideally venture, but I am confident that it will get eJen have liked to get the cost e en lower. Butwith better as it goes aloi.g. print and paper costs, and allowing fcir editing I would be happy for you to makewhat lve work, graphic work, and reproductiontees, this written here available to any of your was impossible. Even now we reckon to do members. no Perhaps it would clarify things if, for example,you more than, at best, break even in our firstyear of were to run this letter in your journal? We are glad operatior. But we think thisisa worthwhile to be carrying your piece about the ATSS in No. 3 investment, to the benefit of students. of Society Today. 'We have experience of mailing direct becauseof You mention the question of the existing schools scheme, urcler which issues of your possibly New Society, New Sciertist and the Geographical advising your members "not to buy Society Today until the subscription scheme is changed." I-ust I Magazine can be got at a sPecial students'rate. Our have now made it clear why the scheme is theway system fordistributingSociety Today springs it is. directly from this. If we put on to newsstalls, the wholesale Ilook forward to the magazine being ofcon- and tinued use to teachers and students ofthe social retail handling costs would killthe publication sciences. stone-dead. (At least, at present. It is too earlyto consider the medium-term future). Nor would itbe Yours sincerely, as effective a way of drawing it to the attention of Paul Barker, its potential audience. Relieve me, I get sufficiently Editor, NEW SOCIETY. frustrated by our difficulties in gettingeven New Society, after 14 years' existence, intonewsagents. Again, the advantage, not to us butto students or schools, is that a single order in advance, ideally on a group basis, allows us to keep down thecosts Association for the Teaching of the Social Sniences of not only distribution but also of invoicing,etc. As you say, there are also individualsubscrip 19 Mandeville Gardens, tions, for those who would prefer this. Wefelt we Walsall WS1 3AT. should, in fairness, offer this service. But to put November 10th 1976 our cards on the table we hope that, by and large, advantageistaken of the group scheme. Paul Barker, Esq., Otherwise, there is a rise in handlinrd costs, andan General Editor, Society Today, increased pressure for a future price rise. King's ;Reach Tower, London SEl. As regards the situation of teachers who feel they are, in some way being "put under pressure" Dear Mr. Barker, to "sell" to students, I would like to think that Thank you for your letter of October 21st in which most will be able to handle this professionally and, you set out the position regarding the terms of sale without embarrassment. Our experienceso far is of Society Today. that this is possible. We have not only the experience My Executive have now discussed this and it of our existing schools schemes, but alsosome of seems to us that no further action is needed on our the Society Today scheme. One teacher, for example, part. We shad, however, be glad to publish ourcor- quite deliberateiy, made an "off hand"approach; respondence in the February edition of our journal: saying, in effect, "There it is. It's upto you. It unfortunately it is too late for the December issue. does cost a fair amount. I'm not all that keer to do This should make it clear to those ofour members the ',handling' of it.Just make up your own minds". who are concerned exactly what the situation is. After seeing the sample copy, 30 of thestudents place ordersl Yours sincerely, C.H. Brown, We have, in fact, found that the orders placed Hon. Sec. 6 CORRESPONDENCE A Student's View of a Social Science Course
35 Huntley Avenue, Dear Editors, Spondon, Derby. I have recently completed two years of a four year Bachelor of Education (Hons.) degree at a college Dear Editors, of higher education where a third of my timetable has been devoted to a study of 'Education and have had a bit of a shock at College in the last Society' a course based on the discipline of couple of weeks. College needs to cut subjects and sociology. The degree is validated bv the C.N.A.A.. courses in order to reduce the number of 0 and A ismodular in c istruction and leads to a prc level students entering college and transfer resouvces cessional degree for teaching. During each of tl to part-time education; of course, vocational sub- first two years of the course students are requirau jects get precedence over academic subjects. Guess to complete nine units of study, six of these being what they pick on?! 0 level Sociology is virtually equally divided between two mair. courses whinq removed from common 0 leveltime-tableof form the core of personal higher education and to twenty-fot.rsubjectsandclassified asa non- which the remaining units are related; years 3 and essential subject. I go to Principal. Argue with him 4 are concerned with professional and advanced for an hour. Do a quick tour of the college to personal studies. gauge public opinion and find an amazing level of I feel that my experience as a student following prejudice against sociology as a subject "easy an intensive social science course has given me an option", 'Taking away good students who could intcresting insight into the special sense of responsi- be studying useful subjects like sciences" etc. etc. bility which needs to be exercised by the social Having made a fuss the sociology classes are now science teacher towards his students. reinstated but the whole incident made me think. During the past two years the direct relation- 1. My college is a large one. 250 staff. 60 hours of ship between the dedication and commitment of sociology on the timetable every week. 200 0 the tutor and the qua/ity of the material taught, level candidates. This makes sociology the third and between the tutor's concern for the.student as largest full-time subject in the college. If this an individual and theprogress and developing can happen in my college what will happen to interest of the student, has become obvious to me people in weaker situations and poor so-and- this regardless of the discipline but in addition so's in schools! to this responsibility to his profession, the social 2.It seems to me that subjects like sociology science teacher leads his students to a critical provide a convenient scapegoat for all sorts of understanding of society by sharing and exploring educational and social problems. In a situation ideas which can have repercussions, and indeed, a of shrinking resources people will turn on it if direct impact on the student's world vision. we are not careful. ATSS ought to be doing The course I have followed has necessarily something about this. concentrated on the sociology of education, but 3. What I now realise I am going to have to do in the perspective encouraged has been that of a my collegeis to provith a rationale for why dynamic system capableofmodificationand sociology oughtto be:aught. In this way change through the application of critical reason Vehaps future arguments will be grounded in by those individuals most actively involved init. facts rather than prejudices. Where does ATSS Because we considered the education system a: fit into this? being one with no fixed or stable framework, What I am going to do is to produce a document because we have zorne to recognise th3t all societal for my college on educational and vocational systems areinextricably woventogether,our reasons for studying sociology, i.e. what jobs are perspectivo and course of study has been broadened available,careers, higher education courses etc. to include the application of the theories of society This will at least answer some of the criticisms of and sociological concepts to other systems. The my colleagues. But I must admit I am completely problemsdiscoveredandconfrontedinthe ignorant of thesefacts myself apart from HE educational system are seen as symptomatic of the opportunities. What professions accept sociology? wider society, a reflection of the pervading power Isittrue some do not?Isittrue that some relationships of a class society where the values universities look down on sociology as an easy enshrined asbeingnecessaryand worthwhile, option? These sorts of arguments will increasingly contributory factors in any definition of humanness, be raised in the future. But to counter them is a are rooted in and seek to protect present economic big job and I start from a position of ignorance. and political relationships. Now ten me am I being oversensitive? Is this This understanding leads to a questioning of the firsts signs of paranoia? But also,I repeat, where established order of things and this, initially, was does ATSS fit into this. to me the most di'Aurbing aspect of my social science course. I wis (rather reluctantly) led to a Yours sincerely, state of constant reappraisal of values I had held to Mick Bailey, be unchangeable &Id sacred; I beganto look Lecturer in Sociology, Derby CFE. critically at institutions which had produced me 1 0 7 7 and coloured my relationships. I eventually began teachers who have developed the consciousness to formulate a structure on which to pin thisnew that education is an integral part of their understanding, a own lives philosophywhichlacksthe rather than a commodity to be acquired or rejected; chimeric qualities of the past and is basedon a onlyifthisis so can they hope to offer their scientific evaluation of life as it is. students a wider, meaningful vision of life and There appearstobeadirectrelationship learning, onlyif this is so can the social science between this new awareness on my part and that teacher lead his students to a deeper understanding between my tutors and their subject. Recognising of their society, of the real alternatives which and to man attempting understandthisnexusis is capable of achieving, to the positive part they obviously important'to a potential teacher. can play in man's and society's development. This For the vast majority, education is seenas a presuriposes the understanding that education iu phenomenon imposed from outside, to be composed of a vast body of knowledge which it is deprndent on mutual respect between teacher and necessary student, that social relationships area positive to gain for instrumental reasons but istotally contributory factor in the development within the divorced from their own understanding ofwhat is pupil of a personal relationship with his learning. real; that this knowledge is gained by a loss if some The process of education is thusseen as a very of their own essential nature has implicationsfor positive form of human interaction rather than the quality of society as a whole and, perhaps an more imposed system of learning which servespurposes importantly, on the societal definition of what external to the pupil. man should be. In order to overcome the division It must be open to question whetheror not a between knowledge and realitythere must be course such as ours can preserft and encourage the recognition by teacher and student that depth and grasp of sociological theory found inthe "knowledge" is a social construct deeply rooted in traditional degree the range of study is obviously an underpinning the value system of the total limited because of other subject commitments society. By confronting theproblem and by but to me it has been the most worthwhile lart of definingitas such, the way is opened for the critical my degree, exercising a pervasive influence ort the applicationofalternativeideaswhich remainder of my course. lt has bven intellectually recognise the value of the whole of man's experi- ence, and that in order to be real and meaningful stimulating and rawarding, an area of learning to him "knowledge" must take on subjective which has added positively to my life. dimensions. Maureen Clark, This brings me back to the relationship between Bulmershe College of Higher Education, teacher, student and subject and suggests the Reading, necessity of a total and subjective involvement by Berkshire.
VIEWPOINT (Continued troll dage one)
far can serious alternatives to dominant capitalist NB. Although the Viewpoint series willnot be interests be' presented within the school and what broadcast it is available on VCR cassettes and are the likely consequences for the professional copies can be obtained and legitimately used perition of the critical social science teacher? Will for teach ing in schools.The series is produced by emerging social science disciplines witha critical perspective such as media studies be suppressed? Thames Television, 306 Euston Road, London NW1 38B to whom enquiries should besent. This is not the place to attempt an answer to these Screen Education (Summer 1976. No.19I questions but The recial Science Teacher could do on the Viewpoint controversyisavailable for the profession a great service by initiatinga debate 50p from the Society for Education in Film on pedagogy and politics. Genuine tolertnce must andTelevision, 29 Old Compton Street, begin by condemning the repressive actions of the London 1V 5PL. broadcasting authorities. David Davies Bulmershe College of Higher Education Reading, Ber kshire.
1 1 years," although he remarked that the children's experience often outstripped their vocabulary." Easton and Hess's (2) investigations led to the assertion that "The truly formative years of a maturing mem- ber of a political system would seem to be the years between three and thirteen." Elia Zurick in a survey in Britain (3) showed very conclusively that twelve years old children from a 'superior' Preparatory School, with a high expectancy of enterin9 one of the top "ublic Schools and subsequent involvement in public life hadinfinitelygreaterpoliticalrealism than a sample of sixteen years old children from Compre- hensive, Modern, Grammar and 'Ordinary' Public Schools. She attributed :Ws to experience of the world and the quality of education for democracy received by the respective groups of children. ARTICLE5 Having convinced myself that my proposal was feasible I set out, bearing Piaget in mind, to design a series of lessons which would transmit democratic POLITICAL ST-IUCATION FOR THE NINE TO values to children by means of concrete experience THIRTEENS? AN EXPERIMENT ata stagein their cognitive development when By John Riche,. --there ,.gas a possibilitv of influencing tne fnrmation Headteacher: Emmanuel Church Middle School, of their concepts comerning democracy. Taking . Northampton. courage from Jerome K. Bruner's premise that "any subject can be taught in an intellectually Throughout my adult likeI have been a political honest way at any stage of development," Iset act:vist and a great advocate of our democratic about my tusk. society. Yet my experience, particularly "on the My design aims were: knocker" at elections has disturbed me greatly and 1. Toassisttheconceptualisationinthe has indicated that a majority of my fellow country- child's mind of the values of a democracy. men have little understanding of thn organisation 2. To enable him to have concrete experiances and institutions of our democratic society and are of democratic processes. apolitical to the extreme. As a result my thoughts 3. To help him to understand to some extent led me to suggest that if one presumes that democ- the problems and tasks of Government. racy is a good think, perhaps our educational system 4. To help him to make rational assessments has a duty to indoctrinate children with the values of the declared objectives of pressure groups of democracy. ie. To give a presentation of an including political parties. argument to assure a favourable outcome for a In addition to these aimsIset myself three pre-determined point of view. major restrictions. Firstly, the lessons must be non- IfI was to personally test the validity of my partisan. Secondly, even ifthe lessons failed to assumptions I would have to do it with the only achieve their stated aims, they must have validity children available to me my class of ten and and value in oth3r areas of the curriculum. And eleven year olds. Was I setting myself an impossible thirdly they must 'be suitable for use by teachers task? I decided to undertake a preliminary investi- not particularly interested in politics. gation to attempt to ascertnin the feasibility of my What folk,ws is an accJunt of one of a number proposals. of lesson seriesIhave designed and used with As a class teacher at the time, I felt certain from variousclasses between the ages ofnine and discussion at "Newstime", that some of-the more thirteen. The lessons assume that the tetcher is a intelligent children in my class had a good under- ciassteacher capable of devoting a considerable standing oi many aspects of our political society period oftime to the lesson. They would be and had sufficient maturity to dnderstand the unsuitableforuse with a Secondary School reasoning behind our democratic values and pro- speciarst timetable. cedures. More formal investigation of the literature In the first lesson, through the mediJrn of dis- provided ample evioence to suggest that younger cussion, improvised drama, written and artistic children can, and do, absorb political:y relevant work, Iasked the chikiren to imagine: that they informstion anddeveloppoliticallyrelevant were as a class on a liner en-route for Australia, attitudes in their early years. when the ship struck an uncharted coral reef in the C.J. Margerison (1) describeda learning ex- midst of a violent tropical storm. Tneir teachers perimenttotestchildren's understanding and and crew were lost and they were cast alone on the development and concluded that: shores of a beautiful island. This lesso: sets the "Children have the ability to discuss social and scene and helpt them to let their hair down, and economic problems at the age of nine and ten adopt their desert island roles. 12 The second lesson asks the children to examine making to a "government" is introdut...d;.butone What their needs would be on an islandand dlus. which is still answerable to the "people" for its trates the necessity for social organisation if they actions. ere to survive. The conflicting views ofvarious groups of The third lesson brings the conflict inherent in people on the island allows the concept of political a democratic society to the fore and by means of the teacher setting up conflicting parties to be introduced where one group "The Go arguments the Party" advocates the construction of anenormous children are asked to ensure that a decision is made raft to take the children back to civilisation; whilst despite these conflicting points of view. Perhapsat the "Stay Party" advocates that as lifeon the .this stage it is worth setting down a lesson planin island is so pleasant resources should be organised its entirety to enable the reader to havea clearer to make a long stay as comfortable as possible. understanding of the proposals. Subsequent essons revolve around howa fair election can be undertaken and implemented. The Lesson 4. "The Need forDecision" final set lesson deals with the introduction ofthe concept of Justice where all are deemed innocent Objectives. until proved guilty in a court of law. 1. To get the children to formulate and listen Obviously Ihave only given a synopsis of the to two sides of an argument, and to salient point of these lessons and I fully realise that 2. Make a decision as to a futurecourse of I have not done justice to teacher participation action. and the way in which children are taughtto organise themselves. Scene. The children have been on the island a I have taught these lessons en a number of week now. They have noticed some aircraft flying occasions now and on each occasion the children over the island.and they assume that this is part of the rescue operation find all came to different conclusions as to the way they the people missing ought to organise themselves. Eveluatkins of the 'from the ship. Some of the children lita large success or failure of the lessons were attempted bonfire on thu top of the island's big hill;but to but lackof no avail. a control grouo made theresults purely speculative. But the scrapbooks the children kept for all the work undertaken were sufficient Suggested teaching strategy. justificationinthemselvesfor 1. Prior to the lesson the teacher should brief the experiment, two and provided the children with a souvenir ofan of the children to pose a problem. exciting and enjoyable exercise. Child 1. "Hey. This morning Child 2 took the saw I brought from the sinking ship and cut up Bibliography the wood for the fire. Now I don't mind him 1.C.J. Margerison. "Learning Experimentto test borrowing it, but he really ought to ask my children's Understanding of Political Concepts." permission first. It's my sawl I brought it from the ship. It belongs to me." "Teaching Politics." Volume 2. September 1972. Child 2. "Yes. I did borrow the 2. D. Easton and R. Hess. "The Child's Political saw. But why World."from:"Psychology and shouldI Politics." ask permission to borrow it? Surely L.N. Rieselbach and G.I. Balch.(Eds.) 1969. everything we brought from the ship belongs 3.F.I. Greenstein, W.M. Herman, Robert Stradling to us all?" and Elia Zurick. "New Society." 23.0ctober 2. The teacher should ask the children howthey 1969. intend to resolve this problem. They will have to think of good reasons why the things brought from the ship should be the property of the entire group, or remain the possessions of individuals. 3. After discussion ask the children to voteon the matter to decide the issue, and make a new "law" whichwillbe recordedintheir law scrapbooks. This lesson really makes the children realise that conflicting opinions must be contained within a system of decision making if life on the island is not to degenerate into disarray. The subsequent lessons,stillthroughthe medium of improvised drama, discussion, written and artistic work; the point is put to the children thatifthey are goung to spend so much time arguing about how they are to organise themselves on their desert island, none of the essential tasks are going to be undertaken to ensure that the basic needs are met. Hence the idea of delegating decisbn 10 13 msmensp POLITICS IN THE COMPULSORY COURSE? necessitate the development of manipulation skills, By Veronica Elhs, Southwood School, Corby. historical knowledge or economic insights. Possibly some elements of allthese may be required to In teaching, aims must be clear, but perhaps in the achieve Professor Bernard Crick's notion of political teaching of politics they must be clearest. Exponents I i teracy . incorporating such work into a compulsory course One of my own courses takes the view that a will find that mention of the subject is likely to stop wide varietyofpoliticalexperience shduld be the average Staff Room conversation and then to brought to the notice of the younger pupil ih the arouse passions. In addition, parents and governors Secondary school. At 14 they should be able to are concerned rightly with both motivation and appreciate the wkler tapestry if not the individual content. stitches. Again, the constraint of time means that 'All this comes about because of mixed motives withinthe two year compulsory social science and concepts. Most teachers accept readily that course there is one term devoted to the develop- many of their charges are woefully ignorant of ment of political themes. Taking the concept of society at large, and their responsibilities within it. "Power and Responsibility" the unit comprises Conflict arises only in the method and manner of work on: the rectification. To teach politics is not to teach only party politics, communism or public partici- THE NEED FOR POLITICAL STRUCTURE. pation, to mention only three of the bogies. This METHODS OF GOVERNMENT is why aims must be defined and definite. The DEMOCRACY, DICTATORSHIP. problems are exacerbated where the pupils are of SOLVING PROBLEMS. mixed ability, attending a compulsory course and LOCAL AND NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. under 16, rather than 'intelligent' and studying for OVERSEAS EXAMPLES CHINA U.S.A. 'A' level Political Studies. WIDER POLITICAL GROUPINGSEUROPE. GETTING THINGS CHANGED Basic principles PRESSURE GROUPS. In teaching politics Lo allcomers in the middle LAW. Secondary years the basic principle might be seen THE POWER CF: THE PRESS AND as the creation of political awareness. The sweeping TELEVISION. nature of this statement masks the complexity of ALLOCATING RESOURCES. the required insights. Indeed, one might question immediately which political awareness we are to Allthis must be presented palatablyif the hand on! With -the developing intellect, the aware- content is to come across from the course creator ness must' be that of the political aspects at all to the consumer. levels of endeavour. Thus we might include how to solve problems, how political institutions work or how the individual carries out constitutional duties. Techniques The main theme has to be the development of Itisessential to capture the interest of a mixed skills and attitudestopermit and encourage ability class. The lesson fails if this is not achieved, appreciation and participation. There are thoseand the course motivation falls by the wayside. who define the subjeCt as the study of resource Thus every weapon in the educaticmal armoury will allocation, and if this is the case then the system have its use. Games and simulation, together with and its manipulation must be understood by the audio and visual recording devices, will come into individual. Only in this way is he relevance of the their own. A textbook, whilst it will not be followed governors seen by governed, to the benefit of both. .verbatim, can be used as a source of information, along with slides, speakers and television. Ali of Course creation these approaches used in short sessions and inter- In creating general, as against specifically examin- spersed throughout the course_ will present ideas ablecourses,theteacherwillencounter two and knowledge in a wide variety of fashions, and constraints early on. The ubiquitous timetable will help to stimulate thought and promote learning. raise its head first, followed closely by the spectre Thus the search will be on for stimulus materiaL of course content. With thought, material can be manufactured easily The timetable constraints will vary with the and cheaply by a class teacher. An early investment establishment, but since the callfor a common in paper, scissors and card will yield a rich harvest core curriculum is gaining in decibels, the curricular if coupled with a serendipitous eye and ear. Be pattern is under review in most schools. Again, it prepared to re-think traditional approaches! Six may be possiljle to accommodate a compulsory examples might serve to elaborate the development social science structure within the existing pattern. of some of the themes used. A politics unit is assimilated easily into this. The teacher creating the course must think 1. The way we are governed through the implications of the basic aims in terms In many ways it is most dif ficult to convey bread- of the pupils, the school and the locality. This may and-butter materialinan .inspiringfashion. In lead to emphasis on the politics of participation, or teaching and revising the working of our own government, or resources, to highlight only three system this paper puzzle is useful (Fig.1 ). Printed ofthe possibleopenings. Such options might on Bandc and sliced up onto line statements it can 14 11 of shapes. Made of card, the pieces may be pre- ELECTORS sented to a group of pupils. They are told that they are to deal with the task before them. Others in OVER 18 YEARS OLD the class are to time the activity and note the methods used. Give instructions for the following VOTE.AT ELECTION TIME approaches: All with group (a) Every member of the group FOR ONE CANDIDATE . can take part, and may co- operate or not as they wish. USE OF SECRET BALLOT then group(b) A structured group with an appointed teacher,card mover WINNER HAS MAJORITY OF VOTES and others consulted as the leader thinks fit. DECLARED WINNER JOINS OTHERS then group(c)The giving situation where participants may not talk or ELECTED gesticulate but only smile and give. This simplistic approach lays the basis for be handed out to pupils to be reconstituted. Here developments of the concepts leading to democ- there is no clue in the shape of the paper and only racy, dictatorship and utopia. All these are im- knowledge will solve the problem. Use of colour portant potions in any politics course. Observations can be helpful. on the time taken and methods used are useful Again, the working of Parliament can be illus- bases for discussion. trated in a number of ways. Large jigsaws of the exterior picture of the Houses of Parliament and its internal configuration can be made on card and 3. Resource allocation completed on a class basis. To encourage an under- In any thoughts about creating appropriate materials ; standing of the Commons' operation have each mention must be made of games which illustrate pupil draw a simple plan of the House. Using the the differential allocation of resources. This may most recent statistics available the teacher can call be framed in terms of the local authoritY, national out the party results by regions. The class can show governmentorthe world scene. The decision each party's "score" by sticking a graph paper making process can be developed as appropriate to tnuare, appropriately coloured, on the correct side. the setting. Tha notion of Government and Opposition can The game described here requires only six enve- then be contrasted with the layout of parliaments lope files, card, paper and mathematical instruments. overseas. The physical differences between sides Allot the resources as follows: facing each other rather than ranged in a semi-circle pieces of paper, in colour as appropriate. tells much about ideas of party allegiance. F ILE 1Scissors, ruler, compass, pencil 1 black, % blue, 2 white paper 2. Problem solving F I LE 2 Scissors, ruler, pencil Those who encounter a politics course should % black, % blue, 3 white paper notice early that there are dif ferent ways of making F ILE 3 Scissors, ruler, protractor, pencil decisions, and thereby solving problems. These 1 green, % black, 2 white paper skills and approaches should be considered within F ILE 4 Ruler , pencil the wider context. The most straightforward and small piece of gold and 8 white paper enjoyable way of doing this is to present a class FILE 5 Ruler, pencil, protractor with a problem to solve. Of course, this can be small piece of gold, 1 red, 2 white paper done in a discursive fashion, and this might well FILE 6 Ruler,pencil sufficewiththemotivated.However, where small piece of purple, 8 white paper presentation must encourage thought and reaction, (after Christian Aid) the empirical approach is to be preferred. Decide on a puzzle to be completed, a problem The object is to manufacture coloured shape4 to be solved. Figure 2 gives the construction plan (circles, squares, etc. to specif ied sizes) to the ordei s for one such, a series of squares cut up in a variety of the controller. Points are awarded for acceptable productions and chance elements are interjected. For a time no piece is to be received without a one centimetre square of gold paper, then only paper shapes are required. The variations are endless, in line with course requirements. The trading between 14 cm squares groups and with the controller yields a mass of material for discussion regarding the use of scarce resources. These could be seen as rate money, the national exchequer or perhaps natural, occurring 1\1 elements. The politics of their distribution is a vital concern. 12 15 4. Cards the meaning of a political structure of government. Simple games can be devised using card. They help Generate random groups of four or five pupils in in that they provoke interest and through this, class and switch on the prepared tape. Approaches learning. Two of the games have proved especially vary but the setting could be a desert island, the valuable. Figure 3 illustrates one of these, whereaftermath of war or the situation following a the theme is the recognition of political faces, biological/environmental accident. In all cases the names, and jobs. It is played by four pupils, each notion of survival in good order is paramount. The being given six cards. By swapping a card in the commentary can give information, instructions and hand for one from the centre pile the game guidance, leaving spaces for either recorded class proceeds until the winner has two sets containing participation or discussion periods. a matching photograph from a newspaper, a job The availability of a video cassette recorder is and a name. Packs can be devised to revise all less likely but tied in with workcards, its usefulness manner of knowledge. Useful ones are on national is considerableagain.Withexperimentationa figures and world personalities. Teachers have to teacher is abletocreatepersonallytailored keep a vigilant eye on political changes, and a progrimmes. cabinet re-shuffle takes on a new dimension! 6. "Gift horses" For the course creator with a tight budget there is a variety of free material to hand. Consult first the CentralStatisticalOfficefortheir pamphlets, which can be given one of the small statistical JOB FACE extracts so that a familiarity with national end regional facts and figures may be fostered. The local authorityis also a happy hunting- ground for appropriate ideas. Most now publish a breakdown ofra;.:s expenditure which can be invaluable in work on a wide selection of themes. NAME I find the educational spending an especially useful section! With the increased demand for the public voice to be heard, the local planning department will be taking soundings in many ways. With good fortune,yourauthority may beproducing 12 sets = 1 pack pamphlets of information calling for a response. Make use of these whenever you can!
CONCLUSION Another development of the card theme is to The examples which have been described and the tesi.the understanding of political words and ideas. suggrions made have worked well with the The teacher simply writes on cards (10 cms. by fourteen-yearoldsin a compulsorycourse. 5 ems.) the words to be tested. Standard ones might Throughout, the motivation of introducing them be DEMOCRACY, DICTATORSHIP, CAPITALISM, to political life leads course creators to examine COMMUNISM, UTOPIA, PRIME MINISTER, their teaching methods closely, in light of the task CABINET, etc. A second set of cards contains the in hand. This educational catharsis can result in an definitions which ara to be matched with the first. interesting and valuable experience for both teacher This approach has many possibilities, and games and pupil. can be played on a personal or full class basis. The compulsory course will vary with the ethos Itrequires only a little thought to develop of the teacher arid the school. However, what is simulations useful in a politics course. The most surely beyond doubt is the lamentable ignorance of important consideration is confidence. With work politicallife on the part of many school-leavers. the teacher can create an opportunity for pupils to The task is ours to put this right. have some idea of participation in the making of decisions. For those unfamiliar with the technique it would be sensible to consu't one of the commer- cially produced simulations. Again card is used to give role statements.
5. Recording Tape recordings can be a considerrble stimulus but theiruseissadly neglected. With courage any teacher cah put together an appropriate programme of a most acceptable standard. One theme which lends itself to this treatment is the basic work on 16 13 TEACHING C.S.E. POLITICS YEAR 5 By Clive Herber 8. Decision making. a. The Cabinet and the Prime Minister. b. Ministers and Civil Servants. -Much of the discussion surroundingpolitical edu. 9. Channels of political communication. Cation at the secondary level in.Britain has centred a.Pressure groups. on two main questions: why politics ought to be b. Politica! paeties. itaught and what ought to bo taught in a politics c. Mass media and politics. to.4 ,Cotprse. The qUestion of how politics should be 1,1P-laught has tended to be neglected. A step forward There obviously isn't room enough in an article ffy,)has been taken by Robert Stradling and Alex of this size to cover all these topics and so emphasis Porter in the rocent Hansard Society discussion has been laid mainly on fourth year topics. Moreover ''clocument No. 5 'issues and Political Problems'. in trying to show the sort of thing that can be done iEven so this document deals witha type of it isn't possible or even useful to fill in every detail p, 'approach' rather than the down-to-earth practi- of t.lassroom method or describe all the subtleties calitiesof providingapolitical education for of technique that each individual may be able to .71 'students in the fourth and fifth year at school. contribute. Thus if your reaction is 'I could do it Talking ofuurricular developmen inpolitical better this way' or 'there's more could be done with studies, Derek Heater has written'... the necessary that', then the answer is to let the Politics Panel of ,impetus will need to be provided at the grass roots the ATSS know about it. . level'. Meaching Politics', January 1976). What follows is an attempt to Provide a case THE NATURE OF POLITICS stUdy 'from the grass roots'. The politicscourse Main Concepts: disagreement and diversity as the that will be discussed has been taught at Brune basis of politics; the need for order; freedom/law. Park, a comprehensive school of 2,000 students in Content: the terms 'constitution' and 'convention'; Gosport, Hampshire. For thepast two years examples of positive and negative laws. politics has been taught to all students in years Resources: a work sheet composed of an extract four and five as part of a compulsory course in from 'Lord of the Flies' by.William Goulding anda Social Science which also includes Economics and second worksheet showing a 'normal' street scene Sociology. After doing'one third of the course on to illustrate the impact of law on everyday life. , each in the fourth year students go on to do either Chapter 4 of Human Society by C. Hambling and an '0' level in one social science in the fifth year or P. Matthews has a discussion of differences between a' Mode 3 C.S.E. comprising all three. It is hoped Democracy/Totalitarianism and Politicsin that by a discussion of classroom possibilities developed/underdeveloped countries. teachers either starting or already having started, a Method: pose a problem such as a group of pupils politics course at this level will gain from seeing finding a ticket giving free admittance to the some of the resources, and to some extent the cinema for four that can be used for either of two methods and problems, encountered by others. films. How do they reach a decision? Read extract There is not intended to be any implied claim that from Lord of the Flies which includes the section what follows is the 'best' course or that politics describing how a group of boys that have been cannot be taught in other ways at this level. Indeed marooned on a desert island decide they should the approach is the opposite to that of the Hansard have a chief who should then make rules and any- discussion document cited above. Whereas the body breaking the rules should be punished. This is discussion document prefers an approach based on followed by a discussion of everyday laws that problems and issues, the following course is based affect the students e.g. the proposal to lower the on political structures and organisations and deals age of consent, the school leaving age, age limits with problems and issues as they arise in relation on drinking, driving etc. Do laws increase or to those structures. The following is an outline of decroase our freedom? Can the government do just the Politics section bf a C.S.E. course. what it pleases? Each worksheet has follow-up questions e.g. why did the boys need a leader, how did they choose him? Why is punishment needed if rules are YEAR 4 broken? Students are also asked to list the sort of 1. The Nature of Politics. laws they come across in a normal day and say 2. Politics in complex/underdeveloped societies. why these laws exist. 3. Dictatorship/Democracy. 4. Power and Authority. POWER AND AUTHORITY 5. Growth of the British Political System. Main concepts: power and authority as two types 6. Politics by Discussion. of political influence. a. How we are represented the election system Content: brief outline of Weber's three types of end alternatives. authority and examples of different types of power. b. Representative institutionsparliament: Resources: 'Human Society' by Hambling and c. How we choose political socialisation and Matthews has a useful discussion of this in the the floating vote. section on politics. However it is not difficult to 7. Politics by force terrorism. construct a worksheet on this using pictures of 11 leaders for different types of authority (e.g. Louis the Longmdns Social Science Studies, Series 3, XIV of France as compared with Giscard d'Estaing). which are cheaply produced booklets dealing with The second part of the worksheet concerns groups problems and issues 'in the air' in a way that is using the power they possess to influence those impossibleintextbooks. (Seethereviewin 'Election in withauthoritye.g.military, trade union and Teaching Politics' January 1976). religious groups. Britain' is a film produced in 1960 and can be hired Method: for this topicitis possible to use the from the Central Film Library, Though this film relationship between student and teacher.For has a very out of date feel about it in that it views example, a student is asked to do something silly British politics through very rosy, patriotic spec- such as to write 'the moon is made of green cheese' tacles, it manages to present most of the information on the board. The possibilities are endless and on the mechanks of an election at just about the attention from the whole class is guaranteed! The right level. Even the faults of the film, such as the student is then asked why he performed the feat 'typical' voter carefully scrutinising all the party that he did, Answer: because you told me to. From manifestos, are useful for discussion afterwards. A here it isn't far to the idea of authority being the rather more sophisticated film, (and a rather long recognisition of the right of somebody else to one approximately 60 minutes), is 'The Hecklers' influence you. An illustration of the concept of which can be hired from the British Film Institute. power isthen provided by choosing a second It concerns the art of heckling in the 1966 election student, usually a girl. A scenario is created where and is suitable if an introduction and explanation she is threatened with death or dishonour unless is given by the teacher first. she complies with the wishes of the boy used in the Method: after a general discussion and run through first example, which is to write 'the moon is made of the main stages of an election interest can be of green cheese' on the board. From here it isn't heightened by playing 'Election Night Special' by far to the idea of power being the ability to influ- the Monty Python team, which portrays an entire ence somebody even against their will. election based on the sort of candidates that the Student work: questions based on Hambling and deposit system is supposed to discourage. In order Matthews or a worksheet. to show how an election works itis possible to have a mock election with each student voting GROWTH OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM both in the normal way and according to the Main concepts: evolution/revolution; institutions alternative vote system. This way itis possible, and their adaptation; unitary/federal system. after having given some suggestions as to why votes Content: English Civil War; impact of industrialis- cast don't equal seats won in Britain, to show how ation growth of the Labour Party and rise of the using a different system might have affected the welfare state; is Britain a 'unitary state?/federal ism/ result of their mock 'election. By adding up the Scotland and Wales; how the role of the major votes in a set of example constituencies it is pos- political institutions has changed. sible to get the students to work out for themselves Resources: mainly Chapter 2 of British Government how variations in the size of constituencies can by Philip Gabriel. (Longman Social Science Studies distort the overallresult of an election. Lastly Series 1), This is the core book for the course and results of their mock election can provide a useful has beer, designed with this age group in mind. It is lead into the topic of political socialisation. Usually well-produced using many charts, diagrams and pic- there is a fairly good correlation between the voting tures and the text is on the whole simple without preferences of 'the students that are aware of the being condescending. The Long Struggle' which views of their parents and the voting habits of the deals with the rise of the welfare state can be hired parents themselves. This is dealt with in chapter 12 from BBC T.V. Enterprises, thr Ah it is quite long of British Government by Philip Gabriel. Both (50 minutes approximately) arm much of it would politicalsocialisation and the floating vote are only be suitable for the more able of tnis age group. dealt with in a booklet called 'People and Politics' There is also a Common Ground filmstrip on the by Peter Moss (Harrap, 1976). This is an extremely development of government in Britain. well-illustrated book relying on a black and white Method: after an explanation and discuss.on of the cartoon format to explain in an amusing way all concepts and content of the topic, usually involving the usual aspects of British politics, as well as some a lengthy discussion of Scottish Nationalism there unusual aspects suchas the role of women in is a follow-up question sheet based on the Gabriel politics.Unfortunately, though interestingitis book. slightly spoiled by the text which aHows too many words and ideas to go unexplained. Otherwise it is ELECTIONS a useful contribution to politics at this level. Main concepts: representation. Content: the election ca-npaign (manifestos, can. vassing, opinionpolls, deposits etc.), how our system works and possible alternatives to it. PARLIAMENT Resources: chapter 3 of 'British Government' by 'Main concepts: representation, legislation. Gabriel. Two other useful booklets that can be of Content: House of Commons: organisation, law some help are 'Election '74' by Phifip Gabriel and making, control of the executive, financial control, Richard Coutes and 'Electoral Reform, For and the work of an individual M.P. House of Lords: Against' by Clive Herber. These latter two are in composition,functions, possibilitiesof reform. 18 15 Resources: chapters 6,7,8 and 9 of'British Works on a nearby field which happens to be Government' by Gabriel deal with this. It is also adjacent to a housing estate, it is not difficult to coveredfairlythoroughlyin'Government and widen the discussion to the role of pressure groups People' by Harvey and Harvey (Macmillan). This in general, ideally using material produced by the latter book covers most aspects of British govern- groups themselves. One problem with this topic is ment through the experiences of one Tom Stanton, generally applicable to all political studies at this M.P., and his family.Ittakes the same 'story' level be very careful in the way words are Used. approach as its economics equivalent 'Producing Just as in dealing with elections it is possible to and Spending' by the same authors and featuring get students confused by using words like 'seat', . Mr. Morris. It is useful as an extra source, especially (which could mean in the Commons), and con- with less able students, but some fourth and fifth stituency interchangeability, so the words 'interest' years might find its style a little condescending. and 'cause' must be used carefully. Many students 'British Government at Work' (Common Ground can end up thinking a group is an interest group Filmstrips) is a very useful visual aid which takes a simply because in their everyday use of the word parliament centred view ofBritish government the group is concerned with a problem, rather than (and it's in colour). 'John Turner, M.P' is a film having a mainly protective role which is what the made in a very similar style to 'Election in Britain political use of the word implies. 'which was mentioned under elections. Itcovers most aspects of the activities of an M.P. and again TERRORISM its main advantage is in its simplicity. h can be hired Main concept: violence as a form of politics. from the Central Film Library. A more sophisticated Content: the nature of terrorism, terrorist groups film, (and hence one that doesn't necessarilygo and the use of terror by the state. down so well), is 'Member of Parliament' which Resources: this unit is based around a very good can be hired from the BBC. This covers the dEy tr, tape and filmstrip produced by EAV. It is an up-to- day work of David Steel, M.P., including fighting date fijmstrip that can be used right across the Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles in the 1970 election. ability range at this age group. Method: this is one of the areas in political education Method: work isbased around discussion and for this age group where the resources can be allowed questions arising from the tape and filmstrip. This to do much of the work. The teacher's role consists usually involves asking questions as to the purpe.,ste mainly of ongoing explanation and setting questions of terrorism, the aims of certain terrorist groups to make the students do some thinking for them- and whether terrorism is ever justified. selves (see for example the sort of questions asked at the end of every chapter in the Gabriel book, which tend to try to get the students to apply the conceptualandfa,:tualknowledge theyhave In discussing an exam based course I have assumed obtained). A visit to the Commons is of course that at least some money will be available to spend very valuable, though a teacher should be able to on course material. It is no longer true to say that colour the topic by reference to his or her own visits. resources do not exist at this level. The problem is one of choice, given the limited cash available, and PRESSURE GROUPS one of deciding how best to use resources with Main concepts: pressure, influence. people aged 14 or 15, many of whom will be Content: role of pressure groups, types of groups, experiencing their first and last helping of political methods of persuasion and points of access in the education. political system. Resources: part of chapter II in the Gabriel book deals with this, though coverage is, untypically, a littleskimpy. However, letters to a fariety of pressure groups can provide plenty of information, pictures etc. to put into worksheet form. Some groups, such as Oxfam, even produce a leaflet pointing out the different methods of persuasion open to it. Basic information on the T.U.C. and the C.8.I. can be obtained from the Central Office of Information. A case study of pressure groups' activity in relation to public opinion can be found in 'E.E.C. Referendum' which is in the Longmans Social Science Studies. Series 3. TheDemonstration' is a film covering the Vietnam demonstration of 1968 and can be hired from the British Film Institute. With a suitable introduction this fiim can . arouse a great deal of interest and discussion, it only because of attention being riveted on the lengthy scenes of violence at the end. Method: starting with a local problem, either real or imaginary, such as the construction uf a sewer
16 1 9 .'0 AND 'A' LEVEL GOVERNMENT largely composed of 17 year old Police Cadets pro- YEACHING IN FURTHER EDUCATION duced some interesting situations. If the age range %. By Midc McGuinneu and Richard Upright, of the students is wide, so then is their academic Kirby College of Further Education, Middlesbrough background.Unlikethemajorityoffull-time students, part-timers are for the most part picking 'The recent debate about the value and content of up academic study after some years away from it. political education encouraged by the Programme Not only does this clearly imply a wide range of for Political Education, the Politics Association, ability, but a considerable variation in background etc., has come at a time when nearly all GCE boards political knowledge. This is of less significance in are beginning to rethink their syllabuses or have in the teaching of '0' level: here few assumptions can fact changed them. This comes when the social be made about the level of knowledge with which sciences may be under threat because of the eco- students begin the course. tlowever at 'A' level nomic situation and when there appears to bethere are problems of pitching a politics course pressure for a change in educational emphasis to a which may easily contain union officials, local more 'work orientated approach'. These pressures councillors and others pursuing the course merely can ba particularly felt in further education where through general interest. In these situations itis there is no statutory reason for its existence and useful (as well as instructive to the lecturer) to treat where 'market forces' have a much greater effect the students themselves as a 'resource'. As will be than in schools. shown there are hideous restrictions on time in We intend to attempt to describe in this article part-time day and evening classes, but the more the the way in which we approach the teaching of valuable experiences and knowledge of students government and politics at '0' and 'A' level in a themselves can be used, the better. College of Further Education, the types of students These disparities in academic background and we teach and the problems we have encountered. present situation can have other consequences. The At our college we have both full-time and part-time more mature the student die greater is the likeli- courses at both levels but we feel a description of hood that they will treat their partial axperience as full-time would, in the main, merely be a repetition valid and objective 'fact' to be employed on all of an analysis of teaching in schools. The students occasions. We have all taught the student whose are of similar ages, with similar motivationsand next door neighbours disprove the whole of Butler aspirations, and similar experiences. Any growth in and Stokes' research and those whose own social the 16 to 19 years age group is generally covered mobility leads them to draw sweeping and untenable by school 6th forms (Grammar and Comprehensive conclusions. Although they may be hard to shift, and 6th Form Colleges) and may be assisted by the this situation is probably a happier and more easily priorities of local government spending. rectified one than that of the immature full-time What makes further education unique is the student who will trot out the jargon in Pavlovian opportunity it gives for people to continue after fashionwithlittleorno understanding and the normal provision through schools or to return appreciation. to education after many years in industry or The diversityof academic background has. commerce. A situation which may be termed a specific implications for the way in which govern- 'second chance', and this opportunity provides us ment may be taught. Not only may it be necessary with different students with special problems and to start some students off with reading pitched special needs. Some of these students come on full- below that of the course for which they have time courses, but financial considerations usually enrolled (although itis difficult to find suitable restrict the numbers: grants are not generaily sub '0' level material) but in every class some time available for GCE courses so most of them enter must be given to the basic questions of how to on part-time courses where they may be allowed study politics and what resources can best be used. day-release by their employers, or evening where We are ,treading here on questions of materials, they have to motivate themselves. We have there- teaching methods and student expectations, but at fore, decided to concentrate on the part-timethis juncture itis useful to point out that in the students and part-time teaching, an area which still teaching of politics we are fortunate that through seems to grow despite swinging increases in course press and broadcasting students are confronted with end examination fees, and to consider the restric-resource material daily. Some may find anything tions on teaching and the motivation of students. more informative and thought-provoking than page It may be useful at the outset to consider three of 'The Sun' difficult to get to grips with, but generally the background of such students. In every it is surely a realistic hope that at the end of a year's way the composition of a full-time class differs study students are more critical and batter informed from a part-time day or evening class and the on matters of day to day relevance. The mature implications for any teacher, Particularly in the part-time student is not easily satisfied with a corn- social sciences are significant. The membership of pietadietof academic abstractions of limited the part-time or evening class is obviously more wider relevance. varied both in terms of age and academic back- It must be noted that part-time and particularly ground. It is no romantic myth that some of the evening classes in further education where there is most stimulating teaching is achieved as a resultof not the incentive of day-release are the areas where this variety: the presence of a 66 year old Methodist 'consumer sovereignty' operate most fully in edu- local preacher in an '0' level Government class cation. In other words, if students don't like the 2 0 17 ' class, they'll leave. The reasons for thisare varied stake in the present system are and it is an area to which attention could usefully amongst the most politicely docile.' Oisctiss with reference be turned in future. If the points about background to Britain in the seventies." The most recent changeshave discussed above are not considered by the F.E. occurred at '0' level, particularly the AEB and teacher, then he or she is likely to find the drop- London, and here we have found that thesehave out rate climbing above the acceptable figure of worked to say, 25%. the advantage of the more mature student, with the greater emphasis on the working The part-time day and evening studentsare of contemporary government. restricted in the time made available to them and The disadvantages of time may in part beover- the time they are prepared and ableto give to come by the resources that we have available, private study. We offer all '0' levelcourses at ZS which can cut out the 'wasted time' found insome hours per Week and all 'A' level coursesat 3 hours teaching. A 'chalk and talk' approach has advantages per week over one academic year, about 30 weeks. where it is necessary to establish guidelines,to do Some subjects now require that the student attends some of the ground-work, for example 'what is for two seisions, that is a maximum of 6 hours,the p9litics?' and political culture, when latest example being the AEB Psychology 'A' level, one needs to but this has not been suggested for Government go slowly in the early stages of a course, or when looking at an institution functionally. Withpart- and Politics. In the three hours theyare expected time classes, however, even providing simplenotes to cover roughly the same ground as the full-timeon the board is time-consuming and it is students who have up to 7 hours per week a great per 'A' advantage to issue prepared handouts, either in the level and who until recently also took the subject form of typed noted or offset copies of in one academic year. A recent document issued by articles. The ability to do this depends on the financialand the Local Education Authority and passedby the office resources available. full Cleveland County Council called 'Locationof We also concentrate on teaching through what Courses' has established that no studenton a full- might be called 'practical !xilitics', for examplean . time course under the age of 19can take a one understanding of the conflict between the House year course and must now take two years. Only of Lords and the Labour government 'mature' students, that is 19+ can take 'A' levels in over national- one year, but the provision for evening and part- isation, the relationships within the major parties, time day students still the current conflicts betweengovernment and remains the same. This opposition, local pressure groups and the developing should make thedisadvantage appear greater, devolution debate. All syllabuses ' making part-time a quarter of the general full-time are moving to a requirement that students must beseen to under- provision. stand the relevance of the syllabus In the last few years we have offered a mixture to what is of the AEB '0' level British Constitution (nowhappening about them, to show that politics isa living subject. The media, thepress and television Government and Politics), the same board's 'A' are important in level Government and Politics, and from the JMB this context and the value to students in reading a politically informativenews- '0' level Economics, Government and Commerce, paper and being aware of its bias cannot be over and their now renamed 'A' level, Government and Politics. Flexibility before examination emphasised. Blumer and McQuail in 'Television and entry as to Politics' show the importance of televisionas a which syllabus would be adopted (exceptat '0'source of political information and the use of level) was possible until the introduction of the video-taped recordings AEB options for paper II, the political institutions is of great assistance in of UK, USA, or USSR. teaching. Just because television is expectedto be unbiased (note the exercise carried out whenthe At 'A' level, the British option has been the BBC was accused by Ron Hayward of bias against most popular for students and employers sending the Labour Party in 1974) does not take anything them on day-release (especially civil service and away from its informative function, in fact it may local government), the USSR option has only been enhance it. taken by full-time students, and as far as evening As a resource the media generally has students aie concerned the USA option has only to be carefully approached, especially whenone considers takenoffthisyear impact of Presidential that in part-time education the students elections? A lack of awareness of the changes in are more likely to expect to be teacher led. Theexpectations political education is often apparent as wellas a of students embarking on an '0'or 'A' level suspicion of 'alien' systems. Politics teacherssee government course are as varied as their back- the changes as being for the better, the customers grounds: that much is are not always zo sure. obvious. But there are considerable problems in attemptingto diccover The recent syllabus changes away from the what these are and consequently what bearing they institutional approach are naturally reflected in have on the tioching of the subject. examination questions. Two contrasting examples At the beginning of any, course there is oftena reticence illustrate this. From the AEB paper I, June 1972: on the part of students to talk freely about their 'How faris ittruetosaythat the British expectations they don't wish to appear naive or Constitutionis unwritten?' and from the same stupid board, paper and at the end of the year when such I, June 1976: " 'The stability of barriers have been broken down,one is relying on Britishpoliticalinstitutionsisunlikely to be the not altogether accurate recollections of their seriously disturbed, for those who have the least frame of mind many long weeks ago. However, itis 18 2 1 reasonable to discuss expectations. of government totally unknown. This highlights what is obvious teaching in two broad areas: firstly of the subject to any teacher of Government: that the subject is itself and secondly of what the hoped-for qualifi- weakened (and in other ways strengthened) by the cation will lead to. lack of a consistent academic approach and method- Generally students are unaware las sadly are ology. Of ali the social sciences taught at this level, many teachers of political and sociological elements Government is the least consistent, drawing on more of current syllabuses and teaching approaches. areas and methods of study. They come expecting a constitutional approach There are a significant, though perhaps declining and are often ill at ease with the demands that are number of students pursuing the subject through made of them. This is particularly noticeable with 'general interest'. It is worth noting that with these those students who are returning to study after students the encouragement to do so has often some years away from it, who may have vivid been a strong political commitment or political memories of secondary school 'civics' or old style involvement. Their expectations are likely to be BritishConstitution. This situation cannot be less well formed: anything which increases their ignored, and in planning a scheme of work from awareness ofthepolitical system and current the skeleton of a syllabus many teachers find it issues is likely to serve their purpose. As has been better to start the course with the more 'constitu- suggested earlier, such students are an asset to any tional' for instance by starting the AEB Government class: when one of the aims of the subject must and Political syllabus with the political institutions surely be to instilla greater political awareness of paper U. This order may also make sense on anyone who brings experience or opinions to class general educational grounds. It is probably easier discussion is to be encouraged. to train students in the conventions of academic In this context a mention of bias in the teaching work by beginning with those areas where their of politics at this level is relevant. Students may individual attitudes and prejudices have less scope. realistically expect that their opinions will be re- Ifthis sounds likea recipe for solid acadeniic spected (at least on the formal surfacel) but to conservatism, itis not meant to:itis simply a expect a year of fence-sitting by their teacher is, as reaction to widespread expectations among evening far as the writers of this article are concerned any- and part-time students. way, totally unrealktic. We all have opinions, we It is also noticeable that employers and training ought all to be able to share them. The fact that officers have similar expectations of what is involved the teacher is prepared to voice subjective opinions in the study of government. '0' level is a strongly may come as a shock to those adults reared on recommended subject for Police Cadets and the 'objectivity' in teaching. But the job of any Govern- clear implication is that the Constabulary expect ment teacher at any level is about more than getting some academic supplement to 'Moriarty's Police students through exams. To treat an '0' or 'A' level Law to be the order of the day. For those Sergeants class as a collection of political eunuchs (though and Constables beginning or contemplating part- they may be) is fatal: for those who see the course time LLB work, 'A' level Government and Politics as instrumental and also for those who arrive wit'd is deemed to be necessary. Again the assumption no deep-seated idea3,the wider boundaries of that the subject is an easy intrcduction to that area politicaleducation areusefulandnecessary is clear, though 'the judiciary' has never formed an territories to explore. inegral part of 'A' level teaching at this College. These instrumental expectations are also seen These instrumental expectations or the part of in students who see the '0' or 'A' level as leading both students and employers are not cehfined to to some higher course or better job, not necessarily the police force. Civil Service and Locai Govern- with central or local government or the agenr'es of ment day-release students provided, before public law enforcement. Here, as in every ce.her subject expenditure restrictions, the core of part-time day the teacher cannot assume that Jess share his 'A' level students of government. In these cases the or her enthusiasm for the subjet, or like him will expectations of relevance are probably more valid regard a party political broadcasz ai the highlight 'and the benefits of a wider look at the political of an evening's television programmes. However, system and political behaviour more in tune with current political events are likely to provide a spur. what the students and their employers hope for It must be taken as a measure of success when a from the subject. Itis interesting to speculem on student becomes more enthusiastic than the teacher what the implications thr government teaching are abeuttheprogressof a particularpolitical from the seemingly widespread demands at national haapening,for example the 1976 Presidential level for 'relevance' in teaching. Election. Expectations of '0' and 'A' level goverrment The motivationof Government studentsis are not of course solely conditioned by p:evious clearly linked to their expectations. One must not acquaintance with the subject or training officera despise the girls from the Inland Revenae who see advice. Many students enroll as the resut of pre- their day in College as a 'day off' rather one must vious study of say, Sociology and History. They use it. Similarly itis a mistake to envisage such an tend to expect from the subjeat simply a filling in' abstract concept as motivation as something which of those areas whieh they have already encoentereit. is static anti that the bored student in September is The student who believes that Commonscommittees likely to be just as disinterested come July. The can be explaing solely by Weber on power, oi 1974 varietiesofapproachalreadymentionedare voting behaviour by the 1832 Rethrm Act aro not signcant here: the student who finds his or her
2 2 19 expectations are not fully realised may discover Variety and diversity are the charecter;stics reserves'not previously pipped. Motivation is com- of Government and Politics teaning in Further -Own!), .external7 to the subject itself: a better job, Education and they provide both as problems and itielligher, qualification. In this one area the part- its Uncinations. And perhaps the biggest advantage .or evening studtent has an advantage over the of teaching adults is that you can always take NH-timer, for; giving up free time for study is a them round to the pub afterwards) Hikely inoication of strong motivation. For these Students the strongest factor which will build on this commitment is, as with every other subject, a oppfidenem in the teaching that is being given. It is "Affor,th ,h4^ting here the point made by Jenniter Rogers An that excellent study 'Adults Learning' 1PeUguinEducation)thatpeople returning to education are likely to have some unhappy mem- .: dries, of the,classroom, and that teaching methods "and materials:are likely to have changed since they a desk. Therefore a belief that the course ,going to get them somewhere is probably the at guarantee of continued ettendance. - Clearly the FE College is not immune from out- fside factorsThe career structures of jobs most closely associated with government qualifications are in a re a wely sorry state at the moment and L... the factthat higher qualifications may remain .unreviarded has an adverse effect on, motivation and indeed enrolment figures. There may be a Usefaiside effect to the teaching of Government here: Perticularly in the new AEB '0' level syllabus, 'the relationship of the economy to political decisions requires attention. Through this it can be shown that,the lack of promotion or employment itself is ncit necessarily the student's fault. The vocational motive is probably the strongest among part-time ar.d evening students. This is not to' ignore what have been termsd 'captive wives' except that for them any class with a relaxed social atmosphere is likely to fulfil their needs. The wider problems here is again a general one: the most 'captive' of wives are by definition unlikely to set foot inside an FE College or Adult Education establishment. As we have suggested earlier, recent changes in the syllabuses available have assisted the motivation of the students. The impression is that the move away from institutions as the sole area of study .,attracts a wider range of students with perhaps Ittronger motivation. The opportunity to open up some of the fascinations of American or Russian politics at 'A' level is important, although many may feel, unjustifiably, that such a study is likely to be beyond them. Here again the questions of confidence is seen es essential in maintaining the initial motivation and enthusiesm. Many students may not know what their true motivations are and all motivetions and expectations are mixed. In the teaching of Government with its variety of topics and possible teaching approaches there is perheps a unique opportunity in FE to capitalise on these through the available '0' and 'A' level syllabuses.Itshould also be stressed that whilstitis necessary to recognise the diversity withineach classandthe manyunrealistic expectations which may be floating around, there can be no need to pander unnecessarily to these or indeed regard them as fixed and immutable. 20 23 RESEARáHING POLITICAL EDUCATION build up a documentation service; run seminars and 71THE WORK OF THE POLITICAL EDUCATION workshops for teachers: and to enable staff to give 1ESEARCH 'UNIT, AT THE UNIVERSITY lectures and seminrs on in-service courses. OF YORK by Garth Allen 3 The Research Framework ,.11Introduction The basis of the reseerch design is the case The Political Education Research Unit is located study. Case studies'of six schools and colleges are ihe Department of Education at the University being built up using a balance of techniques drawn of York: It Was established in 1974 as pert of the from the psychometric tradition of educational ',.'PrograrnMe for Political Education", a project research and from interactionist approaches, An Flif.unded by the Nuffield Foundation, and directed outline of the research design is given in Fig. 1. t.1acr Professor Bernard Crick and Professor Ian Lister. i:From October 1976, the Unit has a Director, Ian 4Unit relationsh;es with case study institutions ::,Liater, three research staff end one secretary. The institutioni were chcsen on the following basis: 3: .Aims of the Unit (a)that there existed an explicit programme The central aim of the Unit is to study the of poItical education to be studied; political learning of young adults (in the 13 to 19 (b)th;it working conditions were offered in age range) in schools and colleges. In particular, the which the research team would have fair Unit has access to sreff, students, and the teaching/ (a) attempted to delineate the various aspects learning programme; ofpoliticalliteracy,andto discover (c) that key staff in the institution were as appropriate meansof assessmentof critically sympathetic to our work as we political learning were to theirs; (b)attempted toidentifythepossibilities, (d) that there was a good likelihood that the problem areas, and limitations of formal work would be able to continue on a programme of political education avail- regular basis for the duration of the project; able on an open access basis to students in (e) that a variety ofinstitutionswere six case study institutions. represented; In addition, the Unit was designed totcreate a (f)that the institutions were to be nationally collection of tests for assessing political learninp; distributed .
PROGRAMME FOR POLITICAL EDUCATION, 1974 Political Education Research Unit, University of York Research Framework
Aims 1. To produce indicators of palitical literacy 2. To produce case-itudies of good practice 3. To identify the possibilities, problem areas, and limitations of political education programmes in schools. This involves work with 6 case-study institutions spread across the country, focusing on:
1 teachers andstudents classroomsituations performancetesting creating creating creating PROFILEDATA PROCESSDATA PRODUCTDATA
using using using questionnaires "live" observation penciland paper ;structured and using a schedule teias open ended) interviews video and audio photographic (structured and recordino anchp, and video. open.encled) ____lbasetests interviews with students group ison and teachers I And including some element of CON l'EXT STUDIES a)how political education relates t7the school programme b)how the students relate to the school clhow the school relates to the locality Fig. 1, 2 4 21 Application of these criteria innegotiations The Unit is with'Schools and colleges resulted in six concernedwithevaluating case study programmes of political education in schools and institutions;threecomprehensive schools (in colleges. The process of establishingan evaluation Yorkshire, Lincolnthire and Northamptonshire), approach entailed asking a number of interrelated one technical college Yorkshire), a grammar questions: school(inNottinghamshire) and asixth form college (in Hampshire). The Unit is not directly concerned with What is the evaluation intended to do? There is courses now a substantial literature on the role of the such as '0' and 'A' level Government,or Civics, but evaluator is interested in the political education (usuallyconceivedintermsof component polarities, such as objective-subjective, in programmes aimed at majorities of students (for disinterested-political). example, fourth year social studies, and sixth form This debate has general education). concentrated on the implications of adopting one role rather than any other for the method- Our work with these institutions includes the otogy and style selected following activities: and evaluators are (i) very concerned about style. Whatever style questionnaire distribution, and carrying characterises evaluation out interviews with teachers and students at the Political toelicit Education Research Unit, it has evolvedfrom their ideasaboutpolitical three clear-cut evaluation objectives: education, their political educationpro- grammes,theirpolitical outlook, and (a) Are the ideas about politicaleducationin (with selected students) to followup some test responses; schools put forward by "The Programme for PoliticalEducation" feasible? Can they be test distribution, largely pencil and paper operationalised in terms of content. teaching tests designed to assess information levels and learning strategY. and learning outcome? and conceptual understanding of political issues; Are there anY necessary conditions peculiarto political education for the in. titutionalisation OM lesson observation, using an observation in schools of pOlitical education programmes? schedule. The scheduleisdesigned to collectexamples ofcertainaspects of (b) How can the ef fectiveness of politicaleducation lessons, aspects whick. the Unit hypoth- programmes he judged? What criterion should esises are sien:ficant dimensions ofany domile; potentiany succetsfui political education concept of effectiveness in political educatith.? ;. lessoc : .1 necessaly to define effectiveness (iv) along n..inber of dimensions e.g. the materials, running games programme objectives, teacher opinion, student anc and holdinggroup opinion , and student performance? discuzioe ;or assessment purposes; (v)context studies of political education in (c) Isit worthwhile doing political education in relationship to the schnot cum culum, the schools? Are political education programreas school day for teachers and students, and the neighbourhood. peculiarly unsuited to schools? (Thisargument has often been put, and takes two major forms. 5 Evaluating Political Education1 First. that schools are of little sigeficanceas an agent of politicallearning compared to the Evaluation is a contested concept. There is large media and the family. Second, any political debate, mainly American, increasingly British, (the time lag appears to be about eight years) concerning education which takes place does so through either the hidden curriculum, or through well- the proper use of the word. and it IS clear that its established programmes in the secondary school meaning is dependent on the context in which it is curriculum especially history). raised (especially the values of the user) andon the contextto whichitisapplied,(e.g.schools, We aren't going to produce definite hospitals, football answers to matches, other people). these questions each one of them is a 464,000 Evaluation atthePolitical Education Research Unit simply means the collection and provision of question. However, such questions do providethe general context in which our evaluationstrategy information about educational situations. Infor- was conceived. mation is distinguished from data, for datacan be Technical considerations, of evaluation theory worthless, in formation never so. The maxiaim of the and finite resources, are discussed below under Unit is to move towards a theory ofteaching and three headings. That learning about politics that will extend isnot to saythat such our under- considerationswarrantinpracticesuch standing of our observations, with the intentionof easy delineating and f urther improving successful categorisation. One of the salutory lessons learnt political by evaluators at York, seldom transmitted inbooks education in schools and colleges. The Unit'sevalu- on evaluation or the reports of evaluators. is thata ation strategy is also a form c: action research it basic choice has often to be made between attempts to contribute to the practical concerns of preserv- ing the integrity of the evaluationstrategy and of people in an immed:ate, problematic situationand to add to social scientific knowledge, through maintaining productive working relationship with the joint schools. And part of the integrity of ourstrategy is collaboration of students, teachers, and researchers. that it should maintain such links with schools. 22 25 1 &Nile or scope Centrality of the Concept') Which outlines charac- Tht. Unitisworking withsixschools and teristics of a politically literate person (thq project colleges, geographically spread from Yorkshire to has a theory of man). It doesn't prescribe v,oys in Hampshire, institutionally spread from alarge which school.based programmesof p9I:tical *co-educational urban comprehensive to a small, education candeveloptheattributesofthe singlesex,rural, grammar school.Immediate politically literate (the project doese't have one reactions to this sample are probably that it can in theory of political education). It recognises that a no way be representative. However, the'concept of plurality of approaches are possible. So whilst each an adequate sample is a very messy one. Reverting teacher has been involved in a common stimulus, to classical sampling theory may give convenient each has alsoadoptedvariousstrategiesfor guidelines for picking scitools, groups, and individual operationalisingpoliticalliteracyintermsof ,.students to woi k with. For evaluating political programmes, and each ha t. been free to interpret education programmes, other critical criteria over- the prescription 'politically literate' in their own whelm theoretical considerations. (see page 21.) way. And it's largely because of this insistence on a The question of scale or scope reduces to a plurality of approaches that evaluation indepen. resource problem. If resources were large, many dence is possible. schoolr. even more groups, and large numbers of An objection to this is that this results in the students can be both surveyed using well established evaluatoracting asa supporter of a pa'rticular survey instruments(basically, pencil and paper approach adopted by teachers in one school when instruments) 'and can also be subjected to alter. on a visit to that school (especially, it needs adding, native data sources, such as depth interviews, if both teacher and researcher pay lip serNiire to the classroom observation, and ethnographic democratisation of research). Our counter would approaches. For the evaluator interested in process be that we are interested not just in practice, but in our case, the nature of teaching and learning good practice. David Tawney has suggested that characteristics associated with political education potentialis no conct.rn of the evaluetor the programmes there was no feasible alternative to concern should be with what is there, not what actual/ 4 witnessing the programmes n action (for might be. This is an easy view to sympathise with an alternative view, see Bob Wild2). If the evaluator foritstems from the obsessive difficultyof isconcerned with explanation, an analysisof definition of role, whether evaluators snould be process assumes paramount importance. researchers, judges, administrators, any of these, or a pastiche of all three. Political education doesn't 2Goal-free or goal-based evaluation lack critics or supporters what it does lack are Researchers at the Medical Research Council empirically based studies of the potential role of Cold Research Laboratories have long been obsessed politicaleducation programmes in schools, and with a problem. Stated baldly, ifthe researcher firding the potential necessarily involves studying knows thata pillis meant to cure a cold, the thepossibilities,limitations, and constraints of research itself will be infected with bias (both how current practice. So we have deliberately looked thepillisadministered anu how the patient's for examples of good practice. Anyone looking for reactions are recorded and interpreted) and may be a successful development or adaption of the Jumbo significantly different than if the researcher is unJet would do better to examine a Jumbo Jet, not aware of the intended ef fects of the treatment. It Sopwith Camel. is assumed, of course, that, just as the researcher It is also difficult to imagine goal.free evaluation wants the pill to work, so .the patient wants to of political education because of confusion over benefit medicalresearchby responding inthe the nature and extent of linkages between political appropriate manner patients want to get better education and oolitics, and schools and politics. and patients who want to get better and have faith Politics has a very restricted Public image it is in doctors may well get better. For the evaluator of largely to do with central and local government, politicaleducationprogrammes,thispotential and with the symbolism of voting. it has nothing dilemma reduces to whether evaluators, if fully to do with young people (below the age of political aware of the intention of the school programme, consent). Events such as William Tyndale and tvill be deluded into perceiving progress towards Tameside also lead tu the tepid reactionary warning the politically literate young adult largely because 'Keep politics out of education'. Existing alongside thisisthe desired objective. There isa turther these perceptions is massively documented political potential dilemma that focusing on the intended ignorance amongst both old and young, a feeling outcomesoftheprogramme mayblindthe that an "informed citizenship" should be a major evaluator to unintended outcomes (this argument objective of schools, and a vocational .vacuum becomes stronger when such phrases as 'hidden (whatisthe vocational pay-off from political meanings' and 'school climate' are fashionable). education?). On the one hand, political education The Unit makes no attempt to adopt a double has potentially more with life after school blind approach, or to minimise the well known than most other activities in school (few people use 'Hawthorne' effect. Our evaluation is directly goal. terms such as historical life, or geographical life); based. The teachersinvolvedinthepolitical on the other hand it can be educational anatheme Education programmesin our six schools have to head teachers and parents. Barry McDonald' operated from knowledge and understanding of a has claimed thatallevaluation has a political .paper (Document 2,'PoliticalLiteracy the dimension my point is that the evaluator of r 26 23 ed political ucation highlights this. facet of edu- the elements of a lesson (e.g. to follow a :t...-eeetional .evaluation. The evaluator of a maths question and answer sequence); projeCt May have a view of mathematics anda (b)is the schedule to be low inference or pijlitical 'standpoint,. but there need not be any high inference? A low inference schedule rattittOphip he:ween them. This is not the case for recordsdata without any judgements the evaluato: of political education. being made at the time about the nature andimplicationsoftheeventsand Prot:ate cer product? hareeteristics Of the lesson recorded. High Ctirriculum evaivatiox in Britain has not peva inference schedules allow judgements to ;. `eery much atitererior. rt., the process of education, be recorded about the intentions being inehent.ProCess is simpt' conceived as what happens the data; ln:olassrooms. It is very time consuming to research (c)is the schedule to be participant or non- ciiissrooM proceues, and there is no convenient participant? These widely used terms refer approacn .or 'technology. available. Where documen- to whether the observer can intentionally ' union of process has been carried out, it is usually take part in classrodm activities without a, part of a project deep in scope but narrow in invalidating his observation strategy. scale. No British project has systematically studied The Unit schedule is designed to log examples :the process of education in more thana small of specific characteristics of political education :number of schools. lessons, characteristicsderived fromlogical We hoped to affect a compromise between both deductions made abouttheimplicationsfor process and product, and scale and scope byteaching and learning about politics from the establishing a second range of schools and colleges political literacy delineation. That is not to say (in addition to the six case study institutions) that all successful lessons must contain character- :Which would give us data on aspects Of political istics which enable the observer to record something literacy using survey 'instruments, but these insti- in all of the boxes on his schedule. What it does tutions would be rarely visited by the Unit staff. mean is that these categories should correlate well 'We .wanted a small range of schools wherewe with learning effectiveness. The schedule is basically studied both process and -prdchict, and a larger non-interactionist (though there is provision for sample in which to validate piodtict data, and act following through sequences if they seem important as a loosely defined contro: for process data. We which poses the problem that some sequences did not want to adopt a pre -test, post-test product only steam important when viewed retrospectively analysis (an approach whereby *valuation demands as a foquence).Itisbasically a low inference can run counter to student :velfare, with little schedule (although it allows the observer to make 'probability of successfully achieving the theoretical clarificatcry and explanatory comments immedi- 'claims of the pre-test, post-test strategy). Having a ately after the event if this is felt to be necessary). wider range of product data woJlci have allowed us The use of a schedule implies a largelynon- to produce statistically significcnt results for our participant approach. However, we have found that political performance tests. We did, in fact, make the degree of participatory observation varies from our political performance assessment instruments school to school, and within each school from visit ' available to a second range of what came to be to visit. This variance reflects the characteristics of known as collaborating institutions, but this wider the schools, programMes, and people involved notwork proved too complex to activate. some teachers like us to be involved, and some The technology of assessing learnt characteristics studentsinitiateevaluatorparticipation.The is fairly well established. Many projects have used a consistent factor in these relationships is that any battery of tests, tests utilising different formats degree of participant observa' on results from an and testing various attributes (attitudes, verbal invitation by the teacher or students; we assume reasoning, cognitive skills, etc.). The Unit is no non-participantrole, and degrees of evaluator exception to this trend, and has systematically participation may become important information tested students on their awareness and understand- about teaching and learning styles in political ing of current political issues. Scores on these tests education in our case study institutions. will be related to the content of the programmes, The schedule has three -.ipecific functions. First, rather than to the objective* of the orcg,ernmes. itenables thecontent ofpoliticaleducation Evaluators who meke no ettempt to capture process programmes to be recorded and related to product runtherisk of testing teaching and learningdata. Second, it facilitates the construction of a strategies that only exist on paper, and which bear typology of teaching and learning styles in political little relationship to practice.- education. Third, the construction of the schedule, In order to capture and cage classroom process its drafting, piloting, and redrafting in collaboration the Unit devised an observation schedule. Obser- withteachers, helped to establishcriteriafor , vation schedules come in all shapes and sizes. Basic "good practice" in political education. criteria for distinguishina Schedules, criteria which posed choices for the construction of our schedule, Questions demanding answers include: The Unit is now in the final year of its current (a)is the schedule to be interactionist or not? project. However, the nature of the research design Interactionist schedules attempt to implies that any statement on the general character- encompass the linkages or strings between istics, of_gor.i.:_ political education programmes at 27 Can school based programmes ofpolitical , Ow. Only be tentative. Judgements will ióed '-;;krecOnsiaaration, and new, previously un- education ever promote the capacity for political `144kiriliti-guestions may arise. What possibilities. action? larobleip`sreas, and limitations of political education *',sOheols;'do we perceive at this point in the Will the topic of indoctrination always dominate teachers' and parents' initial reactions to political ;'.:rtiseirch?' education (and provide an excuse for not doing ' Possibilities political education, or for sterilising its contents)?
Canpolitical education programmes improve 1--p011ticial,understanding at a conceptual and problem IYI 1eVeI?(Is this the particular contribution ,..jaCittiol-based programmes are suited to make?) ,Can political, education programmes initiate or develop'young people's interest and participation ir(Politics? (Does this require a broadening of the Footnotes concePt of politics?) 1 An'excellentintroductiontocurriculum Can POlitical education programmes promote evaluationisD. Tawney(ed)'Curriculum . Evaluation Today: Trends and Implications', 1;: Criticalperspectives' on politicalstructures and 4,1ssises? (Does this require programmes which tnm to Schools Council Research Studies, Macmillan Provide examples of alternatives to a dominant 1976. The section hy Wynn Harlen is particularly Liberal, useful. , tradition lebeliedWestern, PaMgoratic?) 2 Bob Wild is a researcher at the Centre for Con political education programmes in loZhool Applied Research in Education, University of relate to non-school opportunities for accelerated East Anglia; he deliberately excludes himself i'VpolitiCal learning? (.44. the involvement of young from theclassroom. He has described his interesting paper, 'Teacher In issue-basedgroupsandself-help approachinan peciple Participation in Research', available direct from ,associatIons). . Bob Wild. :..(11.) Problem areas 3'Evaluation information for decision-makers', A problem of content is it feasible to start in D. Tawney (ed), op cit. from an analysis of politicalissues? (How are 'Evaluation and the control of education' in ;Jr:politicalissues to be identified and selected?) 4 D. Tawney (ed), ibid. A problem oicurriculum where shoald politicaleducationbelocatedinthe senool curriculum? (Posing such a question raises further twastions such as the nature of interdisciplinary work). A problem of learning methodology can a Isudent-centred approach be constructed, given substantialdocumentationofyoungpeople's disinterest in politics?
. Aproblem of marginality can schools suggest thatthey do have an important potential role as a Major agent in the political learning of young people, despite the widespread belief that the media and the family exert such overwhelming influence that schools don't, can't (and shouldn't) Matter?
49.1c) Limitations is the nature of the school as a political insti- tution, a feature of schools whichinevitably encourages implicitpolitical education and .,...t.!discourages explicit (formal programmes) Political m`""trr"education? 28
st,:fo-/r schools of thought. Many critics may find the first chepter too partisan for their liking. While the second chapter 'The Discipline of Sociology' is a very breathless run through the classical masters and may well leave the student feeling slightly outpaced. Although revised for the Penguin edition it was first published by Basic Books in 1972 as an intro- ductory course for American students. This is a major disadvantage sMce most of the uudies cited are American and the main American schools of sociology are given pre-eminence. One gets the impression from the bibliography that some of the British works were fairly hasty additions for the Britishmarket and there are some omissions. Although the general scope of the bibliography is Reviews Editor: Helen Reynoldsvery wide for the 'A' level pupil. For ethnocentric reaaons alone then it cannot serve as a substitute SOCIOLOGY: A BIOGRAPHICAL APPROACH for other more widely used books. It was never intended as a core textbook for 'A' level and By Peter L.. Berger and Brigitte Berger. teachers who want such a book remain as yet Publiched by Penguin at £1.76. unsatisf ied. Date of publication- U.S.A. Bwic Books 1072, However as an additional introductory book it Penguin 1976. may have e place. Teachers can use the American Tartlet rrucp: GCE 'A' level data for comparative purposes, for instance on mobility studies, to cite but one example. For the The authors in their preface indicate the main student concepts are introduced in a clear, straight- characteristic of their book ,,alhich is to 'relate the forward way. The development of ideasare pre- analysis of large institutional structures to the sented within a broad historical and interdisciplinary avervday experiences of individuals' and therefore framework. The chapters on 'Change' and 'Values to some extent the sequence follows through the end ultimata meanings' do show important and stages of life from early socialisation to old age. fundamentaldifferencesininterpretingsocial Within each chapter too, they begin with the micro reality between the various theoretical positions. and then turn to the macro-approach. Some radical sociologists may feel their case has The general tone of their introductory remarks not been adequately presented but for the newcomer I sometimes found rather trite and tiresome, for the book is stimulating and readable. instance in the chapter on ed.:cation the first lines My comments in this review are tentative because are 'Suddenly the day has come the first day at I have not had time to use it for teaching purposes school'. Nor was I particularly impressed with the nor have I gauged much student reaction; but it is line drawings under each chapter heading. However an important book which both students and teachers I am not reading my first sociology textbook and will want to discuss further. WM of my students put off by the out-there atmosphere of some other books have found this a Gina Garrett more approachable wayin. Obviouslyfor the Bergers it is also more in keeping with their overall perspective in showing how the individual comes to grips with his social world. Without arguing the Cinie for or against 'phenomenology' Perhaps as an initial teaching device it is useful in trying to give INVESTIGATING SOCIETY the reader a place within the subject rather than.By Dennis Lawton. introducingsociology as astructured,highly Published by Hodder and Stoughton at £1.50. abstract discipline. Date of publication: 1975 Obviouslythesequence cannot bepurely Target group or target syllabus: New Students- chronological and the later chaptars on power, 0/A level. bureaucracy, and deviance follow the major con- cerns of the subject rather than the biographical The aim of this introductory book es stated by the aipect. This reflects the other aims of the book author is to 'develop and apply a sociological per- which stress the need for students to acquire a spective to a number of important issues'. The title basic kit of concepts and to be introduced within 'Investigating Society' is thus an appropriate one as the substantive areas. to the various theoretical he keeps to his task and happily avoids many of the perspectives by which sociologists try to make weaknesses of a number of '0' and 'A' level text- sense of their findings'. books namely the tendency to use a completely Somethimes there appears a precarious balance descriptive approach ,ind to try and cover every between these two aspirations of maintaining a sociologicaltopic oftenin a briefand biographical approach while doing justice to other superficial way. 26 7.4 29 , The book deals with seven main areas: There FORBIDDEN PASTURES. EDUCATION UNDER ve two chapter on the following:- The Nature of APARTHEID Sociology, The Family, Education and Social Change, and one chapter on each of the took.' of By Freda Group. . Class,Work and Leisure, Population and The Published by International Defence & Aid Fund Political System. The layout, organisation and at 60p. .'Method of approach is the same in each chapter Date of publication: April 1976 and it is here that the book scores heavily. The Ian-Target group: General Reader. ; wage used isfairly straightforward and the technical
. terms are defined in a clear manner in the glossary 'Forbidden Pastures' aims to give a detailed expose _at the back of the book. Each chapter uses an his- of South Africa's discriminatory education system, torical perspective and includes a serge selection of and an outline of black students' response to it. It relevant stathtical data in tha form of tables and does not claim to be an impartial account but diagrams which is relatively up to date. Where presents.a mass of facts and figures and references this appears at the end of a chapter it is used with in support of its aim in an ummotive and low-key the 'questions for discussion and written work' and style. Whilst the wealth of statistics and references is related to the ideas and concepts introduced in may be useful to the teacher, already knowledgeable the text in order to stimulate the student to discuss about the South African situatIon, the detailed the issues raised. In addition, there are a number of evidence and rather dull layout may not appeal to controversial and comparetive extrects iincluding the imagination of the student. materials on Simple Societies) from sociological Tho firq two chapters outline the historical articles and studies which provide further stimulus background and may be omitted without loss of for the reader to follow up the initial enquiry with meaning. Chapter 3, describing African education some wider reading. now and illustrated with photographs of young The first two chapters on thenature of blackpupilsinover-crowded, under-equipped sociology concentrate on methodology and give classrooms, is the most interesting and readable an introduction to the various research methods. section for the pupil new to this topic. Together Yet despite beginning with reference to the 'twowith chapter 4 on student discontent it provides views of human nature' as an Introduction, the explanations of recent clashes between pupils and author faits to lio further and the reader is left police. Statistics are given up to 1974 and clashes with no real introducdon in Me bouk to the up to May 1975 are listed. These two chapters differentsociologicalperspectiveswhichone could very well provoke discussion and arouse would expect iron- a book which consistently sympathy for the situation of the black students. tries to provide an open and questioning approaeh. The next chapters are concerned with Coloured The, author deals adequately with The Family and Asian pupils, and with university apartheid. and as expected provides some very good material The tables of differential rates for the four on Education, particularly on Class differences. main ethnic groups inexpenditure per pupil, Stratificationisdealtwithinthree different numbers of pupils receiving education at various chapters:- 'Social Roles and Social Class', 'Social ages, etc., plus occupational statistics for the four Change and Social Mobility' and The Political groups make it easy for the teacher to demonstrate System'. There is excellent data on Income and thelink-upbetweeneducationalopportunity, Property differences, backgrounds of Managers, occupation and caste. M.P.s, embourgeoisement, etc., although it might The section on vocational tra'ning raises ques- ;lave been clearerifdealt with urder the one tions about the possibility of improved educational heading of Stratification and it seems strange in andoccupational opportunities for the black this context to have Marx dealt with in three- African due to ezonomic changes. quarters of a page. This is a book for the teacher already interested The chapter on Deviance pro:.des en intro- in South Africa, who wishes to add to his knowledge. ductLon to the different perspectives as well as some detailed statistics for simulation exercises. Marjorie Hall. So this is not so much a socinlogy text book as an introduction to the questioning nature of socio- logical analysis and as such serves as a useful resource both to the student, as an initial introduction and for reference when using more detailed texts, and to the teacher as an aid for discussion and for exercises on the interpretation of data. itis thus suitable for '0' and 'A' level students many of whom have found this book very enjoyable and stimulating to read. It should certainly facilitate .their achieving Bergers aim of 'seeing through the facades of social structure'.
Ian Miles 30 27 DEVELOPMENTS IN SOCIAL STUDIES of this statement is largely true. Social scientists TEACHING. other than sociologists appear to disdain social studies. The Programme for Political Education has ignored it, the Economics Association has set up a project to develop Eccnomics as a separate school By Denis Gleeson and Geoff Whitty. subject for the 14-16 age group and the psycho- Published by Open gooks logists seem preoccupied with developing their Price: £1.75 paper academic claims. In the circumstances sociologists Date of Publication. 1976 can nardly lae blamed if they are left on their own to contest social studies with historians. Neverthe- less some discussion of developments in all subjects In1908 Vincent Rogers published 'The Social relevant to social studies would have broadened the Studies in English Education', a survey of the state picture somewhat and some consideration of the of social studies teaching in the mid-60's. This new possibilities of a range of social sciences in an book by Denis Gleeson and Geoff Whitty is in the integrated social studies should have been nature of a successor volume insofar as it, too, u ndertaken . seeks to provide information on what is going on in But again, the focus on method means that the development of social studies teaching. Gleason and Whitty are not so much concerned A comparison of the two volumes is interesting. with content and subjects as with how teachers Both present considerable information on what is relate to pupils and how pupils confront knowledge. happening in particular schools. This has the great Developments in Social Stuclies Teaching is a advantage of giving the reader a real 'feel' for the series of discrete chapters held together by the school and classroom atmosphere. On the other common concern with method. Some indication hand, one is left wondering just what goes on in all of the separate chapters is therefore necessary. the other schools and perhaps Gleeson and Whitty might have gone rather further in hazarding some overall evaluation of contemporary social studies. History of Social Studies The titleof the book should be interpreted as Chapter One contains a summary of the history referringtosome veryselectiveaccountsof of social studies. Between the wars the citizenship particular developments rather than a synoptic view.. movement is seen as a response to facsism while The two books are also very similar in that they the ill-fated post-war social studies schemes are both go beyond a mere account and attempt to seen as a strengthening of the home front in the argue a case. Rogers appealed for a more serious liberal democratic confrontation with communism. considerationofthe newer socialsciencesas Withthefadingoftheideologicalstrifethe material for inclusion in the school curriculum. movement dies away and History, Geography and Gleeson and Whiny are concerned with ways in RE era restored. However, in the mid-1960's comes which social studies can challenge and transform the New Social Studies Movement dedicated to society. It is this polemical aspect which gives both incorporating theinsights and concepts of the books a coherent framework. newer social sciences to the school curriculum. The two books' are disimilar in one respect This generates a reaction called 'new directions in while Rogers displays inordinate interest in content, sociology' whichis grounded ina rejection of Gleason and Whitty are dominated by method. In positivistic views of knowledge and an advocacy of many ways this difference between the books teaching styles which aPow pupils to explore their chartsthepassageoftime between the two own social understandings. This reaction is critical publications. A centralfeature of the current of the New Social Studies for simply foisting on debate over education is teaching method; this was children dead concepts which are no better for much less true a decade ago. being'socialscience'concepts.Finally,'new Finally, the two books,both seem to get side- directionsinsociology'ischallengedby an tracked away from social studies. Rogers spends ethnomethodological critique which calls for social over half his book discussing History and Geography studies which are neither relevant nor radical but while Gleeson and Whitty seem to be talking about rooted in a study of everyday life. Sociology as much as social studies. In Rogers' case Thisstraightforwardhistoricalsequence is this is mainly because he had nothing much else to perhaps rather too pat. There may have been a writeabout!Butitismainlytheiroveriding recent revisal of social studies but much of it is concern with method which leads Gleeson and just as sad, tired repeat of the post-war experience; Whitty to become so involved with Sociology, certainly only a minority of schools will have heard since it is developments in this subject which are of New Social Studies let alone put it on the time- the inspiration of their approach to method. table. As for 'new directions in sociology' there are probably many members of ATSS whc have no idea what this means; while, so far as I am aware, Mainly Sociology the ethnomethodological critique is confined to In many ways this is a pity. From a cursoiy one articlein The Social Science Teacher! The reading of the book it would be easy to get the dialectical symmetry of thehistoryof social impression that social studies is mainly sociological studies as portrayed by Gleeson and Whitty is and that Is how it should be. Perhaps the first part appealing but the reality is more chantic. 3 1 Social Studies. If social studies teaching is some- ;. Community Service Chapter Two is a discussion of the growth of times conventional and sterile, it is the victim of a, GCE Sociology and contain, some interesting stifling system. Ishare the view of Gleeson and comments by pupils and teaulers on whatthey Whitty that a transformation of social relations in think of the subject. the classroom to bring about collaborative learning Chapter Three is a discussion of MACOS also is necessary but I am not convinced that this means rejecting the concepts and theories of the academic quoting first-hand opinions. Chapter Four explores ways in which social social sciences. Indeed, the theory that inspires studies courses can be organised using examples Gleeson and Whitty is itself a child of academic from practice in several schools. sociology and will therefore be influencing the Chapter Five is the most important part of the New Social StudiQs so long as they continue to be of responsibetotheintellectualdisciplinesthey book.Itisa pleafor a reconsideration derive from. Moreover, one of the leaders in community serviceas a component of social studies, not in the form of 'do-gooding' but as a promoting the New Social Studies (Barry Dufour) means of generating a critical awarenessof society. himself teaches in a school (Countesthorpe College) More consideration should be given to this issue. which is favourably featured by Gleeson and Whitty. The chapter includes a brief account of the Social Social studios must be kept alive to develop- ments in all the social sciences. We must prevent Education Project but fails to mention the ATSS positivistic strait- 1974 Course on Using Society as a Resource. them from becomingeither This book is an important contribution to the jackets or phenomenological vacuums. In this light, task of bringing social studies to the schools and Developments in Social Studies Teaching should making sure that when it is there it is alive and be widely read. responsive. My regret is that Gleeson and Whitty chose to be so highly negative about the New Chris Brown
SOCIAL STUDIES AND HUMANITIES IN SCHOOLS Loughborough College of Education, Leicestershire.Tuesday April 12th Saturday April 16th 1977. Membeis £30 Non-members £35 Fee:Residential £14 Non-Residential Members £10 Non-members The course includes speakers, group discussion,exhibitions, films, videos, games and simulations. Barry Dufour is the Course Director. Details werecirculated with our last mailing. If you still wish to apply but have mislaid your form, usethis page instead. This is the seventh in our series of annual Easter courses. We have managed to keep themgoing.despite the heavy reduction in financial assistance for courses from LEA's. This in itselfsuggests that they are value for money end this year's will be no exception. Application Form
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School/College/Organisation I wish to take part in the 1977 ATSS NationalCourse from the 12th 16th April, 1977 at Loughborough College of Education as a RESIDENT/NON-RESIDENT I am/am not' a member of ATSS. My school is/is nota corporate member of ATSS ("Please delete 'as appropriate) I enclose a deposit of £5 (balance payable at Coursereception) (Non-residents £3)
Signed Cheques should be made payable to ATSS ConferenceAccount. Applications should be received by February 28th after which no deposits canbe refunded. NB Applications can be accepted for a few daysafter February alth but not indefinitely. The form should be returned to Arthur Gould, 310Forest Rced, Loughborough, Leics. Tel Loughborough 30987. 32 Our thanks to everyone for orders and contri- butions. With so many letters to deal with there are some delays in both thanking people for material and in sending off orders, so please be patient with us. Some material is not being used because of unsuitable format, e.g. note form or too much copyright material included or overlaps with other banked items. Current gaps in the Sociology section include: education (strangely neglected,) and deviance,(inallluridforms,) religion and the mass media. So far, all items included in the scheme have been duplicated handouts. We hope to widen the scheme in the near future to include a greater range of materials including slides and resource guides. RESOURCE Address for orders or contributions: Roger Gomm, Stevenage College of Further Education, Monkswood Way, EXCHANGE Stevenage, Herts. Organised by Roger Gomin The idea behind this scheme is that any useful Charges: teaching material handouts, stimulus material, games, etc. produced by a social science teacher No: of items required Charge anywhere in the country should become swiftly 1 20p available to his/her colleagues in other schools and 2 1_____. colleges.Thisisan ideall We hope we shad eventually include in the scheme several hundreds 3 40p of items, and that thew will constantly be added 4 45p to and revised. 50p Perhaps it would be as well to say what the 55p scheme is not. Itis not intended that tha items 7 SA)._ included shall be finished works of ail: though we 8 65p shallattempt to maintain a certain minimum 9 standard. Nor is it intended that the scheme will 10 provide 'ready-made' lessons, or 'model answers'. 75p Nonetheless, we can all benefit by having a look at 11 80p what otherteachersconsideranappropriate 12 851, approach to a particular topic, theme, or concept. 13 90p The success of the scheme depends entirely upon 14 C5p the response of ATSS members, for if you don't 15 Et .00 sand in your materials for inclusion it, the scheme it won't even exist. We can't afford to pay you, N.B. For orders in excess of 16 items, please so you'll get nothing but thanks. Though if youcalculate the excess as if ordering from this table. want to reserve copyright (perhaps you've toyed Items marked with en aesterisk are longer than the with the idea of having some work published in tho others and count as two items for ordering purposes. future) just let us Anow. Basically what we want is for you to send in materials you have produced, together with a few lines of description. The items DON'T 8E BASHFUL( Send us a copy of any will be listed in subsequent issues of the Social material you have produced and which you think Science Teacher, together with the description, and might be of interest to other teachers. Items will interested teachers can then write in for copies. not bear the originator's name, except by request The response to the lists of items in recent where he/she would like some feedback from other issues has been very encouraging. Over one hundred teachers. One final word: please ensure that the members have written infor items, and about material you submit does not infringe copyright: forty of them have either contributed items of no extracts from published books please! their own or have promised to do so. We have now madearrangementsforthe SocialStudies, Anthropology, and Environmental Studies aspects RESOURCES EXCHANGE LIST, of the scheme, and we hope to include an increasing FEBRUARY, 1977 'number of items in these fields. Arrangements ate in hand to include items in the fields of psychology Please refer to the item number when ordering. We end economics. can only supply a single copy of each item. 33 13. Reasons for the decline in the birth rate. 5:1 . Sometimes orders will be inade up in different p.aces by different people, so please don't worry if 48. Divorce. 5:3 : onlyhalf your order arrives atfirst, PLEASE 52. Communities and Urbanisation. 5:3 MAKE CHEQUES OR POSTAL ORDERS 56. Family Size. 5:3 . PAYABLETO A.T.S.S. 58. Fertility and Family Size 1850 I 1920. 5:3 123. Constructing a problem with Doctor Wendy , ClassifiedCumulative List of Items still Available. Greengross. 6:1 The number oftheS.S.T.inwhichfull 142. Emerging Conceptual Frameworks in Family "description of the item appears is noted after the Analysis (Nye and Bernardo). 6:2 title of each item. Demography 'SOCIOLOGY 13. Reasons for the decline in the birth rate. 5:1 55. Population. 5:3 Methodology & Social Theory. 56. Family Size. 5:3 17. The Methods of Sociological Enquiry. Full 58. Fertility and Family Size. 5:3 text aPPears in 5:1 18. Sociological Perspectives - Functionalism in Education Contrast with Conflict Theory & Symbolic 14. Intelligence, Social Class and Ability. 5:1 Interaction. 5:1 15. Sponsored and Contest Mobility. 5:1 19. 'As If'- an exercise to generate simple 16. Class Differences in Socialisation. 5:1 versions of sociological perspectives. 5:1 61. Social Class and the Comprehensive School. 20. 'What ShapeisSociety?' - cartoonfor 5:3 discussion of models of society. 5:1 64. Social 1:.fluences affecting Education and the 44. What is Sociology? 5:3 implications for the Curriculum. 5:3 45. Sociology, Science & the Scientific Method. 65. Radical alternatives in education. 5:3 (Gouldner, Garfinkle, Douglas) 5:3 94. Comprehensive Schools. 5:4 57. The Social Sciences. (Sociology, psychology, 95. SocialRelationsina Secondary School social psychology, history) 5:3 (Hargreaves). 5:4 70. Is Sociology a science - nature of science and 99. A Chronology of Education Acts. 5:4 difference between natural and social 148. Education and Social Structure 1 - Structural phenomena. 5:3 Functionalism. 6:2 92. Major Sociology Theories (functionalism and 149. Education and Social Structure 2 - Marxism. social-action). 5:4 6:2 102. The Work of Karl Marx. 5:4 150. Five discussion papers1. Introduction 140. Symbolic Interactionism. 6:2 2. School Knowledge 143.1ndustrialism - synoptic review ot Barry 3. Classification and Turner's book. 6:2 Framing 146. Structural - Functionalism. 6:2 4. Collection Codes 147. Marxist Sociology. 6:2 6:2 5. Integrated Codes. Social Stratification Work, Leisure, Industrial Relations 1. The White Collar Worker - full text in 5:1 3. Workplace Attitudes. 5:1 2.1s Britain a meritocracy? 5:1 4. The Relationship between work and leisure. 5. The functionalist theory of stratification. 5:1 5:1 14. Intelligence, Social Class and Ability. 5:1 49. Industrial Conflict. 5:3 15. Sponsored and Contest Mobaity. 5:1 53. Leisure. 5:3 16. Class Differences in Socialisation. 5:1 59. Alienation. 5:3 20. What Shape is Society? Cartoon for discussion 97. Automations. 5:4 of models of society. 5:1 98. Sociological Aspects of Work arid Industry. 47. Poverty. . 5:3 5:4 50. The Distribution of Money arid Wealth. 5:3 103. Alienation - a prototype of change. 5:4 61. Political Recruitment - Elites or Ruling Class. 136. Trade Union Behaviour. 6:2 5:3 54. The Middle Class. 5:3 Organisations 60. Ciass Consciousness. 5:3 96. Organisations, major theories. 5:4 61. Social Class and the Comprehensive School. 101. Total Institutions. 5:4 5:3 103. Alienation a prototype of change. 5:4 62. Class and Voting. 5:3 139. Bureaucracy. 6:2 93. Stratification Theory. (David and Tumin) 5:4 0138. Elites - Britain & U.S.A. 6:2 Deviance 6. The labelling approach to 'Juvenile Delinquency Family & Kinship 5:1 11. Family and Social Change this century. 5:1 7. Theories of Crime and Delinquency. 5:1 .12. A Sociological account of trends in divorce. 8. The Sociological Approach to Drug Taking. 5:1 5:1 4 31 9. The Sociological Approach to Suicide. (Text 63. Voting behaviour. 5:3 in full.) 5:1 66. Politica'. Change in Britain. 5:3 10. The Effects of the Media on Delinquency. 5:1 124. Midchester Simulation. 6:1 46. Delinquency. 5:3 125. Political parties in U.S.A. 6:1 67. Labelling theory. 5:3 126. Pressure Groups in U.S.A. 6:1 68.Introduction to Deviant Behaviour. 5:3 69. Criminological Theories. 5:3 121. Kit formaking Juvenile Delinquency ANTHROPOLOGY simulation. 6:1 127. Man Domesticates. 6:2 122. Taking the Lid of Incest. 6:1 128. Pastoralism. 6:2 123. Constructinga Problem with Dr. Wendy 129. The Indians of South America. 6:2 Greengross. 6:1 130. Slash and Burn Agriculture in S.E. Asia. 6:2 131. The People of Highland New Guinea. 6:2 Mass Media 132. Peasants. 0:2 10. The Effects of the Media on Delinquency. 5:1 133. China 1. Land and Revolution. 6:2 134. China 2. Peasamts amd Communes. 6:2 Religion 135. The Potlach Game. 6:2 100. Secularisation. 5:4
Communities, Lirban Sociology, Rural Sociology SOCIAL STUDIES 52. Communities and Urbanisation. 5:3 104 - 120. The 'Use of Reso rces Course' Thomas 144. Rural Life (Gwyn Jones). 6:2 Bennett School. 6:1 Race Relations 137. Race Relations. 6:2 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 127. Man Domestieates. 6:2 Politics 128. Pastoralism. 6:2 21. Parties in Britain. 5:1 129. The Indians of South America. 6:2 22. Pressure Groups. 5:1 130. Slash and Ours Agriculture in S.E. Asia. 6:2 23. Selection of Candidates. 5:1 131. The People of Highland New Guinea. 6:2 24. Tha British Concitution. 5:1 132. Peasants. 6:2 25. What is Politics? 5:1 133. China 1. Land and Revolution. 6:2 51. Political recruitment - elutes or ruling class? 134. China 2. Peasants and Communes. 6:2 5:3 104 - 120. The 'Use of Resources Course' Thomas 62. Class and Voting. 5:3 Bennett School. 6:1
SOCIOLOGY: THE CHOICE AT A LEVEL and assessment of Advancod Level Sociology. Based upon the proceedings of the ATSS Edited by Geoff Whiny and Dennis Gleeson Conference, Sociology in the Social Sciences, for the Association for the Teaching of the 16-19,itgathers together information and Social Sciences comment on the various syllabuses now available and looks forward to possible future Since its inception in the mid-1960s, A level developments. Sociology has become an immensely popular The book offers readers an insight into the subject, particularlyincolleges of Further views of examiners and practising teacherson Education but also, increasingly, in schools. these and relatedissues, and presents for Five of the, major examination boards nowscrutiny the various syllabuses, reading lists offer examinations in Sociology at this level, and examination papers. It also considers the yet it continues to create considerable contro- proposals of two groups of teachers whose versy in many circles. This book concentrates answers to questions like those posed here haw particularly upon those issues facing teachers led them to formulate their own alternatives in who are involved or interested in teaching A the form of a Mode 3 A level Sociology syllabus levelSociology. What arethedifferences and a scheme for an Integrated Social Sciences between the various syllabuses? To what extent A level. is there unnecessary duplication between them? Do any of them offer an opportunity to reassess iee: £1.80 paperbackISBN 0905484 07 X the conventional relationship between teachers, £3.90 hardback ISBN 0905484 02 9 students and examiners? Does A level Sociology encourage students to engage more critically Please add postage 25p per volume. and actively in the world they live in? Orders to: Heather Clark, A.T.S.S. Sales Officer, This book focuses upon recent developments 54 Redbridge Lane West, Wansteed, London and future possibilities in the teaching, learning Eli 2JU.
32 35 THE ASSOCIATION FOR THE TEACHING OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES MEMBERSHIP
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The Social Science Teacher (Second Series) NON- MEMBERSMEMBERS Vol. 5, No. 1 Dec. 1975 Only available as part of a complete Vol. 5, No. 2Feb. 1976 set of Volume 5: price per set: £1.60 £2.40 Vol. 5, No. 3Apr. 1976 40p 60p Vol. 5, No. 4June 1976 Special Edition: Textbooks and Curriculum Projects40p 60p Vol. 6, No. 1Oct. 1976 Edition on Games and Simulations 50p 75p Vol. 6, No. 2Dec. 1976 50p 75p Vol. 6, No. 3Feb. 1977 Edition on The Teaching of Politics 50p 75p
Monographs No. 1 Toward!. a Reconstruction of A Level Sociology Teachg by Bob Anderson Out of Print No. 2 New Perspectives in Sociology by Graham Vulliamy Out of Print No. 3 Integrated Social Science A Distinct Possibility by Frank Reeves 30p 40p
Occasional Papers No. 1Is An Integrated Social Sciences A Level Out of Print but Possible? by Roland Meighan. photocopy version: 20p 25p
Briefings No. 1 The Social Investigation Interview by Janet Harris 35p 40p For orders of ten or more: 25p each 30p each .No. 2 Individual Study Folders by Roland Meighan 10p 15p No. 3 Teaching Deviances at A Level by Roger Gomm 20p 25p No. 4 Planning the Content of Socia, Sciences Courses by Roland Meirshan 20p 25P No. 5 Clarifying Values in the Classroom by James McKernan 20p 25P No. 6 Once Upon A Time ... Fairy Tales as a Social Studies Resource by Hazel Sumner 10p 15p
Other Interdisciplinary Social Sciences. Reports from conferences h&c' at Durham, April 1975. (duplicated) 20p 30p
N.B. All price, include postage and packing costs 36 ASSOCIATION FOR THE TEACHING OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
President: Professor G.T. Fowler, M.P.
Chairman: Keith Poulter, Senior Lecturer, Loughton College of Further Education, Essex. (Home: 74, Cherry Tree Rise, Buckhurst Hill, Essex. Tel: 01-504 0804).
Secretary: Chris Brown, Lecturer in Education, West Midland College, Walsall. (Home: 19 Mandeville Gardens, Walsall, WS1 3AT. Tel: Walsall 25388).
The Association aims to promote and develop the teaching of the social sciences, both as separate disciplines and in an integrated form, at primary, secondary, and tertiary stages of education; to produce and disseminate appropriate teaching materials and advice on teaching methods related to the social sciences; to provide opportunities for teachers and educationists to meet for discussion and the exchange of ideas. Activity is mostly focussed at local levels to encourage maximum membership participation. Branch meetings (unless otherwise specified) are open to any interested person but where an admission charge is made, non ATSS members will be charged at a higher rate.
THE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHER
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The Social Science Teacher is the journal of the Association for the Teaching of the social sciences;:in aFsociation of teachers of the social science disciplines (sociology, anthropology, economics, politics, and psychology) in the primary, secondary, tertiary, and higher sectors of education. The journal is intended to provide an information service for social science teachers. The magazine contains news items, letters, articles, reviews and advertisements. Common themes include the theory of teaching the social sciences, teaching methods, latest ideas in the field of social science, teaching notes, and reviews of books, curriculum projects, and visual aids, etc. The Social Science Teacher is issued free to members of the Association (50p an extra copy) and is 75p to nonmembers, and is published five times a year. Advertising rates are available on application to the General Editors. 37 ASSOCIATION FOR THE TEACHING OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
THE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHER
Edition on Sex Roles in Society VOL.6 No.4 APRIL 1977 38- OBJECTIVE, FAIR AND BALANCED- a new law for religion in education
a new booklet from the British Humanist Association which makes radical proposals for changing the lawon religion in county schools and ending 31 years of hypocrisy
Available 4012 plus 18p post & pkg. from British Humanist Association
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39 THE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHER
Journal of the Association for the Teaching of the Social Sciences Vol. 6, No. 4
Edition on Sex Roles in Society
Edited by Helen Reynolds and Lynn Davies
(Published by A.T.S.S. Copyright A.T.S.S. 1977)
EDITORIAL ,. This issue is devoted to a consideration of the problems, strategies eld theoretical perspectives involved in %teaching about sex roles in society. There is evidence that some considerable bias exists in teaching materials, the curriculum, the choice given to students and in the general organisation of the school. Learning about sex roles is not only part of many socisl science syllabi but also of direct relevance to ,the students concerned, whose own experience provides primary data for analysis. In attempting to make suggestions and raise issues the aim is not only to discuss that most popular of topics women's liberation but to investigate the means by which this area of experience may be 'Understood and interpreted. At the same time itis necessary to extend such study to include other Almensions of inequality and to examine the relations between them. Itis frequently assumed that sexual dimensions cut across those of class and race but many studies suggest that the latter are more significant factors in social attitude and behaviour. Much of the existing 'literature fails to consider the relationships between dimensions of inequality and to provide adequate theoretical frameworks for their analysis. ln terms of teaching strategies a number of suggestions have been forthcoming and have been compiled :together with lists of resources. At the same time, articles include theoretical considerations and comment. Inevitably, the question to be asked is "what are the obijectiyes of teaching about sex roles?" In terms ',Of academic social science an objective understanding of the process by which roles are learned and ,tiansmitted together with an appreciation of the economic and political processes which produce and tnaintain such distinctions, might be the primary consideration. At the same time, such study will 'itmdoubtedly have some influence on perceptions of self, society and the learning process, which in turn fitive implications for change. 'It would seem important that these topics and others should be subject to debate. The aims and "Consequences of strategies in this area should a.so be related to the nature of teaching and learning, and ..,,educational objectives in general. H.R. L.D.
'.CONTENTS PAGE =Aliewpoint by James Hemming 2
'A.T.SS. News 3
;Correspondence 9
1. Perspectives on the Family by Rachel McCracken 11 tArticles:,. 2. Lords and Ladies of Creation by Roger Gomm 15 3. Sex Roles and Schooling: An Investigation of Social Science Textbooks by Marianne Kjellgren 17 4. Sex Roles: A Psychological Perspective by Coleen Ward 21 5. Butter Wouldn't Melt In Her Mouth? by Lynn Davies 23 6. Ideas for a "Sex Roles" Course by Lorraine Judge 25 7. A Source List for Women in Society compiled by Lynn Davies 27
:Reviews 31 '..., Resources Exchange 37
:Briefings:No. 7 A Sex Roles Socialisation Game by Moira Wales pull-out centre pages Section Cartoon Headings by Beverley Curl Views expressed in contributions to this journal do not necessarily represent the views of A.T.S.S. or the editors. The journal provides opportunities for the expression of divergent ideas and opinions. La VIEWPOINT SOC1A-L AND RELIGIOUS worth of individuals. At present, many children EDUCATION FROM THE HUMANIST POINT feeldiminished by their experience at school.. OF VIEW When this is so, they hate school and often, also, the society of which the school is a part. 1. The fed DuriN I.,course of social evolution children have 5. Content and Values acquirtO 1,1eir values from the community in which Every subject should be taught in its human and they found themselves. Until very recently these social context in order to bring out the significanCe values were codsistent as between one adult model ofmoral vaiues and socialresponsibility. For andanother. The values werereinforcedby example, to teach science without any reference to mutually supportive social, familial and religious itssocial impact and responsibility ,isto miss a influences. All that consistency has now gone. We valuable educational opportunity. have moved from a closed society to a more open society and this inevitably brings uncertainty and 6. Education for a Moral Perspective confusion in its wake. Thus, children today need In addition to the general developmental influences help to sort out a stance for living as the basis for of school and community, children need specific their lives. attention given to helping them to acquit() a viable 'stance for living'. This may be religious or it may 2. The Gap be naturalistic;itisnot for county schools to For lack of an education leading towards moral influcnce pupils one way or the other, but to insight hosts of people are, today, morally lost. encourage them to think about the options. It is One result of this is an increase of insensitive, self- purtict.larlyimportant, during adolescence, that: centred behaviour and a declina in responsibility. time should be given to this, and that there should The only values consistently put before young be teashers specially trained for it. The aim should People are commercial and exploitative values. be to give children a perspective on religious and These are the antithesis of the values of obligation nonreligiousmoralprinciples and onsocial which were the civilising values of earlier societies. relationships andresponsibilities. Such teaching' Unless the schools play a more vigorous part in should be genuinely objective, fair and balanced so` moraleducation, the gapbetweenpersonal that every child's development towards maturty behaviour and the values upon which every society will be catered .for, and so that there may be a depends honesty, trust, mutuality, concern etc. good chance of bringing out a workable moral willcontinueto widen. Corruptioninhigh understanding between those who follow dif ferent Places, destructiveness, irresponsibility, and lack of religious faiths and those whose life is based on a concern for others, are examples of this gap. naturalistic view of the world. James Hemming ,3. The Quality of the School Community Since allchildren pass through the educational system, we can give all of them the experience of James Hemming is a Vice President of A.T.SS. and living in a friendly, caring, purposeful, responsible he was recently elected President of the British co-operative community. To build up sucha Humanist Association. Other distinguished holders community should be a school's primary aim. This of this latter post have included Barbara Wooden is the proper base for all education and is the sine Bertrand Russell and A.J. Ayer. qua non of both moral education, and the develop- ment of a more responsible society. 4. The Confidence Curriculum A senseofself-respectandself-valueisthe foundation of integrity of personality and concern for others. The complement to a good school community as a basis for moral development is, therefore, a curriculum through which the child steadily gains more confidencein himself. This involves matching task-, to ability and maintaining a siwation in which success is always the reward ofeffort.Theconfidence-building curriculum requires a good deal of individualised work, alert attentionto thechild'sowninterestsund aspirations, and asystem ofassessmentthat measures the child against his own potential and attainment, rather than against, the attainment of others. This does not exclude the sensible use of standardised tests as a means of helping the child review his own situation, and the teacher the situatioo of the child. What it does exclude is making academic values dominant in judging the 41 use the language in which the debate itselfis couched. At least the case for social science will not go by default. There will be another opportunity to make our point as ATSS has been invited to send a delegate to one of the regional conferences. However, action at a more practical level is also required. In order for it to be ef fective we would be very grateful if members who have experience or knowledge of attempts, successful or otherwise, to cut or weaken established social science courses or impedetheir introduction, could send such knowledge tous.In addition it would be very helpful to have any rationale written in support of social science teaching. Please treat this as a matter of urgency so that ATSC 'can prepare a rationale for any member r:ho n. eds one in a hurry. Please send your material to Paul Cooper, 1!: Meyrick Road, Bedhampton, Havant, Hants. MAGISTERIAL DISMISSAL A member has sent me a letter received recently Compiled by Chris Brown from the Hon. Sec. of the Association of Magisterial Of ficers. It is perhaps not unrelated to the previous rDEBATE OR WITCH-HUNT? item. I quote part of the letter without comment: .There is little doubt from information reaching me -Thank you for your letter of the 27th January -that social science courses are under attack The receivedtoday. From my twenty-five years of 'lair issue of this journal included a letter /Aom a experienceintha magisterialservice I do not Jrember giving an account of how 0-level S..ciology consider that to study sociology would be of great :had been threatened with the axe and reporting advantage for prospective court staff. Whilst we do :MC hostile comments of colleagues about the meet and hear 3 tremendous variety of problems subierct. The same issue included a report of a man people experience, in our line we do not become ';investigatedbyhis employer because he was involved with them. Obviously it helps to under- ,StUdyin sociology and politics. Fruhably most of standthe problems oeopleface,butinthe ;Us are Lsed to this attitude ,iow but it is still not magisterial field there is no scope to help put them ;pleasant, esoecially when an Education Minister, ;Who 'ought to know better, makes deprecatory :remarks about sociology, as Gordon Oakes did a SCHOOL BROADCASTS !few months ago. The BritishSociological School: programmesarenotnotedforthe Associationisseekinganinterviewwiththe excellen e of their social science output. Too often :Minister to ask for an, explanation and will be promisiny titles only hide description and stereo- :.'urgIng its members to write to the Press on the types anthropologybecomes atravelogue, Matter. ATSS members should do the same. sociology oecomes social problems and politics : The whole tenor of the 'great debate' has been become parliamentary institutions. In the field of ,iltnilarly hostile. Social studies has been treated as popular journalism IPC seem to have made a i needles.% and perhaps harmful, (rip iery, diverting breakthrough with Society Today. Sociological children (especially clever ones) f ror. ,eal education. concepts are presented in a lively, punchy way 'It would not be so bad if the deL:ite itself showed without any significant loss of intellectual honesty 'anysigis ofthoseacademic' andintellectual andIpersonally hope they will be able to extend 'standards which are now believed to be under this treatment to other sciences. 'threat but it does not. Literacy and numeracy But in broadcasting, decent social science is have been endowed with almost magical properties; reserved for non-educational slots. Thus the recent ,English,maths andscience huge almost been Galbraith epic, whatever its faults, contained some regaided as the last bulwark against the collapse of highly relevant material for A-level Economics and Capitalism. And the simplistic and naive way in Sociology. Another example is the famous Granada Which therelationship between education and documentary Seven-Up, about which more later. eocietv isdiscussed(the media areespecially But when an attempt was made recently by a implicated here programmes I have seen re) the schools unit to discuss a social issue sociology it education debate have been particularly banal) was accused of bias and banned from re-showing imply' demonstratestheurgentneedforthe by the IBA (see Viewpoint inST, Vol. 6, No, 3). Conceptual and analytic skills of the social sciences These thoughts are prompted by a look at the to be much more widely disseminated. BBC Schools summer programme. In indicating Our own ontribu don to the debate appeais on those programmes apparently relevant to social ilater page. We hope it will help to raise the tone science teachers it must be in the spirit of 'caveat f the debate but if it, too is not entirely devoid of emptc!''. On radio History In Focus (14-17. Tues. latitudes itis in part a reflection of the need to 2.20-240) concentrates on Cities and Technology & 4 2 3 Society.Learning AboutLife yukl(14-16. continuity and change andis the brainchild of Thurs. 2.40-3.00) includes Learning to be a parent a marriage between history and sociology in the (that's what I need), The growing childand persons of Profs. Dyos and Banks of Leicester Deprived children. The likeliest looking seriesis University. GCE Sociology students are regarded as just called Man (1012. Thurs. 11.20-11.40) and is part of the audience it is aimed at and the series in tWo,parts Experience of a present-day family will be accompanied by extensive study notes. in Western Europe and Life in. an Indian villageATSS hes a member on the series' consultative today. There is also a series caned Russian JOurney committee. Ha is Barry Pilbro and anyone wanting (1316. Thurs. 10.45-11.00) in Radiovision (which further information should contact him at East means thereare film-stripstogowiththe Ham College of Technology, General Studies Dept., programmes). The programmes "aimto show London E6 4ER. something of the lives of the people". BBC Television offers British Social History M EDIA STUDI ES (14-16. Fortnightly, Mon. 2.18-2.30, repeated in An afterword to this spate of news from the global alternate weeks Weds. 11.00-11.20) on Women's village. Rights and People and War. History1917-73 If you are involved in teaching media studies, (14-16. Fortnightly, Weds. 2.1B-2.3B, repeated in Allan Pond ofLeicesterUniversity would be alternate weeks Tues. 10.25-10.45) is mainly abc ut pleasedtohear from vou. Heisparticularly China. Parents And Children (FE. Tues. 3.30-3.55. interestedinexisting syllabuses and projected BBC2) includes a programme very relevant to the courses and would like to have people's opinions theme of this issue of SST What are little girls about such studies. Please write to him at 114 and boys made of?Itis to be transmitted on Laurel Road, Leicester. April 5th. (Quite why this series starts at the end of the Spring term and runs right through Easter I CRAC COMPETITION am not sure.) The Careers Research and Advisory Councilis All-in-alt there is not much there to keep them organising a competition for schools. It is designed quiet. Back to the blackboard and the handouts. toenable young people to(a)broadentheir Hard luckl occupationalhorizons,(b)acquiretheskills necessary forfinding employment (applyfor 7 + 7 + 7 membership of Rotary!), (c) bring their minds to The, next edition of the Guinness Book of Records bear on the problem of alleviating unemployment should include an entryfortheGranada through community action, and (d) explore the documentary Seven-Up and the most widely shown job opportunities in their neighbourhood. The aim film in the history of social science. When I was a is to provide young people with widely differing student I managed to avoid it. though I remember abilities and skills with competition projects which my tutor singing its praises. Since then I have seen wingivethem opportunities for co-operation, it so oftenIthink I know the script off by heart discovery and achievement. The competitionis but even now Ican still watch it with interest. designed to fit into a normal careers timetable, but Seven Plus Seven, the sequel, was longer and less it also lends itself to use by young people following gripping except for the moment when Susie's dog courses in social and community studies, commerce caught the rabbit) and business studies. Further details from CRAC, And now folks .... Seven Up comes of age. In Bateman Street, Cambridge, CB2 1LZ. May Granadawillscreen a thirdprogramme depicting the original seven year-olds now that .INVESTIGATION HANDBOOK they are twenty-one. The title, 7 + 7 + 7, is still I have been sent information by a member about provisional and the date is not certain but it will an excellent pamphlet produced, by Community probably by May 9th. The intention is to present Action called the "Investigators Handbook'. As its edited highlights of the first two programmes for name suggests this is a guide to how to find out an hour before News At Ten and the new material about companies, local authorities, public afterwards. (What will they do when their subjects corporations, directors, counalors, public are B4? More to the point, how will we use it in employees and so on. The information on sources the classroom?) is thorough and the directions for using them cleat Personally I cannot wait for the third instalment. and concise. Very good value at 30p includinG Will John ba President of the Union? Will Brucepostage from Community Action, P.O. Box 665, still be sitting on the fence? Will Nicholas still be London SW1X BDZ, looking at his feet? Will poor old Susie still be a victim, like the rabbit? Above all , will Tony be a LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM jockey or a taxi-driver? Following the note about the NATE Language Across the Curriculum Project in the last issue, the THE LIVING CITY following statement was submitted to a recent Another forthcoming programme which hopefully meetingoftheCouncilofSubject Teachins wiltnotmerit myearliercriticismsabout Associations by our representative on the Council educationaltelevisionisscheduled for January Roger Gomm. 197B from the BBC FE Unit. It iS called The Living "The membership of the A.T.S.S.includes City. The seriesis to be a study of Leicester in teachersofsocialstudies, community studies
4 4 3 , Warld.S,tudies and humanities in the middle and ADVISORY PANELS 'Oil*: school & of sociology, anthropology, Two new ATSS Advisory Panels have been formed. 10014biolcigy, social economics, social polky and A iwte about the Economics Panel appears bdow. Oittirilitration, psychology, & political sdence in A :iocial Work Panel has also been formed with secondary schools, further and higher education. Stella Dixon of Trowbridge Technical College as '1Nti weuld hope.. that the routine practices of Chairman. The panel hopes to develop support oilr: members teaching social studies and similar for social science teachers on the various vocational ricei:.iacademie courses approach -the recommen- coursesofferedinfurther education. Anyone f'detioni ;of the Bullock Report where these are interestedinthisPanel should write to Stella )1,4stevent .Indeed We would finditdifficultto Dixon, 18 Pickwick Road, Fairfield, Bath, Avon. t Iffiegine' thatsuchcoursescouldbetaaght ...ttOccessfully without a great emphasis being placed ,, ;Ors activitiesleadingtothedevelopment of 'discussion.skills,theabilityto read with 1*cienprehension, to construct logical arguments or DIARY DATES ktd:iecognise and practice different types and styles Apr. c..tbUCOmmunication. Since the success of teaching in 5 Sussex ATSS.6th Form Conference. pIoiiii. area'relies so heavily on the language skins of Research Methods in Sociology. With Colin :,,Ur pupils we. arenaturallyinterestedin any Lacey and Jennifer Platt. Education irpiogianime to improve English Language teaching. Development Building, University of Sussex, :V;..Those Of us who teach academic courses in :he Brighton. rsocial: sciences are not only engaged in teaching 12/16 ATSS Easter Course. Social Studies and Stariciard English', but also in assisting pupils and Humanities in Schools. Loughborough 4vitUdents to master the specialised vocabulary and .,... . College of Education. With Ian Lister and ,syntex of the social sciences. This latter sometimes Barry Dufour. 'Ofings us into conflict with spacialist teachers of 15/18 Economics Association. Annual National Eiltilish Who claim that the use of language by social Economics Teaching Course. Neville's Cross gicientists in unnecessarily esoteric and aesthetically College of Education, Durham. Details from iiinelegent, while social science teachers claim that Economics Assoc. Room 340, Hamilton qs...ihe criteria by which 'English essays are judged House, Mabledon Place, London WC1H 9BH. allow,for imprecision, naivety, impressionism and a May ireat reliance on the common-sense understanding 14 W. Midlands ATSS. SocialScience and Of the reader. The diisonance between the rules for Humanities. University of Birmingham .giloiritingte= , 'good social science' & those for writing School of Education. 10.00. WOOOd English' in the context of an English lesson 19 NE London ATSS. AGM. Teaching Social 1.eripears,to us as an important point for discussions Class and Race Relations. Haringey Teachers ibetween social science teachers and English language Centre, Philip Lane, N15. 5.00. ifSpeCialists. For this document however we will leave 20 Pressure Groups and BritishPolitics. _Abe. matter with the question: "Who says what is Birmingham University. Details from Dept. gisPd English?"; thus pointing to an issue not raised Extra-Mural Studies, Univ. of Birmingham, Nin 'the Bullock Report. That is the question of who P.O. Box 363,Edgbaston, Birmingham Vies the power to define the rules for communication. B15 2TT. ',.'We would claim that social science teachers 20/22 Decision Making in British Politics. Bristol haVe a partir:ular contribution to make to the Univ. Details from Derek Smith, Dept. of ,leerningofand about language. Most ofthe Extra-Mural Studies, Univ. of Bristol, 32 tr..ecommendations of the Bullock Report concern Tyndalls Park Road, Bristol B58 1HR. 'One .. pupillearning touse language. We would 28 Modern Studies Association. AGM. Theme :tiseggest that this endeavour should be extended to Eastern Europe. Jordanhill College of linclude teaching about language use. Here the Education, Glasgow. Details from Mr. O.J. : l 'Perspectives provided by psycho-linguistics and Dunlop at the College. tiocio-linguisticsareextremelyvaluable. These July :,.siil:/jects have now taken their place in the curricula 17/22 New DirectionsinPoliticalScience. A F:of: Teacher education and it seems curious that coursefor teachers of politics. Univ. of
rihey, should be withheld from pupils. We suggest Essex. Details from Joanne Brunt, Dept. of lt,thatsuchperspectives wouldassist pupils and Government,Univ.ofEssex, Wivenhoe dents to use language reflectively, to under- Park, Colchester C04 35Q. rStand the relationship between language and social Aug. f COntext, the nature of language as a means of social 14/20 Field Studies In Teaching Economics. Details ItC.Orttral, the way in which language is the primary from B. Robinson, Worcester College of f einedium through which reality is ccinstructed and to HigherEduc., Henwick Grove, Worcester i,beable to read to comprehend,not only the intention WR 2 6AJ. f;Of:the writer, but the social and historical circum- Sept. stances under which the writing was produced. 16/18 ATSSAnnualConference.With James I would still be very pleased to hear from anyone Hemming and Geoff Person. Leeds tinterested in this area. Polytechnic. 4 4 ECONOMICS, Vo. XII, Pt. 4, Winter 1976 the Training Services Agency and so on, ending This issue includesarticlesonSmallFirms' with The Friendly Fuzz. What was that about Investment Behaviour and An Alternative Macro. Devolution? MOST is availablefrom Wilson Economic Model for the Classroom. There is also a Jamieson, 46 Randolph Road, Stirling FK8 2AR. very comprehensive Guide to Free Resources for Price 75P. Teachers qf Economics and Commerce. Although it was prepared for London teachers, it will be of RAIN. No. 18. Feb. 1977 interest to Social Studies teachers throughout the This issue of the Royal Anthropological Institute country. Economics is available fromThe News contains a lengthy article which argues, a Economics Assoc., Room 340, Hamilton House, distinction between ethnographic films and Mabledon Place, London WC1H 9BH. anthropological films. The article was inspired by a new film called Life Chances by Peter Loizos TEACHING POLITICS. Vol. 6. No. 1. Jan. 1977 which is about daily life in a Greek Cypriot. village This edition includes two most interesting articles. at least as it was before the Turkish invasion. In one, Prof. Ian Lister outlines the current varieties The other main feature isthe 1976 Presidential of political education and analyses ways which Address of Christoph von Furer.Haimendorf which schools have adopted for dealing with the subject isentitledHistorical Processes in the Light of or not dealing with it. In the other, John Sutton, Anthropological Re-Studies:SomeHimalayan Chairman of The Politics Association, presents a Examples. A far cry from The Friendly Fuzzi lucid account ofthehistoricalbackground to RAIN is available from the RAI, 36 Craven St., political education and a statement recommending London WC2N 5NG. various courses of .action for the future develop- ment of the subject. JACK NOBBS writes on the Advisory Panel The contrasts between the two articles are for Economics marked even though they cover very similar ground. The first meeting was held on Saturday, January Lister argues that the future of political education 15th, 1977, at the offices of the British Sociological lies in the 'politics of everyday life' by which he Association, London. The following officers were means the politics of educational institutions, of elected: the environment, of language,of sex, of the family and of human groups generally. Such a develop- Chairman: jack Nobbs (Norwich) ment would be of great interest both for its inter- Vice.Chairman: Jim Murphy (Oxford) disciplinaryimplicationsandforthecritical Secretary: Philip Negus (Nottingham) light it would shed on all those areas of life usually regarded as non-political. Chris Farley (Panel Liaison Officer) reported Lister's article, then, arrives at a radical role that Mel Ashbourne (Huddersfield) had intended for political education, In contrast, Sutton prefaces to be present, but probably had been prevented his article with a quote from Harry Truman "If from doing so because of the wintry conditions. the people can't trust their government, the whole One volunteer for the advisory panel had emerged works will fall apart." He then says "The (Politics) from the appeal in the Social Science Teacher and Associationseeks to end thelong neglect of itwas decided to invite him, (Alan Rawel of political education as the best long.term means of Cheshire), to the next meeting which will probably ensuring that'the whole works' does notfall beheldin October 1977 when copy for the apart .. Although subsequent remarks qualify "Economics" Edition of Th../ Social Science Teacher this statement they do not erase it. So, to borrow should be available. This edition is to be published terms from Paulo Freire, it seems to me that Lister in February 1978, and Iwill be very pleased to sees political education as 'critical consciousness' receive contributions. while Sutton is arguing for it as 'domestication'. A discussion followed concerning the roles of Teaching Politics is availablefrom Sage the ATSS and the Economics Association. The Publications, 44 Hatton Garden, London EC 1N 8ER. members of the Advisory Panel, who were all members of both organisations, recognised that MOST. No. 13. Jan, 1977 the Economics Association was well able to cater This edition of the journal of the Modern Studies for teachers of economics preparing candidates for Association isdevotedtothetheme of'The GCE (especially at "A" level), but felt that the Individual in Society'. MOST aims to provide its ATSS Economics Advisory Panel could fulfill a readers with resource material facts and ideas, distinctneed byofferingassistanceto ATS8 though mainly the former. In this aim it does well members who wish to teach elements of economics in its nearly fifty closely-prid A4 paps. Which as part of theii social studies or sociology courses. isfine. But what would you expect under the Other matters considered by the panel included: heading of 'The Individual and Society? (1) The JMB A/0 Level InduStrial Studies; it was Socialisation? Personality and culture? Social class? regretted that the ATSS had not been given The distribudon of power? What you get from longer to advise on the syllabus. MOST is Work and Incomes, Money Education, (2) The Understanding BritishIndustry Project; Unions and Working Conditions, Health and Safety, Chris Farley had attended a workshop about RegulationofAdvertising, Fair Trading, Social the project and expressed the view chc... CBI Security, Local Health Councils, Private Medicine, was not very clear, at present, about how the
6 P4 5 £2,300,000 available to the project should be of society as a whole that children approach all spent, It appeared that day .release courses were aspects of their' lives political, social, economic not popular with industrialists. and personal with confidence and awareness. It was agreed that the chairman of the ATSS 1.3 Yet itis being said that the vast majority of EcOnomics Advisory Panel should write to the pupils leave school with virtually no knowledge of 'Resource Director of the CBI asking for details and of the social and industrial world around them. 'Whether the ATSS could be usefully involved in Certainly most have little knowledge of current the project. affairs,political debaw or the economy, little 13)The £250,000 Schools Council Industry Project systematic knowledgeof society and how i,.(in association with the TUC and the CBI); the individualsrelateto one another and virtually
. reasons for two such similar projects were not noinsightinto themselves asindividuals.For abundantly cleari many, the experience of entering the world beyond I look forward to receiving ideas relating to full.time education must be verystrange. For teaching schemes, lessons,projects, visualaids, others, the experience of being in schooi is strange gamesandsimulationsandothereconomics because of the wide gulf which frequently exists materialsforinclusioninthe SST Economics between the school curriculum and everyday life. Edition. 1.4 The central question that has been asked in I will also be glad to hear ftom anyone interested the debate is what is the best way of ensuring 'in the work of the Panel. My address is 66 Garrick that education meets the requirements of society ,Green, Old Catton, Norwich. and the needs of the individual? Part of the answer li:ts in the content ot the curriculum and in relation SOCIETY IN THE SCHOOL to this issue the Association for the Teaching of Social Studies and the Curriculum Debate the Social Sciences suggests that the opportunity We present below the text of a statement issued by should now be taken to consider the place of ATSS in February. Under a covering letter signed Social Studiesinschools. This brief document ,by Gerry Fowler, the statement was sent to Mrs. seeks to draw abention to the contribution which Shirley Williams and other ministers and M.P.'s, to Social Studies can make to the individual and 'alltheparticipantsintheregionaleducation society. rconferences and to nearly two hundred organis- ations and individuals connected with education. 2 What is Social Studies? ,The statementoriginatedina working party 2.1Social Studiesiscurrently taught in some consisting of members of the Executive Committee 'schools in a number of guises, often dominated by and the Social Studies Advisory Panel. historicaland geographical approaches. What is The Executivehas decidedtopresent the now being recognised is that these approaches need statement at the AGM in September for debate. to be . complemented by the contemporary and Amendments, which will require a proposer and more comprehensive perspectives and concepts of ;Seconder who are ATSS members, can be sent to the newer social sciences; courses reflecting this me for circulation in advance. I must receive them view are an emerging feature of Social Studies in a by July 23rd at thc latest and the Executive will growing number of schools. The ATSS calls for the ,set up a sub-committeetoprepare composite development of such courses on a more extensive .amendments if necessary. The revised statement basis and si strengthening of official support for ;will become the basis of ATSS policy on social them. The insights and intellectual training offered :studies and will be included in a booklet we hope by such subjects as Anthropology, Economics, to publish next year on introducing social studies Politics, Psychology and Sociology, together with into schools. more traditional approaches, should be brought togethertocreate new opportunitiesforthe 1 INTRODUCTION development of the pupil's social understanding. 1.1The current curriculum debate has arisen out 2.2Individual schools will want to integrate the of demandsfor a realisticassessment ofthe disciplinesin various combinations according to contribution which formal schooling makes to the their particular resources and circumstances. Like- ; life of the nation. Clearly what is taught in schools, wisa, the methods .for achieving integration must is well as the way it is taught, has and should have, depend on the context in whichittakes place. a relationship with the wider society, though this However, no matter how it is achieved, integrated relationship is by no means as straightforward as is social science courses can be constructed which frequently supposed. wiil meet the needs of all ability groups and age 1.2Atthesame tirri,the contributiooof groups and would thus be appropriate for inclusion education to the development of the individual in a core curriculum. Must not be ignored. The Annotated Agenda for 2.3 As regards resources for these new develop. .the debate issued by the Department of Education ments, the strength of the social sciences in Higher and Science refers to the responsibility of schools Education ensures a sufficient supply of qualified ;for ".. , preparing children for adult life in its staff.As forteachingmaterials,recentand 'widestsensesothatthey become responsible proposedcurriculumprojectsand commercial I'members of society and have the knowledge and production for the existing market both suggest lunderstanding to handle effectively the personal that any dif ficulties which have been experienced aSperts of their lives". It can only be in the interests in the past are now being overcome. 4 6 7 3 Aims of Social Studies Teaching number of dimensions of ability and progress may 3.1Although there may be a variety of approaches be assessed.
. to Social Studies, such courses should embrace the following distinctive central aims: 6 Social Studies and Industrial Society 3.2Students should develop their understanding 6.1Sir Alex Smith has said 'we need to teach of "society", the study of which should include (a) children that industry is part of the social fabric." the interaction of the individual and the groups to Itis now widely acknowledged that some under- which he belongs or which may affect his life, and standing of industrial society needs to be taught. 'lb/ the role of beliefs, values and culture in this What is less clear is who is going to teach it. Social relationship. Studies is an area of the curriculum in which work 3.3 Students should be able to draw upon and of this nature is,being carried out and one which evaluate a wide range of evidance in tiying to vmuld justifyconsiderable developmentinthe understand their own society. This must involve future. opportunities for students to examine their own 6.2Part of the irony of the current debate lies experiences and utilise basic skills. in the fact that Social Studies is one of the few 3.4 Students should be encouraged to develop an subjectswhich hasattemptedtomakethe understanding of the variety of ways of perceiving Meaningful relations between education and every- and organising social !He, thus enabling them to daylife, which are now being. demanded. Yet examine their own values objectively. SocialStudies, like Technology, has tended to remain a low status subject. Social Studies could however provide an understanding of industrial 4 Methods of Teaching Social Studies society in its fullest sense through the use of the 4.1Teaching methods and learningstylesare analytical concepts of the social sciences. Such an perhapsas much,ifnot more, importantin approach to teaching about the nature of industrial Social Studies than in some other subjects. We society would, we suggest, be more genuinely believe that the aims of teaching Social Studies are educational than a mere training for society as to be achieved via methods of teaching as well as it exists. the content of what is taught. 6.3 We regard this approach as a direct preparation 4.2In addition to traditional teaching methods, for working life. In the first place, there are a students' first hand experience is a relevant base number of specific jobs for which Social Studies is from which to approach the study of society and a relevant precursor teaching, the police force, course construction should take account of this nursing, managerial, planning etc. In the second requirement.Inreflecting ontheir experience, place, since peopleinthe future may need .to students will develop skills of communication and change their jobs several times, they will need the self-expression both verbally and in writing. broad awareness and flexibility that Social Studies 4.3 Some of the necessary skills for dealing with can offer. The performance of British Industry evidence are knowledge andevaluation of the over the past twenty-five years indicates that this methods of collecting and presenting data. Amongst is as much a requirement in the education of future other things, this will involve students in making managers as it is of workers on the production line. use of statistical and graphical methods of data processing and presentation. 7 Conclusion 4.4 Teaching methods couldensurethat the 7.1Some contributors to the current debate have, skillsreferredto above have an applicationin by implication, been critical of Social Studies:We everyday life by encouraging students to engage believe such views to be misguided and have tried inactiveenquiryandinvestigationofsocial to show why. The long term future of an industrial phenomena, The use of first hand experience and nation requires that education concern itself with the development of the skill of evaluation should the totalsocialfabric and the entire range of also encourage the student to play a more active personal encounters, not merely partial aspects of Part in his own learning and involve him in the life them. What is more, it seems unlikely that the of the community. social structure of advanced industrial societies is going to become less complex. Rather, patterns of work and leisure will require a population which 5 Assessment of Social Studies is more than just!iterate and numerate. Some 5.1 The range of skills and activities outlined in further quality will be increasingly required in our the previous sections covers cogni-;ive and affective society. "Sociate" might be the right word but, areas. This means that a wider variety of assess- whatever we call it, students who have a systematic ments should be available for students:We recognise grasp of the historical and social matrix in which the necessity of not only extending the range of they live are likely to be people who can sustain assessment techniques but also improving them and enhance the quality of life for everyone. For in the interests of all concerned. We urge that the this reason an integrated Social Studies drawing'on Assessment and Performance Unit be asked to look the intellectual wealth of the newer social sciences. intothis;fleaofthe curriculum atthe earlitm should be part Of she educational experience of possible time. We believe that periodic assessment every school child. ofstudents' performance may be made more effective by some form ofprofilein which a February, 1977. 8 4 7 'CORRESPONDENCE Dear Editors, Readers of your recent publication Sociology: The 'Deir Editors, Choice at A.level may have noticed a statement in my paper to the effect that "JMB planning makes James McKernan, in his review of Cultural Studies no allowance for students or. shortened A-level l'aricl Values Education, suggests that the Humanities courses in further education" and that "the target ;Curriculum Projectposition is fraUghtwith for the JMB is always the 16.18 year-old taking a .cOnfusion. I thinkitimportant sincethe twoyear course in school". The point I wished to .',confUsion is obviously in his mind to straighten make was simply that the remit for the A-level him out a little, because the ATSS Journal is an Sociology planning group was a syllabus appropriate 'important forum. for the 16-18 year.old sixth.former. Of course, I In the teaching explored by the Project, the would not wish to imply that JMB are insensitive :teacherisnot a disinterested bystander, but a to the needs of further education;. their current 'responsible, though neutral, chairman. His task is developments in Ordinary (Alternative) syllabuses .'cto enable a discussion group to pursue the under- testifies to their wish to cater for more mature, iltanding of social situations, of human acts and of atypical students, many of whom are in further controversial value issues in the light of evidence education. ,:rither than in reaction to the authority of his own The technique of doing this is not easy to Yours sincerely, i'acquire, but a fairly large number of teachers have becOme master ofit.Itisimportant that he lan Shelton. believes in the students' responsibility to enter into their own commitments in areas where he himself ,ihas deep commitment. McKernan is quite wrong in TiUggesting that within the Strategy explored by the ,Project the tedcher argues for various sides. This advocate" position appears to be in direct ConfliCt to the Project as it involves the teacher in ;he insincerity of advancing views which are not own. InspiteofMcKernan, the teacherisnot ..Pritharily interested in creating group discussion, ,butispursuing an aim of understanding, and .,ice,epting the responsibllity for examining f,;Ohilosophically the nature of this aim. Thcre is no suggestion whatever that all opinions are equal manifest absurdity but that the way to more 7,1clequate yiews and understandingsisthrough ;reflectiveness fed by reasonableness and sensitivity. hAtilcing the assumption, which McKernan appears foshare, that some opinions are clearly more ..'iational and reasonable than others, the assumption isthat such opinions are likely to be reached hy ::.the use of reason. .1n the case of Northern Ireland, it may be that ''IiilcKernan is arguing that there are certain points :-:rit'which the issues are not controversial. If this is :46. then of course the case for neutral chairman- hip breaks down in terms of its premises.However, lit is still worth considering whether a confrontation 'between' teacher and pupil on an issue deeply felt by both is the best means for the educator to take :if he wishesto promote more reasonable and .More humane views. T..' It would be trying your patience to take more "space here, but itis easy to find out about the :Humanities Project in spite of McKernan's obvious iliiglect to do so. Yours faithfully,
Lawrence Stenhouse, Csntre for Applied Research in Education, University of East Anglia. 4 8 9 AGAINST OUR WICL Men, Women and Rape THE RIGH1S AND WRONGS ") cor,TH,wruniller OF WOMEN
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U.,ft,',/,;(wrIr'n, LI), r Ill( ,I, Pelican 60p ,,/- , 1,1 Jr/ it , 1,1,1Alirq,1 u,,,...7! 51,- rl,tifi'lf filonlor4 Now giailabl, e from your local Pelican Original 60p . bookseller fo. that most sociology of the family has taken: I am going to sketch only a very brief outline here. Until recently, most sociology of the family waswithin anoverallstructural-functionalist perspective,themajortheorist being Talcott Parsons. Again, there have been many criticisms of functionalism and I do not propose to consider these in any detail here. The main criticism that concerns us is that functionalism has tended to emphasise social stability at the expense of social change. The following example demonstrates this with ragard to the family: "Absolute equality of opportunity is clearly incompatible with any positive solidarity of the family. Where married women are employed outside the home, it is, for the great majority, in occupationswhich arenotindirect ARTICLES competition for status with those men of their own class. Women's interests, and the standard of judgement appliedto them run, in our society, far more in the direction of personal PERSPECTIVES ON THE FAMILY adornment . . . . Itis suggested that this by Rachel McCracken, difference is functionally related to maintaining John Howard School, Clapton solidarity in our class structure". (1)
One of the questions that preoccupies teachers of Therefore, the inequalities between the sexes :Sociology, especiaily at Advanced Level, is what are "functionai" as they help to keep the social :material do we teach, or more particularly, what structure as it is. soFt of sociology do we teach? A considerable amount of sociology literature This question becomes more acute when we has centred around the debate on whether the :attempt to teach the sociology of :he family. One family is on the decline or not. Ronald Fletcher in ,immediately confronted with a vast volume of his book Family and Marriage in Britain argues that ;material should we teach Fletcher or Cooper or thefamilyis -better adaptedtothe needs of the view of some women's liberationists or all three? individuals than it was in the past. The modern ,On the one hand there are the demands of the family performs its "functions" far more efficiently .syllabus, on the other there is what we consider to than the Victorian one. He writes: :be a "good" sociologyin the sense thatitis informingstudentsthatthere aredifferent "I conclude then, that the idea that the family :Perspectives within the discipline. in Britain has been "stripped of its functions" The recent "A" level papers have definitely during the process of industrialisation is false. moved in the directicin of encouraging students to Both in the sense of being concerned with a be familiar withthe different perspectives in more detailed and refined satisfaction of the sociology. Here is a question from the AEB June needs of its members, and in the sense of being 1916 paper: more intricately and responsibly bound up with. the wider institutions of scciety, the functions "Psychological intimacy between husband and ofthefamily have increased indetail and wife, an intermingling of their social worlds and importance."(2) a more equitable distribution of power in marriageareundoubtedlyareasinvAlich To give Fletcher .his due, he was against the marriageingeneralhas changed. Bt .t the moralists who maintained that the decline of the importance of women's enduring role as house- family was the source of all our problems and he wives andasthemainrearerof children does present quite a skilful case against them. continues.Inequlityinthisareaisoften However, the overall picture he portrays is one of overlooked."(AnnOakley,Sociologyof the "happy family" the family best suited to the Housework) Discuss. needs of modern society. In this 'rosy' picture, he stresses the equality of However, my main argument in this paper is husband and wife in marriage today compared with that, although there has been this move towards an the situation in the nineteenth or early twentieth ;acceptance of some of the ideas of women's century: liberation in the "A" level syllabus and in sociology, generallymainstream sociologystill hasan "In the modern marriage, both partners choose inadequate and rather superficial analysis of the each other freely as persons. Both are of equal *nib/. status arid ,,xpect to have- an equal share in rk greet deal could be written on the direction taking decisions and ;.-1 pursuing their sometimes
50 11 mutual, Sometimes separate and diverse tastes other mutual protection against each other's' and irrterasts," (3) violence. Itis a reciprocal terrorism with the offerofprotection security against the Other. -sociological studies such as Elizabeth violence that each threatens the other with, and ,I3ott*Family and Social Network, and much later is threatened by, if anyone steps out of line.".(6) YOUrig and Wilmott's study of the symmetrical And: -4:lemily:(published as recently as 1973), have tended "The family's function is to repress Eros: to induce a 4/Ilse consciousness of security: to deny' to .continue "the happy family" picture', particularly 1.:7,.,ittressing. the equality of the husband and wife death by avoiding life: to cut off transcendence; relationship.(4), Considerable doubt has been to believe in God, not to experience the Void: , thrown on these studies recently by Ann Oakley's to create, in short, one-dimensional man: to .:stUdY TheSociologyofHouseworkwhich promote respect, conformity, obedience: to con emphasises how women still tend to have the main children out of play: to induce a fear of failure: responsibility fOr housework and the rearing of to promote a respect for work: to promote a ``'!.7.::'children: (5) respect for 'respectet!lity' ". (7) While sociologists would not dream of ignoring Mars's.Work on stratification, they have tended to In1971,Cooper's DeathoftheFamily , bypass the Work of Marx and Engels on the family, appeared. He stated: POssibly this has been because the family is such a hetivily ',loaded emotional subject. As Marx and "The bourgeois nuclear family unit (touse.-.i Engels said: "Abolition of the family! Even the something like the language of its agents Most radical flare up at this infamous proposal of academic sociologists and political scientists) ; ,Communists1" (Manifesto of the Communist has become, inthis century, the ultimately perfected form of non-meeting and therefore zy,71-:;-:':Most of' Marx and Engel's work on the family the ultimate denial of mourning, death, birth ' coricerlied how the present form of family was the and the experiential realm that precedes birtWr. i!.T.Most, convenient one for the present economic and conception .... The power of theFamily[.. system capitalism.It was this dominant form of residesinitssocial mediating function.it-t; LeconomiC organisation that influenced personal reinforces the effective power of the ruling class relatiOnihips and family life. In The Origin of The inany exploitative society bY providing *: Private Pruperty and The State Engels highly controllable paradigmatic form for every' Maintained that capitalism has completely distorted social institution. So we find the family formi the ways in which individuals experienced sexual replicated through the social structures of the','::; *ve.: 'Love had become confused with possession factory, the union branch, the school (primanse? end thus morality was bound by external codes not and secondai ti)theuniversity, the busirrest:; bit . relationships betweenpeople. Engels also corporation, the Church, political parties anci:;. asserted that the oppression of women was tied up governmentalapparatus,the armedforces;;; with the idea of private property. The monogamous general and mental hospitals and so on. There.: family Was the result of tit:: private ownership of are always good or bad, loved or hated 'mothers':. ProPertY. Monogamy has meant the subordination and 'fathers', older and.younger 'brothers' and, of women as property, based on the supremacy of 'sisters', defunct or secretly controlling . man's° that his children could inherit his property. 'grandparents'." (8) Later, anthropological evidence has thrown doubt on Engel's-work on the family (see Evelyn Reed's At the same time, a powerful criticism of,. introduction to The Origin of the Family, Private women's role within the family was coming from Property and The State, P.17). To date, marxism the growing wo!rien's liberation movement. remains the most infioent0 awe pow,:rful attack The importance of these more recent critiques. on the class structure of our sociao,. Therefore, the was that they not only focussed on the 'extra nal' marxist approachtothef artily needs to be factors of the family, as Engels had done, i.e. the considered. It has indeed pruL ;tied the basis for relationship between the family and the economy,. many other subsequent "cy;Ocal" approaches to but they also attempted to analyse 'the experience! thefamily,especiallythostofthe women's or 'the internal dimensions' of the family. Cooper wrote:"Families are about the inner and the , liberation movement. . Engel's work began to receive a new recogr ition outer". (9) in (the late 1960s and early 1970s when the whole Some of the feminists, and Laing and Cooper debate about the family and women's positian in were trying to understand the effect the family had society began to accelerate. While sociologists were on the experience of its members. Tha ernohtels on lebatino the reasons for the rise in the divorce rate, exper lance does cot .1xclude an analysis of the -1'..$ whether or not the State had taken over the family's position in wider Society these two fL :tions of the family, Othe; voices, outside the perspectives can be considered as complementary. fle'd of sociology were beginning to assert that As JulietMitchell writesin "Woman's Estate: the family had not broken up, but maybe it was"Emotions cannot be 'free' or 'true' in isolation: -about time it did. In 1967 Laing wrote: they are dependent today on a social base that
, imprisons and determines them". (10) Our very A family can act as gangsters offering each of the social worldis formed and
12 !1131,;: . cc:Inditioned by our environment. Our way of economic structure..Laingand existentialist :experiencing the world is learnedin the family. approaches have tended to emphasise the "internal" 'Thii is the message of Laing's Politicsf Experience. aspect of the family, and how the family shapes -; Recently sociologists have begun to ack nowledge theexperienceofitsmembers. Lg writes: .the importance of the work of anti-psychiatrists, "Human beings relate to each othei oot simply 'particularlyfor studying the family. Some havr externally,like two billiardballs,but by the 'tried to incorporate it into an overall struclurai relations of the two worlds of experience that 'functionalistperspective,groupingLaingand come into play when two people meet". (13) Cooper under 'dysfunctions'. However. I would Phenomenologists have emphasised how the agree with D.H...I. Morgan that if we do this, the social worldisthe product of human activity, -.full implications of the more critical literature get while everyday reality might appear to be some- lost. As he states in Social Theory and the Family: thing fixed "out there", it is in fact being constantly ."Dysfunction would be far too mild a term to re-created andconstructed. Theexistentialist . describeLaingand Cooper's accountofthe approach to the family stresses how it is through disastrous effect of the institution of the family". the family that children learn a view of reality that (11) isinevitable and Oven.Itis thefamilythat This is not to say that functional analysis uf determines our early experiences and helps to 'thefamilyshould becompletelydiscarded. shape our view and interpretations of the social 'However, it is not the orly perspective in sociology, vvorld. "We experience the objects of our experience and thus when studying the family it should not theobjectsofour experience as thereinthe become the sole way of analysing it either. Itis outside world. The source of our experience seems :difficult to look for an alternative. One possibility to be outside ourselves" (14) isphenomenologicalmarxism. Asyet, as a Muchof theliteratureofthewomen's Sociolo.gical theory, it is in very early stages. Barry movementthatdocumentstheexperienceof 'Smart, in Sociology, Phenomenology and Marxian women can also be placed into a phenomenological. Analysis points out that there have been various marxistperspective. Aparticularexample is -, attempts to synthesise the two approaches (marxism Simone de Beavoir's The Second Sax, which claims :and phenomenology), such as Paci's The Function totake anexistentialistapproach to woman's of Science and tha Meaning .of Man (1972), which position. She writes of a woman's sexual experience: focusses onthe common interests aPparent Husterl's and Marx's writings. "And more especially she longs to do away There is space here for only a brief consideration with the separateness that exists between her of this synthesis. Marxism's primary focus has been and the male. She longs to melt with him into on how the capitalist mode of production has one. As we have seen, she wants to remain made the worker into an object to be used by subject while she is made object. Being more the capitalist class. Man is a product of his material profoundly beside herself than is man because circumstances. Marxist analysisisdialectical,i.e. her whole body is moved bydesireand : althoughman was theproductofmaterial excitement, she retains her subjectivity only 'circumstances, he was also the creator of 'them. through union with her partner; givinganti ! Husserl too emphasised how man had been made receiving must be combined for bothIf tne :an object - not for capi;al but for science. He men confines himself to taking without giving, :emphasised that the only 'lee world, that is the or if he bestows pleasure without receiving, the one given through perception, had been replaced woman feelsthat sheis being manoeuvred, : bythe-mathematicallysubtractedworldof used, once she realises herself as the Other, she idealities."Later,phenomenological sociologists becomes the inessential other, and then she is 'have emphasised how the objective is a subjective bound to deny her authority." (15) or inter-subjective construction. The social world is not "out there", independent of the individuals Here an existentialistor phenomenological* experiencing it, itis constructed by intersubjective perspective helps us to understand the experience :communicationandaction.(12) Marx too of woman: how she experiences herself as an pmphasised how society had become an abstraction, "object" for man. Set up in opposition to man. Society only appears The marxist perspective could then be usecrto : to be external to man; in reality it is produced and answer the question "in what circumstances does :constructed by him to the same exreat that he is this sort of experience las documented by Laing, :conditioned and determined by the social structure. Cooperetal)takeplace?" To lookatthe But what relevance has this to the family? I "internalised" aspeccsofthefami;y,orthe : would contend that a phenomenological marxist perspective has great petential for analysing the I am aware that in many places I have made it ' family - particularly if we want to link the work appear that phenomenology is synonymous with of Ls-ingandCooperinto a widercritical existentialism. Thereisa problem of defining sociological perspective. phenomenological sociology, asthere is no one Marxist analysis of the family, in common with phenomenological perspective and it might diverge mainstream sociology, has merely focussed on the considerably from existentialism (which also has "external features" of thefamily - principally many different interpretations). For the sake of the relationshipbetweenthefamilyandthe plification, I have not entered this debate here. 5 13 experience ofits members does not mean that References issues such as the relationship between the family and the economy areneglected. Thecritical (1) Talcott Parsons "An Analytical Approach to perspective is merelyextendedtotakeinto the Theory oi Social Stratification" accourL inner as well as outer dimensions. American Journal of SociologY, Nov. 1940. herefore in conclusion I would say that there (2) Ronald Fletcher Family and Marriage In areseveralwaysinwhich phenomenological- Britain Penguin 1969, p.222. mancist analysis can be a useful perspectve on the (3) lbid, p.139. family. (4) Elizabeth Bott Family and Social Network a) Mainstream sociology has been concerned with Tavistock 1971. the external features of the family or the family Young and Wilmott The Symmetrical Family "out there". If literature that is concerned with the RKP 1973. experience of family membersisgoing to be (5) Ann Oakley The Sociology of Housework looked at, a perspective is needed that can take Martin Robertson 1974. into account internal as well as external features. (6) R.D.Laing ThePoliticsof Experience The phenomenological perspective,with its Penguin 1970, p.75. emphasis on understanding the social world as (7) 'bid, p.55. experienced by persons, provides this. (8) D. Cooper, Death of the Family. Penguin b) Both phenomenology and marxism stress how 1972, p.6. the social world appears to be external, fixed and (9) I bid, p.22. unchangeable. It is in the family that we learn a (10)JulietMitchell Woman's EstatePenguin view of the social world that is usuaPy presented 1971, p.38. and inevitably and given. ( I 1) D.H.J.Morgan Social Theory and The c) Marxism and phenom:nology together provides Family p.115. a perspective for social change rather than social (12) Barry Smart Sociology, Phenomenology and stability. Marxism advocates a changeinthe Marxian Analysis p.86. relationships of production in society. A phenom- (13) Laing, op.cit., p.53. xenological approach has the potential for proposing (14) Ibid, p.33. changes in .she relationships between individuals. (15) Simone de Beauvoir The Second Sex Penguin A marxist-phenomenological perspective emphasises 1968, p.417. both types of change, not one to the exclusion of the other. , I Finally, there are bound to be many problems inattempting toteachthe family withinthis perspective.Phenomenological marxism as a theoretical perspective isinits very early stages. Also a problem is that most of the contributions towards understanding the "internalised" aspects of the family have been made by psychoanalysts or people working in this tradition: some might argue therefore that sucha study belongs to psycho.ogyrather than to sociology. I would contend that the importance for sociology lies in the assertionthat many of these exper;ences, perceptions am: patterns of behaviour that we learn to think al as individual and personal are not: they are social in the sense that they are present in large numbers of persons. However,I would agree with D.H.J. Morgan that the distinction between the sociologica., the social psychological and the psychological becomes blurred, but would assert as he does that writers dealing with these issues are elearly of corwern to sociologists. Within these problems are also advantaga: The blurring of distinctions between the sociological and the psychological can be a topic for debav. and discussion. Teachers and pupils might be encouraged to work out their own ideas because of the lack of a unified theoretical perspective and this in itself could be a stimulating experience.
14 53 LORDS AND LADIES OF CREATION was born, Eve had to nurse it, and her move- lby'Roger Gomm, ments continued to be impeded and limi'ted and iSteienage College of Further Education by the time the first baby vas weaned, there was probably another coming along. So regard. Anthropologists have always been interestedin less of how equally Adam and Eve might have creation myths those stories people tell about started out to do the same jobs, they would rrths beginnings of their world and which explain have fallen into more or less divergent patterns 'the: originsoftheirmostimportantsocial of activity (Murdock 1S37) ..inititutions. This is part of the Yanomano creation Mythz 'Cheerio love, just going out to heave a. few heavy rocks about' ?At the beginning of tl:,a world ... there were Anthropologists share their myth making with Only fierce men, formed from the blood of the psychologists, biologists, ethologists, liberationists moon. Among these early men was one named and chauvinists so that these days thereisan Kanaborama whose legs became pregnant. Out embarrasement of creation myths around, centering of Kanaborama's left leg came women and out on sexual dimorphism. How niceitisto see of his 'right leg same feminine men those profe:.,ional scientific interest being taken in the Yanomamo who are reluctant to duel and who matter. Twentieth century society deserves are cowards in batt:e" (Harris 1975) creationmythsbasedonthebestscientific evidence. Here is AriannaStassinopolouios And here is part of what b'ec&me of the Christian acknowledging her debtto the scholarship of Icreation myth: Corinne Hutt, who inturncitesallthe best authorities. "When the woman saw the fruit of the tree was good to eat and that it was pleasing to the eye "Itisinconceivable that millions of years of and tempting to contemplate, she took some evolutionaryselectionduring aperiodof and ate it. She also gave to her husband some marked sexual division of labour have not left .r.. and he ate it. Than the eyes of both of them pronounced traces on the innate character of were opened and they discovered the, they men and women. Aggressiveness, and mechanical ware naked; so they stitched irg-leaves together andspatialskills,a sense of direction and and made themselves loin cloths. physical strength are qualities essential for a Gol said 'Who told you that you were naked? hunter; even food gatherers need these same Have you eaten from the tree which I forbade qualitiesfordefence and exploration. The you?' prolonged period of dependency of human The man said; 'The woman you gave me for a children, the difficulty of carrying the peculiarly compan1/2r. she gave me fruit from the tree and heavy and inert human baby meant that women I ate it'. couldnot look aftertheir children and be Then tke Lord God said to the woman. 'What is hunters and explorers. Early humans learnt to this that you have done ...?' takn edvantage of this paciod of dependence to the woman He said,'Iwill increase your transmit rules, knowledge and skills to their labour and your groaning and .inlabour you offspring women needed to develop verbal
1 *mall bear children. You shall be eager for your skills, a talent for persont,I relationships and a , husband and he shall be your master' " prediliction for nurturing .... The (baby) girls (show) greater responsiveness(to the cry of Both myths put women firmly intheir place, another baby). It is as if the girls were responsive but we need not take them seriously because the to the sound in the same way a mother has to , Yanomamo myth makers had nothing better to be; the boys react rather to visual stimuli like guide them than cocaine intoxicationr.:,c1 their Their hunting ancestors" (StassinopoJlos 1972), ;Male chauvinist prejJclices, and tho ancrcnt Jews reliedontheirmale chauvinistprejudices and Hence we see clearly the dominant male and ;burning bushes and such like. Anthropology being the feminine woman c.eated out of the exigencies the, businessof giving accounts ofsoCidllife of our hunting past and it is good. As Stassinopoulos Ituperior to those of the natives, it is not surprising so Eysenck: "Women might find thatif they :'.that anthropologists should have developed their cannot beat nature, they might benefit by joining ':,brief to provide us with better creation myths: it" (Eysenck 1975) But Marvin Harris puts a more sinister twist on ' George Peter Murdock: "Let us go back to the same data: "Human nature is destiny under Adam and Eve. In the very beginning they may cultural conditions. When warfare is the have started out to do the same tasks. But predominant means of population control and presently there was a child on the way, and as when technology consisted primarily of hand held Eve's moverrfents began to be slowed up, the weapons, male chauvinist lifestyles were necessarily heavier tasks were no lodger possible for her. ascendant" (Harris 1975) : To Adam fell largely the jobs of fighting off So it's a male chauvinist plot after all. Superior dangerous beasts, killing and bringing in big male strength and aggressiveness are not functional :game, moving heavy rocks etc. When the child adaptions for bringing home the meat and heaving 5 4 15 the heavy rock and thus male dominance is not a But now "Most women want remain women. necessary condition for survival. Rather men are Not drap liule house-trapped twiuerers but dominant because they are big and aggressive, and true females with verve and drive and involve- their warlike ways. bump off enough other big ment, above all involvement" (Morris 1976) aggressive men to keep the population within the bounds of its food sum, The moral implications So there you have it: either males are naturally of this tale are quite d from Stassinopoulos' more aggressive than females and dominate them "In so far as neithe; conditions are true which is natural and good, or its not a good thing, oftoday'sworld,ht. ,nistsare correctin or they are only more aggressive because they are predicting the decline or h.iuvinist lifestyles" socialised that way. And either women are naturally (Harris). beber mother than men, and that's a good thing, Now note that :IPIt, !.e myths take a common or they are not and its a plot to keep womeo in form. Their scend-,o 1,, set 3; far back in time as' their place at home, and that their natural instincts possible in a period ,s/111Lfl s quite impossible are re-asserting themselves and demanding for anyone t:. data about male- liberation, or their natural instincts are repulsed by female behavt .T 1/0 otessures etc. What the very idea, or they dont have any instincts.I happened then ,,iL:ted from a careful think its splendid that we have such painstaking selection of ethnii Ie data, with the life style and dispassionate scientists writing our myths for of some ape or or) ir added in, and then tied up us these days, capable of discerning the incontest- with the literature about physical and psychological able uuth and transcending sexual bias. measurement of sex dif ferences intoday's Me? 0 I'll just pop out and heave a few heavy populations. The key stone of a good creation rocks about and keep my eyes open for the next myth is the relation of sexual dimorphism to the burning bush. survival of the species. Arm Oakley in 'Sex Gender and Society' makes agallant attempt to relate Harris. M. 1975 "Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches" minimal innate sexual characteristics to the suryk.il Hu tchinson. of the species, as giving humanity a flemibility not sharal by otherspecies, butis :oes,t'tquite Stassinopoulos. A. 1974 "Female Woman" measure up to the correct mythic formula. Fontana. Professor Desmond Morris Doctor of Philosophy shows us how in the Daily Mirror under the head- Huu. C. 1972"Males and Females" Penguin. line "THE SHE.MALE: After amillionyears woman a hunter" (of men apparently if you Oakley. A. 1972"Sex,Gender and Society" read Sheila Duncan's contribution to the double Temple Smith. page spread, and certainlyif you read the rival feature in the Sun). Murdock. G.P. 1939"Comparawrs Data on Division of Labour by sex" Social Forces Vol.16, Morris says: "The man went of f to hunt for No. 4. meat while the female stayed near the tribal home gathering vegetable foods from close by, Eysenck. H. 1973 "The inequality of man" caringforthechildrenand preparing their Temple Smith/Penguin. meals. This sounds rather like the 'little woman' situation, but was it? The females were not shut Morris D. 1976 "TheShe-Male"DailyMirror, up in small boxes high up in tower blocks, or March 8th. far out in the faceless suburns. They were all 1976 "The Huntress: a compelling new togetherandtheirchildren wereailthere series co the last of the sexual playing around the home base. The prehistoric revolutions" Sun, March 8th. female was forced to be active, intelligent and resourceful like her male counterparts. She was not pushed into a boring inferior role and shut away in a social backwater. Her male dep.mded on her 'earnings' just as she depended on tiis. was an equal partnership and she was ot rho very centre of society. Then unfortunately we invented agriculture and civilisation. "Because of the way in which :.ociety had changed, the ancient partnership had lostits perfect balance and she was suddenly at the male's mercy" While "Male hunting expanded into the excitements of masculine careers and adventures'; "Female food gathering sank w the level of pushing a pram round a supermarket" 5 5 SEX ROLES AND SCHOOLING: of the discrepancy between learned and intsate AN INVESTIGATION OF SOCIAL SCIENCE behaviour, andanaccountofthe arguments TEXTBOOKS forwarded by women's groups. Much resistance to byl A. Marianne Kjelkiren equality comes from women themselves: to ra large extent this is probably due to distorted reports in Introduction the press, and perhaps notleastafear of the This article is concerned with how sex roles a unknown. This can be counteracted only by stereotyped in SocialSciencetextbooksfor information geared to both girls and boys, but iecOntlaryscnools.Pictures andtreatmentof above all designed to boost the confidence of girls. women are investigated in ten textbooks. Pictures are considered important because although many Distribution and Content of Pictures pupils never reszd all the text in their schc 4 books, Five of the books analysed contained pictures. The they are nevertheleas likely to be tamiliar with the distribution of pictures between the categories: pictures.Itisalso assumed that pupilc identi'y male-dominated,female-dominated,mixed and more easily the visual material than with ideas put other,showedthatthemajority were male- forward in a text. dominated.Apicturewr-consideredmale. Boys andgirlsinsecond.ryschools have dominated if the central figu.was a man with his alrev.:y acquired stereotyped ideas of male and name written underneath or when the number of fem...le behaviour. But adolescence is aka 3 time men in the picture greatly exceeded that of women. svhen younl people are looking for 'dentities of The one case where male-dominated pictures were their owis. The prototypes put forward by the mass not in the majority was Cootes The Family, where media are unfortunately not very likely to challenge a large number of wedding and family pictures put the stereotypes which most homes conform to aid mixed-sex pictures in the lead. This was also the which are reinforced by children's literature and book where the difference between male-dominated early school eaperiences 111. and female-dominated pictures was the smallest. .From this backgrounditwould seuin that (29% male and20.5%female) The greatest authors of textbooks in general should try to avoid dif ference in numbers of male and female-dominatd stereotyped sex roles osi..to use balanced visual pictures was found in O'Donnell The Human Web, material. Social Science textbooks are of .:..)urse in where 64% oiallpictures were male-dorninated a position where sections on the emancipation of and only 3.6% were female-dominated. In all cases women are relevant. Such sections ought to include butonethenumberofmixed.sexpictures the causes and eifects of discrimination, a detached exceeded the numberof female-domirt.ted discussion of sex roles with relevant documentation pictures. The exception was Harvey and Hrvvey
DISTRIBUTION OF PICTURES
NEN..7.: inisuls
Hambling O'Donnell Cootes Harvey & Harvey Salle & Matthews
1=1 Male-dominated pictures M22 Female-dominated 17 Mixed Eall Other gimaMale-dominated (ediusted sample) gEil Female-dominated (adjusted) 1=1 Mixed (adjusted) 5 6 17 Government and People where those two categor:cs and driving a tram; it is however pointed out that were almost equal. this1,2 unusual (4), which rather spoils the effect There was likely to be some distortion in the these pictures could have had on pupils' stereotypes. distributionofpictures withthe depictionof Leisure ictivities also followconvention, differentcultures and historical periods, where although Hambling and Matthews have a better men are even n'ore dominant than in oUr own spreadthantheothers. Two books have very society. For example, to illustrate the Eskimo way unattractive pictures of bingo crowds with old fat of life the men are shown building igloos, fishing, women very much in evidence. Women are very hunting and paddling their kayaks, whereas the seldom pictured as being aggressive, deviant or women are !I-town carrying their babies intheir criminal. Exceptions are Hambling and Matthews, hoods, otherwise appearing only in mixed pictures. where women as well as men are pictured as drug Yet .if one compares only pictures of people from addicts (6), and Harvey and Harvey, where one modern Western society, on the guounds that picture shows one woman and four men who are schoolchildren in Britain will identify mora easily criminals(7). Women are more often seen at with these, the trendisthe same (see diagram). passive, deprived and in care. They are shown at With;theexceptionof Cootes,the textbooks pathetic, being attacked, chatted up or taken care contained between two and th-ee times as many of, (three books contained pictures of old women male-dominated as female-dormnat pictures. in harries, but there were no such pictures of mend Thecontentofpictures,di eqc.rdingthe The general conclusion from this is that picture: accompanying text,point to somerather follow reality, and by doing so deprive children 01 discouraging trends. As a rule men are pi. .ured in alternative sources of identification.It is true that positions of authority while women take up the women are underrepresented in Lab:nuts, courts distinguished roles. The obvious exception is nohlical parties and unions and thct the majority the Oueei., and without her the statistics would ; .1-'ctors,computer-programmers andshop have been even more in favour of male-dominated :Is are men, but in order to bring about any pictwes, since she appears on three of the five material must be made available showinc. pictures of women in positions o; authority. The .women in these situations so that boys and girl ! 1970 Cabinet appears in several books, and that can get usedto them, and so that girls hay( contained only one woman, nor are women more examples to identify with. The same appli% tc in evidence in pictures of the Opposition, the UN boys: pictures of male nunses, male typistsanc General Assembly, trade union conferencesor fathers changing nappies would help them not tc similarbodies.Judges arevery popular:they get caught up in the net of sex-stereotypes. appear again and .again and they are all men. There is the occasional Woman magistrate, but lawyers Treatment of Women in the Text areallmale.Pictures of policewomen involve The method used for the analysis r-f the treatmen differentactivitiesfrom thoseofpolicemen: of women in the text was to look up entries fa .policewomen are talking to children and lif ting a women or wives in the index and then 'read thi child up so that he can pat the horse on which a listed pages. Sometimes there would be no entry policeman sits, or they are giving evidence in court. for women, but women would appear as sub Policemendrivemotorbikes,investigate road divisions of entries like work or family. Harvey anc ancidents and hold back crowds. In all pictures of Hatvey has no index and was for that reason no both sexes in positions of authority, women are includedinthisanalysis.Itis however wortl outnumbered by men, just as in real life. mentioningbecauseofitsdifferent approach The same tendency is apparent in illustrations where information about the political systemi of political action like demonstrations, lobbying given through the experiences of a key person. Thi and voting. Apart from two pictures of women's daughterofthe key personinthis book is liberation demonstrations . and one picture of a politically active young lady who during the cours woman voting (the returning officer was of course of the book joins a party-, becomes involved in thi male) all pictures are of men, or are mixed, with research department of this party and is elected ti more men than women. Picturesof men and a Borough Council. (She does however conforn women at work follow a depressingly stereotyped enough to the stereotype to get married and have . pattern.The men are doctors, computer- baby.) It was encouraging to see a girl in a key rol, programmers, teachersandcar-workers.The of this type. Two books did not have entries fo women are nurses, secretaries, look after children' women at all. They were Barry Sup! ! an Sociology or pick chocolate bars. Children are occasionany a small paperback of only 94 pages, and, some pictured in the arms of a man in a family group, what surprisingly, Peter Worsley (ed) Introducht but there was only one case where a man was seen Sociology. Sugarman's book is unusual in that th ina play-ground (2). Nowhere was a man seen family has no chapter or heading of its own, bu pushing a pram or doing the shopping, as one appears as one of many other social groups. sometimes sees in real life; and in the picture where Two ofthe books are written by women a man was seen washing up whiie the woman was Heasman The Study of Society, and Hambling an4 holding the baby, he is described as "thoroughly Matthews Human Society. Heasman has thre domesticated" (3) as if he were a house-trained entries in the index for women: Women's Institut( animal. In a few pictures in Hambling and Matthews women's rights and women's work. She doe Human Society, women are seen digging the street some strangethings, for example
18 'married persons vote more frocent!'y than the seem alittle out-of-date when he talks of the inmarried, maybe because they go along with their double standards of courtship, where a man is illsbands". (8) The context had nothing to do with allowedto "sow his wild oats" before getting Nomen in particular, which makes the statement married to a nice girl, who i3 supposed to be a zither precarious. When Heasman talks about the virgin. Cootes does however point out thatthis ;quality of women and the relationship between clashes with the equality of women, and that' itis Nife and husband, she suggests as a pattern for less acceptedtoday.(17) Women's increased their co-operation in the home that he is responsible equality has, according to Cootes, caused them to far, the garden and for decorating the house, while expect more from their marriages and it has also she takes care of cooking, laundry and other house- made them "less prepared to make the best of it if Nork. She points out that the husband may do the things turn out badly. This is an important factor ;hopping while Zhe wife gets the dinner ready (9), in the rising divorce rate since two-thirds of divorce liut that is the limit of her emancipation. One of petitions are filed by women." (18) A subtle way tter more outrageous comments isthat football, of indicating that women are less 'responsible' than cricket, horse-racing and car-racing are physically earlier? Would it not be fitting to point out that in unsuitable for women (10). Her treatment of the the good old days women had a lot to bear, and chapteronrelationships and roleswithinthe that it is the attitudes of men that have not changed family is along the same lines, and she emphasises at the same pace as the social position of women. the problems it may cause it thu wife works. (11) Cootes is a good example of a book where sexist Hambling and Matthews have less to say about attitudes shine throughin how things are said women, with only three ent.iesinthe index of rather than what is said. which two overlap and the third refers to women S. Cotgrove The Science of tiociety has one in Samoa. They do however take a more unbiased entry on working wives, whichispart ol the view and refer to well.known sociological studies section on the family. The authof seems anxious to when discussingrole,.innuclear and extended make itclearthat a woman is not less home- families ir. ..;ritain and other societies. Thc working centred because she works, but that wives work mother also receives a more objective treatment because they want to improve their homes, not (12), but inleisureactivities, women arestill because they want careers of their own.191 That reported io be less active than men without any is a generalisation which seems at best precji ious, attempt to try to explain why. (13) A book of this but which unfortunately occurs in other books as length could perhaps have devoted more space to well. G. Sergeant A Textbook of Sociology has an women. index which looks rather impressive with regard to P.L. Se lie Sociology has but one entry on women, although containing alarge number of women: Women's Liberation. It transpires however overlapping entries. Women are discussed only in that this is but one part of a whole section on The connection with family and working wives, but this Changing Role Of Women. (14) The subject is is treated in a comparatively sensible and objective ireated with lessbias than any other book: if way, with many tables, diagrams, and references to anything a slight bias in favour of women's rights surveys. might be inferred from the inclusion of material The overall impression israther discouraging, that other textbooks would leave out. For example, since only one author, Selfe, discusses women's the section on Women's Liberation core ists of a liberation. The fact that women are discriminated long quotationfrom an .articleby an active against in employment is mentioned more or less liberationist, Anna Cootes; this contains most of in passing by O'Donnell and by Sergeant. Others the current arguments, supported by facts and pinpoint the changes that have taken place rather figures (15). than what still remains to be done. Most of the D'Donnell The Human Web is another book textbooks concentrate theirefforts on working which treats women's problems unusually open- wives, and where equalityor emancipationis mindedly, relying on scientific studies rather than mentioned itis with regard to the effects on the Moral stsitements. He does not devote as much family. Two issues predominate here. One is the space to women as Selfe does, nor is there any thiog eftect of working wives on the relationship between en:Ai/omen's Liberation, but O'Donnell is more husband and wife, which often inspires explicitly in .favour of equality. He even suggests luruntended?) mildly sexist comments like part-time work for both men and wome6 so that Fleasman's, or like Cootes' reference to a working both can enjoy a career and share the responsibilities wife's increased chances of "wearing tha trousers", for home and children. He also quotes- a study The othe.isthe effect of working wives on Confirming that children of career mothers show children, which is treated by most of the authors. greater independence and resourcefulness, and that Sergeant, Selfe and O'Donnell use far less value- (*eine they have to help out in the home they laden statements than the other authors, who, if eaquire a sense ofcompetenceand social theY do not stress disadvantages, may, like Cootes, reiponsibility. He also admits that women are point out that "in general children of working discriminated against on the labour market. (16) mothers are not seriously affected", a statement. 1CV Cootes The Family has one entry in the index, which with its two reservations seems less than sure, called Women, Equality of. There is no separate ieCtion on thisin the book, hut the matter is Conclusion referred to in a few places, Cootes does perhaps The tive textbooks that contained pictures did not P;i 58 19 give many opportunities for identification for girls, References and tha existing sources of identification conformed 1)Das ies,L. and Meighan. R. "A Review of to ,the existing stereotypes. Nor was there much Sch ooling and Sox Roles, withparticular evidence of attempts to give boys any incentive to reforencetotheexperienceofgirlsin changetheirattitudestomale andfemale secondary schools". Education& Review, Vol. stereotypes. 27, No. 3, June 1975. p.169ff. The contents of sections discussing women 2)SPIfe. P. L. Sociology 1975. p.189 were, with the exception of Selfe, concentrated on 3)Cootes, R. The Family, 1974. p.64 working wives and their effect on the family. 4)Hambling, C.andMatthews,P. Human Whereas no book comes out against working Society, 1974, p.41. mothers, some tend to stress the strain it puts on 5)O'Donnell, The Human Web 1975, p.99 and family life, rather than the advantages it brings. Selfe, op.cit. p.179. O'Donnell's proposals for part-time work for both 6)Hambling and Matthews, op.cit. p.240-242. men and women, inadditionto better child- 7)Harvey and Harvey, Government and People minding facilities, arerareintheir attempt to 1974, p.226. change attitudes. Most authors merely describe 8)Heasman, K. The Study of Society 1973, reality without trying to explain or question it. p.159 Selfe puts forward more than one view, and he rld 9)Ibid. p.45 O'Donnell are if anything slightly biased in favour 10)Ibid. p.99 of women'sequality.Most authorsgivethe 11)Ibid. p.351 impression of absolute objectivity, but very often 12)Hambling and Matthews, op. cit. p.139ff there is a tendency however vague to display 13)Ibid. p.172 sexist attitudes in the way a sentence is constructed, 14)Self, op.cit. p.38ff or in the balancing of ina;erial. or perhaps above all 15)Ibid. p.42 in the comments attached to pictums. 161 O'Donnell, op.cit. p.57, 55, 59. The question of whether textbooks should aim 17) Cootes, op.cit. p.48 to change attitudes is of course very controversial. 18)Ibid. p.84 But any attempt tostayneutralby pleading 19)S. Cotgrove, The Science of Society 1967, unbendingobjectivitycould las perceived as p.54. supportingthe statusquo,which involves 20) Sergeant, G. A Textbook of Sociology 1971, discriminationagainst women. Thisis an over- p.124-137. simplification of a very complicated question, but 21) Cootes, op.cit. p.66 with the equality now established by law it seems not difficult to justify the inclusion of a section on women's rights where the continued injustices towards women are pointed out.
The Textbooks Cootes, R. The Family, An Introduction to Sociology. Longman Social Scence Studies, Series One. (London: Longman, 1974). Cotgrove, S. The ScienceofSociety. An Introduction to Sociology (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1972) Revised edition. Hambling, C. Human Society (London: Macmillan, 1974) Matthews, P.
Harvey, J, & M. Government and People (London: Macmillan 1974) Heasman, K. The Study of Society (London: George Allen and Unwin 1973) O'Donnell, G.The Human Web (London: John Murray, 1975) Selfe, P. L.Sociology (London: Nelson, 1975) Sergeant, G. A Textbook of Sociology (London: Macmillan, 1972) Sugarman, B. Sociology (London: He;nemann, 1968) Worsley; P.(ed) Introducing Sociology (Penguin, 1970) 59 ASSOCIATION FOR 7HE TEACHING OF SOCIAL SCIENCES No. 7 A SEX ROLES SOCIALISATION GAME
by Moira Wales
BRIEFING5
NOTES:
This game is largely aimed at pupils from the fourth year upwards. It is possible for it to be played by a group of say, twelve pupils, although because of the size of the board, sixis probably a more realistic number. It is important for the game to be played by a mixed group and that each player obeys the instructions for their own sex. It is hoped that these will connect with their own experience of socialisation. However, k may well be inteiesting later, for the same group of players to play again obeying the instructions for the opposite sex. It is intenled that thil game should not be played without having had a thorough discussion of what socialisationis, wnat the socialising agencies are and what the sex.role stereotypes are. This is very important since the game would be indeka a meaningless name without it.
RULES OF PLAY:
1. Each player throws the dice in turn and moves his or her counter by the number of squares indicated on the dice.
2. On landing on a 'socialising into sex role' square, the player must obey the instructions given for the sex of the player.
3. On reaching the square 63, players must return to the START.
4. The game is over when one of the players lands on square 62.
CONSTRUCTION:
1. Copy the board layout onto a piece of card, minimum size 30" x 22". Cut out the printed labels and stick into the appropriate squares. Obtain a dice and counters.
The Brief ings Series is edited by Roland Meighan, School of Education. University of Bi, -ningham, Birmingham B15 2 TT, England. Copyright 1977 by A.T.S.S. Reproduction in part or whole veithout written permission isstrictly prohibited. All rights reserved. 63 8 5 3 You are given a doll foryour An adult looksinto your pram first birthday. cot blanket you're sweet. ers given a blue and tells you that FEMALES mcne on 2 squares. home. Throw again. ,in the Maternity F EMA LES MALES move back 2 squares. tALES Go on 1 square. MALES Miss a go. MALES Go back tostart.
16 13 10 Ai ter playing, you comein with At school yourteacher laughs at clothes. Your parents House mud on your gsr parentschoose a wallpaper in th..: INendy make you go without for your you for playing are angry and with boats on it and suggests that youdo something supper. bedroom wall. more interestiig. Move on 2 squares. Move on 2 squares. FEMALES WALES MALESHave anower throw. Move bacv 2 squares. Move back 1 square. MALES iMALES FEMALES Shake a 6 before you can move on.
23 21 18 Your parents ask you tolay the You read a veryenjvyable meal. Fred table ready for a our AuntieEdqa and Uncle adventure story out noneof the Move or 4 squares. remark on how FEMALES WIt the family and characters are of yourown sex. Move back 4 squares. have grown. MALES nuch stronger you F EMA LES Throw again. MALES Move on 1 square. MALES Miss a go. Move back 1 square. I=EMALES
30 27 , 25 You are told by yourparents to Your parents send youto 'hool bully forpushini crying thump the .cnir parentstell you off for ballet class. down the toilet and and cut your your head titer you have fallen FEMALES Have another throw. pulling the chain. knee. It hurtsl Shake a 6 before you 31,.; MALES Move on 3 squares. Move on 4 squares. MALES MALES can move again. FEMALES Move back 4 squared ,EMALES Move back 3 squares.
, 39 36 33 Your teacher'advises you to op Your parents tell youoff for academic th, order at your for something more => You place an sitting with yourlegs open when '0' level homeeconomics. 'VALENTINE' jeans. 4'newsegents for you are wearing MALES Throw again. Move on 2 squares. Move on 1 square. EMALES FEMALES Move back 2 squares. FEMASMissago. 4VIALES MALES Move 1611 square. 42 45
You go to your first dance Your teacher is disgusted when You are about to leavt school. and your parents insist on you pass wind (accidentally) The careers teacher suggests you meeting you at 9.30. during a lesson. become an engineer rather than a nur EMALES Move on 4 squares. FEMALES move on 2 squares. .',ALES Throw again. 'ALES Move back 4 squares. MALES move back 2 squares. FEMALES Miss a go.
50 52 54
"Cou ere walking down the street At work you are asked to speak At work you overhear work friends on a hot summers day wearing at a union meeting. talking about you, wondering why horts. You hear a wolf whistle. MALES Move on 1 square. you're not married. EMALES Move on 4 squares. FEMALES Move back 1 square. FEMALES Move on 3 squares. /IALES Move back 4 squares. MALES Stay where you are.
55 58 61 tiu go out with three members of You become engaged. You are'now married. ?..the opposite sex in one week. Your future spouse teceives You decide, without consulting Your friends say you're cheap. birthday presents consisting of your spouse that a holiday is an FEMALES Throw again. lavatory brush, clothes line, etc. unnecessary expense. MALES Miss a go. MALES Move on 2 squares. MALES Move on 2 squares. FEMALES Move back 2 squares. FEMALES Go back 1 square.
62 63 CONGRATULATIONS!
If you land on this space You are now fully socialised into You have won the game. is have come into contact with the into your sex-role. Islas of WOMENS LIBERATION. You now become a parent and Move this way. begin to socialise your child. Go back to birth and be that child,
START THIS SHEET IS GUMMED.
YOU NEED NOT PASTE BIRTH
6 5 SEX ROLES: contention that the traditional division of sex-roles A PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE isbothdesirableandconducivetohealthy by Colleen Wird, University of Durham. personality development.Infact, the opposite appears to be true. High femininityin females Traditionally psychologists have uncritically correlates with high anxiety, low self-esteem and accepted sex roles is an irtegral ard.essential part low social acceptance (Cosentino & Heilbrun, 1968: part Of personality developmer.t and tunction. This Gray,1957).Inmales high masculinity scores assumption is based on the premise othat contem- correlate with ;1,3h anttiety, high neuroticism and . porary sex roles stem from a biological dimorphism low self-acceoniu;e LI adulthood (Harford, Willis which tempered by cultural influences provides & Deabler, 1961). In addition, superior intellectual divergent-rote-Models foOmales and females. In this development ismost frequently associated with perspective; sex roles are held to be both natural cross-sexedtypinginboth males and females and desirable. More recently, however, it has been (Maccoby, 1966). argued that traditional sex roles restrict the range Recently social scientists have introduced the of behaviours available to the individual and act as concept ofpsychological androgyny which is a constraint on human development. grounded in the supposition that masculinity and Both theoretical and empitical definitions of femininityarenot dichotomous and may be masculinity and feminity convey an underlying expressed psychometrically as orthogonal factors. notion of bipolarity. Parsons & Bates (1955) refer More simply, the theory of psychological androgyny tomasculinity as an instrumental,cognitive suggests thatindividualsdonotnecessarily approach while ferna-,nityisdefined within an determinetheir self- concepts asmasculine or expressive,affectiv. tomain.Likewise,Bakan feminine but may readily incorporate the socially (1966) equates rn.lie,,ty with an agentic and desirable characteristics of both modalities. This femininity with a c-,nlinunal perspective. On the theory does notprecludehighlysex-typed empiricallevelthere isa tendencytoignore individuals but merely seeks to demonstrate that "woman" per se and to describe her merely as the thenotionofbipolarityofmasculinityand opposite of man. Men are envisioned as capable, femininity is an artifically imposed dichotomy. strong, assertive, aggressive and objective possessing Identification in termsof psychological those highly valued characteristics which form a androgyny may have profoundbehavioural competency clustei. Women areallotted some implications. Bern (1975) found that highly sex- positively valued thoughlesssociallydesirable typed individuals nave limited role concepts and qualities which compose a "warmth-expressiveness" actively avoid cross-sexed behaviour. In keeping cluster sensitivity, generosity and tenderness with sex-role stereotypes, psychologically masculine although 'they are as frequently characterised as individualsappear competent and comfortable incompetent, weak and over emotional. The two onlyin instrumental and independent activities clusters areantitheticalwith themasculine while feminine individuals are limited to expression attributes being more highly regarded and positively in the nurturant domain. Androgynous individuals, valued. This is supported by research by Broverman, as defined by psychometric, analysis, are equally Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson & Rosenkrantz (1972) competent in both .;pheres; these trends apply to in the United States and more recent data collected both sexes. In 'stances, the marked contrast inGreatBritain--a strong consensus about between the andrc gy;ious individual who is able to differing haracteristics of men and women exists incorporate the socialiy desirable characteristics of across groups which differ in sex, age, religion, masculinity andfemininitywiththelimited marital status and educational level. In addition, flexibility of the unitary masculine or feminine these sex-role defin;tions are implicitly and un- individual,clearly demonstrates the behavioural critically accepted to the extent that they are constraints induced by traditionalsex - role incorporated into self-concepts of men and women stereotypes. and viewed as desirable, even ideal, by both sexes. Althoughthetraditionalsex-role divisions The extent to which these concepts are un- impose limitations on both sexes, the problem of criticially accepted can be demonstrated by a the female appears somewhat more acute in that a classical study by Broverman et al. Mental health notion ofinferiorityisattached to femininity. clinicians (both male and female) were asked to Both sexes incorporate specific sex-role standards, describe amature, healthy, socially competent but the masculine characteristics are more man, woman or adult on a dipolar scale. Although positively valued. the clinicians' ratings of healtny adult and male didnotdiffer,thefemale was perceived as Too many women evaluate their bodies, significantly less adjusted by adult standards. In personality qualities and roles as second rate. other words, mature women differ from competent When male criteria are the norms against which adults by being more submissive, more dependent, femaleperformance,qualitiesorgoalsare less objective, less adventuresome, less aggressive, measured, then women are not equak The and less competitive. Clearly, traditional notions of essence of the derogation lies in the evolution masculinityandfemininitypromotedisparate of the masculine as the yardstick against which 'criteria of mental health and construct an artificial' everythingis measured. Since the sexes are , dichotomy between woman and person. different, women are defined as not men and Overall, there ic little evidence to support the that means, not good, inferior. It is important
6 6 21 to understand that women in this culture have feminine role and is more prevalent in girls attending internalised these self.destructive values. coeducationalinstitutions. At theroot of the Hardwick & Douvan (1972). motive to avcid success liesthe stereotype of femininity, the antithesis of success. Developmental psytholopists strw that during Insummation,thetraditionalnotionthat saciaiisation individuals become motivPted to keep conventionalstereotypesofmasculinityand their behaviour consistent with an internalised sex femininity. are conducive to healthy personality
. rolestandard. Maintenance ofa mascuhne or development may be seriously questioned. There feminine image is accomplished by the suppression is little evidence to support the contention that a of inappropriate behaviour. For women thisis highdegreeofsextypingisassociated with particularlyPrat [emeticduetotheimplied .nychologicaladjustment.Infactstereotypes dichotomy of "woman" and "person'and the become problematic by -osing needless equationaf .femininity with childlikeness. Two constraints, creating false .thotomies and basic alterratives ale available the acceptance of channellingindividualsintotificialeither/or the traditional female role ard the internalisation situations.Asanalternative,masculinity and of this notion of inferiority or rejection of the femininity r...ey be vi.wed as the representations of conventional role resulting in increased automony, complementary domains ofpositivetraits ard and loss of femininity. behaviours, each temper.id by the other, may be This conflictisparticularly apparent inthe integrated to fcrm a more balanced end fuily realm of vhiavement motivation. Society rewards human personality. and values achievements,stressing salfreliance individualfreedom,self realisation andfull developmentofindividualresourcesincluding intellectualpotential. Despite the prevalence of these values femininity and individual achievement are viewed as desirable but mutually exclusive ends. Under these circumstancesithasbeen hypothesised that women develop a psychological barrier to achievement. Anticipation of negative consequences, inparticular,loss of femininit augments anxiety in achievement orient,:c1 situations. Whereas men are unsexed by failure References women seem to be unsexed by success. BAKAN, D. The duality of human existence. Researchin this area indicates that "fear of Chicago: McNally, 1966. success responses'' on projective assessment of BARDWICK, J., DOUVAN, E. Ambivalence: The motivation are exceptionally high in women. For socializationof women. In,J. Bardwick (Ed.), example, employing a projective method, Horner Readings on the psychology of women. New York: (1972) asked college women to respond to the cue Harper & Row, 1972, "At the end of her first term of finals, Ann is at BEM, S. L . Sex role adaptability: One consequence the top of her medical school class." She found of psychological androgyny. Journal of Personality that this cue elicited negative imagery in approxi- and Social Psychology, 1975, 31, 634-643. mately 65% of the stories. The themes centred on BROV ERMAN, I., VOGEL, S., BROVERMAN, D., loss of femininity and/or social desirability. Ann CLARKSON, F. & ROSENKRANTZ, P. Sex role was frequently described as a social reject with stereotypes: A current appraisal Journal of Social unpleasant face, features or Manners. Men, on the Issuei, 1972, 28 (2), 59-78. other hand, responded with less than 10% negative COSENTINO,' F. & HEILBRUN, A.B. Anxiety imagery to a sex appropriate stimulus person with correlates of sex role identity in college students. the major theme focussing on the meaning and Psychological Reports, 1964, 14, 729-730. value of success GRAY, S. W. Masculinity-femininity in relation to Horner's conjecture that women learn to fear anxiety and social acceptance. Child Development, success and avoid achievement-oriented circum- 1957, 28, 203-214.. stances appears credible in the light of projective HARFORD, T. C., WI LL IS, C. H. & DEABL ER, assessment,butmoreimportantly,hasbeen W.L.Personalitycorrelatesofmasculinity- validated withina behavioural context. Testing femininity.PsychologicalReports, 1967,21, women on a series of math and verbaltasks, 881-884. Homer found that those women evincing a high HORNER, M. S. Toward an understanding of fear of success as defined by projective analysis achievement related conflicts in women. Journal actually performed worse in competition with men of Social Issues, 1972, 28, 157-175. than alone while the reverse was true for other MACCOBY, E. Sex differencesinintellectual women. In light of these results Horner maintains functioning.In E. E.Maccoby (Ed.; . The that the motive to avoid success is most apparent development of sex differences. Stanford: St4r.`ord in highly competent women in competition wijh University Press, 1966, 25-55. men. This seems highly plausible since tater research PARSONS, T.& BALES, R . F. Family, socieilzation has revealedthat the motive emerges inearly and interaction process, New York: Free Press, adolescence when girls become more aware of the 1955.
.22 6 7 'BUTTER WOULDN'T MELT IN HER MOUTH? trouble in school, but 80% acknowledging that if Girls' Deviance in School a girl and a boy misbehaved in exactly the same by Lynn Davies, Dudley College of Education way, the girl would be let off more lightly. This confirmed the previous study where girls perceived
. Current work on school and classroom deviance male teachers as being "stricter" or "harsher" with has followed the trend of wider research into the boys, (although also giving the boys more delinquency: it has concentrated almost exclusively attention in general). on boys. In spite of an apparent rise in the rate of Many questions are thus raised about the nature girls' delinquency, and reports of disruptive girls in and extent of girls' deviance in school. If the sexes school, the reason for neglect of this isrue seems to do notinfactdiffersignificantly deviant be a simple one: girls present lits of a problem. reactions to school, what are the implications of Thus Hargreaves admits: "It must also be said that teache,s perceiving and acting upon differences? teachers very rarely talked to us about 'difficult' Or if, as seems likely, girls do have an identifiably girls perhaps because they did.not think we were dissimilar response to school ife, how can this interested in girls(l)" (Hargreaves 19751. It seemi response bev be examined? Possible approaches to be felt that if a satisfactory account can be can perhaps be grouped under the headings of made of boys' deviance, any trouble from girls can biology, socialisation, sub-cultures, "strain", and
. be subsumed under the same causal explanation. labelling. Yetthere isreasonto supposethatgirls' Thefirst"obvious" explanationisthat of deviance isnot merely viewed by teachers as biological or genetic inheritance. However, theories quantativelyless,but as qualitivelydifferent. of female criminality are not only sparse, but until , Descriptions of girls in school seem to follow the recentlyremarkablysexistandmythological. pattern of "when she was good she was very, very Lombroso's (1859)assertionthat women have good, but when she was bad she was horrid". evolved less than men (and being more primitive For example, are less ferocious), is in fact only slightly modified by Cowie, Cowie and Slater 70 years later: "The problems they (the girls) pose for schools differ somewhat frorn.those which result from "Differences between the sexes in hereditary the natural aggressiveness of adolescent boys. predisposition (to crime) could be explained by The disruption caused by girls stem mainly sex-linked genes. Furthermore the female mode from emotional difficulties which are the result of perSonality, more timid, more lacking in of unfavourable circumstances and experiences, enterprise, may guard her against delinquency". and they are generally more amenable to the (Cowie et al 1968) guidanceofteachers.However, case. of extreme disruptioncan occur, and because Thus women criminals are infact displaying these have an intense emotional undertone they male characteristics, and are therefore abnormal. are often difficult to manage and sometimes Another theme is exemplified by Pollak (1950), impossible to resolve." (Parry 1976) whose argumentisthat women are equally as criminal as.men, but that the type of offences they A headmistress of a Stockport mixed compre- commit, and their social roles, protect them from hensive reported that potential candidates for an detection. Because they must conceal menstruation, exclusion unit were mostly girls, who "tend to and can fake orgasm, women become by nature adopt a sullen attitude in class if disciplined, rather ..nd practice cunning and deceitful, able to poison than boys who more often will settle down to husbands and mistreatchildren without being classwork if rebuked" (Daily Telegraph Oct. 1976). discovered. While Pollak's beliefs might accord My own research into sex-typing and education With the previously mentioned teachers' views on found teachers initially speaking of girls as better the sinister nature of girls' reactions, it is difficjlt behaved, more conformist and obedient. Yet the to take these 'innate' views seriously, stillless majority of teachers admitted they would prefer to apply them to the school situation. teach boys, if they had to make a choice; and more A second possible area is then the impact of investigation revealed a pervading suspicion about socialisation. Thereisa wealth of evidence to the girls' mvture, submissive appearance. Boys were show that girls and boys are encouraged from a more readyWo own up, girls were more devious. veryearlyage todisplay different personality Girls were more amenable to discipline, but could traits,aggression in boys and passivity ingirls be insidious. Boys were more willing to make being the most relevant here. (See Source List 'amends if anything went wrong; girls bore grudges for references.) The concepts that a society has of over a longer period. "There are more behaviour "masculinity= toughness" and"femininity problems with boys than with girls, but if girls do softness" will obviously condition, even with a ',cause problems behaviourally, they tend to dreate deviant sub-culture,"legitimate" expressions of more serious trouble for themselves". (Davies 1973) identity.Statisticsfor female crimes certainly Pupils themselves seem only too aware that seem to show that women commit offences which they' are treated differently according to sex. A are closely related to the female sex-role: shop- recent questionnaireIadministered to 102 mixed lifting and prostitution in adults, promisc'uity and cOmprehensive school pupils found the majority "ungovernability"inadolescents.Whileit is thinking that boys and girls caused about the same expected that women use attractiveness for social 6 8 23 , and economic advantage, using sex to bargain with trying to turn you into something you wc,e not. It "deviant" when thegirlistoo young: the was a waste of time". As an adaptive response, majority of offences by girls are either sexual or "opting out", might be the girls' equivalent to Incorrigibilitycases (Smart 1976).(It must be vandalism. 'remembered however that the double standards In the sociology of deviance, nevertheless, sub- operating in society mean that girls are far more cultural and strain models have been overshadowed likely to appear in statistics and be institutionalised by the more recent emphasis on labelling and _for'. theseoffencesthanboysare.)Teachers controltheories.Inthe schoolsituation, this 'commentedin my study thatgirls were more involves looking at the career of a difficult or "miture", more "interested in the opposite sex" disruptive pupil, and viewing deviance as a process than were boys,-but did not necessarily associate rather than a problem. Inlabelling theory the :::this with behaviour Problems. On the contrary, the analysis is of the rules by which a pupii's act comes complaints came from the girls, that male teachers to be labelled as deviant, the subsequent stigmatis- "flirted"withthem, orthatfemale teachers ation of that pupil as a deviant, and his redefinition "showed off" in front of the boys. It was reported of himself into that role. Control theories would ':. :recentlythatgirls marched down to the local ask an almost Hobbetlan question: "Why are we .Education'Onice protesting that their headteacher not alldelinquents?, and look at the controls :had said their clothes made them look like tarts. exerted by conventional institutions, t.:1,1family (Guardian, 5.2.76.)It would seem in fact that and the community. schools reinforce sex-role behaviour, rather than It would be profitable therefore to see whether girls'deviance being aresult only of pre-ious diffcrential rules are operating for boys and girls socialisation. within a school, and/ordifferentia/sanctions This leads us on the interactionist viewpoint. applied fortheirinfringement.Anobvious . which would look for elements within the school explanation for girls being seen as les: of a problem .situationItself which affect the pupils' response. is that they receive shorter sentences. Certainly , In the case of girls, various deviance or calinquency Reynold's (1976) work comparing differences in theories could be brought into use. A sub-cultural delinquency rates between similar schools indicates approach might look atgirls'peer groups, and that less insistence on rules of uniform, smoking examine,inMiller'sterminology,their"focal etc., is associated with greater success of a school .concerns", thefemale equivalent to toughness, academically, and less delinquency. The schools ,smartness, excitement and so on. Audrey Lamart's that caned the boys the most, also provoked the 'The Sisterhood (1970 for exampl looks at the greatest disruptive reaction against the school. It 'informal structures in groupings uf third-year girls would seem too beautifully simple to say that ; in a grammar school, mentioning their "patterned becausegirls are rarelyphysicallypunished behaviour", and their perceptions of victimisation compared with boys, they have less to rebel against, by teachers. and are therefore less trouble. .Howeyer, in thatin a mixed school the girls For therestillremains the feeling that girls' have, the same environmentas boys, andare discipline problems, when they occur, ale some- offeredsimilar"opportunitystructures"for how more insidious, and longer lasting. Here an deviant behaviour (Cloward and Ohlin 1961), it interesting parallel could be drawn to Broverman's may bemore enrqhteningtoutilise"strain" (1970) findings on concepts of mental health. theories of deviance. "hese originate from Merton's Clinicians have different ratings of health for men typology of different adaptive responses to the fact and women, and their concept of a healt)y, mature that society exhorts its members to aim lor a male do not differ significantly from that of a common goal, and at the same time blocks off healthy adult. Yet healthy women are perceived as avenues to that goal for the majority. Thus for less healthy and competent by adult standards. Cohen (1955), strain results from"status Women are thus caught in a double bind: if they ,.frustration": schools nurture aspirationsto display healthy "feminine" traits, these are less succeed, and then deny this success to the majority sociallydesirable;iftheydisplaythemore of pupils, who therefore seek alternative status acceptable "male" traits, they are abnormal for criteria. (Hargreaves (1967) and Lacey (1970) give their sex. It would be interesting to see whether telling accounts of the "polarisation" ef fects of teachers have different concepts of the normal streaming.) The possibility springs to mind that for healthy adolescent boys and girls, and which of girls,theend-goalismarriage, not wealthor them is nearer to the concept of "good pupil". It academic success; as school does not have much could be that gir's suffer the double bind in school perceptable effect on marriage chances, there is no of being expected to display feminine traits, and need to erect an anti-school culture to gain status. then having traits less valued in terms of school Girls can merely waititout, withoutfeeling success. Whereas the "rules" for boys may be clear- anomie, or a desire to strike out at the institution cut, and penalties known (albeit harsh), the norms which has deprived them of opportunities. Their for girls may reflect double standards, symbolised approach thus could be likened to Downes's concept by having girls wear ties and yet make tea at school of "dissociation" (1966): he describes working functions. Their behaviour may be equally as class pupils as moving through the school system ambivalent, less easily "cleared up". without showing any allegiance toits values, or In conclusion, it remains to be seen whether a absorbing its aspirations: "The school was always unitary theory of girls' school deviance can emerge. 6 9 a'Process, deviance ar.ses from the interaction IDEAS FOR A "SEX ROLES" COURSE t.oetween.un the one hand, socialisation, peer group Compiled by Lorraine Judge, Reid Kerr College, 4alues; self-concept etc.; and on the other, the Paisley. !'definitions of deviance and the actions of the rule-. !enforcers: we are as yet only beginning to probe The problem of finding a successful or unusual way ttiti various elements for gi.s. There are nonethe of beginning a course of study is one teachers face !less,even, at this ntage,implira.ons for schools. Just continually. This article of "starter lessons" aims as we can often earn ::c.sout how a pupil fails to toalleviate,thoughnotsolve,this problem ;learnto read, by watching another pupil who regarding a Sex Roles course. Obviously these are !eucceeds, we an p:Isaps learn how a school car, not the only ways to begin: they are the results of ;encouragemorecoaformitt. inpupils by .an a discussion group at the Walsall conference in !examination of girls' response, rather than a "post September 1976, which decided to think of as r hoe" concentration on the patlwlogy ofboys' many ideas for lessons as possible. There is no .deviance. Hut if girls' conformity is just a sham, attempt to fit them into any particular theoretical and if disruption is becoming More widrspread context asthis would best be decided by the ,jamong girls, we have to examine what dif's...,ntial incidual teacher. This is basically a dissemination ,*:ifactors within and between schools are contributing oftechniques, sometried, some untried:the i:.tor girls' deviant response. Not everything can be content and aim of the whole course is far more blamed on the Women's Liberation Movement. important. I would like to acknowledge the people who provided the ideas that form the bulk of this article:Helen Len tell, Rachel McCracken, Lynn keferences Davies, Roland Meighan, Helen Reynolds, Barry !.OROVERMAN, I.K. et al, "Sex Role Stereotypes Dufour. Andy McDouall,BryanAllbut, Bob ;land Clinical Judgements of Mental Health" Journal O'Hagan, Liam Deaney. Brian Dutton and Les Bash. Csf Consulting and Clinical Psychology Vol 34, !.1970. 1. "IDEAL PARTNERS" !?.CLOWARD, R.H. and 0 H LIN. L. Delinquency and This would entail a discussion with the students of !!bpportunity: A Theory of Oeliquent Groups. qualities they considered important for their future 1961. partners to have. Each person would then list the A.K. Delinquent Boys: The Culture of qualities in order of preference, with discussion of Free Press 1955. the underlying values inherent in different lists. :,COWIE,J., COWIE V. andSLATER, F. 7131MfRIIR1OY Girls. Heinemann 1968. 2. "MASCULINITY/FEMININITY" DOWNLS, D ! The DelinquentSolution RKP 1966 These two words are discussed and analysed as to M.L. 'The Contribution of the Secondary exactly what they mean, both biologically and !Sch,.tol to the Sex-typing of Girls" Unpublished sociologically. This then shows how powerful these dissertation, University of Birmingham,1973. words are in controlling behaviour. If:HARGREAVES, D. Social Relations in a Secondary SchooI R KP 1967. 3. "DIVISION OF LABOUR" c,HARGREAVES, D. et al. Deviance in Classrooms Students are asked to make a list of the jobs done RKP 1975. in their homes over a period of time, by different '..i,LACEY,C. Hightown Grammar Mar .thester U. people. The listis then (Discussed and analysed. ;f Rress. 1970. This could be extended to a study ol the school, or LAMSART, A. "The Sisterhood", in Hammersley of any other suitable organisation. ancJ Woods, ed. The Process of Schoolin RKP 1976. ?.1-0MBROS0,C. The Female OffenderFisher 4. "FANTASY MARK ET" Unwin 1895. Students are asked to imagine they would marry PARRY, K. "Diruptive Children In School", in theirfantasies. They discuss who they are, and ;.Davies, J. ed. The Disruptive Pupil in the Seconthry their qualities. They then discuss the more realistic f'School Ward Lock 1976. partners they will probably meet, and where they ;17OLLAK, 0. The Criminality of Wcmen Univ. of arp likely to meet. The use of "the fantasies" is Pennsylvania Press 1950. .,;ysed. ,REYNOLDS, D. The Delinquent School",in .i Ham mersley and Woods, op cit. b. "CAREER CHOICES" :SMART,C. Women, Crime andCriminology After watching a 88C/ITV Careers programme, the '.!RKP 1976. values of the programme are analysed. This could lead on to analysis of the school's career advice, i.e. selection of leaflets available, division of subjects within the scf.00l, subject choice for pupils, advice to pupils from school.
6."TAPE/SLIDE SEQUENCE" This is used th stimulate discussion, and can be used on any aspect .f the topic depending on the 170 25 slidesavailable. Usefuliterni on the tapes are difference. The "differences" can be endless: one children's comments, songs, nursery rhymes; or example can be in drag. They then discuss the comments from women in any walk of life. "real" beauty contests for both men and women, and decide whatbeauty is, and why it is important. 7. "SIMULATION" This can also be linked to advertising. Using a desert island background, pupils are asked to work out a scheme for the survivalOf the 17. "TAPES" characters. Pupils make tape recordings of young children's ideas on boys and girls, perhaps using their own 8. "SEX ROLES GAME" families, or local primary schools, nursery groups, This game is described in the "Briefings" section. etc. These are played back to the class, and the views put forward analysed. This could also be 9. "SEX ROLES IN OIFFERENT CULTURES" used with slides. This involves a comparative analysis of sex roles from various societies. (See end of article for back. 18. "WOMEN IN LITERATURE" up material.) This entails an analysis of the portrayal of women in literature o; different types. 10. "PROBLEMS PAGE" Several aspects can be used here: 1) Pupils are RESOURCES asked to compose a problem for a problem page. The following wereallmentioned during the . These are read out and "solved", and the values discussion at Walsall, and could prove useful to behind the problem and the solution are discussed. other teachers. 2) Pupils analyse a real problem page from different types of magazines or newspapers. Back copies Books would enable analysis to be made of different Lee Corner Wedlocked Women Feminist Books 1974 problems from different eras. 3) Pupils send bogus Hannah Gavron Captive Wife Penguin 1969 'problem?' to a magazine, predict the answers, Fred Inglis One of The Family Ginn 1971 andthen analysethereal onesand make Young and Willmott Symmetrical Family comparisons. Routledge 1973 Adams and Laurikietis The Gender Trap Books 11. "AOVERTISEMENTS ANO SEX" 1, 2, 3. Virago 1976. (These 3 books also contain Pupils analyse the images of men and women used useful sections at the back listing books, films and in advertising, either in the press or on television. organisations of interest) A usefulback-up TV programme forthisis Spokesman Pamphlets (available from Bertrand "Images for Sale", although under 16s may find Russell House, Gamble Street, Nottingham, NG7 these programmes rather difficult. 4ET). No. 17; Women'sLiberationandthe New 12. "SONGS" Politics Sheila Robotham. Price 12P. This involves an analysis of the values inherent in No. 21: The Myth of Motherhood Lee Comer. pop songs. A choice of different types of records 12p over a period of years is made, with words written No. 24: Women's Liberation in Labour History out, and the values in the songs discussed. Jo O'Brien. 1OP. No. 33: Women and the Struggle for Worker's 13.. "GAMES ANO TOYS" Control. Audrey Wise. 12P. Pupils list the games they played when they were Educational Review Volume 27 No. 3. Educatio young. They discuss whether there are "taboo" and Sex Roles June 1975. activities fcr either sex, and the reasons for these. They are asked to imagine two children, a boy and PACKS a girl, from birthto teenager, and tolistthe The Family Pack. Heinemann. birthday presents they would receive at different Labour Party Jackdaw: Women in Society ages. The pupils analyse the presents they them- selves buy for others, or h3ve bought for themselves. VIOEOT APES Viewpoint Thames Television 14. "REAOING BOOKS" Images for Sale BBC Pupils survey the reading books and comics for the Scene BBC under 10s, end analyse the images of behaviour and values put over in these books, FILMS BBC: T e Family of Man 7 films, 50 mins. 15. 'FAIRY TALES" Quentin Crisp This is obviously linked to the above, and involves Concorde: Four Families (different upbringing in analysis of the sex roles infairy tales, and the four countries) B/W 60 mins. myths surrounding witchcraft. A Woman's Place(about Women's Liberation Movgment) B/W 35 mins. 16. "BEAUTY CONTESTS" Are You satisfied with life/ B/W silent Pupils take prt in a beauty competition with a 10 mins. 26 7 1 EMI Special Film Unit A SOURCE LIST FOR WOMEN IN SOCIETY Feminine/Masculine (images in the media) 8/W Facts, Figures and Perspectives, complied by ' '!;11 mini. Davies, Dudley College of Education. EmanCipation of Women (2 films 1890-1914, A 1914-1930) I WOMEN AND WORK We .Do,, Wa Do (about fidelity, divorce etc.) a) Women now comprise 52% of the populauon Colour11 mins. and 38% of the labour force. The percentages of .You Haven't Changed a bit (marriage stereo- those engaged in economic activity are: tioes) Col. 15mins. 19711974 Males 82.380.8 1:FILM STRIPS Married Females 44.049.0 ',.1The Emancipation of Women Sunday Times Unmarried Females 45.342.4 SiicRoles E.A.V. As % of population aged 15+: 19611971 OUBLISHERS Females 37.542.6 !.:Writersand Readers Co-operative,14, Talacre Housewives (sic) 57.239.4 i:Road; London, NW5 3PE (Source: Social Trends1976) li.COitmendium,- 240, Camden High Street, London, Yet there are still vast inequalities in employment, ;i7.17he ChartistPublications,82,Loughborough for example: 1:ROad, London, SW9. Among - ;.Colletts, Charing Cross Road, London. 8,300 chemical engineers there are 70 women 28,000 civilengineers there . are 18 women 6,500 municipal engineers there are 0 women Women form 8% of barristers, 2% of, solicitors, 4% of architects, 1% of chartered accountants,
58% of teachers are women, but of heads of small schools(mostly primary) 40% are women; of comprehensives 5% (out of 994 comprehensives, there are 53 women heads). Women form 11% of university teachers.
Sources: Economic Progress Report (Nov. 1974) Women and Employment Fogarty,Rapaportand Rapaport "41971) Women in Top Jobs (P.E.P.) London. Allen and Unwin Jones, K. (ed) The Year Book of Social Policy in Britain 1973 London RKP. b) Pay Women earn between 5% and 35% lower than their. male colleagues. The average daily wage for women in 1974 was E2.10, just half of that for men. (Source: Peter Laurie, Meet Your Friendly Social System Arrow 1974)
clApprenticeships New Entrants to Employment 1961 19711974 Boys under 18 (1,000s) Boys entering apprentices to skilled crafts 114.7 95.6118.2 Total boy entrants 302.5242.1274.8 Percentage apprenticed 37.9 39.543.0
Girls under 18 (1,000s) Girls entering apprenticeships to skilled crafts 20.5 16.715.5 Total girl entrants 284.9 220.4237.8 Percentage apprenticed 7.2 7.6 6.5
JSource: Social Trends 1976) 27 The number ofgirls gaining apprenticeships (iii)In the Culture 15,500 in 1974 was the lowest for a normal year see comparative work of Margaret Mead; and since 1970. This is explained by a smaller number Rosaldo & LampheY, Women, Culture and of jobsinhakdressing (the main apprenticed Society Stanford Univ. Press 1974 occupation for girls), and lower recruitment in clothing and footwear industries. (iv)In the family (the 'dual roles' of women) e.g. Gavron, H. The Captive Wife RKP 1966 (Penguin 1975) . U EXPLANATIONS FOR, AND PERSPECTIVES Oakley, A. Housewife Allen Lane 1974 ON DISPARITIES The Sociology of Housework Fogarty, M. etalSex. Career and Family (A) Sex differences Allen and Unwin 1971 See for example: Hutt, C.Males and Females (Penguin 1972) (v)Education Ounstedand Taylor,GenderDifferences Evidence ot parity of attainment between the (Churchill 1972) sexes can be found in: Douglas, JWB The Heim, A., Intelligence and Personality (Penguin Home and The School Penguin 1966; and in 1970) Maccoby (oP cit). After the age of about 11, parity of attainment is documented more in Thus on ability, females are better on verbal skills, international surveys, such as the UNESCO arithmetic,clerical, some verbal reasoning, rote reports 1966 nd 1967 on the access of girls memory and fine manual dexterity; males better on tosecondaryeducation, andinFogarty, spatial tasks, maths problems, mechanical, practical (op cit), and Chabaud, J. The Education and abilities. Advancement of Women Unesco, Paris 1970. Interests: females more musical, literary, religious, Evidence of disparity of attainment between aesthetic;males moremechanical,scientific, the sexes: physically strenuous, political, theoretical, economic. a) GCE Passes at A-levelPasses in thousands Boys Girls Personality: females more warmhearted, easy-going, Biology 9 9 tenderminded,careful, insecure;males more Chemistry 17 6 . assertive, adventurous, thick-skinned, experimental, Physics 23 5 . stable. Mathematics 35 10 Economics 14 4 Physical: females have 10% less muscle power at Modern Languages 9 17 10; 50% less at 18. bl GCE Passes at D-Level .Yet these differencesareverysmall, and too Science and Technology 201 105 insignificant to account for disparities in employ Social Science/vocational 103 128 ment. It is also impossible to distinguish between which traits might be innate and which learned. c)Higher degrees awarded 11 2 (Source: EducationStatisticsfor UK (B)Socialisation and sex role learning and 1973: HMSO 1975) reinforcement (i)In the home (the learning of a gender identity) d) Students in Higher Education (1,000s) see for example: Men Women Beach, F A. (ed.) Sex and Behaviour John 65/66 75/75 65/66 74/75 Wiley 1965. University Maccoby. E. (ed.) The Development of Sex 128 172 46 85 Differences Univ. of Stanford 1966. College of Education Carter, H.P. Into Work Penguin 1966 (the 24 33 61 85 influence of parents on career aspirations) F. E. etc. 39 84 11 37 (ii)From the media Total F ull.time e.g. Weitzman and Eifler Sex Role Socialization 191 289 118 207 in Picture Books for Pre-School Children AJS Total Par.t-time May 1972; 119 129 8 25 see Glennys Lobban on sex .oles in reading schemes; Camilla Nightingale on children's el Day-release young people under 18 literature; Mary Hoffman on sex manuals. Men Women Haskell, M. From Reverence to Rape the 1971 171 48 Treatment of Women in Movies HRW 1974. 1974 154 42 (See also articles on Social Science and on Sociology textbooks in this issue) 73(Source: SocialI rends 1976) 28 :Disparity of attainment and aspiration in schools (0) The Politics of Caste Perspective The marxist/feminist viewpoint documents the :can be linked to historical exploitation of women in terms of power ,A)- The Official Curriculum :OES Education Survey 21 (1975) lists subjects and interest. The nuclear family under capitalism is examined, and analyses made of the woman's which are offered differentially to boys and of .girls, and which subjects are chosen. role in relation to the means of production, and thefamilyas theunitof reproduction and "b) Resource Allocation to Schools consumption. Division of curriculum in schools .seeByrne,E.PlanningandEducational corresponds to the division of labour in society. Inequality NFER 1974 See for example Mitchell, J. Woman's Estate Penguin 1971 'CI The Hidden Curriculum, and Careers Advice Robotham, S. Woman's Consciousness, Mads e.g. Davies and Meighan. A Review of Schooling World Penguin 1973 Sharpe, S.Just Like A Girl Penguin 1976 :"? and Sex Roles, Educational Review Vol. 27 . no.3 June 1975 See also Collins "A Conflict Theory of Sexual RicksandPyke TeacherPerceptions and Stratification" Social Problems 19, 1971, for Attitudes that foster and maintain sexirole a bargaining model of sex stratification,i.e. differences Interchange Vol 4 No 1 1973 the tradingof the resources of income and Frazier and Sadker Sexism in Schools and 'sexuality. Society Harper and Row 1973. Work on women in the developing world also looks at economic factors, linking sex roles withthe food production, and examining the (C)The Minority Perspective: Restrictions, means of Discrimination, Prejudice. impac; of colonialism and development, an impact :1DIsparities in employment are linked to restrictions which can infact lead to the down-grading of Against women: women. because of qualifications and education (see inEconomic above) SeeBoserup,E. Woman's Role disqualificationofentrye.g. women are Development George Allen and Unwin, 1970 barred from consecration as bishops; or by Sullerot,E. Women, Society andChange statute, for example inspector of mines. Weidenfeld and Nicholson 1971. Cross-culturally: Restrictionin work: men canlift150lbs, Leavitt, R. (ed)Women women 65Ibs; also restriction of hours, and Change and Challenge Moulton & Co., The night shifts. Hague, Paris, 1976. restriction of entry 'quota' systems for journalism, etc. restricted deployment within work such as avenues with Civil Service. restricted promotion: thereisone woman Vice Chancellor, but no registrars of Universities,no principalsofcollegesof agricultureor polytechnics.IntheCivil Service women are 50% of the administrative grade, but only 4% are Senior Principal or above.
;Images of women also show prejudice or sexist 'attit odes : (i) by men:studiesof male executives and ' managers have demonstratedtheirun favourable attitudes towards women, or that theyperceive "management" conceptsas related to "male" concepts, but not "female''. (ii) by women: Goldberg Are womer prejudiced against women? Transaction 1968 found that both men and women rated identical articles lower if they thought they had been written by women. by assumptions in researth and theory Freud has come under attack from feniinists: also'respectable' developmentaltextslike Hadfield Childhood and Adolescence ("the female adolescen;is equipped with the will to seduce ... "I 74 29 What are THINKSTRIPS?
THINKSTRIPS are cOmics on social and health topics designed for use with teenagers of either sex. They are devised by Sarah Curtis and Gillian Crampton Smith who together pioneered the two successful comics on personal relationships and birth control: Too Great a Risk and Don:t Rush Me! They use the format of ordinary teenage comics to raise important issues for discussion in a way which captures the interest and the sym- pathies of young people. Different points of view are put forward within the framework of a conventional romantic story. THINKSTR IPS will help youna people to imagine the situations they can expect to meet in life, a;Li to consider the decisions they will have to mAce. 1hr; first thre,: THINKSTR!7S will be on teenage drinking, what it is hke to be responsible for e ;-:aby, and male and female roles in society -voday, It's Your Round! It'll Never be the Same It's Only Fair LONGMAN will be pubhshing THINKSTR IPS in the spring. They will cost approximately 80p lor 10 comics including teacher's notes. for further information please wri to: Iris Sinfield Longman Group Limited Longman House Burnt Mill Harlow Mmelt. ) PIPIP11 Essex CM20 2JE '.:11'neet!1/ maw By far the most interesting and valuable section in my view concerns the position and experiences of black girls in Britain. The distinctions between sex, race and social clo,is are clearly made and the relationship of the ia.te; 'o economic opportunities is examined. The historical background and family life of West Indian and Ar t.c reillustrated by reference to the ir..oerience and provide a basisfor the ur.!e.:toriding of the relationships between culturt. 1,3ar fing of sex-roles. An example tit IT!.acted in the fact that whilefifty per c...nt Mst Indian girls would prefer to be boys, over 80% of Asian girls would rather have been born a boy. Nevertheless, despite cultural differences itis striking that most of the As reviews editor I would like to thank all those girls interviewed had negative feelings about their who burden themselves with extra work to produce role in society. such readable and generally well informed rev;ews. In conclusion, the author claims that change in It is always a great help to receive reviews promptly. consciousness must accompany economic change. If you would be interested in reviewing for The This is unlikely to occur unless changes are Made Social Science Teacher please write indicating any in the learning of sexual identities. areas of speClal interest and age range. Thisisalready apparent inthegirls' own ' Helen Reynolds, Reviews Editor. expression of dissatisfaction and a growing aware- nessof their own needs and potential outside traditionalroles. To what extent economic and JUST LIKE A GIRL socialconditionswillallow these needs to be BY Sue Sharpe. fulfilledis not however examined in depth and Published by Penguin at 95p the picture provided of the present situation does Date of publication: 1976 not give grounds for optimism. .r This is an interesting and readable book suitable ...Just Like a Girl How Girls learn to be Women" for '0' and 'A' level work. Much of the information js the result of Sue Sharpe's research into four and interview material could be utilised for lower . Ealing Schools covering the background, roles, age groups. attitudes and expectations of both immigrant and It avoids the oversimplification involved in the English girls. assumption that 'femalenessoverrides all other -i; Daspite publicity given to women's liberation dimensions of experience. This account convincingly 'groupstheattitudesand expectations ofthe linkssexualidentities and expectations to the 'traditional working class woman have rarely been wider economic social and cultural contexts by ::examined. This book redresses the balance by which they are created and reinforced. highlighting the distinctions between middle and Working class girls and also includes the dimensions H. Reynolds of race and ethnic origin. Interesting material from interviews is included together with theoretical analysis and interpretation. Initially the relationship between sex roles and THE RIGHTS AND WRONGS OF WOMEN the class structure is examined. A brief summary of Edited by Juliet Mitchell and Ann Oakley 'changes due to industrialisation emphasises the Published by Penguin Books at E1.25 :relationship between the development of a capitalist Date of Publication: 1976 economy and the social construction of sex roles. Ititargued thatthe sexualcharacteristics The aim of this edition is to bring together, from !eittribu,1 to men and women are closely linked to aninter-disciplinary perspective, a collection of "their expected economic role. original essays on the position of women. All the Other sections include an analysis of the mass essays are broadly in the feminist tradition, although media with a survey of the class and sex stereo- they are not from the same political perspective. typescontainedinchildren'sbooks, comics. The essays are directed at all those interested in ; 'advertising and music. the women's movement. However this is not an Itis obvious that opportunities in Education introductory collection,it does assume a fairly 'Srid work are crucial to the expectations of men sophisticated level of knowledge and understanding women and the girls' experiences of the hidden of women's problems: "curriculum of the school and attitudes to their I found some essays far more interesting than! 'Cariter orientations are well explored. Linked with others and I suspect this is where the usefulness of ;Ibis is some consideration of the myths of Mother- the edition lies. That is to say the great diversity ;tioda, .Femininity and Sexuality which are part of of the essays covering areas as varied as a historical 5,most women's experience of socialisation. look at childbirth and an analysis of the women's 76 31 movement in China enables both students and notioil offeminity, variously defined, has teachers to pursue their own interests within the determined educational provisionfor girls.In a wider topic of the womens movement. It is there- similar field, Tessa Blackstone, in "The Education fore a book to select from rather than for reading ofGirls Today", maintains that despite relative from cover to cover. .equalityofprovision,girlscontinue to under I found two essaysparticularlyinteresting. achieve and this can be explained in terms of the Firstly Margaret Walters, "The Rights and Wrongs curriculum,teachers'attitudes and "structural
of Women", gives a brief outline to the work and aspects". In her article on American trade unions, . lives of Wollstonecraft. Martineau, and de Besuvoir. Rosalyn Baxandall documents the lack of sgp.pctrt This essay, which treats allthree figures rather given to women by men when unionisation harshly, neverthelessprovidesforthoseless attempted. She considers this experience should familiar with these key women theorists a useful not lead women to reject unions but to organise guide to their ideas and the significance of these withinthem.RosalindDelmar'-herarticle ideas for the womers movement. Walters reflects "Looking again at Engels's origin of the Family" that although these writers were very aware of the accepts Engels analysis of the origin of sexual female predicamentallthreerevealedintheir divisionsin capitalist society, but claims he does personal lives and work the difficulty of coming to not go beyond economicinequalities.Delia terms with the masculine and.female identities. Davinin, "Women in Revolutionary China" briefly A second essay Ithought well worth reading describes the fluctuating fortunes of women's roles was Ann Oakley's "Wisewoman and Medicine Man: in revolutionary China. And finally, Juliet Mitchell Changes in the Management of Childbirth", which in"Women and Equality" presents a selective contains a great deal of interesting information and historyOf womens protestinrelationto the quotable extracts. It is a brief account of childoirth concept of equali,ty. over the last century or so, in which she aims not This is an interesting and useful book to those so much to document the medical changes in wishing . a.,i;leeper understanding of the different childbirthbuttosketchouttheconnection areas of women's oppression, and it is a book that between the changes in childbirth, and the position can readily be "dipped" into. of women in the wider society. In the past women had control over matters relating to pregnancy Helen Lentell, even though the state of knowledge was rather Grantham College For Further Education 'rudimentary; but with the professionalisation of medicine women have lost control of gynaecological knowledge; which no longer serves their interest. 'The implication of the essay is that women need, MALE & FEMALE and should demand control of childbir;:i, and their By A. Jones, J. Marsh, A.G. Watts own bodies in general. Published by CR AC Lifestyle Series at 0.00 Whilst the diversity of essays is a main strength Date of publication: 1974 of the collection,itis alsot'-esource of the considerably unevenqualityc the edition. A "Male & Female" isa collection of ideas, infor- number of essays are extremely difficult to follow, mation and techniques for investigating the nature bothconceptually and linguistically. I have of sex-roles with particular emphasis on how they particularly in mind John Goode's essay "Women may influence choice of job or career. and the Literary Text", which is not helped by The main objectives as perceived by the authors hisreference to relatively obscure sources. An are to help students to question their own sex additional problem lies in the tenuous theoretical stereotypes and to decide which roles they them- link between the essays. The link feminism selves wish to play in adult life. The teacher's role covers many conflicting political viewpoints, and isseenas non.directive and to get students to this may wellbe confusing to those who are think for themselves. unaware ofthedifferingpoliticalphilosophies covered by the umbrella of feminism. "The main functions of the teachers ar'e to The other essays in this edition are: provide an environment in which self expression Sally Alexander's "Women's Work in Nineieenth. andself-examinationare possible, gently to Century London", which shows how the sexual question theassumptions underlyingthe divisionof labourat work persisted and was students' attitudes and constantly to broaden strengthened by middle class moralism and male the range ofpossibilities of which they are class hostility. Dorothy Thompson's "Women and awar e." Nineteenth.century Radical Politics"reveals the extent to whirh .-.-arnen did take part in radical The book contains a large number of ideas, working class politics Chartism.Leonore drawings,cartoons,questionnariesandtopics Davidoff, Jean L'Esperance and Howard Newby's suitable for a wide range of abilities and teaching "Landscape and Figures: Home and Community in situations. English Society", discusses the development of the Areas covered include Looking at Yourself, ideas that presented domesticity and the "Beau "Vive la difference", Masculine & Feminine, Sex ideal" as womens goals. Pauline Marks in her essay and the Single Teenager, Men & Women at Work, "Femininity inthe Classroom" argues how the Roles at home and the Future. 32 7 7 While students attitudes can be investigated in roles of both men and women in our society, and this way thecontent lacks important features to question the necessity for stereotypes of male .which if included would contribute to the students and female. Through a veried format of discussion, understanding. There islittle explanation of the quotations, cartoons, poems and stories, the books origins and development of sex roles and the socio- exploresex-linked 'restrictionsintheareas of .economic conditions which are instrumentalin schooling, employment, human relationships, the producing and maintaining them. It 's also assumed media and language. They thus provide a welcome that sex is the only criteria operating the choice of and comprehensive contribution to a study of a job, position in the education system and role in major issue in contemporary society. life. Little attention is given to the influences of Book One, "Education and Work", examines social class, race and culture in determining life sex-typing at home and school, looks at careers chances.Thelattecwizuldbe an important advice, and finally explores the world of employ- consideration if this ta.elc uvoce being dealt with in ment and the role of the housewife. Provocative a multiracial contem. Oata PI Oyidpd is often over- questionsare interspersed with relevant factual simplified. For example only average wage rates are information;pupils' immediate .context and provided with no distinction made between manual experience is used in tracing long-term and nonmanual work. opportunities for women. The second book, "Sex On the other hand, the material does enable a.and Marriage", looks at human relationships and questioning and enquirybased approachtobe thefamilyinour society.Itclearlyidentifies takenandsuchimportantdistinctionsmight double standards bothinsex relations and in emerge as a result of discussion. motherhood, and it has innovative sections entitled A comprboensive teachers guide. isprovided "What isNormal", and "Women's Bodies and together with spirit masters for some of the work. Medical Treatment". The overallimpressiongivenis., that career I found the third book, "Messayi: and Images", choiceis much more determined by sex than slightlylessexciting, perhaps becauseits own ',anything erse' and may leave the student with an message was the least convincing. It deals with unrealistic vision of his or her freedom of choice. gender-related humour and language, and with
. In addition, if education for change is to develop, literary and advertising role images; yet the actual someunderstandingof howroles,attitudes, impact of such labelling is difficult to demonstrate. perceptions and inequalitiesoccurmust be The examples used seem sometimes contradictory: 'encouraged. a hen-pecked Andy Capp and a dominating Flo It is possible to use each chapter or each idea may in fact be useful antidotes to the rugged male .on its own but each item should form part of some heroes and beauty conscious girls discussed later in programme at work. The overall impression is of the book. It is perhaps not enough to list existing materialwhichprovides a goodstimulusto examples of the inevitable larger-than-life models 'discussion and ideas, but could in sheer quantity of used by the media; we need now to examine the illustrationgive a rather confused and cluttered changing register ofstereotypes which is 'iMpression if handed out wholesale. symptomatic of shifts in male and female attitudes A number of symbols are used to indicate the and aspirations. In admitting men as sex-objects, ,type of work which might be appropriate for each shouldPlaygirl be analysed as a breakthrough, unit, so students could be "programmed" quite instead of being dismissed as "rather silly"? 'effectively as individuals or groups. The language The consciousness-raising approach used by the used is accessible and there is an abundance of series as a whole, carries with it the danger of over- technical and factual information. statement.Forexample,"excuses"usedby Allinallthe book would provide a useful employers that women will leave to have babies or complementtotheteachingideasmentioned be absent on account 3f their children's illnesses, elsewhere in this issue providing itis remembered may be nearer fact than the "myths" claimed by that neither the origins of sex roles nor the other the authors (at least fromtheemployers' dimensions of inequality to which they are related experience). A deeper probe into existing social are adequately dealt with. structure is sometimes needed to find explanations for apparent injustices to women; and at any level H. Reynolds would want evidence for statements beginning "most women", or "the majority of housewives", if the authors are not tofallinto their own trap of excessive generalisations. THE GENDER TRAP Basically though, the approachis stimulating By Carol Adams and Ray Laurik ietis and well documented, and should have immense Published by Virago Ltd. Empeal. Because ofthelevelof discourse, the 3 Books, E1.25 each, paperback "Jackdaws" type format, abd rather obvious class Date of publication: 1976 discussion questions, schools are a more obvious market than the suggested wider field of college, 'The Gender Trap"isa seriesofthree books work andadults.Ifthebooks wereread subtitled "A Closer Look at Sex Roles". The consecutively or exclusively, the over-statement authors' aimisto enable young people, their plus the similarity of format might result in a ease teachers and parents to look more closely at the of "Methinks the lady doth protest too much".
33 7 8 However, used aspartof wider socialstudies factories the former stage was disrupted and each courses, they fill a long-felt need. There ire useful family member became an individual wage earner. bibliographies and lists of addresses and films, so c) The third stageis where the unity of the thatconverts canfollow up the open-ended familyisrestored not around the functions of questions with pragmatic action if necessary. The production (as in stage one) but consumption. The easy style, attractive layout and flexibility of these authors define three characteristics that books, together with the impact and relevance of differentiate this stage from stage two. Firstly, the the material, would make "The Gender Trap" lives of the couple and their children have become highly recommended for school use. far more centred on the home, i.e. family life has become more "privatised". Secondly, that the Lynn Davies extended family counts for less and the nuclear family for more. Thirdly, that the roles of the sexes, whilestillnot equal, have become less segregated. The best term they can think of to THE SYMMETR ICA L FAMI LY describe the third stage is "the symmetrical family". By Michael Young and Peter Wilmoif. Generally, their account of the first two stages Published by Penguin Books at £1.00 appears to be reasonably accurate. However, while 1st publishnl 1973 acknowledging that in the pr^-industrial family the Suitable for "A" level students. woman worked under the domination of the man in home or field, they omit to Say that with Students studying "A" level sociology will most industrialisationthisrelationshipwa,broken. probably be expected either to have read or to Whatever the conditions (and these fo women have a thorough knowledge of Young and Wilmon's were very poor) women now had the ability to study "The Symmetrical Family". earn wages intheir own right and the potential' . Comparedtomany sociologicaltextsnot power to struggle collectively for higher earnings. written specifically for "A" level students "The They also had the potential to become financially Symmetrical Family" is fairly easy to read and independant. Possibly this point needs to be made relatively free from sociological jargon. In places it in any historical account of the family. becomes quite entertaining particularly when it The authors then go on to cite evidence from quotes extracts from the diaries that the people their study to support their hypothesis that the who took pet in the survey .siere asked to keep. family is becoming more symmetrical. The increase Here is Mrs. Mitchell: in the number of women working (including part-, "8.30 a.m. Pour my second cup of tea". Ban timers) mean that women as well as men participate (my black labrador) has his cup. Again this is routine in production outside the home. Women w rking for him. He enjoys his cup of tea. means husbands increasingly help with houso "8.45 a.m. Finished my cup of tea and felt tasks. The reduction of the hours worked means more like a human being so I start dressing". that working class men are able to spend more time Some of the chapters could be quite useful in the home. Also, becau they are less committed taken ort their own. Chapter Two on the growth of totheir jobs they can.liend more time in the London in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries house than their middle class counterparts. Many could make useful general reading and could be of the leisure pursuits of the families were home- linked to topics other than the family such as centred or were activities that the whole family did urban change. The chapter on leisure coirld also be together. These trends, particularly wives spending used when studying work and leisure. There are more time outside the home and husbands spending other possibilities as well. The book contains no more time inside, lead Young ano Wilmott to the ,Jhotographs or illustrations. conclusion that the majority of families can be "The Symmetrical Family" is an analysis of an described as "symmetrical". extensive number of interviews conducted in /lie There are several criticisms that could be made London region. From these the authors conclude of this. Young and Wilmott assert that the stage 3 that the familyis moving into a new stage cf family is more like the stage 1 family because of it's development. This they term "the symmetrical home centredness. As Ivy Pinchbeck points out in family". in this they maintain that the roles of the "Women workers and the Industrial Revolution" if sexes while not equal are becoming more similar. the home was virtually a mini-factiiry it was hardly They do not suggest thatrole segregation has similar to the more comfortable homes of today. disappeared but with men spending more time in A much more serious criticism of the book is its the home and women going out to work, the roles stress on the equality uf the marriage relationship. are more alike than in the past. Other sociological texts notably Ronald Fletcher's In the first chapter on the history of the family "Family and Marriage in Britain" have assumed Young and Wilmott divide the changes that have this. But whereas Fletcher's book was published in taken place into roughly three stages. 1960 Young and Wilmott's was published ui 1973 a) The pre-industrial family which was usually a after the ideas of women's liberation on women's unit of production where for the most part men, inferior role had been given considerable publicity. . women and children worked together in the home One would have thought that this would have made or in the fields. them more suspiciousof their own conclusions. b) After astruggle and with the growth of Ann Oakley in her "Sociology of Housework" 34 7 9 points . out that Young and Wilmott's statement Also in the historical section Bernard maintains that men help more with the housework is based thatattitudestoextra-maritalrelationsare on 'ONE question in their 113 question interview. changing and that we are moving in the direction The question was "Do you/does your husband help of having at least tacit if not as yet formal accept- ai least once a week with any household jobs like ance of extra-marital relations. washing up, making beds (helping with the children) For her' statistical evidence Bernard uses two ironing,cookingorcleaning? Althoughthe demographers, Glick and Perke. They predict: majorityofhusbandsanseteredYestothis more couples intheir twenties and thirties are question helping with the washing up once a more likely to marry at some time in their life than week hardly constitutes an equal division of labour. any other group on record, fewer teenage marriages, Alsoas Young and Wilmott acknowledgethe a rise in the marriage age for women and a decline final responsibility remains with the woman. Such inthefrequencyofdivorceandseparation. a division of labour hardly seems symmetrical. Bernard considers each of these predicted trends in If this book is to be used with students, as it turn, disagreeing with the pred'ationthatthe probably has to be, Ann Oakley's "Sociology of marriageratemightriseand consideringthe Housework" is an alternative to present alongside possibility that people not suited to marriage might it', The...conclusion Of her studiesisthe opposite: mke up other forms ofrelationships. She also that only in a smaH number of marriages is the aintains that if provision is made for women to husband"domesticated" and even whenthis ayetheirchildren young, youthful marriages happens a separation remains; home and children might be a good thing. arethewoman's primaryresponsibility.This Thirdly, Bernard attempts to predict the future throws doubt on the notion of the symmetrical by looking at what people want to have. She family and could provide the basis for a lively considers someoftheideasofthe women's discussion of the topic with students. liberation movement, believing that they are going to exert an enormous influence on marriage by crea- Rachel McCracken ting a more egalitarian relationship between the sexes. Finally, Bernard puts forward her own point of view. She states that she is concerned like womens' liberationists with reducing the hazards of marriage THE FUTURE OF MARRIAGE for women. She proposes what she terms "the .By Dr. J. Bernard shared role pattern". This is where the husband .Published by Penguin Books at £1.00 and wife would each work half a day and devote lst published 1972 the other half to the caring of children. She admits For "A" level students/general sociological reading that if women are to share in the provider role they should be freed from discrimination in the world I*The Future of Marriage" is one of the Penguin of work. However, she does not make any concrete Bociology series that possibly one might recommend proposals as to how this discrimination should be to students for general reading. However, before removed. Neither does she seem to be aware that any such recommendation is made it is advisable to we live in a society at present where this sort oz examine the book and particularly some of its planissimply notfeasiblefor the majority of ideas a little more closely. families given the jobs available to them. "The Future of Marriage"' is written in a fairly Inevitably Bernard proposes that marriage has easy to read style, indeed itis almost "chatty" in a future, for in her eyes there are infinite possibilities 'places and contains the minimum of sociological for the marriage relationship. One is left with the jargon. Apart from an attractive cover it contains feeling at the end of the book that Bernard has not no illustrations or diagrams although it has one or reallypresented any caseatallfor why the two simple charts. institutionofmarriage shouldcontinue. Why The aim of the book, as the title suggests, is to shouldn't people get involved in different relation-P. decide whether there is any future in the marriage ships withoutgetting married?Ifthe marriage institution. Bernai-d maintains that there are three relationship is to be so diverse as Bernard suggests, main ways of predicting the future: what isthe point ofit anyway? Such questions a)Prediction based on historical trends. remain unanswered. b) Projection based on statistical curves. I would suggest that "The Futurc of Marriage" to a : c)"Prophecy" based on human wishes and hasvery littletocontribute student's desires. sociologicalunderstanding ofmarriage and the All three ways are used in the book. family. Theoreticaliy,itisvery inadequate.Its . In spite ofintending to predict the future from most serious defect is that its analysis of marriage he past, Bernard offersno detailed historical remains on a very superficial level. There is no aMial on marriage. She mentions the views on consideration of the wider social constraints of arriage of a few notable historical figures and which marriane can be seento be .apart, no ciologists, but there is no really thorough analysis explanationof how various forms of marriage 'f how the marriage institution has alteredas relationships are convenient for particular social ociety changed. For example, there is no mention structures. ow of how industrialisation af fects the marriage Much of the book reads like a women's elationship. magazine than a sociological For a work that 8 0 Proclaims to be critical of women's present position it written by a professor of sociology. Thus I would contains some disturbingassumptions.For advise anyone enterta;aing the idea of recommend- example, Bernard takes it for granted that it isa ing this text to students to think about it carefully, woman's duty to look attractive, as talking of and at least encourage them to take as criticala marriage commitments she says "If commitments look at the book as possible. are to be limited women will have to learn to . remain attractive". (13.121). Why assume that only Rachel McCracken those women who manage to keep themselves attractivewillbeableto have and maintain relationships? There are numerous statements of a very non- WOMEN'S STUDIES IN THE U.K. sociological nature such as: "Human beings want Compiled by Donagh Hartnett and incompatible things. They want to eat their cake and have Marghar;ta Rendel ittoo. They want excitement and Published by London Seminars, 71 Clifton Hill, adventure. They also want safety and security". London NW8 OJN. at 75p and "For men and women will continue to want Date rtf publication: November 1975 intimacy, they wili continue to want the thousand and one ways which men and .women share and This is a most useful sourcebook and a comprehen- reassure one another. They will continue to want sive directory of both publications andcourses of to celebrate their mutuality, to experience the study. The section on sources and references is mystic unity that once led the Church to consider Marriage a sacramerit". arranged under topic headings e.g. Fiction, Law, Mass Media, Family, Class, Education, The Arts, When onecontinuallytriestodiscourage Sexuality, Third World. students from making vague statements about what An essential purchne, for any serious study of "human beings want" asifthese wantsare sex roles in society, I would suggest. inevitable facts of existence, itis somewhat dis- concerting tofind them ina sociologicaltext Roland Meighan
ANNUAL CONFERENCE 1977 September 16th 18th Leeds Polytechnic
Speakers: James Hemming, author and broadcaster anda vice-president of ATSS, on Developing Psychological Awareness, and Geoff Pearson, University of Bradford,on the Political Implications of Social Science Teaching. Preliminary list of study groups indlude: Race and Community .Development,Teaching Race Relations, SocialStudies andPersonalDevelopment, SexRoles, School-Based Resources Production, the new JMB 0-level Social Studies, the AEB A-levelSociology Project, Language in the Social Science Classroom, Social Science and Liberal Studies.Please send suggestions for study groups to Eric Roper, 48 Plantation Gardens, Leeds LS17 85X. In addition there will be a reso Jr.-..e exhibition, entertainment, anda cl,mce to review the work of the ATSS Advisory Panels. All ambers are welcome and cha...es will be kept cs low as possible. please book the date in your diar .
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING
The AGM of the Association will be held on Saturday September 17that Leeds Polytechnic. Resolutions for dei:ate with any amendments to the constitutionmust be notified to me M writing by July 23rd, 1977. Constitutional amendments can be proposed bythe Council, the Executive Committee, a Branch committee or not less than ten members of ^he Association. The election of a Chairman, Vice-Chairman, Secretary, Assistant Secretary,Treasurer and General Editor will take place at the AGM. Nominations for these officesmust he sent to me by September 10th, 1977. Chris Brown, Hon Sec. 19 Mandeville Gardens, Walsall, WS1 3AT. 81 Our thanks to everyone for orders and contri- butions. With so many letters to deal with there are some delay3 inboth thanking people for material and in sending off orders, so please be patient with us. Some material is not being used because of unsuitable format, e.g. note form or too much copyright material included or overlaps with other banked items. Current gaps in the Sociology section include: education (strangely neglected,) and deviance,(inallluridforms,) religion and the mass media. So far, all items included in the scheme have been duplicated handouts. We hope to widen the scheme in the near future to include a greater range of materials including slides and resource guides. Address for orders or contributic
RE5OURCE Roger Gomm, Stevenage College of Further Education, Monkswood Way, EXCHANGE Stevenage, Herts. Organisaby Roger Gomm iThe idea behind this scheme is that any usefulCharges: .:teaching material handouts, stimulus material, ,ganles, etc. produced by a social science teacher No. of items required Charge :anywhere in the country Should become swiftly 1 20p ,..evellable to his/her colleagues in other schools and 2 30p ., j colleges.Thisis anideal! We hope we shall 3 40p : eventually include in the scheme several hundreds 4 45p Cat items, and that these will constantly be added 5 50p ..;to and revised. , ' Perhaps h would be as well to say what the 6 55P scheme is not. Itis not intended that the items 7 60p :included shall be finished works of art: though we 8 65p :shall : attempt to maintain a certain minimum 9 70p ;standard. Nor is it intended that the scheme will 10 75p !provide 'ready-made' lessons, ci. 'model answers'. 11 80p :Nonetheloss, we can all benefit by having a look at 12 85p :Whatotherteachersconsideranappropriate 13 900 approach to a particular topic, theme, or concept. 14 95p :The success of the scheme depends entirely upon Ythe response of ATSS members, for if you don't 15 V..10 %sand in your materials for inclusion in the scheme N.B. For orders in excess of 15 items, please it won't even exist. We can't afford to pay you, calculate the excess as if ordering from this table. so you'll get nothing but thanks. Though if you Items marked with an aesterisk are longer than the want to reserve copyright (perhaps you've toyed others and count as two items For ordering purposes. with the idea of having some work published in the DON'T BE BASHFUL) Send us a copy of any .future) just let us know. Basically what we want is material you have produced and which you think for you to send in materials you have produced, might hof interest to other teachers. Items will together with a few lines of description. The items not bear the originator's name, except by request Will be listed in subsequent issues of the Social ,,,here he/she would like some feedback from other Science Teacher, together with the description, and teachers. One final word: please ensure that the Iaherested teachers can then write iu for copies. material you submit does not infringe copyright:
r:- : The response to the lists of itemsin recent no extracts from published books please! itaues has been very encouraging. Over one hundred RESOURCES EXCHANGE LIST, thembers haife writteninfor items, and about fOrty of them have either convibuted items of APRIL, 1977 their, own or have promised to do so. We %aye now Please refer to the item number when ordering,We Made arrangementsfor theSocialStudies, can onty supply a single copy of each item. Anthropology, and Environmental Studies aspects Sometimes orders will be made up in different Of the scheme, and we hope to include an increasing places by different people, so please don't worry if' number of items in these fields. Arrangements are only half your order arrisesat feu. PLEASE in hand to include items in the fields of psychology MAKE CH E.ilUES OR F.IFTAL ORDERS end economics. PAYABLE TO A.T.S.S. 8 2 37 SOCIOLOGY '1:1. Socic;Organisations detailed survey of maiol perspectivesonorganisations(two 151. Divorce statistic.,briefhistoryand terns) commentary suminarising Goode, Fletcher & 164. Data Collection sephisticated treatment of Chester. data collection techniques and the 152. Positionof Women inSociety listof epistemological and other assumptions which important dates. they entail. 153. Women and Employment statistics of female 165. Sociology and Science discussion of the employment, educational qualifications and claims of sociology to be a 'science' raising pay rates and brief commentary. questions of 'value freedom 'objectivity' and 154. Emile Durkheim biographical details and presupposition& nature of sociologic& summary of main concepts in Durkheim's research. thought. 166. Stratification including, inter alia, Tumin, 155. Max Weber biographica; details and brief Davisand Moore, Marx and Weber and summary of Weber'sthinking on power, commentaries on these positions (two items) inequality, methodology and action. 167. Symbolic Interaction thorough survey of 156. Voting behaviour summary of main social this perspective. influences on voting D level. 168. Sociologyof Work tradeunions and 157. Poverty historical synopsis from the old professional associations. Poor Law to the Child Poverty Action group. 169. Sociological terms concepts and models 158. Welfare State historical synopsis of major definitionsof system, function, structure, legislative reforms leading up to Post War role, status, socialisation, culture, dialectic, legislation,brief account of Welfare State institutions, alienation, anomie. legislation andsome quotationson the 170. The Nature of Sociology notes on the Welfare State for discussion. nature of sociology and its relationship with 159. Sociology of Deviance detailed survey of other related fields of study. the most important sociological perspectives 171. Learning to learn useful handout giving on deviance (two items) students guidance on how to organise their 160. Suicide detaiied survey of suicide theory learning, how to write essays and how to sit from Durkheim to Max Atkinson. exams. Based on Tony Buzon. 161. Sociology of Education. Historical develop- 172. Industrial Relations Role Play instructions ment .of U.K. educational system 1880s to forrole play illustrating worker emplane* 1970s. relations for about 15 players for use with 15 162. Sociologyof Mass Media summary of year old3 upwards. ; sociological work on mass media.
SOCIOLOGY: THE CHOICE AT A LEVEL and assessment of Advanced Level Sociology. Based upon the proceedings of the ATSS Edited by Geoff Whitty and Dennis Gleeson Conference, Sociology in the Social Sciences, for the Association for the Teaching of the 15-19,itgathers together information and Social Sciences comment on the various syllabuses now available and looks forward to possible future. Since its inception in the mid-1960s, A level developments. Sociology has become an immensely popular The book offers readers an insight into the subject,particularlyin-.olleges of Further views of examiners and practising teachers on Education but also, increasingly, inschools. these and reiatedissues,and presents for Fiveof the major examination boards now scrutiny the various syllabuses, reading lists offer examinatiOns in Sociology at this level, and examination papers. It also considers the yet it continues to create considerable contro- proposals of two groups of teachers whose versy in Many circles. This book concentrates answers to questions like those posed here have particularly upon those issues facing teachers led them to formulate their own alternatives in who are involved or interested in teaching A the fOrm of a Mode 3 A level Sociology syllabus levelSociology. Whatarethedifferences and a scheme for an Integrated Social Sciences between the various syllabuses? To what extent A level. is there unnecessary duplication between them? Do any of them offer an opportunity co reassess Price: £1.80 paperbackISBN 090548A 07 X the conven tional relationship between teachers, £3.90 hardback ISBN 0905484 02 9 students and examMers? Does A level Sociology encoUrage students to engage more critically Please add postage 25p per volume. and actively in the world they live in? Orders to: Heather Clark, A.T.S.S. Sales Officer, This book focuses upon recent developments 54 Redbridge Lane West, Wanstead, London and future possibilities in the teaching, learning El 1 2JU. 83 ASSOCIATION FOR THE TEACHING OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
Membership Annual subscriptions:Ordinary (for individUals): £4.00 Corporate (for schools, colleges, etc.): £6.00 Associate (for libraries, publishers, etc.): £4.00 Student (for students or retired persons): £2.00
Application forms are available from the Secretary, Chris Brown, 19 Mandeville Gardens,Walsall,WS1 3AT. Completed forms, changes of address and other correspondence relating to membershir should be sent to ATSS Membership Secretary, Lorraine Judge, 10 Spiers Road, Lochwinnoch, Renfrewshire, Scotland.
Publications Members receive one copy (Corporate members receive two copies) of all publications free. Additional copies and back numbers are available to rnembers at reduced rates as shown below. All publications may be obtained from ATSS Sales Officer, Heather Clark, 54 Redbridge Lane West. Wanstead, London El 1.
The Social Science Teacher (Second Series) NON. MEMBERSMEMBERS Vol. 5, No. 1Dec.1975 Only available as part of a complete Vol. 5, No 2 Feb1976 set of Volume 5: price Per set: £1.60 £2.40 Vol. 5, No. 3 Apr.1976 40p 60p Vol. 5, No. 4 June1976 Special Edition: Textbooks and Curriculum Projects 40p 60p Vol. 6, No. 1Oct 1976 Edition on Games and Simulations 50p 75p Vol. 6, No. 2 Dec.1976 50p 75p Vol. 6, No. 3 Feb.1977 Edition on The Teaching of Politics 50p 75p Vol. 6, No. 4 Apr.1977 Edition on Sex Roles and Society 50p 75p
Monographs No. 3 Integrated Social Science A Distinct Possibility by Frank Reeves 30p 40p
Occasional Papers No. 1Is An Integrated Social Sciences A Level Out of Print Nit Possible? by Roland Meighan. photr.copy version: 20p 25p
Briefings No. 1 The Social Investigation Interview by Janet Harris 35p 40p For orders of ten or more: 25p each 30p each No. 2 individual Study Folders by Roland Meighan 10p 15p No. 3 Teaching IDevtance at A Level by Roger Gomm 20p 23p No. 4 Planning the Content of Social Sciences Cour-,..: b Roland Meighan 20p 25p No. 5 Clarifying Values in the Classroom by James 20p 25p No. 6 Once Upon A Time ... Fairy Tales as a Social Studies Resources by Hazel Sumner 10p 15p No. 7 A Sex Roles Socialisation Game by Moif a Wales 20p 25p
Other Interdisciplinary Social Sciences. Reports from conferences held at Durham, April 1975. (Duplicated) 20p 30p
N.B. All prices include postage and packing costs
8 4 39 Cut along here
TEACHERS OF SOCIOLOGY, SOCIAL STUDIES, SOCIAL SCIENCE
The editors of ATSS are anxious to find out for purposes of research the sociology/socialstudies/social science text books and published curriculum material that are most commonly used in educational establishments, An article will appear at a later stagebased on the survey's findings. Unfortunately because of cost we are unable to include a stamped addressed envelope, but for reasons thatwill be apparent to all social scientists, we should like a high rate of response. Can you help by returning the questionnaire printed below to F.Reeves, 9 Oak Street, Wolverhampton by 1st May 19771
1) Name and type of educational establishment at which you work
111.11. 5-11 2) To which age group(s) do you teach sociology/social studies/social science? (Please tickbox) Pw 11-13 3) Which published text books/curriculum material do you make most use of in teaching
these sublects? 113-16
16-18
18 +
COURSE BEING
FOLLOWED (e.g. Description of Group Average third form CSE, with which Material is Age of Author(s) Title Publisher GCE 0 oi A level, usetl-AbiTIFEr Studen ts undergraduate or professional)
.M.1...141Mal.
4) On what basis were the text bookslcurriculum material selected?
would you recommend (reluctantly o 51 If you were asked to recommend one text book for each of the courses listed below which one
LArle1W15eI I Author Title _ Publ isher
CSE Social Studies ...... ,______1____
,
GCE 0 level Sociology _
GCE A level Sociology 1 .... ______, 1st Yr, Undergraduate Sociology _ ASSOCIATION FOR THE TEACHING OF THESCCIAL SCIENCES President: Professor G.T. Fowler,M.P. Chairman: Keith Poulter, Senior Lecturer, LoughtonCollege of Further Essex. (Home: 7.1, CherryTree Rise, Buckhurst Eduration, Hill, Essex. Tei: 01-5040804). Secretary: Chris Brown, Lecturerin L cation, West Midland 19 Mandeville Gardens, College Walsall. (Homu: Wals,, WS1 3AT. Tel: Walsall 25388).
The Association aims to promote and developthe teaching of the social separate disciplines andin an integrated form,,at sciences, both as education; to produce primary, secondary, andtertiary stages of and disseminateappropriate teaching materials methods related to thesocial sciences; to provide and advice on teaching to meet for discussion opportunities for teachers and the exchange of ideas. and educationists Activity is mostly focussedat local levels to Branch meetings (unless encourage maximum membershipparticipation. otherwise specified)are open to any interested admission charge is made,non ATSS members will person but where an be charged at a higherrate.
THE SOCIAL SCIENCETEACHER General Editors: RolandMeighan, 7Green Lane, Birmingham 021-357 6603. B43 5JX. Tel: Frank Reeves, 9 Oak Street, Wolverhampton.Tel: 0902 29169. leviews Helen Reynolds, 15Serpentine Road, Tel: 021-426 1777. Harborne, Birmingham 17.
:irculation Manager: Hezel Sumner, 2 Meadow 50989. Croft, St. Albans, Herts,Tel: St. Albans Aition Editors: Editions of Social ScienceTeacher are iroduced in a variety ofways, including volunteerteams, panels, groups witin General Editors. A.T.S.S, or by the
The Social ScienceTeacher is the journal Of iences, an a,ssociation the '\ssociat;on for theTeaching of the social of teachers of thesocial science disciplines :onomics, p6litics, andpsychology) in the primary, (sociology, anthropology, ' education. secondary, tertian/ andhigher sectors The journal is intendedto provide an information agazine contains service for social scienceteachers. The news items, letzers, articles,reviews ald advertisements. clude the theory of Common themes teaching the socialsciences, teaching social science, teachingnotes, and reviews of methods, latest ideas inthe field books, curriculum projects,and visual aids, The Social Science Teacher is, issued freeto members of the py) and is 75p tonon-members,.and is published Association (50pan extra Advertising rates five times a year. are available on applicationto the General Editors.
8 6 CONTENTS Viewpoint by JamesHemming
A.T.S.S. News
Correspondence Perspectives on the Familyby Rachel McCracken Articles:1. Roger Gomm 2. Lords and Ladiesof Creation by of Social ScienceTextbooks 3. Sex Roles andSchooling: An Investigation by Marianne Kjellgren by Co leen Ward 4. Sex Roles: APsych...logical Perspective Melt In Her Mouth?by Lynn Davies 5. Butter Wouldn't Judge 6. Ideas for a "SexRoles" Course by Lorraine Women in Societycompiled by Lyn:* Davies 7. A Source List for 3
Reviews
Resources Exchange Pun-out cvntr:. pagt Socialisation Game byMoira Wale:. Briefings: No. 7 A Sex Roles
87 ISSN 0309 7544
ASSOCIATION FOR THE TEACHING OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
"s THE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHER
Edition on Community Studies Teaching VOL.6 No.5 JUNE 1977
813 PRICE 75p PAGE
CONTENTS
1
Editar.eil by John Turner 3 Viewpoint by John Astley 4 A.T.S.S. News 9 Community Service at theChalk Face 1. Arti,:ies: by C.E. Moffat 14 Curriculum 2. Community and the by Greg Charlton 20 of CommunityStudies 3. Directory for Teachers by John Turner 23
Reviews 31
Resources Exchange
Teaching Strategy pullout centre pages Briefings: No. 8 Social Research as a by Charles Townley
Curl Section CartoonHeadings by Beverley
necessarily representthe views of contributions to thisjournal do not expression of divergentideas Views expressed in opportunities for the A.T.S.S. or the editors.The journal provides and opinions.
89 THE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHER Journal of the Association for the Teaching of the Social Sciences Vol. 6. No. 5 Edition on Community Studies Teaching Edited by John Turner
(Published by A.T.S.S. Copyright A.T.S.S. 1977)
EDITORIAL The ci ntral theme of this edition of SST isa consideration of Cornmunny Studies teaching in the secondary curriculum. It is the purpose of this editorial to attempt to define what is meant by the term, and to locate such teaching in the wider conwxt of social science teaching in the school curriculum. Traditionally, Community Studies or Community Service as it was more commonly known, possessed a very low status on the curriculum. It was there by virtue of the enthusiasm of a member of staf ffor "doing good" in the local community, and conversely, the lack of enthusiasm for "normal" lessons on the part of those chosen to engage in this philanthropy. Inevitably therefore, the association of Community Studies with the "less motivated' and "service" aspects of work hztve given it the image of being marginal to the curriculum and of being uf dubious academic wilue. Partly to counteract this and to inake such courses examinable al 16+, a number of Mode III's have been developed at CSE level in the last few years. Most of these syllabuses mix practical work with research and pioject work. This marks a significant change in the nature of the activity, for milking it 30 examination subject necessarily raises its status, but brings the activity within the confines of exdminable knowledge. Much of the support for the development of Community Studies syllabuses come from the groups who argued that the Curriculum should be made more relevant. Fol example, we have this passage (Ball, 1973 in "Education for a Change". Penguin)
"There is already plenty of documentation thdt shows how many boys girls are gaining nothing from an education based on training, academic study, individualism and compention. Waleied-down academic education is not the tinswer , and is liable to give those with ;in academic bent illusions of supeiiority. Neither is there much point in throwing the failures into a weak stew of sonial r:ducation and community set vice, tor while both are 'a good thing', they achieve nothing if they ;at: the last resort for the non-academics and the non-volunteers." The authors argue for a style of involvement that brings the school out of its traditional isolation and into contact with the community in such a way that students are actually involved in the issues that face people in the community. The community can then become a resource for learning, and simultaneously -the students become resources for the community. The view of the "community school", located organically within the life of the community remains an unfulfilled dream in the majority of cases. Where additional resources have been provided, such as ccmmunity workers, volunters, projects tirtinctd by external bodies, then much can be achieved, But from my exrience the community school need do little more than offer evening classes and a youth wing to collec that title. This is in no way the interactive model that the Balls put forward. , Moreover while the "less academic" students are following Community Studies to CSE, their peers who are following 0-level Courses are most likelyf they are following a social-science-based course at all) to be studying the sorts of topics that arose out of the New Social Studies movement of therly 1970's or even more likely, 0-level Sociology. Thus our str atified examination system ensures a separation of the practical and academic winw of social studies. Itis true that rnany 01evel Mode'll I courses have been established with the AEB since the early 1970's to of tera syllabus based on "relevant" issues. But as it has been argued in a recent book (Gleeson & Whiny, 1976 "Developments in Social Studies Teaching" Open Books), such courses l failed to realize their earlier prornise OF opening up students to a new awareness and inteiest in the society they live in. The authors argue that the language of social science simply substituted a new orthodoxy for an old one. There is no immediate reason why students should be more awakened by a lessco on social class th=:-1 one on Queen Anne. The argument that social class is more relevant tended to fall on deaf ears as far 'the students were concerned, lor they perceived the work as as much a "lesson" as any other subject. Gleeson & Whitty suggest that a community-based social studies syllabus would be a possible way of offering relevance, overcoming student alienation, and perhaps fulfilling the radical potential that early practitioners of new social studies had hoped for. This would require a Mode Ill format at 0-ievelif such activities are to gain credibility. A parallel
1 9 0 course at CSE must be operated if divisiveness is to be avoided. I cannot think of a worse time to attempt such an innovation. With financial cuts reducing the pupil/teacher ratio anu non-contact time to the bare bones, action-based courses are dif ficult to establish and nearly impossible to run without voluntary help. In the last school I worked in, Community Studies within the Humanities programme received a budget, a voluntary assistant, about half of a teacher's timetable and access to secretarial and reprographic facilities. This was essential for the operation of the course over the year for some 40-60 students. It is expensive and time-consuming, and at a time when local authorities are basing their financial disbursements on concepts of one teacher standing in front of 26 students who are writing into their exercise books, we find little room for this kind of enterprise. Moreover the political moves to tighten up the curriculum to provide a core of "hard" subjects, could well squeeze Humar:ties/Social Studies at the expense of History and Geography. It usually takes a great deal of time and ef fort to convince one's colleagues, let alone parents, that active involvement in a situation has mote potential for learning than reading a textbook. Community Studies,ifitis to survive and flourish, must overcome this "non-academic" label by operating at 0-level as well as CSE whle this system persists. Furthermore ifitis to fulfil the radical promise ofsocialstudiesitmust develop strategies whereby students ask questions about their experiences in the community, and thereby begin to gain an understanding of the forces that influence people in the community, and in society at a larger level. It is possible that the potential for interest and involvement on the part of the students that may be openedby thissort of course, may just as easily be lost by the requirements that the students' experiences be written down tor assessment purposes. Itis essential that the widest variety of means of expression be acceptable. But does Community Studies stop there? Gleeson and Whitty end their book on a rather guilty note, Ifeel. They say: "If alternative approaches succeed inretaining their radical promise, however, teachers cf social studies may yet find themselves at the centre of a battle with authority Clearly the struggle to question, challenge and transform society cannot be carried out in the social studies classroom alone and teachers committed to such a task must identify themse'ves with other forms of social critique and social action.- At this point the authors bid farewell arid leave the reader to ponder that one. It is quite common for social studies teachers to be accused of 'iias or indoctrination in the classroom. These sorts of complaints usually blow over but I know of cases where the result has been a full-scale HMI's inspection. So what will happen then the poor social studies teacher finds himself at the end of a line of his students marching to County Hall to complain about the lack of housing for poor families, or engaging in a demonstration against racist attacks on black people in the neighborourhood? At this stage we are entering new territory. To my mind this sort of real involvement by students and school in the community is what should be happening, and to try to involve students in the life of their community and yettryto prevent them from taking action seems to be a real contradiction.If Community Studies fails to involve action then the students are learning paSsively as before only one stage further removed. So Gleeson and Whitty are right, that the social studies teacher who is committeed to this kind of aPproach must not be isolated. The support of fellow teachers, head of school, and parents is crucial, else when complaints and opposition come, as they inevitably will, .the battle will be quickly lost.I would suggest to thcse involved in Community Studies teaching or wishing to become involved to read "The Countesthorpe Expel ience" (Watts, 1977, Heinemann) where itis clearly pointed out that an innovatory institution and innovatory approaches to learning can only succeed against official and politically-motivated opposition by internal unity and significant student and parental support. The best way of doing this, of course, is to open up the school to the parents and other groups in the community. Such a community school would really merit the title, and would be the best environment in which Community Studies could thrive not only in that the commuoity would tend to be in and walking about the school, but also in so doing the school curriculum can be demystified for the parents and others in the community, in whose minds the media have managed to sow considerable mistrust about what is going on. Not only would adults understand more of what goes on in school but they might be encouraged to join in alongside the younger students. This s a posAble way forward. I would like to hear from those who are interested in developing this approach or whO feel that they are presently working in a situation which has taken some strides along that road. John Turner
2 91 VIEWPOINT more vital way? As Goldman put .t in 'The Hidden God', 'Thought is a constantly living endeavor in which progress isreal without ever being linear, and in which it can never be said to havecome to Itstrikes me that the present period marksan an end and be finally complete.' importantstageinthe development of ATSS. Membership is increasingfairlyquickly;the John Astley, number and diversity of services offered by and for Vice.Chairman of ATSS members is growingthe kaleidoscopic nature of ATSS is being enhanced by inter.relatedprocesses CORRESPONDENCE of experience and experiment. ATSS asan organi- sation seems to be becoming more versatile and Dear Editors. accomplished in the achievement of its aims. Your readers are probably aware that City and The activities of members is of growing impor- Guilds have introduced a series of Foundation tance, whether through branches, panels, conferen- courses for school leavers into Colleges of Further ces publications and the like. I feel however that Education. I have taught social and community we should be guarding against the danger: of such studies on an engineering course, and expectto be aspects and activities being seen in 'penny packets'. involvedinthe 'Community Care' .course next The dialetical nature of ATSS membershipneeds year. to be stressed. This may sound trite, but never the These courses seem to me toraise certain less important opportunities could be lost ifwe fail problems which I should like to articulate in the to bring out the inter-related and multi-dimen- 'lope thata discussion can be started between sional character of ATSS. teachers on these courses, and anyone elsewith As individual members we are rightly concerned suggestions and criticisms. with our role as 'teachers'. We are centainly and My main concernatpresentiswiththe centrally concerned with aspects of our livesand structuring of many of the suggested multiple- issuesbeyondthis 'narrow'professionalrole. choice exam questions which we have just received. Fundamentally we are concerned with ourselvesas What is it exactly, that City and Guilds 'citizens', involving as it does rights and responsibi- are testing? lities, our concerns for social justice etc. Many of the choices given seem to range from the highly ambiguous or incorrect, to the absurd.For From my own point of view I would like tosee example, the next'phase'ofthe ATSS's growth look "Which of the following fabrics would be best towards a muchmore concreterelationship suited between to a room with afloralcarpet,self ourmany facets.Conferences,for patterned chairs and natural stone walls?" example, 'playa vital part in the life of ATSS al Striped bl Chintz cl Floral d) Plain. members. But, are we using this resource as well (Answer:- Plain!) Ref: 689.1-01. as we could? It seems to me that Conference and Branch activity should flow into one another. That There appears to be an assumption in many of members through their Branches can 'prepare' for these questionsthatonly one answer canbe forthcoming events;issues being , discussed well correct, and that answer is based on a non.ptoble. before the particular Conference itself. Branches matic acceptance of certain issues. For example; could well provide a focal point for the articulation "The reason many more mothersgo out to of views and concerns, let alone the muchmore V. .rk nowadays is 'democratic' participation of members in forward a) boredom b) pleasurec) economic necessity planning, organisation etc.? Why stop there? Why d) too much spare time. not see Branches in terms of taking up the issues (Answer:. "economic necessity) Ref: 01-:11-1-05 raisedbyandduringConferences? Why see 29. Conferences as a thing in themselves? Panels are clearly a source of much needed I should also like to know what "success"rate 'life blood' to ATSS members and their Branches. other colleges have had with students attending Hopefully as time passes, the activities of Panels these courses, success in this sense relating to will have an important contribution to make in this studentsbeing accepted on apprenticeships or Continuousflow.Publications andtheSocial other trainie (or even offered employment related Science Teacher in particular provide greatoppor- to the course). tunitiesfor the comprehensive involvement of While I apprecia:ethat new courseswill ATSS members in the on-cjoing process of being experience initial problems, and that the Founda- better at and more confident about what we are tioncourses havethepotential providea dcing. Again, we need not see this aspectof valuable work.related experience, I alsra feel thatat membership in isolation from everything else. present the structure of the course does not stand In the next few weeks and months a number of up totherequirements and standards ofits vital issues could be concerning ATSSmernoers, students. from the 'Social Studies' document and its impli. Yours Sincerely, cations, to youth unemployment say? Hopefully Janis Young we can use ATSS membership to get out teeth into (General Education Dept) . these by taking up our membership in a much Stevenage College
9 2 The Church of England Board ofEducation ask "How faristhe educational system, not only 'fitting' 'childrenforlifeinour society, but enablingthemconstructivelytocriticiSeand reo apeit?" The Council ofLocal Education --ities suggests ".. thatthe aims of a .'core curriculum' should be to provide aframework within which all pupils can develop ...aknowledge ofsocial, historical, geographical, andpolitical bases of the world in which they live .."The TUC say ".. all youngpeople must be helped to become politically and economically literate, andunder- stand the basic st:ucture cl our industrialsociety." The Natinnal Association ofInspectors and Educational Advisers actually proposes the inclusion of sociology, economics and government in the curriculum on a par with othersubjects and NATFHE seems to be saying the same thingless explicitly "If we are to develop greaterparticipa- tion in political, social and industriallife, and the AT55 NEW5 Asrociation thinks it desirable, itis necessary for play their Compiled by Chris Brown the schools to equip young people to part.This involves a curriculum wide enough to give young people the basis torsuch participation." LIFE SKILLS OR SOCIAL SCIENCF? by all this. DES Now we should not get carried away One ofthe least surprising aspects of the organisations Birmingham, which I Very few of those individuals or regional conferencein putting forward these views are actuallycanvassing attended on behalf of ATSS, was theabundance of of for thecompulsory teaching of sociology, superficiality. The inability of the majority economics and politics) Just to put theseviews those who spoke at the conference to Lirasp me should be saidthat education into some perspeCtiveit complexity of the relationship between another remark by Mr. Cocking at theBirmingham and society was depressing, In my viewthese, sorts need for a conference concerned the role of schoolsin Intim; of controversies merely underline the representative associated children for their society' while the wider dif fusion of the thinking strategies of the Church of England Board ofEducatior, with the social sciences. On the otherhand, what I quoted the despite tha radical tones of his doccment ar did find surprising about the conference was in adrPti.ar, .0 literacy and apparent ground swell of suoport for anelement of above, declared that in numeracy schools should teach'revoency'. 'teaching about society' in the curriculum, even These remarks, it seems to mc, suggest that a a core curriculurn. NAS, lot ot the support for teachingabout 'society' Mr. R.Cocking, a former President of the involves bewailing the failure of the hiddencurricu- referred vaguely to 'society' as one ofthe four lumtotransmitti kaitionalmoral values and areas of a possible core-curriculum.The representa- by placing Students constitutes ab attempt to counter this tive ofthe National Union of School some ot the content of thehidden curriculum on called for more 'social, ciaic andmoral studies.' whatever the Association the formal timetable. Nevertheless, The Chairman of the Headmasters' motivation behind the feeling that schoolscould thought it vital that some area of thecurriculum for 'life', it is a live', while do more to prepare young people should be concerned with 'learning to golden opportunity for social scientists toproclaim representativeoftheEngineering Training the skint'. the virtues and advantages of their wares. Board proposed the teaching of 'life I am not suggesting that we sell socialscience as This theme is also very apparent in thevariuus delegates. The a vehicle foreffective social control (though it documents circulated to conference probably is). Nor am I suggesting that wesell it as DES document itselt says that ".. thecurriculum a device for sparkingoft social change (though it should enable children, as part of theirgeneral edu. suggesting is That now is which they are can be). What I am simply cation, to understand the society of the time for social scientists to point outthat the a The National Association .of Head constitute the only part.." that any newer social science disciplines Teachers say ".. we would certainly assert effective way of helping people, young orold, to system of schobl educationwhich left its pupils of and industry and develop some systematic understanding ignorant of the world - including some analytical perspectives onthe social world. commerce into which they are going to emerge the social was defective in an important partof its curricu- Taught well and presented imaginatively be part of sciences do have a potential forequipping students lum because this understanding should with some capacity to engage the worldreflexively: basic knowledge." iS about complexity of society Moreover, given that the curriculum The NUT state ".. the knowledge, tor good or ill, 'subjects' likeSociology makes it increasingly important tounderstand the accommodated within school the influence of etc. are more easily nature and origins of society and structures than vague moralaspirations. Finally; historical, soc;al, economic and politicalfactors .." 4 9 3 some of those who quite frankly want schools to Focus - TV. FE.Sew. 28 - Nov. 30; Jan.11 - transmit conventional values, may be prepared to Mar. 15. Weds. 2.40-3.00.Repeat of 1976/7 series admit that itis better to develop the teaching et on communication of ideas and information in the academically validatedsociai science knowledge Autumn. Ter pv,yi lmmes on work and employ- and concepts, than allow freerein to the un ment in the checked and less predictableopinionsand prejudicesofindividualteachersinill-iefined Peter Donalc,:),I'sli,strated Economics TV. FE. moral education or bersonal responsibility sessions. Sept. 30Dec. 2.Fri. 12.00 - 12.25. A selection from the original series. RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES '0' LEVEL At a time of cuts in adult education, the JMB and Economics of the Real World - TV. FE. Jan. 13 BBC are to be congratulated in introducing this Mar. 17.Fri. 12.0012.25.More repeats. year an '0' level course on the rights and responsi- bilities of the citizen. The wide-ranging course Living City TV 88C2. FE.Jan. 10Mar. 14; consists of an examination of rights and responsi- April 18 - May 16 1978. Toes. 3.30-3.55.Fifteen bilitiesinsuch areas as social welfare, housing, programmes about the sociology of a city and its education, planning, work, and the law. Through- relationship to the surrounding countryside. -The out, the emphasis is on how to find out, rather series will be suitable tor older pupils in secondary .than detailed knowledge. There is e weekly radio, schools" says the BBC generously. See my note on programme and two course books (What tight have this programme in the last issue of SST (Vol.6,No.4) you got? parts 1 and 2, BBC, £1.35 each), and students are encouraged to follow up those topics Children Growing Up TV 88C2. FE.Jan. 9 - whichinterest them intheirlocal community. Mar. 13 1978.Mon. 3.30-3.55 This new series Designed primarily for adult students returning 'to looks promising lot Social Studies. It concentrates education, the course might also be of considerable on physical and emotional development within a value to certain 6th form and further education family context. It appears to span development up students. Assessment is by means of a project and to andincluding adolescence. Could be lather one three hour evening exam. 'cosy'. Further information can be found in the very detailedNotes for Guidance I25p from JMB, Mass Media TV 88C2. FE. Autumn and Spring. Manchester, M15 SEUL Tues. 3.00-3.25. Thisis my umbrella title for several short series starting on Oct. 8 on documen- BBC PROGRAMMES, 1977/78 taries, the press, film as evidence and fiim as propa- The following information might be helpfulin ganda. This last is new and considers ways in which planning courses for next year. We would welcome film has been used to persuade "in a political reviews of any TV or radio material which people sense". have used. Signs of Trouble -TV BBC2. FE Oct. 10 -Dec. 12. Introducing the Law - Radio. Age 10-12. Oct. 28. Mon. 3.30.3.55. This is the series seen recently Dec. 2. Fri.11.00-11.20. Social scientists will lateatnightfronted by theebullientLaurie probably want 'to treat this with caution; one pro-Taylor. A mustfor delinquency, sociology of gramme in the series is called 'How law prevents deviance and social work courses. anarchy but protects the individual'. Might be useful for GCE in illustrating 'conventional' under- Mon Radio.Age 1Q-12. Autumn, Spring and standing of the',vv. Summer.Thurs. 11.20-11.40. A repeat of this year's series. Autumn: evolution of man; Spring: Prospect - Radio. Age 16-18.Summer 1978. cultureofearly man; Summer: family lifein Fri.11.40-12.00. Prospect is transmitted inall Europe and India. three terms but only the summer term, when the theme is Medicine and Ethics, is likely to be of By the People, For the People - Radio. Age 14-17. help in social science courses. Obvious interest for Spring.Mon. 9.45-10.05. This new seriesis applied social:studies in FE. devised as a contribution towards political educa- tion and, used with care, could be useful for Social General Stu.-/ies TV. Age 16-18. Autumn and Studies up to CSE. The BBC claims it will also be Spring. Mon. 11.45.12.70,rpt.Fri. 2.35.3.00. relevant for GCE but I d. ubt it. It concentrates on This series claims to keep a broad balance between providinginformationonspecificaspectsof arts, social science and science topics but the social politicalnd governmen. structure, i.e. a plar\ ning science is distinctly 'mushy'. In the later part of applicatich, elections, M.P.'s etc. Probably turn out the autumn term there are two programmes about to be just old-style Civics. Television News; two on Pollution borrowed from Horizon; and, the most useful perhaps, two on the Politics Now, Series II-- TV 88C2. FE. Oct. 11 - relationshipbetweenthe Apachesand the Dec. 13.Tues. 3.30.3.55. Another new politics American government called 'Geronimo's series probably, useful for GCE. It concentrates on Children'. The lasthalfof the spring term is the rose of the Prime Miniter .ver the past thirty devoted to a history of Social Dancing. years.
5 9 4 Further information can be obtained from Educa- membership of this committee someone nominated tionalBroadcasting Information(30/BC), BBC, by ATSS. Our current nominee, Helen Reynolds, Broadcasting House, London W1A IAA. wishes to relinquish the role shortly. Meetings are about once a term in London. CONFERENCES Council of Subject Teaching Associations The ATSS. Easter Course took place at Lough- This is an important co.orciinating body on which borough this year on the theme of Social Studies we .areentitledtotwo representatives. Roger and Humanities. Numbers attending were smaller Gomm has served onitforthreet -Airs. The than usual but many of those who came found that Council meets twice a year in Hatfield. it met some of their professional needs. Our thanks ignsiness Manager of Social Science Teacher are duetoBarry Dufour forundertaking the Frai t,i:eves has been doing this job which mainly immense task of organising such an event. The invo lvir. securing advertising for the journal. The brochure for the September conference should be work involved is not great but itis vital to the mailed with this journal. We hope that as many economics of both the journal and the Association. members as possible will be able to attend and we The job includes membership of the Publications shall particularly welcome those who have tecently Sub-Committee of the Executive. joined. If you have any ideas on conferences ATSS Publicity Officer This job involves preparing should be organising contact Jim Beard, ATSS publicity material for ATSS and initiating publicity Conferences Officer, Oakham School, Rutland, campaigns. There is plenty to do on this front; you Leics. would be amazed how many people do not know about ATSS. The job includes membership of the THE 1977 ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING Development Sub-Committee of the Executive. This will be held on the Saturday afternoon of the annual conference. Sept. 17th. The main debate DESIGNING A NEW PUBLICITY LEAFLET will be on the Social Studies statement (see page 7 We shall need a new publicity leaflet in 1978 and of the last issue of this journal). The AGM is alto wewould welcomeproposeddesigns from the occasion for the electionofsix honorary members. In fact, we have decided to mr ke ita officers as defined by the constitution Chairman, competition. The design chosen for the new leaflet Vice-Chairman, Secretary, Asst. Secretary, will win forits sponsor free attendance at the Treasurer and General Editor. These elections are Septemberconference;therewillnot be an especiallyimportantthisyearasneitherthe alternative cash equivalent! I can supply copies of current chairman or secretary will be standing for the currentleafletbut your proposed designs reelection. The only qualification for either job is should be sentto the publicity officer, Stella individualmembershipoftheAssociation. A Dixon, 18 Pickwick Rd., Fairfield, Bath, Avon. proposer and seconder are required for a valid nomination. I would be very happy to give further WRITING FOR SST information to anyone interested. The Social Science Teacher, as you have probably noticed, is produced in different ways. Some issues ATSS ALONE contain a variety of articles on different .topics Several years ago ATSS asked the DES for £15,000 submitted independently; others are put together over three years to establish a permanent office by an individual or a team of people and devoted and paid secretarial assistance and to develop the to a single theme or subject. The editors welcome Resources Exchange. We have now heard that we anycontributionforconsiderationofsingle shall not be receiving this money. There are some articles,: materialforBriefingsorideasand who feel that this :s no bad thing in that we shall information of general interest. They would also be beholden to no one and forced to stand on our encourage individuals or groups (such as ATSS own feet. Others willfeel that the decision will branches or panels, staff in one school or college or severelylimitthe contribution we c make to just people with a shared interest) to propose ideas social science education. Either way, itJ.vever, we for specific issues.If the proposals ate agreed by must recognise that whatever we do ovel the next the Publications Sub-ComMittee articles can then few years will have to be done on our own be commissioned future issue on Socialisation resources. hope to edit In recent years we have succeeded in spreading and I would like to hear from anyone with ideas on the work4oad involved in running ATSS over awhat they want to see in it.I would also like to wide range of people and we shall now have to recek.a handouts, course programmes and details of continue and intensity this policy. This moralising resources which people use to teach socialisation, is by way of preliminary rumination to listing a lum- AlsoI want to hear about .the problems People ber of positions which will need to be filled at the encounter and the successes they have had.I will Council meeting in November. If you are interested acknowledge them all eventuaily. My address is in any of them, or in doing anything else(like 19 Mandevill;; Gardens, Walsall WS1 3AT. lendinga hand inrunnirtg your local branch), please contact me.Allthese positions irclude WHAT DO YOU THINK OF SST? membet'ship of the ATSS Council. Last 'par wen t out a questionnaire to find out AEil Sociology Advisory Committee By how our members reacted to the first five issues of traditionthe AEB agreetoincludeinthe the new-style journal, which first appeared in 1975. 6 9 5 It was gratifying that most of the 36 responses 9117Communist University of London No. 9. . were favourable. Reactions, of course, depended Includes courses on sociology and anthro- largely on the relevance of journal materialto pology, Details from The Organiser, CUL9, individual situations. Some FE sociology lecturers 16 Kings Street, London WC2E BHY. felt that some issues were more suitable for school. 17/22 New Directions in Political Science. A based social studies but on the whole everyone course forteachers ofpolitics. Univ. ofEssex. found a lot of useful and interesting material and Details from Joarne Brunt, Dept. of Govt., they appeared quite happy to accept that whatwas Univ. of Essex. Wivenhoe Park, Colchester not relevant to them would nevertheless help some- CO4 3SQ. one else. Rather stronger views were expressed Aug. about the academic/non-academicbalanceof 14/20 Field StudiesinTeachingEcchomics. material; some wanted more of the former and Details from B. Robinson, Worcester College some more of the latter. ofHigherEducation,HenwickGrove, A number of people asked for more book Worcester. reviews which we think we are now beginningtc Sept. provide. We could still tb witn more leviews ot 16118 ATSS AnnualConference.WithJames non-book material and for these we itan only rely Hemming and Geoff Pearson. Leeds Poly- on readers and members. If you have used audio technic. visual resources, simulations, etc. and you feel it Jan. 1978 worth warning other people off or commending ir, 3/5 Sociology of Education Conference. issues drafta few paragraphs and send them tothe Reviews Editor. Relating to the Classroom. Westhill College of Education.DetailsfromLen Barton, Perhaps the two most useful services the joor nal Westhill College of Education. Weoley Park could render, judging from the questionnaire,is Road, Birmingham B29 6LL. first a systematic provision of information about new developments in soeial science theory and RAIN, .April 1977. No.19 research. Maey respondents felt it was difficultto This issue of the Newslette, keep up to dete with new developments and the Royal Anthro- pological Institute include; .rdi articles associ- publications end saw die journal as away of ated with women. Jonathauenthall contributes a remedying this. Secondly there was a callfor short piece on the status of the tinhorn child which journal content illusseeiting social science teaching has many useful sources. Anyone who uses anthro- in action planning lessons, making resources, pological material in their teaching will find using existing resources arid how specific books, an article on 'Conflicts Among Bedouin Women'very firnis, etc. are received by students. helpful as background for teaching the family, The only consistent note of criucisrn in the kinship and marriage. It discusses relationsbetween questionnaire related to the Resources Exchange. co-wives and mothers-in-law and daughters-in-law. Here we have to admit we have a proolem. The It 'popularity is written in a very clear, non-technical style and of this service only compounds the could probably be used by older students. Finally, problem. Basically we simply do not have either there is a review of the recent Disappearing World the persnnnel or access to the reprographic equip- film called 'Some Women of Marrakesh'. RAIN is ment which would enable us to organise the service available from the RAI, 36 Craven Street, London more efficiently. We are continuing to search for a WC2N 5NG. satisfactory solution but until we do wecan only ask users to be charitable. In particular we askyou to pray for, or drink to, whatever your preference, JEAN JONES, CHAIRMAN OF THE ATSS Roger Gomm, who puts up with what TEACHER EDUCATION PANEL, writes, must be a For two years now the panel has consistedof permanent nightmare without complaint. founder members of a Young Teachers' Group, We do not wish to spew out questionnaires with based on a PGCE Social Studies Methods .every mailing as if we were social scientists but we course at the Institute of Education. In its firstyear, the would like to have feedback on how the journal is provided a network of informal contact and being received. As this is the last edition of Vol. 6 .tfor its members. We met to discuss the perhaps this is an appropriate time for people to let eej. i.ence of full-time teaching. We apPlied some us knoW what they thought of the volumeas a of the perspectives we had developed in the Institute whole. Please drop a line to the editors if you have to subsequent work in teacliing. a spare moment By our second eear we felt able to takeon D:ARY DATES more as a group, and we began a collection of June resources, where our aim was not to collect more 22 and more, but to try and focus on our use and trIest London ATSS. Women &Sociology development of them with classes in school and withAnnOakley,HounslowBorough college. We are now trying to concentrate College, Bath Road W4. 7.00 pm. our july discussion and work in a particular area of social studies work, and given the range of teaching under- .9 Oxford ATSS. Discussion of ATSS State- taken by the group, selection involved considerable ment onSociolStudies.Lady Spencer discussion. We moved to the B-13 area, and have Churchill College, Wheatley. found that our link with the ILEA Primary Advisor
9 6 7 'for Social Studies, also an ex-Institute student, has Obviously these activities are only part of what ' been extremely valuable. The dialogue can now might be undertaken by a Teacher Education Panel, which perhaps suggests that we should be takeinthevarietyof .teaching interests and assumptions that often separate this age group in renamed the Young Teachers or New Teachers different types of school: Panel, which does describe our activities more We are now looking forward to expanding the accurately. A general point about the work of the group, hoping that the experience of the original Panels unlike Branches their concerns can be very specific, and this may be a valuable assetin group will provide the supportive contact which of was so important for us at the beginning.Addition that they can, albeit slowly, build up a fund ally there is the very real possibility of continuing experience in a small area which can be a resource work begun in the PGCE year in a group who are for the Association. committed to developing their own practice. Please send any comments, queries or sugges- Last Year, in the Summer term, we circulated all ionsregarding the Panelto me, Jean Jones, Social Studies PGCE groups, giving information Institute of Education, Bedford Way, WC1H OAL. about the work of the Panel, and inviting students STOP PRESS to let us know if they were interested in belonging WEST LONDON BRANCH MEETING to such a group in their area. The response was At Hounslow Borough College, the former very disappointing although rumour has it that Chiswick Polytechnic, in Bath Road, W.4., on ATSS recruitment from this group improved. We Wednesday 22nd June at 7 P.m. therefore proposed, through Council, that local Speaker:AnnOakley,theauthorof branches should pay particular attention to the "Housewife", "Sex, Gender & Society", and needs of their new teachers, making such provision "The Sociology of Housework". She will talk at seems necessary. Often this will involveliaison about "Women & Sociology". Students and in-service with other agencies able to provide pupils are welcome to attend. support localColleges and Departments of Meet on the Balcony, which is oh the First Education, teachers' centres and.advisory teachers. Floor of the College. The 88 bus stops outside, These links are obviously ongoing for the ATSS in and Turn ham Green Tube Station is just around many areas, and can be very useful in this work, from, access to the corner. as they may provide places to work Further enquiriesfromJeffMarshall resources and concerned personnel. If as aPanel, to be 995-3801 Ext. 21. we can help either new teachers who want CORRECTION Part of a group, or a local Branchwanting to set up the U.K. compiled by a group, we will be happy to do so.Exchange of Women's Studiesin be Oonagh Harnett and Margherita Rendel costs ideas about what is being done would obviously 80p incl. postage (not 75p as statedinlast useful here. Equally, let us know what you feel edition). needs to be done. ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE EDUCATION PROJECT OFFICER Applications are invited from social anthropologygraduates for the above post, involving the development ofthe Institute's schools publishing programme which is already wellunder way. The successful candidate will be responsible to the Education Committeeof the R.A.I., and will work with anthropologists, a major educationauthority and a national publisher on the preparation offurther units in a series of anthropologicalmaterials for secondary schools. The post isfrom 1st October 1977 for one year, with the possibility of a further yeardepending on the continued success of the project. Salary around £2800 plussuperannuation, but age and experience- will be taken into consideration.Pre-requisites are writing and organizing ability, and a good degree. Experienceof fieldwork, and/or teaching, and/ London or publishing, advantageousbut not essential. Residence in the area. Apply with resumé, and names andaddresses of two referees, to the Director's Secretary, RoyalAnthropological Institute, 56 QueenAnne Street, London W1M 9 LAbefore 30 June 1977.
9 7 young people can and ought to be actively involved in their education in a way which enables them to pardcipate in and contribute to the community. (1) Four years earlier, he had founded V.S.O. (VoluntaryService Overseas)anditseemed obvious that if young people could contribute in the developing world, they could equally well tackle the problems of their own country. The first volunteers were highly motivated,primarily sixth-formers, but since it was a vital principle that no volunteer should be turned down, the range and numbers now well over 2,000 soon widened to include many volunteers who were themseNes handicapped or disadvantaged.
The idea behind all this work was that helping . should no longer be limited, as it was then, to the fortunate few, or that the welfare of society and care of its problemi, should be the preserve of professionals. The special aim of CSV was to find ARTICLE5 projects which made volunteers, whoever they were, realize that they had something to give and were needed, whether working in night shelters thr COMMUNITY SERVICE AT THE CHALK the down-and-out, organising projects of environ- FACE mental improvement in industrial areas, developing by C.E. Moffat musictherapywithemotionally disturbedor autistic children or whatever. This article describes the work of Community Service Velunteers in trying to steer educational Schools Advisory Service thinking in the direction of greater activity and The Schools AdvisoryService as Community participationfor young People, and considers Service Volunteers came into existence in 1968 some of the prospects and problems for the future and arose in response to requests from a growing development of community service in schools and number of schools for advice on how to involve colleges. pupilsinthe community, not onlyas school Community ServiceVolunteers isan edu- leavers, but during their time at school. The hope cationalcharity which every yearplaces over was that an advisory service for schools could 2,000 young peopleinvoluntaryprojects.Its provide practical help for teachers, even if only to Schools Ackisory Service is supported by proceeds provide a forum where they could sound off about from the salk of its publicafions and by a small their frustrations. One result has been the develop- grant from the Home Office Voluntary Services ment of the SACK (School and Community Kit) Unit. programme. consisting of a monthly later termly magazine to keep teachers in touch with what is Introduction going on all over the country, and materials and Until recentlyit was fashionable in educational kits, often written by teachers who are actively circles to pay lip-service to the notion of com- involved in running community service programmes, munity service in the school curriculum. The idea containing prectical suggestions for ways in which that children should be actively involved in their community serIce can be developed. education in a way which enabled them to par- One of the main aims of the Schools Advisory ticipatein, and contribute tothe community, Service is to encourage community service through- seemed to fit in with the notion of a new, relevant out the curriculum. Perhaps the greatest problem curriculum, based on an understanding and aware- our societyhas producedisan incapacityto ness of their social environment. . respond effectively 'and intelligently to the needs But now, doubts are being expressed. It seems of others on an individual and personal level, and to be felt that if you are not already illiterate when ideally we think that pupils and teachers in every you start community 'service, you very rapidly discipline, from maths to music, and English to become so. Even the notion of relevance has lost environmental studies, should be concerned about sredibility, and just es ths.e is thought to be a the relevance of their subject to human and social direct correlation between the effectiveness of problems. Many ofthe meterials produced by medicine and its unpleasantness, so itis thought CSV, giving background informafion on problems ; thattheacquisitionofskillsand knowledge andissuessuchashomelessness, mental and depends on the futulity of the uses to which they physical handicap, the environment and appropri- are put. ate technology, contain suggestions about how pupils may become involved in finding solutions Community Service Volunteers by drawing on these insights and skills, and even if Community Service Volunteers was founded by they onlyleadtoa sporadic lowering of the Alec Dicksonin1962 ontheprinciplethat barriers to co-operation across the curriculum, an-
9 9 8 important start will have been made inshowing respond to these more adult responsibilities."(2) . (Comm- pupils that caring can involve thinking. too. The Schools Council Working Paper No 17 But kits, worksheets, project suggestions and unity Service and the Curriculum) gave community and service another plug by arguing that it could have games and simulations, however thoughtfully "genuine educational meaning ifit was linked to provocativelyassembled, canneoer be asub- One tho syllabus" but although it gave lotsof examples stitute for imaginative Practical involvement. of how schools could get involved, it gavelittle of the dangers of the boom in 'social education' benefit from is thatof idea of how pupils were supposed to curriculumdevelopmentpackages, in producing a generation of vicarious voyeurs. able community service after rane years of schooling sit comfortably before a television screen to which it had never been mentioned. 131 to Not surprisingly community service was seized 13',to quote allthe relevant watch 'Ward F on as the obvious answer to theproblem of what statistics and even to act out the appropriate sock-, revealed dram3, but wholly unmoved by the suggestion that to do with the ROSLP year, but it also some uncomfortable atumptions about thenotion findirrg a sohtion is something that everyone can "Newsom be involved in. rather than a problem which'they' of relevance and why it was only the kids" whu were supposed to require it.It wasn't in Parliament or the council, should be taking care pupils were of. Having close contact, on the one hand with lustthatthe community which voluntary and other groups who can pin-point the supposed to be helping, and those responsible for areas where young people can be it, the professionals and organisers of theSocial issues and Services, had little regard for the kind of contribu- actively involved, and on the other, with teachers that the and students in a wide ranuc of fields who arekeen tion which young people could offer, but curriculum sort of activities envisaged were expected tomake to develop new ideas fc.! making the demands on the skills and resources of the rest open and responsiveto community needs and issues, is one way in wo:ch the Schools Advisory of the school. A spirit ni parsirnnny had survived. Service has been able to provide realistic suggestions evenifservice to the community was no longer voluntary in the traditional sense, and what better for developing community service in Schools. solution than to farm the whole operation out to If community serviceis one response to ihe institutionalized indifference of modern urban life, Task Force or some other volunteer organisation? feltthatdoing is also a response to the ali.nation and frustra- So inevitably,manypupils it community service meant doing rather meaningless tionwhichitproduces.Many experimental community education projects, such as tutoring and peripheral jobs; digging gardens, handing tea schemes, youth and community round in a local old people's elub, ratherthan andliteracy challengedtosolvehuman andsocial projects,Intermediate Treatment and Truancy being projects, as well as the work of CSV's own volun- problems; and many in the community felt that teers, are the result of community concernabout schools were simply saddling them with their more the needs of young people which have notbeen intractable and uncontrollable pupils. met by the formal education system.They show that schools which believe that education cannot Relevance be b.oth creative and relevant, useful andenjoyable, One of the most important insights which emerged have important lessons to learn. 'Deschooling' or from criticisms of the Newsom version of comm- 'free-schooling' may be one answer, but itis only unity service, was that if relevance had any value at all,it meant being concerned with the needsof by showing everyone that their skills,interests and in knowhow can be shared with young people on pupils rather than with those of the community equal terms, that education can benefit thewhdle which they lived. Richard Hauser, whose ideas Service can helped to initiate the Nottingham Social Education of the community. If the Advisory 51) contribute to this process it will have shown that Project (Schools Council Working Paper No for its argued that practical involvement in the comm the community can indeed be responsible unity could only be relevant to Pupils ifit arose own education. from their own decisions, and then only ifsocial education began with the first years of schooling Community Service and the Curriculum their of community servicein and not as an afterthought at the end of Despite the growth career, Social education was tobe an schools, the question which most peoplestill ask school jot to do with the rest qf the curri- 'enablingprocess, from which children would is "What has it ofidentificationwiththeir culum?" Itis rot difficult to see why: the irr age receive a sense which community service has acquiredhas limited community, become sensitive to its shortcomings voluntary and develop methods of participationinthose appeal. Until the 1960's it was largely a activities which are needed for a solution tosocial and extra curricular activity often in the most problems.14) selective schools and its principal aim was to ideals of Thus in the Nottingham project, critical under- imbue pupils with the noble sacrificial effect such remote figures as Albert Schweitzerand standing and the capacity and skills to Florence Nightingale. Then. in 1963 the Newsom change fostered by the development of commt in community nication and observation.skills were felt to be Resportadvocatedinvolvement toparticipation and service for early lerivers. "Pupils who arerestive essential preconditions interests of a involvement inthecommunity.Signifiiaantly and feel themselves outgrowing the however, the report of the project had little to say purelyinternalschoolseiciety may especially
10 (3 about therestottheschool curriculum; and afternoons per week equally it seemed to regard as unimportant, the one reason perhaps why CS factthat has a poor reputation as a soft option for'do- pupils may be drawn to coaimunity gooders' amongst those not involved, and why, in service for a whole range of reasons, and that the mixed schools girls nearly always tend toout- opportunitytocontributetothe solutionof number boys. human needs, such as loneliness, inadequate care bl Community service as a subject. Inan increasing for the handicapped, discrimination or pollution, number of schools, perhaps most of all in large can be an equally important way of gaining the comprehensives, community service has, or is being confidence to question and criticize society. absorbed into the 'community' areas of the curri- Comprehensive reorganization has providedan C11111111 the 'new' subjects, such as environmental opportunity to reconsider the relevance of commu studies, social science and community studies, nity service to Pupils of all abilities and ages, but as well asthe traditionally practicalsubjects like, discussion has barely got beyond the idea of tying home economics, child care, woodwork, craft and it in with the examination system. And while the more recently, design studies of wn with a C.S.E. trend towards C.S.E. modes 3 has certainly drawn examinationsyllabus. many more pupils into community activities than Othersubjectssuch as science,Englishor music, may be involvedin would otherwise have been the case, thereare still many teachers who feel cornmunity service activities, but the link is rarely that examinations are acknowledged of ficially asbeingpartofthe fundamentally irrelevant to the aims of social and curriculum. community education. c) Community service as moral/Social/vocational , Perhaps the greatest problem however, is that educationisthe most confusing slot.In some although the majority of examination boards are schools, community service has especially prepared to be flexible about the allocation of time strong links with R.E., in others it rnay be part ofa youth between 'practical work' and classroom work and community programme run by youth workers topics, Projects, assignments or whatever they outside school, while in others, comrnunityservice are unwilling to try new and more imaginative may be included in a number of different types of methods for evaluating the personal qualities the social education course, ranging from those which syllabuses are designed to encourage. An impressive are explicitly aimed at "oreparing young people for syllabus which begins with such laudable aimsas the transition "developing a sense of responsibility-, "fostering' f rom school to work", to those which are concerned with creating "socialaware- initiative and understanding" and "enabling pupils ness". Some social education courses would reject to develop an awareness of complex social and the phrase community service as a description of community relationships", and ends by allocating any of their activities because of their emphasis on 90% of the marks for knowledge of the Welfare exploring opportunitiesfor State and only 10% for a community service diary, change, whilefor others,such asthose concerned with careers is hardly a model of relevance. education, community service may provide the The vocational view of community service, only element of work experience which is regularly which C.S.E. courses tend to encourage,is an available for large numbers of pupils. understandable trendinthe context of recent Voluntary community service outside school, educational research which compares progressive Despite the growth of community service in the teaching methods those which foster learning hy curriculum, first-hand many schoolsstillrunvoluntary experienceandcreativeactivity communityserviceprojects for pupils outside unfavourably with traditional methods of instilling school. In some cases these may be organised by knowledge and skills. But why give way to the view young volunteer organisers who use schools as their that education should be concerned solely with recruiting base; in others, they may be organised imparting specialized bodies of knowledgeon one and run by pupils themselves. hand, or specialized skills on the other? What is significant about the most ef fective community Practical Involvement service projects is that they draw on a wide range Traditionally the most common form ofcommu- of subjects in the curriculum, and where pupilsare nity service activity in schools consists of pupils involved from the start, in determining the aims of visiting individuals or institutions outside school, the project, they not only learn to borrow an old person at home, a patient in hospital, a play- Bruner's phrase the skills of relevance, but the group, or aspecial school relevance of the skills they already possess. for mentally handi- capped.Thelevelofinvolvementforpupils The Existing Framework however, can vary enormously. For instancemany schools have schemes for pupils to visit old people Before considering what is actually being done in the name of community service at home, often as a result of contacts with the local inschools,it Social Services Department, but whilesome may . would help to see how itfits into the existing he involved in carrying. out simple services, framework of secondary education. like running errands, writing letters, gardeningor just a) Community service as recreationis probably the providing a cup of tea and social contact, others most widespread type of school community service may be able to find a link between their visits and programme. It is usually of fered as an alternative to games, craft or other practical activities, for problems of more general concern to the elderly. fourth, fifth and sixth formers, on one Thus pupils from a school in Scotland, have asked or more the old people they visit if they will keepa record 100 11 that evidence enceuntered first hand. of their own room tempezatures, so Notallcommunity service projects lead to can be gathered onheating and fuel consumption and environmental offer advice on fuel practical involvement. Social and Pupils -will be able to community studies projeets havetended to empha- problems. social problems. Thus people's day sise community solutions to Visits to institutions, such as old some schools have carriedio;:tsurveys of local centres, hospitals, homes forthe hindicapped, and which servicesfor the handicapped and elderly, Playgroups can be equally varied,although inevita. special provisions, depend have led to campaigns te secure bly what pupils are allowed to do can often as shoppingfacilitiesforthe elderly, or on the attitudes of the staff.In a few cases they are such handicapped; beds and serving improved access to buildingi for .the doing nothing more than making planning projects have resulted incampaigns to refreshments, but inthe majority of cases the planning issues; and are much more focus pub'ic attention on local activitiestheyareinvolvedin pollution monitoring experimentshave resulted in positive. Pupils in numerous schoolsfor instance, community action, for example inWales, where devise games and activities forplaygroups; while :he local environ- involved in pils succeeded in persuading pupils in a North London school are of ficertotake actionagainst a firm developing art and craft activitiesfor mentally mental where surveys visits to a responsible for polluting a river. Bdt handicapPed children as a result of their and campaigns for publicaction-neve no effect, school; studentsin an Edinburgh solution. Thus for localspecial service for the active involvement may be one school run a cassette newspaper example, in an area where there was alack of play blind, and those in a school inSouthampton are in designing and forphysically space, pupils became involved devisingadventureplayschemes building an adventure playground,and in another handicapped children. area decided to convert alocal disused maisonette Many communityserviceProjects have an which can provide into a Mums and Toddlers Club. element of group responsibility Probably the most challenging formsof com- continuity as well as scope for pupils todevelop have brought the pupils in one munity service are those which their own initiatiees. For instance, idea of participation andInvolvement into the school inIslingter ,run 7 carefully tnought out school itself. For inst:nce, severalschobls now health and beauty care courFetor members of a reading which other schools, have tutoring schemes, for remedial local old people's home, ws.1 in party are run by puoils.Usually they involve sixth- fourth and fifth year ptelilshave 7%ean involved in with reading clubs, organising formers in hewing younger pJpils founding and running old people's difficulties ina one-to-one relationshipin their - bingo sessions and luncheon clubs, aswell as food rhjears tutoring and activities own school, or fourthand cooperatives and many other services younger childreninlocalinfeets' and primary for the elderly. Some schools haveresponded f extended by forming playgrouPs, schools. 'Cross-age' tutoring has been their local communities by some schools to include games,crafts, maths and others, for example, a schoolin Nesecastle, have other subjects. and the possibilityof broadening repair workshops, where pupilsmend broken play. between colleges and aridat a school in the approach to include links group equipment and toys, schools has been demonstratedby the experimen- Northern Ireland, puoils repairtelevisions, radios which is being under- old people. In other tal science tutoring scheme and electrical equipment for yearelectricalengineering schools students design aids and toysfor handi- takenbysecond with third year school in Hampshire is students from Imperial College capped children. Horndean pupils in their science course atPimlico School.15) one of several where pupilshave designed carts and tutor and move around American research sueeests that both trolleys to help spina hifida children tutee again from tutoring,perhaps most of all the confidently and freely; while aproblem.solving 'reluctant' learners, but while oneobserver has approach in science classc; in a7.1anchester school lutoi ing seems to bre!,k the such asalarre commented thet has produced ingeniees devices tyranny oi the Peer group' it isprobably important clocks forthe deaf (made From oldhai..dryersi tyrantiies in schools. turners fre e to see it as breakieg olher alarms for the house-bound and tap And that of coure is where thecrunch comes. elderly and handicaPPed. lasting relevance for activities If community service has any Many ofthese community service is because of what it has to sayabout the school subjects. Foi pupils it have obvious links with other relationship between pupils andteachers and their inetance, visits to playgroups withchild eevelop- If we want pupils to grow up toplay an-- visits to the elderly selth sceool.: ment of language studies; active part in society they musthave an active part studies of old people's housing, oralhistory or education. Learning which reduces home economies; to play in their studies of nudition in biology or Pupiis to mere passive recipientsof education, as and the design of aids for thehandicapped with 'Education For a there is no way Colin Ball hes pointed out, in science and engineering. Of course, Change', is.:ca education at all,(6) Community of saying that.a study ofhypothermia in biology is theory of educational in-depth study of the doe. service may not provide a more important than an change; and teaching people tohelp one another fish, or budget-a-pension exercisesin maths, more raffical. But if it giyes young equations, but mey not sound very important than solving quadratic PeoPle a function and a meansof contributing to challenging, and developing they can be just as intellectually societybylearning,growingand for many pupils much moremeaningful because confider T andunderstandingthroughdoing they relate to urgent problemswhich they 'Ave
12 something useful,itwill have prepared them to take an active part in changing their own lives. JOINT MATRICULATION BOARD
References EXAMINATION COUNCIL (1) A Chance To Serve: Alec Dickson, Edited Appointment of Revisers for 1978 GCE by Mora Dickson, Dobson 1976. examinations (2) Half Our Future, H.M.S.O. 1963. Applications (3) the post of Reviser(or Community Service and The Curriculum, Moderator) for 'The question papers in the Schools Council Working Paper No.17, folloArg s.:bjects ln the GCE examination H.111.5.0. 1968. are '.3rn ex.,:.erienced school teachers (4) Social Education: An Experiinent in Sec, in:c1.- 'Is which are not centres for JMB ondary Schools, Rennie, J., Lunzer, E.A., ext,rnel and Williams, W.T., Evans Methuen Edu- Psychology (Alternative Ordinary) cational 1974. (5) Industrial Studies (Alternative Ordinary) The Pimlico Connection, Asad Abidi and Welfare and Scoiety (Social others. Oepartment of Electrical Engineer- Administration) ing, Imperial College, London, 1976. (6) (Alternative Ordinary) Education for a Change, Colin Ball, Penguin Archaeology (Alternative Ordinary) Education Special, 1973. Human Biology (Alternative Ordinary) Woodwork (Ordinary and Advanced) Further information and application forms are obtainable from the Secretary, Joint Matriculation Board, Manchester M15 6EU. Closing date for applications: 24 June 1977.
' SOCIOLOGY: THE CHOICE AT A LEVEL and assessment of Advanced Level Sociology. Based upontheproceedingsofthe ATSS Edited bY Geoff Whitty and Dennis Gleeson Conference, Sociology in the Social Sciences, for the Association for the Teaching of the 16-19,itgathers togetherinf ormation and Social Sciences comment on the various syllabuses now available and looks forward to possible future Since its inception in the mid-1960s. A level developments. Sociology has become an immensely popular The book offers readers an insight into the 'subject,particularlyincolleges of Further views of examiners and practising teacherson Education but also, increasingly, inschools. these andrelated Five issues,aridpresents for of the maor examination boards now scrutinythe various syllabuses, reading lists offer examinations in Sociology at this level, and examination papers. It also considersthe yet it continues to create considerable contro- proposals of two groups of teachers whose versy in many circles. This book concentrates answers to questions like those posed here have particularly upon those issues faCing teachers led them to formulate their own alternatives in who are involved or interested in teaching A level the form of a Mode 3 A level Sociology syllabus Sociology. Whatarethedif ferences and a scheme for an Integrured Social Sciences between the various syllabuses? To what extent A level. is there unnecessary duplication between them? Do any of them offer an opportunity to reassess Price: £1.80 paperback' ISBN 0905484 07 X the conventional relationship between teachers, £3.90 hardback studentr; and examiners? Does A level Sociology ISBN 0905484 02 9 ent,ouragi students to engage more critically Please add postage 25p per volume. and actively in the world they live in? Orders to: Heather Clark, A.T.S.S. Sales Officer, This 1.00k focuses upon recent developments 54 Redbridge Lane West, Wanstead,London and future possibilities in the teaching, learning El 1 2JU.
102 13 of the school is notably conducive to a COMMUNITY AND THE CURRICULUM development which depends on the oper.ing .3A consideration of the implicationsof recent up of relationships. ,developments in Community Education for the B. BRIEF OBJECTIVES :School Curriculum. In considering the central aim theWorking Party has in mind a number of key objectives.These are :- by Greg Charlton iThomas Bennett School, Crawley (i) Creation of as many situations aspossible in which the 'three estates', by cooperatingin pursuit of a common voluntary purpose, come to know and understand eachother better. By the 'three estates' we mean: the adultsin the A COMMUNITY SCHOOL School community (including of course all parents and In a recent report by a Working Party to future parents); the teaching and non-teaching Governors,the followinggeneral aimsand objectives were identified:- staff; and the students. indivi- ' COMMUNITY ' (ii) Expressing a concern for the welfare of duals through community service. A. THE CENTRAL AIMS of any (iii)Publishing and making available, both in and The two central aims in the development recreational community school are first to effect afundamental out of school hours, the social and . facilities of the school to as many individuals change inrelations between the school and its conflicting community, and second to improve the qualityof and societies as possible without neighbourhood lif ;. The need to achieve these aims with the formal education of the children. is nationally recognised: there is auniversal dissa- the barrier between (iv) Sharing by the community a concern for tisfactionwithfi-r:traditional maintenance and improvement of the school's school and community, and this feelinghas been buildings and facilities. heightened by.tieaspirations, as wellas the the problems, of comprehensive education, and of (v) Coordinating voluntary help by adultsin the raising of the school leaving age. Thepossibility of this change has been amply proved, community to suPport the formal and informal achieving educational life of the school. originally in Cambridgeshire but more recentlyin many other areas. f Or an (vi) Establishing the best possible means of commu- Within this national context, the case nicating information about the school and early community development atthis school is aboutalleducationalissues to parents and particularly strong; future parents of the school, and ofdealing with their questions. (i) 14 to need: itis self-evident (a) On the community side, (vii)Devising means of participation by allthose that the need to breal- down barriers is no effect less in urban than in rural areas. InCrawley concerned in the making of decisions to the six previous objectives. in particular,the need to supplement central social and recreational facilitiesby C. TWIN PROGRAMMES substantial provision in the neighbourhoods endea- generally recognised, and thisis more The Working Party decided that the whole is vour implied by the central aim andexpressed by likely to increase than to decline. We itisobvious that a the seven objectives required two programmes. (b) On the school side, have called these the School ParentProgramme distinctly progressive and innovative school (CP). depends ondiverse and continu- (SPP)andthe Community Programme such as Though those operating both programmeswould ing communications if misunderstandingof of course be ultimately responsible tothe Local its purpose and policies is to be avoided. Education Authority and the Governors,below that level they would need differentmeans of (is) As to possibility: accountability and would be separatelyfinanced. (a) The notion that school-communitydevelop- ment in urban areas is difficult toachieve Though operating, therefore, as independent systems, the two programmeswould collaborate derives from the fact that very often urban promoted by the schools have no coherent neighbourhood. and the success of each would be indeed success of the oth-tr. This doesynot apply in Crawley; Though there would be no artificiallimitations movement betweenthisschool andits responsibi/ity in terms of neighbourhood is very much easier than in to concern and interest, the objectives must be clear. Bothprogrammes rural Areas. fields, for (b)The school has, not inall but in most would be responsible, in their own respects, excellent facilities for recreational achieving the relevant objectives. and social activities. The pastoraltradition 14 '103 SHORTCOMINGS OF THE USUAL experiences andinterestsofthese 'experts', COMMUNITY CONCEPT whether the expTiining boards, teachers, head- masters, 1-4.M.I's or politicians are generally very These aspirationsareprobablytypicalofall narrow and by no means a true reflection of our communityschoolsorcolleges,although in society. practice they take a variety of forms in both rural The developmentof community education and urban environments. must surely question these traditional and limited Recent purpose-built community collegesin approaches(anddiscriminations)towardsthe Leicestershire have appeared and these have a curriculum and the part played by the learner in facilitiesanda management system, including his/her own education. blockfinancing, which allows a flexible inter- dependence of school and community. The possi- bility of appointing teachers on a joint basis, that COMMUNITY CURRICULUM istosay, havinganaverage commitment to community educationactivitiesoutside school We live in a world of rapid change and increasing time of one of the normal ten sessions per week is complexity Lnd thus any understanding of it must an exampleofthisbutitalsohighlights an be geared to change and is likely to be complex. important omission in community school Schools blatantly ignore this they are parti- development, i.e. the involvement of the communi-cularly reactionary to changes taking place within tyWithinthe schoolcurriculum. Thereare them. Teachers are uncomthrtable working in an examples of schools where there has been a basic atmosphere of change and justify this in terms of change inrelations between the school and its providing a secure and stable atmosphere for their community but few examples (if any) of schools pupils. The scnool's curriculum is orgattised based where a fundamental changeintherelation on an academic (or administrative) structure with between community and curriculum have occurred. knowledge and human experience constructed By thisI mean something more significant than within distinct subject areas. These areas or disci- just students undertaking community service (i.e. plines have their own forms of language which vciluntary work) in the community. inhibit the pupils interpretation of experiences. It One reason for this inertia is because the central is not surprising therefore that education becomes core of the school's curriculum has not been so. meaningless-and irrelevant for so many people 'opened-out' to involve the community in the same who do not experience a life which is split into way as the school'sfacilities have been. The separate compartments and who do not think as control of the curriculum is still in the hands of an scientists, mathematicians, sociologists, etc., but elite of 'experts or 'professionals' and itis surpri- whose interpretation/evaluationisas a 'whole', singthenumberofpeoplewho,although Yet schools, particularly in the secondary sector, committed to the ideal of community schools, do stick religiously to this segmented way of teaching not see this development as having any relevance in which reality is constructed so artificially and to what actuaHy happens to the people within the meaninglesslywithintheseparate traditional school as to what are the 'right' and 'wrong' things academic disciplinesinsteadof eachdiscipline to learn and who should make this decision. being used as a resource offering its own skills, Furthermore the functioning of the school as,content and approach and being used in an inter- a community needs careful consideration. If we related way with other disciplines and resources, expect a real community to be made up of people including thelivesof thepupils. For this to who participate fully in community life and to happen, theneducation must be viewed as a influence and change it then we must expect the dynamic process witha dynamic relationship -same type of participation by members of the between teacher and pupil sharing experiences and school community teachers, students, parents, learning together. cleaners and others involvedinthe life of the Education takes a place within a social context school. and the values, skills and attitudes of the family, For a start we find that the people who mak. community and society are brought into the schoo! up theschool's community arenotatrue in the heads of the people who make up the school reflection of society they are restricted by age community. We all interact with other people, have c. (5-10years), physical andmentalabilities/ interests and experiences which are evaluated in handicaps, finance (private system) and sex in the terms of what we already know, feel and regard as case of single-sex schoolt. Within the school we being important. It is a recognition of this that one. often find a divided community with division into would assume to be fundamental to any curri- ,levels of expected performance in the form of culum in a community school. Does this happen? banding, setting or streaming. There is usually a Many schools have now established links with powerful hierarchicalstructure where decisions the community withintheircurriculum. This are made by a few and where the 'learner' has little usually takes the form of Community Service oi or no autonomy over his or her education and the Voluntary Work for what the school terms their influence of parents within the school curriculum 'less-able'students. These activities are usually iS treated with extreme caution even the so organised withinthe Social Studies/Humanities called Great Debate is-left carefully in the hands of department; thus both the selection of students, the'experts'forthepublic'sbenefit. The the nature of the work and its positioning within 1.04 15 Ctheicidemic structure indicatethe low-status and aspect of edacation, and I would like to illus- deealued academic importance with which commu- trate this with three simple and very practical OtitY-based education is held but it does get the teaching examples:- (a) a study of the local industrial estate would fichool such.good publicity. very quickly lead to the realisation that In an attempt to organise a community-based many of the factories are only a small part .02ducation avoiding the above failings, the following with 4justification was given:- of large multinationalcompanies interestsinvariousparts 'of the world. r Mt is essential that education should provide young Students would-also very quickly find out v.people with the kind of experiences that enable that materials necessary for their parents them to understand and adapt successfully to the work on the estate are obtained from all tcornplex living conditions of present-day society. over the world. Crawley Industrial Estate is ilt.1.There is no substitute for first-hand experience and not an entity, but it is part of an economic therefore community studies are a vital aspect of system that operates on a global scale and. the school curriculum, not as a separate entity, but therefore consideration and understanding ..;11s an integral and fundamental part of a school's of global factors is necessary. (b) a main reason for Crawley's prosperity. is 'life. Through this commitment and involvement links the school community may develop its relationship GatwickAirportandagainthis With the larger community to which it belongs and people's lives and jobs in Crawley directly it is important that the relationship should be a with other parts of the world. reciprocal one so that the community as a whole is V involved in the process of education. Community (ii) For many students these experiences become -.studies enable students to find out more about the an extremely important part of theirlives and needs of the community end what may be done to therefore in their minds their significance is not meet, them. Students are able to establish relation- restricted to a particular part of the day, nor a 'ships and communicate in various situations which particular part of their educction. It is a wider quire them to be flexible, sensitive and patient experience. Thus, the motivation and interest ,..":;both as individuals and as Part of a team. Their created for students can be "used", built upon, idtlYitles iniolve them with different members of or integrated into many other aspects oftheir the community, either as individuals or as represen- education, e.g. a student in a woodwork lesson making toys to aid his work in a playgroup, and tatives of local and national organisations and arranging ,bodies and as a result develop a sense of identifica- a student involved in Dance or Drama tion with the community and through a critical a showing of their production at a localmental analysis of their work recognise any inadequacies hospital. and plan and organise their own activities towards (iii)Students and staff involved in Community ends which they value. To achieve these ends and students must assimilate knowledge of local social Studies become labelled as "do-gooders", and political structutes and find out details of local although a basic aim of the work is to improve in the community through services,ameni!iesandsourcesofsuppert. the quality of life Knowledge of administration, management and working with, and if necessary, helping people, this is only one aspect of this type of education. finance mayalsobe necessary.Students, by studying the local environment can research factual The students are encouraged to think critically Information and disc:over people's feelings and by about their work, i.e. to think about the cause analysis of this information, define the problems in ofproblems and not just to alleviate the order that they may plan activities which may problem. introlveorganising team work, perhaps in co- operation with statutory and voluntary organise- So whether we are studying work, standards of ': which improve the life of the communi:y. Itliving, socialisation or most other aspects of our ' lives, we can only gain a full and complete under- ; :is important to remember, therefore, that the work standing by learning about these things in the :which students undertake and the help they give is of and usually both valuable in itself as well a- providing context of our community being part dependent upon the rest of the world. Thus a pro- considerable educational advantages.' 'gramme of community-based eriZcation means Furthermore, because of common misconcep- teaching about these things as well as involvement tions amongst teachers throughout the school the and interaction on a local scale. Thus students are following statement was produced at a later date involved locally in a personal way with people and organisations which are affected by these much in order to emphasise:- larger influences. Despite various efforts, the community studies 1i) That community studies does not mean a within restrictive approach to education, i.e. although programme of activities was accommodated interadtion with other people and organisations the area of the curriculum, namely the Humanities takes place on a local' level (as it does for most Faculty, and become integrated into an already actions in all of our lives), the scope of the existing Mode 3 '0' Level/CSE course taught in a mixed-ability situation. Thus the 'community' has knowledge which can be learnt and the under- school's standing gained, can be as broad as in any other not become a fundamental part of the 1 0 5 curriculum, 'icorhasitchanged thetraditional who work together because of a shared interest asid distinctions between disciplines, nor prevented the concern. This incredible degree of enthusiasm sod split between the academic and pastoral systems. motivation extendsinto activitiesorganism] It is considered by most teacher: as a worthwhile regularly during evenings, weekends and scholl experience (more suited to 'certain' students than holidays with the setting-up of a care-group which others) and of ::ourse of less academic and educa- consists of other students, parents, teachers anti tional value than traditional school subjects. members of the community involved in various At present some 60+ students are very involved projects. The effect of the action of individuals or on courses which are totally based upon com- groups of students can be enormous: over the last munity studies with a further 400/500 students 18 months they have completely changed the undertaking activities periodically which utilise the atmosphere of a local mentally handicapped home commtlnity as aresource. A typical half-day's and in a local mentally handicapped hospital their activities for a class consisting of students in the work and approach/attitude towards the residents first category would include about 15-20 students has been used by the hospital as an example for the visitingplaygroups,primaryschools,mentally experienced trained nurses to copy in order to handicapped hospitals, individualsintheir own bring about a more tolerant and constructive homes, and other places, on a regular basis (for a approach to their work. continualperiod ofatleasthalfa term) 2-6 Fundamental to all this work is the fact that students undertaking surveys for their own project studentsaregiven responsibilityfor their own work, 6 students visiting a place of their choice to actions and play a meaningful role in determining extend their research/experience ina particular their education because they have the right to field of study and perhaps 6 students taking part in exercise choice, depending on what they believe to a discussion in the classroom with 'expert' guests. be important or correct. This develops confidence For this type of programme to operate, voluntary which in turn can not only affect their willingne..4 help from parents and other adults and organis- to meet and ability to cope with new situations but ations is required. Rather than concentre:on the also affect their attitude and performance in the complicated organisational, monitoring and admin- whole of their education because they are able to istrative systems which need to be developed and representopinions,make decisions,propose . which organisation such as CSV will help with, I solutions and participate constructively in group would like to concentrate on the most important situations. The open nature of a community-based aspectofcommunity-basededucation the education encourages opennesstoexplore relationship between the learner and what he/she personal attitudes and ..alues and to assess alterna- learns. tives. Much of what I have saidis very critical of ItisverydifficutttodescribefuHy these community-based education in schools because the experiences which are very different from the schoolsfailto allow theft claimed community education many of us Noe received. It is difficult ideals affect what they actually teach and the way for many other teachers in the school to appreciate they teach it. My experience has been in attempt- how different in nature and meaning this type of ing toplace the curriculuio of the Humanities work is how complete or "whole" the experi- Department within the social ..:ontext of the direct ence can be and yet despite this. Maybe because of experiences, interests and actions of the students, this (i.e. because thiS apprciach is so different, so i.e. a study of the community by the community threatening to some teachers and schools)itis in the community. restricted to one area of the curriculum, devaluing Students are interested inotherpeople. itscl.Aibility and denying its completeness and Relationships play a very bij pai t in their lives. significance for the rest of the curriculum. For They enjoy meeting and working with people many students it becomes the focal point of their outsidethe confines of the school, inreal-life education they actually want to learn because it situations and are stimulated by what thee see, is relevant to their lives and has meaning to them hear and do. Thek interest is at a concrete level as individuals enthusiasmandindividual and althoughtheirunderstanding may utilise autonomy to such an extent is difficult for the complicated and abs-ract concepts involving new hierarchical and departmentalised school to cope areas of knowledge and ideas far-removed from with so it is very rare ior a real community-based
, their own experiences, they have a real meaning. curricrlum to exist. Suchistheinvolvement and commitment of This :Article is obviously aimed at social science students that they undertake a far more indepen- teachers, although. so far I have been concerned . dent and critical approach to an evaluation of their with the whole curriculum. Assuming that itis experiences and therefore afar deeper under- likely that community based studies wilt initiate , standing than usual. Students are working towards (and perhaps grow out of or cemain restricted) ends which they value, doing things they believe within the social studies area then a cr. tsideration important and want to do. The teache- develops of the nature/format of a Community Studies theskillsnecessary -,c) analyse the experience, Courseisnecessary. The following outline has introducingthestudenttofurtherareasfor arisen out of our experiences and contains para- .;,research, helping the student develop his/her ideas phrases from a working party report on the deve- and plan further activities. Many lessons are deeply lopment of a community-based shool curriculum, moving experiences for both student and teacher but Ihave deliberately kept the oetails general so
17 106 as to stimulate thought and action in other schools, geography,sociology, economics, leligious and bearing in mind that one of the main advantages of moral studies in consideration of the important a Mode 3 syllabus is that it allows teachers to think aspects of the human condition. The syllabus takes about and plan the curriculum suited to the needs the form of a series of topics each one being -of their own studentsintheirparticular com- designed to present an internally consistent field munity. Any syllabus must allow personal inter- of study, in which the topics are related to one pretation of.tperiences on different levels tran- another in such a way as to form a viable and co- scending the particular subject barriers so the herent integrated course. syllabus must h.: flexible as well as extremely well organised. Aims To provide Ltudents wi necessary for an understanding of siup. pects of the world Outline of a Mode 3 0 LEVEL/CSE Community which concern th: 't1.2ividv9Is and commu- Studies Syllabus nities of which !..e- ? a part tnd to prepare students to plat. .. arc constructively Introduction critical role in so ;e The syllabus focuses aztention on a series of topics aHowing anintegrationofthe methods and Objectives concepts of the traditional disciplines, e.u. history, To develop the following skills:-
Rationality Sensitivity Creativity Confidence
(a) The selection, evaluation The ability to The ability to The ability to & application of data & exercise empathy express & develop present opinions, evidence. (i.e. the capacity those thoughts to make decisions, (b) Knowledge of terminology to imagine accurately 8,4 feelings which to propose used in the study of what it is like to be are primarily solut:ons, to chosen topics. someone else), based on individual participate con Cc) The organisation of p:imary and/or structively in information through key secondary sources grp activity; to concepts` show on openness to (d) The formation, & explore personal development, application attitudes & values & testing of hypotheses & to assess alternatives.
The core'' concepts for studying and evaluating communities are:-
Socialisation
Values/Beliefs Self
Consenstis/Confl ict COMMUNITY Rights/Responsibilities
Change/Continuity Power
Resources
107 The central- and underlying/unifying concept of 4. Wealth and Poverty The World's Resources. community allows the students to relate general Relations between countries economically. abstract concepts to something which is tangible Patterns of inequality within and between and 'down to earth' because they are involved in it nations. Balance in the environment. The and bring it into the school in their heads whatever world as a community.Development the level of study. Whether at the level of the local strategies.. or international community, the emphasis is on social relations how people get on or don't get 5. Power & Conflict Political systems/ideologies. on with each other. Power of Nations. Causes and ef fects of Ways of Working nationalism. Conflict within and between nations. The Human Factor why perse- 1. Thematic based to bring out a core of know- cution7 Whyprejudice? The Nature/ ledge. Nurture controversy. Current affairs co !2. Eachltheme can ('*aw upon any of the major operation and conflict in the world today. social science perspective and skills. .3. Each theme to be based upon a core of key Thecourseinvolvesareasoflasting human lessons/experiences which have a social context, concerns as well as areas of oasic tact. Where i.e. that the activities and experiences offered matters of fact are concerned it should be made are relevant to the needs and interests of the clear to students that thereis not disagreement students and relate to the exi'sting value system about them. Where normative statements or ideolo- of students.Intheselessonsstudentsare gical positions are involved it is very important that trained to research and evaluate for themselves we do not show bias. The educator's personal a variety of views, opinions and explanations ideological and ethical positions using primary and secondary material. must not determine the views and/or facts made availableas 4. To relate as much as possible to real life and sources of evic'ence to the students. Contrasting current events. political/social/r :.viewsare made 5. To use the community as a resource. available where a ,ariety of views is held. 6. To encourage involvement of the community in the course and the use of the school's facilities. Evaluation 7. To make thecourseas student-centred as If students cannot express themseKes in the social possible so that each child can develop hisor context then they are not achieving the aims of the her natural skills and understanding. course. Most people's ability and points of view are reflected in what they do and what they say. Thus The work is to be presented through the appropri the evaluation must reflect the real-life situation if ate medium, in an orgarhsed manner which effecti- we are going to enable students to develop into vely conveys ideas, feelings and information. mature pemple who play responsible and construc- tively critical roles in society. Content There must be (a) an oral mode of evaluation Typical theme:, be:- and Oa) an examination of performance in 'real- life' situations within the community as wellas 1. Socia1iseeln Values, attitudes, skills of the within modes of evaluation. The suggestion that community. Variation between cultures. students should be assessed orally and in a practical D:,viance/C'nnformity. Relation of social- mannerisusuallymet withoppositionfrort isationtothe form and structwe of academics and examining bodies. Why? There is no;s_ society.Learningroles.Growingup, reason to suggest a written mode is more valuable Ef fe...ts of major agencies of socialisation or correct. It it. not uncommon for a CSE Board to family, education, peer group, friends. accept the oral mode when '0' Level Boards will Function of mass-media. not. This is a ridiculous situation the ability to teach is assessed during teaching practices and most R. Living Environments Content would depend job appointments are based on oral assessments in upon the school'senvirohment,e.g. the form cr, interviews, and yet teachers and other whether it was part of a rural or urban educationalists tend to oppose such innovations. community, but saould include the effect of the environment upon individuals (and The form of the evaluation could be:- vice-versa) and a study of the world of work, e.g. works experience in the form of (1) Written assessment 3 weeks placement in a work place and (a) a piece of extended research in the this should be linked to careers education. 4th year ef 2 - 3,000 words. 15% (b) a piece of extended research in the 3. RightsflResponsibilities Human needs. 5th year of 2 - 3,000 words. 15% Social and Legal rights. Rights of groups (cl a multiple choice examination, within the community, e.g.young children, covering all the main perspectives and workers, women,immigrants,0.A.P's, concepts to be taken at the end of mentally handicapped people. The Welfare the 5th year. State. 30% (continued on page 22) .108 19 ..'01RECTORY OF SOME ORGANISATIONS meeting place for the community. ,USEFUL FOR TEACHERS ENGAGED IN ,COMMUNITY STUDIES. CENTRE FOR EDUCATION ON WORLD DEVELOPMENT Compiled by John Turner Formally known as VCOAO, itis a coordinating in consideration has agencyfora number of bodies involved ; In compiling this short directory, education about the Third World. It has a large been given not only to how useful the organisation number of publications, some of them free,and might be in assisting the development of a course approach to in terms of their activities, but also in terms of how many of which stress the community understanding life in the Third World. One of the efficientthey wareinreplying. Teachers are information and advised to ccncentrate o,, those organisations who ,rost useful publications full of curriculum sourcesofinformationa "The development 'ere keen to become involved in the Puzzle" edited by N.L. Fyson. A new edition has (marked " below). recently been published. AGE CONCERN Bernard Sunley House, COMMUNITY RELATIONS COMMISSION, 60 Pitcairn Road. 15/16 Bedford Street, London SC2E 9HK. Mitcham, the Commission exists to Promote Surrey. Essentially Age Concern produces many leaflets and books education in the field of "Community relations". such as "The Elderly in Society" which is specifi Inthe present climate, and for the forseeable cally designed for schools, and a small booklet for future, this role will inevitably be one of providing pensioners entitled "Your Rights" which would be information and counteracting myths about immi- usefulfor young people working with elderly gration. The Commissionhassofarbeendistinct people. from the Race Relations Board established under of ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS, the 1968 Race Relations Act but by the time Box 514, publication of this edition the two bodies should 11 Redcliffe Gardens, have merged and will be called "The Commission London SW10. for Racial Equality". Exists to combat the problem of alcohol addiction The 'future of the new organisation seems a by the mutual support of members. It specifically little vague at the moment but one would expect "does not wish to engage in any controversy. them to continue providing a quantity of free neither endorses nor opposes any causes". It con- information for teachers, including those in multi. remain racial schools. The RRB publishes a bi-rnonthly centrates on enabling those who wish to newspaiSer called "Equals" which is very useful sober. back-up for those involved in teaching about race Itpublishesafreeinformationleaflet,a monthly magazine known as "SHARE", and it has relations. published a few books. COMMUNITY SERVICE VOLUNTEERS 237 Pentonville Road, AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL London N1 9NJ. 55. Theobalds Road, London, WC1P 8SP. A small, but expanding organisation which has two main features. One is a volunteer Programmewhich Thisisa worldwide Human Rights movement endeavours to place young volunteers in projects which works for the release of people imprisoned feature is a on political, religious or racial grounds.It also has away from their home area. The other capital growingsupplyofteachingpacks which are a major role in speaking out against torture, excellent support materials in many areas: Mental punishment and unfair trial. In addition to its centralised investigatory and Health, old age. physical handicap, playgroups, urban planning, social case work, appropriate tech- publishingrole,atlocallevel Amnesty groups "adopt" a named prisoner and campaign forhis/ nology. Forthcoming will be a directory of schools- her release by a variety of means. Many local based community projects (Summer 1977). groups are keen to establish links with schools. CONFEDERATION OF BRITISH INDUSTRY, 21 Tothill Street, CENTERPRISE, 136 Kingsland High Street, London SW1H 9LP. London E8. The CBI isincreasingly concerned to facilitate A flourishing community centre/meeting place/ learning about industry and commerce. The Con- bookshop/publishing company that has, from the federation hasestablished aprojectentitled "Understanding British Industry", which aims to beginning, set out to be a meaningful centre for the local community. They have published a number provide information and teaching materials via a Resource Centre, and to encourage or initiate links of books by local writers, such as "HackneyHalf- Term Adventure" and "Talking Blues". between school and industry on a step-by-step Centreprise is a model for a community organi- regional basis. sation that proWdes a mouthpiece as wail as a Part of the aim of the project is to build on 20 1 0 9 the basis of such school/industry links as the work based view of development; accordingly in addition experiencescheme,theTridentscheme, and to providing general background information on various projects. Third World issues, it may be possible to provide details of Third World Community projects and CONSERVATION TRUST, community life,for comparative ,purposes with 246 London Road, similar aspects of life in Britain. Ea rley, Reading, Contact the above address initially and you will RG6 1AJ. be referred to your local organisation. The trust exists to promote greater environmental awareness and understanding. It does this mainly RELEASE, 1 Elgin Avenue, throughthepublicationofrelevantmaterials London W9. including guides for teachers of various age groups, An important source of "alternative" information and the recent establishment of a resource library on the process of apprehension and sentencing in with which schcols may register. At pres.int the Britain. Though Release still publishes mostly on library is small but it is building up rapidly. the illicit drugs theme, it has broadened into other areas such as arrest abroad, women's rights, legal HELP THE AGED " advice, etc. The organisation concentrates on the publication In a smaller way, Release appears to be operat- of materials for schools. A well presented and ing in areas similar to those of the NCCL (who did useful book is now available entitled "People not not reply to our letters() Pensioners". Speakers can be provided. In addition, examples of Community Studies-type CSE RUNNYMEDE TRUST, syllabuses which involve some aspects of the life of 62 Chandos Place, elderly people can be provided. London, WC2N 4HG. Mainly usefulasasource of information ard MINORITY RIGHTS GROUP, material on 'roceissues. One of its mofit uneul Benjamin Franklin House, publications ;s "Ethnic minoi ities in Britain". 36 Craven Street, London WC2fq 5NG. SHELTER, 157 Waterloo Road, The Group publishes a number of reports on London SE1 8UV. minority issues around the world. These are often Ten years old now. Shelter has bJen the mcf:t heavy going for younger students. Christian Aid, influentialgroupcampaigningon theissues Cxfam and other "Third World" agencies have surrounding housing shortages and inadequacies in relevant and simpler materials though usually from Britain.It has a range of teaching materials, and a different perspective. MRG materials would be sub:section called "Young Shelter" and a regular most useful as teacher resources or libraly copies. newspaper called "Shelter News". Clear statistical/ factual information seems hard to obtain from NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR MULTI- them, and although they are keen to enter schools RACIAL EDUCATLON theirfinancialproblemsratherrestricttheir Information: Madeleine Blafteley, support activities for housing projects. Bishop Lonsdale College, Mickleover, TOCH 1, Forest Close, Derby, Wendover, DE3 5GX. Aylesbur y, The Association aims to promote changes in the Bucks, HP22 6BT. education system which will further the develop- A Christian-based voluntary social-service move. ment of a just multiracial society. As such itis a ment. A national programme of work projects is pressure group which presses for change. Those organised every year (for example: playschemes for interested would best join or establish a local group underprivileged children, holidays for physically to share ideas and coopi.ration. Failing this the handicapped,work in psychiatrichospitals), Association will provide for teachers information, mainly to attract those over 16 to tiy some fr.trn advice and expertise; it occasionally holds confe- of voluntary work. Nearly 1,000 branches exirt in rences and exhibitions. Britain.
OXFAM 274 Banbury Road, YOUNG VOLUNTEER FORCE Oxford. 7, Leonard Street, Oxfam's image seems tobe slowly changing. London EC2A 4A0. Nowadays inadditiontothelocal shops and This foundation has recently been increasingly regional offices which are primarily concerned with involved in social education projects, essentially the organisation of financial and moral support, what many Community Studies courses are about. the organisationis developing closer links with They will be able to provide examples of their schoolsthroughtheofficersofits education activities and ideas for developing courses. department. There isanincreasing amount ofmaterial available from Oxfam which takes a community-
110 21 1:IFFICIAL SERVICES (Continued from page 15) 3. An Oral Mode A prepared talk plus Owers Department of Health and Social Security to criticisms from staff. 20% Free informationonallaspectsofstatutory welfare benefits from: DHSS Leaflets Unit, Block 3. Evaluation of Practical Work An evaluation 4, Government Buildings, Honeypot Lane, of the students practical involvement in Stanmore, Middx. HA7 lAY. the community, e.g.the planning and operation of a community project. 20% Load Social Services Depot Most councils publish a directory of Social Services 100% for their area. It is a crucially important document and could form the quickest way ofgaining contacts and opportunities in the locality. Some Social Services department employ people speci- Thus it could be possible to establish a community- fically to liaise with schools. based course which is accepted by the examining boards and relates to the traditional school disci- Local "Unofficial" Groups plines. Most urban areas are well supplied with voluntary A Community-based curriculum offers students... coMmunity groups. experiences which can be deeply moving, meaning- It is a good idea to contact such groups early on ful and relevant. It allows an open attitude towards since they usually want to involve young peuple, education a genuine 'Great Debate' because it is are very active and are always closely in touch with continuous and allows everyone concerned with the real problems and needs of the local com- education to participate it involves the people of munity. t'oe community in an active way and not just the Contact isusuallyby a "domino-effect": consumersofthe educational product decided contact one, and you get names and addresces of upon by the experts. others. Start by finding a meeting place, or a legal However, for this to happen it requires consi- action centre, or a housing aid group, and work .derable changes in attitude by teachers and others from there. with their fingers in the educational pie. It requires headmasters, teachers, politicians, etc. to relinquish their power, to discuss and examine their ideas and actions and to share decision-making with all the interested parties. There is a basic conflict between the present ideologies and structure of schools (including those labelled as 'Community Schools') and the ideology and practice of a community based education. At the crux of it all is what the actual education is like and what it means to the learner. Community educationputsthisfirst. Experience has blatantly shown that this is how students want to be treated and how much enthu- siasm and motivation can be generated and how muchtln be achieved. Greg Charlton is at present Head of Community Studies, Thomas Bennett School, Crawley.
111 more developed and explicit educatiOntl;1 socio- logicalandepistemologicaltheoriesthanare evident in these papers. The second section examines aspects of the hidden curriculum with papers on each of the following: marking work, keeping files, text-books, the T.V. quiz and schooling teachers. The life of the schoolisrelatedto the wider social and politicalcontextofcontemporarycapitalism. Marks, school records, text-books and the right answers to quizes give a spurious objectivity to facts and promote calculative, passive and unimagi- native responses and attitudes in young people. ?EVIEW5 By such practices the next generation are well preparedtoconformtotherequirements of capitalist enterprises and state bureaucracies. The LORATIONS IN THE POLITICS OF last paper in this section argues that future tekhers 30L KNOWLEDGE are taught in theory to adopt liberal approaches d by Geoff Whitty and Michael Young but in practice are taught by traditional methods. shed by Nafferton Books at E2.95 Thus theliberalimage and stance of colleges of Publication: 1976 camouflage theirconservativepedagogy and d Group: Teachers thereby new recruits toteaching, cl,1,-,1: .ny rhetoric to the contrary, are successfully till"- o tr. collectionof papers provides a powerful perpetuate the existing practices of schooir.. ue ofexisting practicesin secondary Some attempts a-e made in the third section to ation and of the ideological support given to develop alternatives. The first paper here criticises tate system of education by such external but the transmission model of tecching and endeavours id institutions as the college of education, to construct an alternative approach based on the shing companies, the Schools' Council and the interactive reality of group processes and on the media. The contributors concentrate their experience,interest and personal autonomy of ses on how existing knowledge is culturally each individual. I thOroughly recommend the next duced for each new generation and they are twopaperswhichrelatetheexperiencesof d in their hostility to the way school know- practising teachers, ong in the field of Humanities isreified and uncritically transmitted to and the other in Physics, for they show what can s and students. The editors have attempted to be achievedin comprehensives despiteallthe de an intellectual framework based on Marxist constraints and difficulties. Teaching situations are ectives and the nascent sociology of know- constructed so that students gain confidence, have . The book isinthe tradition of Michael enjoyable exPeriences, take the initiative an,I gain g's earlier 'Knowledge and Control' and the understanding. Knowledge here at times is de- t Open University sociological reader, mystified. Of the remaining papers, one explores oling and Capitalism'. the nature and importance of media literacy and litreare four sections to this volume each the issues that audio-visual, technological develop- a very brief introduction by the editors. Part ments raise for schools and in the last the teachers leals with the politics of school subjects with of the White Lion Free School give an account of es about the teaching of English, Music, Social their struggles in establishing a new kind of school. es and Science. The banking concept of In the final section the limits to educational ition,inertknowledge .encapsuledwithin change are explored. The centralist and monopo- a disciplines which are reputed to reflect and listic nature of the Schools Council, the hidden nate the interests of traditional and existing Curriculum of the Stenhouse Humanities project, ral and economic elites, and expository styles the bureaucraticobstaclesthathavetobe aching with hierarchial relationships between overcome by schools wishing to develop Mode 3 ers and taught are forcefully attacked. For C.S.E.'s, changesin the world of educational uthors, knowledge is socially constructed and publishing, the culturally acquired inbuilt resist- what-is to count as knowledge should always ance of pupils to curriculum innovation in math- tgarded as problematic; knoWledge should ematics andfinallythehistory andinternal te rather than'subordinate the individual, and conflicts of the Rank and File group with the iht, feeling and action should be united to National Union of Teachers are each the subject of a public purpose. All very desirable. But the critical analysis. 'aof these 'papers appear so anxious to In all, this is a stimulating collection of essays orm existing classroom practices and initiate by teachers who are dissatisfied with the status ocialist alternatives that they fail to realise at quo. As is often the case with readers and perhaps, that their own Marxist theories and strategies as is to be expected with work attempting to break kewise be construed as problematic. If their new ground, the book taken as a whole lacks theo- atives are to convince a wider public, their retical clarity and coherence. I would like to see atical foundations must be underpinned by theimplicitMarxistassumptions made more 112 23 eicplialTnd the relationship between education on mentioned on several occasions in this book, yet the one hand and knoWledge, economic relations they appear on no syllabus (and very few of the and ruling class interests on the other elaborated recommended textbooks), Further, both the AEB and refined;lt is too often assumed that capitalism, and Oxford syllabuses have, potertially at lea..t, which incidently is never intellectually scrutinised shitted in the last few years more than an analysis in this book, is the only evil and that all school of their syllabuses would indicate. How then isthe practices both reflect and consolidate the existing sociology teacher to fund out what he is 'supposed' capitalistic social relations of production and the to teach? The answer would appear to be to attend ATSS conferences where chief examiners will give interestsoftherulingclass.Ifsocialismor collectivism or any other -ism or system were to be him a few priceless clues. And if his local education substitutedforcapitalismwouldnotsimilar authority doesn't agree, he can always buy the problems pertaining to the nature of knowledge, book of the event. The discussion papers are ext. emely variable in thedistributionofpower,thePurposeof education, the freedom of individual, and other content andstyle.On thetwoestablished perennial questions still be with us? As one contri syllabuses, Roderick Martinismost apologetic butor states, "there is no coherent Marxist theory about the conservative and conventional nature of of education", To develop such a theory in depth, the Oxford exam, while Tony Marks, as boss of the including epistemological considerations, and in British industry with probably the highest growth historical detail would require sustained intellectual rate over the last decade, is primarily concerned to effort. A book or series of books and not further emphasise AEB's drift towards 'theoretical and collections of papers and readers, devoted to this methodological pluralism': (Throughout the book, demanding task is wanted. As a teacher, I would incidentally,therearethe customary remarks agree with the practising teacher in the book who aboutthedreadedstructuralfunctionalismof claimed that, -pupils' understanding is the key Cotgrove's days at Aldershot. Was Sociology A is now issue". levelinthe late 1960s really as bad as Itis a challenge to all radical teachers in the implied?) present time of retrenchment to openly criticise Of the three new syllabuses, the JMB's is educational conservatism. The Black Papers with probably the most widely known already, and one alltheirpublicityneedrefuting.This book certainly gets the impression that Ian Shelton (who contains theintellectual seeds and insights for wrote the discussion paper reprinted here) and his theory and practice for further development and colleagues put more thought and planning into chancie. To those seeking radical paths in educa- their course than went into either the London or tion these papers should open some doors and Cambridge exams. Ths JMB syllabus, for example, widen others. is the only one to give details of the knowledge required and the abilities to be tested in the exam. Paul T. Abbt My only reservation abouttheir courseis that Codsall High School many of the teachers, let alone students, will have thfficulties with the knowledge and skills the JMB expect, but thatis perhaps a criticism more of sociology teachers than the JMB. SOCIOLOGY: THE CHOICE AT A LEVEL Unfortunately there is least detail in this book Edited by Geoff Whitty and Denis Gleeson for the on the London and Cambridge syllabuses, which is ATSS somewhat ironlc as these are the two coueses which Published by Nafferton Books and available from have not yet been examined, and therefore are Heather Clark, 54 Redbridge Lane West, Wanstead, leastknown about. Both are comparative and London, Ell 2JU at £1.80 plus 25p. p&p. 'macrosociologicar in perspective, the Cambridge Date of Fublication: 1976 representatives, Terry Johnson and Sidney Target group: Sociology teachers Holloway, rnaking the point that their syllabus is based on the 'belief that students will benefit more Based on the proceedings of the ATSS conference, by a comparative study of societies than by a Sociology in the Social Sciences, 16-19, held at the comparative study of sociologies'. theydislike, many UniversityofKeelein1975, 'Sociology: The Faced with a syllabus Choice at A Level' consists of brief discussion teachers begin muttering about the advantages of PaPers given by representatives of the five relevant a Mode II/Ill scheme. Loughton College ofFurther examining boards, 'conference comments', and the Education are one of the few institutions to take syllabuses, booklists, specimen, exam papers etc this muttering a stage further, and Allan 'Rowe that the sociology teacher needs in order to decide provides a highly useful account of his and his which exam to enter his students for. In part then, colleagues' efforts to establish a Mode II/Ill A level this is really a handbook of essential information Sociology course.Clearly,formost sociology for the sociology teacher. teachers a Mode III A level is not really a valid or But perhaps the most interesting theme running Possiblealternative, but Loughton's schemeis through the book is the differences between the Perhaps the most positive attempt yet to overcome- syllabuses and what the examining boards actually the many disadvantages of a conventional Mode I. want from A level sociology students. For example. examination. 'phenomenology'and'ethnomethodology' are
24 113
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Social Class Differences in Britain: a sourcebook Iyan Reid In one volume all the key data on class in British society, as it affects work, income, birth, health, death, family and home, education, politics, religion, leisure and opinion. MARCH 1977 AB £5.75 BB £2.95 .11 Developments in Social Studies Teaching Denis Gleeson and Geoff Whitty One of ten volumes in the CHANGING CLASSROOM series (General Editor:John Eggleston), this book traces developments over the last decade, and particularly the growth of the 'New Social Studies'. 'An important contribution to the task of bringing social studies to the Schools and making sure that when it is there it is alive and responsive...should be widely read.' THE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHER OCTOBER 1976 BB 4:190 PB £1.75 Approaches to -the Study of Social Structure ,edited by Peter M BlauJANUARY 1976 Mi £5.50 PB £2.90
Open Books Publishing Ltd 11 Goodwin's Court London WC2N 4LB FE --Fr Open Books Telephone 01-240 2107 114 Gerard O'Donnell
First published less than two years ago, this bookhas been widely adopted not only as an 0 level text (and as anintroductory text for A level sociology), but also as a source of stimulating materialfor non-examination general end liberal studies courses in schools and Colleges ofFurther Edubation. In a survey by The Social Science Teacher of seventeentextbooks for GCE and CSE sociology and social science, whichbegan by lamenting the fact that among these there were "so fewsurprises, so few challenges te the intellect or to the emotions", the firstedition of The Human Web stood apart from the crowd: "This book seems to have been written with theintention, not of conveying lots of information, but to provoke discussionand stimulate the students' imagination. Many points are raised whichwould make the student look at the society he is living in and so form his ownopinions rationally." Likewise in a survey of seven sociology textbooksby The Times Educational Supplement, the book was singled out: "O'Donnell ranges wider than the rest tor his examplesand is as concerned with general and liberal studies as with 0level:He adopts the most humane approach, not aiming to pack in all the facts andconcerned with the vagaries of life as much as with its routines." The violcome, jargon-free approach-is-preservedin the second edition, but the intormation that is provided in a varietyof graphs, tables, diagrams, maps and photographs has been updated wheresignificant and footnotes appended whele relevant. Publication July £1.95 Inspection copies from John Murray, 50 Albemarle Street, London W1X4BD. Roland Meighan's ATSS Paper, 'Is an integrated volume will realise why his reputation in his native Social Science A levelpossible?',isreprinted, Germanyisrather more substantial. The nine though, as Meighan himself admits, there seems essays, some appearing for the first time in English little demand for an integrated approach, and I am (and the translations are excellent), cover a wide not at all convinced that he makes a suf ficiently range, from education and the mass media, through strong case to be able to answer his question in the crime and treason, a portrait of Trujillo, a brief affirmative. history of nineteenth century Russian revolution- So the sociology teacher appears to have a aries, and an account of the shortcomings of the 'choice' of five syllabuses to subject h's students to Cuban CP, to' an indictment of Western socialists' for a couple of years. And who are the wise and superficialaccounts ofEasternEurope, and a wonderful people who decide what thcse sylbibuses brilliant analysis of the ecological movement and - shallconsist of ? And, more importantly. what its role in capitalist societies. counts as vahd sociological knowledge intheir The refreshingaspect othis bookisthat respectivecourses?Not 'surprisingly,Alevel Enzensberger is determined to generate a genuinely sociology courses reflect different academic views Marxist account of matters from which other on the nature of sociology. The Cambridge course Marxist writers have tended to shy away. At any is almost identical in perspective to the Leicester rate, I've never read a Marxist analysis of conser- approach tosociology (both Johnson and vationism, let alone such a thoroughly credible one Holloway teachatLeicester)? the JMB course as this,Itis possible to conduct a dialogue with refleCts the interests of the north-western ethnorne- this writing itis certainly impossible simply to thedologists;Oakley,writingoftheLondon absorbit.Every page has a phrase or sentence course, says 'teachers who are sociology graduates which can stand alone as a stimulus either to solo of London University will not find the new A level thinking or to seminar discussion. syllabusunfamiliar',whileMar. ;n,writingin I don't want to play the game of arguing what similar vein, admits that 'the Oxford examination kind of Marxist Enzensberger is this tends to be paper reflects the professional judgement of most a pretty sterile activity but a passage in the last Oxford socio:Aists'. AEB lacks the academic and essay is a key to his approach: "Marxist theory too iristitutional constraints ot the other boards, and. can become afalse consciousness if, ,instead of perhaps as a result of this as much as conscious being usedfor the methodical investigation of choice, currently seems less closely linked to any reality through thenry and practice, it is misused as one particular sociological perspective. a defence against that very reality. Marxism as a In pr.actice, of course, the title of this book is a defence mechanism, asa talisman againstthe misnomer, end many of the contributors base their demands of reality. 35 a collection of exorcisms comments on the assumption that the sociology these are tendencies which we all have reason to leacher will be able to weigh up the pros and cons take not of and to coirbat." He isat his most of each syllabus, and decide which one is most pungentlycriticalwhenhe iswritingabout suitable for him and his students. Itis much more abstracted theoreticians, especially those who go as likely that he is told which board's exams to teach, tourists to Eastern Europe, Russia or Cuba and simply because his school or college enters all its ignore the sheer hard slog of building a Communist candidates for that particular board's exams. The society but prefer to sit"in their hotel rooms, proliferation of sociology A level courses is not to arguing about Lukacs": be welcomed becauseitoffersteachers more These essays are the work ofapractising choice, but becauseitpotentially 'off eis mote Mat xist, one who is determined to demonstrate the students the opportunity uf studying sociology :elevance of Marxist analysis to all aspects of life A level for the first time. And fai those colleges in capitalist society, and to face up to the short and schools thinking of offering sociology at A comings cf his colleagues on the Left and of con levcl thisisan invaluable book to put into the temporary sociahst societies. Every analysis is at hanus of the prospective teacher the same time a programme for action, and the phrase "the contradictions of capitalism" is given Paul Cooper, meaning in all kinds of contexts. South Downs CFE, Hants. At £3.30 for the Paperback this is no bargain, and it would be relevant student reading only for underguiduate (or postgraduate) Marxism seminars, but a copy for your own bookshelf will be read RAIDS AND RECONSTRUCTIONS: and re-read as a stimulus to Marxist praxis. The ESSAYS IN POLITICS, CRIME AM" CULTURE f orstessay, atleast, on the "mind industry'',is By Hans Magnus Enzensberger worthwhile reading for ail Marxist teachers. Published by Pluto Press at £3.30 paperback £7 50 hrdback Pat McNeill Date of publication: Novemuer 1976 St. Albans CFE. Herts Hans En lensberger's reputation ei this country os based on ,er y little published matet la! Penguin Modern European Poets 1968, and a couple of articles in the New Left Review. Readers of this 2c; 116 powerful ideology of women's oPpression. -11113MAN'S ESTATE In the final chapters. Mitchell discusses the 'By Juliet Mitchell :Published by Penguin Books at 60p family. She points to the major contradictions in the family in capitalist society. Onthe one hand :First published 1971, reprinted 1976 family unity is extoled, on the othercapitalism. itself, by separating the home fromproduction is Juliet Mitchell's 'Woman's Estate" stillremains the Women's move- 'pulling the family apart. To fully understand one of the classics of the British family in capitalist society we need to understand ment. Although the area it covers hassince been and its dealt with in greater detail, the book remains an both its relation to the mode of production important contribution both to the analysis of the internalpsychology. To comprehend this PsY- background of the women's movement and of the chology Mitchell defends Psychconalysis ana the work of Freud. -oppression of women. still find much in it The book is written for women and all those On returning to this book I of interest and consider students will findit stimu interested in the women's movement. It does not inthe require a detailed knowledge of this area, although lating.Obviouslyrecentdevelopment women's movement and the law leave gaps inthe an acquaintance with the politicaldevelopments of the 1960's may assist the reader during the early book and not surprisingly many of the areas Mitchell covers have been subsequently dealt with part of the book. book The book is divided into two sections. Part one in greater detail by others. Part One of the may well need to be supplementedfor what was of the book covers the background, organisation, history to endphilosophiesof thewomen's part of our generations experience is demands todays students. movement. Despite this however the book stands up well to The rise in women's consciousness and women 's especially politics is traced to the rise of radicalism in the the test of time and the second section 1960's, This led to a new awareness by certain will be of great use to wachers and students groups in societyiif their own oPPression,Particu- particularly those on 'A' level courses. larly women, blacks, youth and students. Given a new confidence these groups began toarticulate Helen Lentelt and develop a conception oftheir positionin Grantham CFE, Lincs. society and to unite under a shared awarenessof oppression. This experience was not unique to Britain,andMitchelldescribes the developing women'smovement in four otherwestern THE FEMININE MYSTIQUE countries. No exact programme is shared by these By Betty Friedan countries, other than a commitment towomen's Supplied by Penguin at 90p liberation and in Britain the movement has pursued Date of publication: First publishea 1963 in Penguin 1965, 1968, a broad-based programme.Mitchell discusses the unique collective organisationofthe women's 1971, 1972, 1976 movement, and givesusefuldefinitions of the Target group or target syllabus: terminology used in the women's movement General interest, useful for social science Chauvinism, sexism, feminism etc. teachers and 'A' level students the final chapters of Part One, Mitchell In This is a very readable book, hardly "pure"socio- discusses the broad political spectrum represented a for women's movement. She alsoreviews logy,butitwouid be usefulas basis inthe discussion with 'A' level and '0' level students. The critically the failure of the socialist movement to 331 pageS, not only take seriously, but also toundertake a more diligent could plough through the forwomen's oppressionin the less diligent could usefully dip into it. thoroughanalysis The message is clear; Betty Friedan thinks that I feel her trenchant capitalistsociety. Whilst the frustration suf fered by educated womenis a defence of the viability of the women's movement direct result of middle-class, educatedAmerican united under such a diverse umbrella as "feminism" is their (a position suppor: .1:1 by sub- womenfulfillingwhattheybelieve to be mistaken that of being primarily a wife and sequent events) her criticism of the socialist feminine role movement has certainly been followed by some mother. She sees this belief as being a direct cause thisdirection.Her ofeverythingf rom divorced, depressed, drug- notabie contributiom from taking mothers to their delinquent, dependent and discussionofthe contribution ofthe socialist analysis of drug-taking children. movement in this area entails a useful Her solution to this problem is the belief that the work of Engels and Firestone. women should be socialised to lookfurther than The second part of the book covers the op. baby. pression of women in some detail, and will be the altar, the kitchen and breast feeding the especially useful to 'A' level sociology students.In She thinks that girls who do well at school and go on to college often do not do as well asexpected chapter five, Mitchell locates women's oppression in the sexual division of labour, in reproduction ,in because they are not interested in "involvement societal definitions of women's sexuality andin .with the life of the mind" because the one lesson a girl could hardly avoid learning,if she went to socialisation. She demonstrates how these diverse college between 1945 and 1960, was not to get socio-cultural forces combine to Produce a 28 1 11 nterested, seriously interested, in anything besides withdrawsitsfinancialsupportfromits own ettin n. married and having children, if she wapte_cf Disasler Research Unit two steps forward, one 6 be normal, happy, adjusted, feminine, have a bacIrc? ucCessfulhusband,successfulchildren, and a Disaster research is a growing field of academic lormal feminine, adjusted and successful sex hfe. activity and one which involves social scientists BettyFriedanbelievespassiunatelyinher withotherspecialistsastheoreticiansand as zuse; her credentials are Impressive: her refelences applied scientists in the attempt to devise effective ire full, useful and interesting but somehow, even pre-disaster plans and emergency relief programmes. or me, a working mum, the book didn't convince Unsurprisingly.since the most catastrophic disasters ne. Generalisations from her own studies of a occw ip the Third World the focus of attention has iousewife named Mrs W. orascientist named heen there. Ars D. made me think the book had been written Itisvvoi th commenting I think on the broad o be seriatisedfor'Cosmopolitan' and indeed consensuswhich hasemergedamong social iktracts (lid appear in women's magazines. scientsts working in this field about tart nature of However, she has consulted or refers to work disasters in the Third World. Rather than focussing gynaecologists. professors,leadingcareers on precipitating events such as hurricanes, or vomen, psycho-analysts and sources as diverse as earthquakes on droughts, or writing every problem Jorthcote Parkinson, DI Spock, Mir ra offas due to 'over-population', the emphasis is Comourovsky, Dr A C Kinsey and f3runo Bet telheim placed on the socio-economic circumstances which tndI think perhaps, had she stuck to researchers make populations especially vulnetable to environ- ike the last three, it may have made a better socio mental hazards. Crucially attention is drawn to the ogy book though perhaps not such a readable one. 'development of under-development' (key books rhe notes at the end of the book are very usef ul here are Frank A. 1971"Capitalism & Under- Ind would prove to he so to an 'A' level student. development in Latin America'' Penguin, rhere ere interesting chapters on the development Cockcroft J. 1972'Underdevelopment Latin it the w'omen's movement in the USA, the role of America's Pohtical Economy' Doubleday, Amin.S unctionalism and itsinfluence on women, 1974 'Accumulationona worldscale and a caching them, she bfflieves, how to 'play the rnle critiqueofthetheoryofunderdevelopment' if woman' and a chapter on how Freud's theories Monthly Review Press & Rodney. W. 1972 'How lave been usedto make worTien believe they Europe Underdeveloped Al rice' Bogle- hould he happy at home catering for the needs of D'Ouverture/Tanzanian Publishing House/ Under- lusband and chikiten. development is not seen as a state prior to develop- The teacher could find many extracts 1 loin this ment asinthe liberalversions of development wok which could . be used asthe basistora theory. but as a state which arises on the perifery discussion with classes doing CSE Social StudieS ot of economic empires as a diiect result of economic group doing 'A' level sociology. For instance one growth of the metropolitan powers. :ould use an extract hom the chapter initilled Itis a negative dynamic process which can be 'The Happy Housewife Heioine- forstudents identified with the aptyopriation of prbduction in ooking at the position of women in society, the the Third World tor use in the developed world ocialisation process orthe mass meth.] andit i.e. what enables us to have ow cake and eat it. In would be useful and stimulating dt various levels. its 20C t OrrIl this has entailed the olionalisation of The book is somewhat dated; itis only about Third IrVorld economies as suitable satellites to the niddle-class, educated Amer 'can women but never industrialisednations. The forms such rational- .heless itisfull of information and Ithink many isation has taken have been many and pervasive: ludents would enjoy reading it and many teachers the ieplacement of mixed zrop subsistence agri- would f ind it useful to have on their shlves. cuhuialsystemsbased onaccumulatedloCal ecological knowledge with cash mono-cropping for Marron Parsons export ; food puichasefor subsistence and Th? SiomManning School. London techniques of production often quite inappropriate torlocal cological conditions; the redistribution of Lind to taciatate the replacement of peasant agrianture with lamer scale capitalist farms worked PUBLICATIONS OF THE DISASTER by 'landless labourer S; the c'estruction of local craf t RESEARCH UNIT, BRADFORD UNIVERSITY. industriesthrough the penetration of imported 'Disasters;aninternationaljournalof disaster industrial goods; the purposeful development of itudies and practices' Pergammon Press consumer demandforimported products; the development Or an undusti ial sector largely owned PUBLICATIONS OF THE INSTITUTE OF DEV E. and Controlled hy and in the interests of expatriot LOPMENT STUDIES, SUSSEX UNIVErISITY capital; massive I ethstribution of the population 'Review of Afririan Political Economy' No's 1 and 2 away from the countryside to tne town as opport u- ties inr ui al areas diminish. Allthesr. and other rhis January saw the publication of the first issue tendencies ,ernove control the local environ- at'Disasters' a glossy periodical devoted to the ment horn local populations and destroy Interdisciplinary study of disaster phenomena and traditional adaptations which have been developed ,n Autumn this year the Unenrsity of Bradford to resist and cope with extreme natural phenomena. 118 29 In short the needs of_Indigenous populations have prices are available from D.R.U. University of become marginal to the needs of multinational cor- Bradford 7, Yorkshire. porations and third world elitesfor profit and 'Disasters'Vol 1 No 1 ispublishedby economic 'growth'. Pergammon Press at £8.00 subscription for indivi- One ofthe publicationsfrom Bradford duals.Itis unclear at prenent how many issues VTowards anExplanationand Reductionof there will be per year.Itis well produced and Disaster Proneness 19751 rernments on Hurricane illustrated but seems expenske compared with the Fifi which hit the Atlantic Coast of Honduras in Bradford Papers and something worries me about September1974,killed 8000 people,injured theinvolvement of multinationalpublishers in 130,000, caused $450 million of damage and gave disasterresearch. However despite thisit 4eems a negative growth rate to the economy of -6% likely that this publication will be the major source .1974-76. What made the hurricane so disastrous of information in this field in the future carrying were the social and economic circumstances ot the original articles, reprints of conference papers and disaster area. In this area most of the fertile valley conference reports. The first issue contains, among bottom land had recently been appropriated by other items, an interesting paper on the problems two large American fruit companies for banana of gathering and interpreting information on the plantations. The peasants who were dispossessed Sahelian famine and an article by Wisner, O'Keefe by this, moved up the nillsides to make gardens for and Westgate (all once associated with the D.R.U.) themselvesontheforested vOey sides.The called 'Global systems and Local Disasters; the removal of the vegetation rendered the valley sides untappedpowerof people'sscience' his unstable,sothat when the hurricane arrived compares Kenya, where indigenous 'cal massive landslips occurred damming water courses knowledge and local adaptations to the env eon- and causing loss oflifethrough drowning and ment have been undermined by capitalist develop- burial. While considerable damage was caused to mentleavingpopulations highly vulnerable to the banana plantations the major losers were the environmental hazards, witi; FRELIMO's peasants who losttheirland holdings for the Mozambique where local knewledge was a major secondtime,andwereatleast temporarily resource in liberation and recronstruction. deprived of subsistence, if not life and health. The African Environment Special Reports are It is worth noting that Hurricane Tracy which published by the International African Institute hit Darwin Australis in the same year was of the (210 High Holborn London WC 1V 78W) and same windspeed as Hurricane Fifi. In both areas although their topics range rather further than hurricanesarefairly common and both have disasters there types of phenomena are well repre- . adequate early warning systems.Yet the loss of life sented.SpecialReport No 1 (E1.50)iswide at Darwin was only 49 and reconstruction was ranging in cont:nt, otners are more specific: No 2 rapid, while in Honduras the loss of life was 8000 'Drought and Famine inEthiopia' (E2), No 3 and reconstruction has scarcely begun. "Why with 'Cholera in Africa' (an epidemiological study of the such parallel conditions was the impact so much 1970-75 epidemic a detailed case study to read more serious in Honduras than in Australia? The with the widely published paper by Hughes and answer lies in the degree of vulnerability of the two Hunter"Disease and 'development'in ro societies in the degree of marginalise:inn. Similar Dreitzel'TheSocialOrganisationofHealth' examples will be familiarso';eaders of Susan McMillan 1971.) Further Special Reports in prepa- George's admirable Penguin; "How the other half rationinclude'Land use and developmentin die" 1976. Africa', 'Drought in Africa' and 'An Analysis of the The publications reviewed here then develop Somali Drought'. thetheoryofdynamic underdevelopmentin The Institute of Development Studies at the :elationindisasterproneness.Understandably University of Sussex carries a very large number of since this entails a political-economic critique of titleson developmenttopics. A catalogueis current directions in Third World Development this available from Bridget Osborn., I.D.S. Communi- does not nroduee any easy solutions for reducingcations., N12., Institute of Development Studies., disaster proneness but points to programmes of University of Sussex. Brighton BN1 9RE. political and economic which give control over the Lastlyforthose interestedin the political- local environment to those who work there and to economy of underdeveloprnent per se, 'The Review the development of indigenous production techni- of AfricA Political F ,onomy' subscription E1 .50 ques based on traditional ecological knowledge a p.a./singlecopies7:.ip ispublished by Merlin line with which readers of the New Internationalist Press.,Sufferance Warf WestFerry Road will be familiar. LondonE.14.Thefirstissuecontains what The publications oftheBradfordDisaster promises to be aclassic paper Meillassoux Research Unit are cheap but well produced. Out of 'Development or Exploitation; is the Sahel Famine fourteen titles seven are still currentlY available and good business', and number 2 is devoted to the an eight (African Drought A Review') is sub- topic of multinationals in Africa. stantially available as an article in African Environ- ment-Special Report No 1. The topics include Roger Gomm general works terd bibliographies on disasters and Stevenage CFE, Herts. disaster planning and studies ot specific disaster situations including Flixborough (Ne 7). A list and 30 119 ASSOCIATION FOR THE TEACHING OF SOCIAL SCIENCES No. 8 SOCIAL RESEARCH AS A TEACHING STRATEGY
by Charles Townley (Preston Polytechnic)
I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand. Anon.
such well.known names as Dewey, Pestalozzi and Rousseauto Comenius and Socrates. However, "Mere activity does not constitate experience."(2) DRIEFING5 Itis important to reflect upon the activity, to relate itto what .ve already know and to discuss the contequences whi,-h flow from it. Then the The main reason for undertaking Sociological field- activity becomes meaningful. This is particutarly wa( of any kindisto develop understanding true of social research. The activity, being a worth- through experience. Of coursethisis an aim while activity in its own.right, must also he viewed associated with almost allforms of teaching: it as a means to an end. It is the discussion and reflec- could be applied to a teacher lecwring to a group. tion it generates before, during and after the event Itisthe nature of 'he experience which varies which produce the insights and the understanding though, for many students, learning experiences and thus promote learning. Sociology is a discipline are limited to reading and to passive lisuming. The which attempts to make sense of the world and it advantage of using fieldwoi k as a form of enactive does so through its own concepts and structures, learning is that it can develop insights which are whichare distinctfrom those of psychology. deeper, longer lasting and more transferable than economics arid history. Social research is a Jaluable d.ose obtained without such experience. means of making sense at first hand of some small These insights are not confined to tne substance portion of that world by using the structur-.3 and of tne study or to the fieldwork methods which concepts of Sociology to analyse it. In undertaking mioht be emploved but can be developed in other the research students come to understand not only areas of Sociology as well. It is precisely because it thatPortionofthe world at which they are can be used 'todevelop understanding in,for looking, but also the concepts and structures of the example, theory or social structure that fieldwork discipline. is such a valuable teaching strategy. But its value is One example of the way this understanding notjustconfinedtothe cognitive sphere,it begins to develop can be seen when one starts to provides experiences wnicil also have personal and consider what kind of research to undertake, for further educational benefits. there is more than one kind to consider. Research Thereare many form; offieldwork. Most paradigms and methods are directly linked to the involve visits to a form.., ergaription of some sort dif ferent theoretical perspectives which sociologists to an industrialfirn.,to 51e law courts, to a use to view and analyse the social world. Thus the nursery, to an old people's home, ro a prison. Here classical research paradigm es consistent with, and the role of the student is largely thm of a passive derivedfrom,apositivist view of society. It observer. In the case nf social research, hcw wer, establishes a hypothesis and then seeks to isolate students may become actively involved at every certain variables, to quantify them and to identify stage of the project, from theinitialdecisions relationships between them in order to prove or about what to study and where to go, to the final dispiovethe hypothesis.Itisconcerned with step of producing a repert. It thus ,121; the advain norms and trends and prediction. It is the paradigm tage ofproviding"intrmsic"motivation, a w,thin which most sociological research has been .differentsortofmotivation from thea'I.*.00. organised. Typical examples are the community common external, instrumental motive of studiesofFrankenberg,Williams,Dennis and obtaining a qualification, which dominates many Stacey, the educability studies of Swift and Halsey examination classes. "An intrinsic motive is one and the embourgeoisement studies of Goldthorpe that does riot depend upon reward that lies outside and Lockwood. More recent researches reilect the the activity it impels. Reward inheres in the success- 'new perspectives' in Sociology and operate within ful termination of that activity or even in the a phenomenological or imerprerive paradigm. Thus activity itself." CI) recent studies of devian and ofclassrooms have Learning through activity is noi, by any means,focused less upon a constri.ming normative order new or radical. Its advocates can be traced through buthavestressedinsteaothemeanings and 120 rpretatione attributed to processes and situa- for 'team meetings', or identifying decisions to be i by the individuals involved. made. making the decision over which paradigm to The first decisions will concern what to study the teacher has an oPportunity, depending on and where. maturity and experience of the studente either Itis important ismotivation that the team aise for the first time the differences and limita. should determine which areas of social life they s of each theoretical perspective or to explore wish to examine and how they will tackle them. reiationshipbetweentheory and practice Inevitably, because of inexperience, they will make On each, perspective more fully. This classroom many mistakes; they may want to take on more ossion becomes .allthe more effectiveif the than they can reasonably cope with, they may not :her hastwodefinite,concreteresearch define thenareaspreciselyericeagli, they may Posals which can be used for comparison and if choose areas for which data is not easily accessible. fence is made to the research de.iigns which It important that they should be allowed to lerpinned any findings with which the class is make mistakes: We learn irom mise-kes. It is up to ady familiar. the teacher to ensure that the mistakes are handled in such a way that the group does learn from them. en to do it. Th,s raises the question of ....Men is It may be that by asking questions, such as, "How ood time to undertake a research ordiect. To 'do you feel about taking on so many areas?" or le extent it will depend on the students. Itis 3 "Whac sources of data were You thinking of using?" Ilenging and potentially very rewarding the team will modify its initial decision. If not it's erience to begin a Sociology course with such a up to the '.7.onsultant' how hard he negotiates with ject, but such a venture would be inappropriate them. In the last resort what might be deemed a h all but the most mature students, for example failure in terms of research can still prove to be a V.E.A. class or an evening 'Alevel class of very valuable learning experience. The faCt that a ilts. The younger thit students, for example a team is unable to prove or disprove conclusively, ool '0' level group, :he more desirable it is that for example, that the influence ot the church is y should have some common ground before a declining in a particular area does not mean that 7 is made. It is helpful with a group like this if they have not learned a great deal about the socio- ryone has 'covered' some of ;he basic syllabus logy of religion, questionnaire construction, attitu- itent such as family, leisure, class. wore 2nd des and values, in addition to considering why their iiance. Thenitbecomes easier to maximise efforts were inconclusive and how the research ticipation :rom the outset when all the students design might have been changed. ie some 'relevant' point of departure. However. The choice of areas to be researched will almost later in the course one leaves it the more likely certainly be based upon the students' experience of S that student contributions will be constrained the syllabus so far. If one intends to incorporate a what they have studied already and one loses research project into a course itis worth keeping ne of the 'freshness' arid originality which might this in mind and ensuring that popular topics have re been displayed earlier.' been introduced before the project starts. If this is not possible then tKese topics should be suggested to the team, for the understanding which can he w to begin. "Sociological research assembles. fostered during the project is too important to be 'anises and interprets the facts that heln us to neglected. 1lain human society."131 The project should Areas wh:ch have been successfully incorpo. lect, asfaras possible, all the activities and rated into past projects include:- scedures of any'professional'research pro- Community imme. This imphjethat all the students should Extended and nuclear families regarded as team members or partners. In this Old people ie. it is useful to assume that the 'team' has the Conjugal roles ponsibility for defining the areas of enquiry f.Tocial networks d. that the teacher is a consultant, called in to Social class and class consciousness wise on 'research design' and 'data processing'. Occupation and social mobility is enables the teacher to ask questions about the Usl of leisure mance of the research, so helping the students Education clarify substantive cr 'academic' issues and, in Shopping and consumption patterns dition, to deal with procedural questions. If this Religion and Church attendance vice is adopted then it becornes desirable for the Newspaoer remiership jrid reading habits im to have a student coordinator or chairman, Televi;ion viewing patterns co-ordinate the organisation of the nroject. Organisations lowing the group helps to decide whether one rower /ours election or apPointment but, sticking to Attitudes Itt democratic and educational principles, one Values ould allow the group to eiect its own leader. It is It. difficult to support whoever is elected in a A convenient method of co-ordinating several of sitive but unobstrusive manner, often by helping these areas is to make the project into a community delegate and share the tasks, drawing up agendas study. The literature is rich in illustrations, with 12 useful summaries of severalin Klein (1965) and now share common goals and tasks. The forma Frankenberg (1966). This has the advantage of operation involvedingathering data and, providing broad theoretical frameworks as back- organisiriy it, perhaPs over a drink in a comr ground. For example, one can look at a commu deered lounge, and the informal cooperatio nityin'thecontextofsocialchange using sharing driving, or finding addresses, or a lu Durkheim's concepts of mechanical and organic time game of darts, or a packed lunch on a vil solidarity, or Toennies's Gemeinschaft and Gesell. green, all help to develop an atmosphere which schaft, or Frankenberg's morphological continuum. only promotes learning at that point in time It may be possible to examine two contrasting facilitates co-operation and group learning ( e communities, perhaps *using half the class in one group members take responsibility for each oti situation and half the class in the other, say one learning) for me remainder of the course. ruraland one industrial. The areas chosenfor Of course there are problems of cost and t investigationby,the team willprovide usefC tabling. Some local authorities will pay ail or indecos of 'community', cultural dif ferences and of the costs if they are in the year's buduet change. plan well ahead. Get it into next year's estir If one decides to adopt this approach the most NOW. In any event one can keep down the cos suitable methods to employ are those of a social using cheap accommodation like youth hostels survey, though this should be a question for nego- fieldwork centres, or even by negotiating spi tiation. Phenomenological research is more partyrate.swithsmall hotels, perhaps 'oul difficult to organise with a large group; most of the season'. tf there are timetable problems try u methods employed within this paradigm, e.g. parti the vacwaon. cipant observation, are more suitable for use by Rural locations offerseveral advantages individualsor very smallgroups. (For a good such surveys. They contain 'communities' w example of work with students in this sphere see are of a manageable size, whose boundaries Ian Shelton's article, "The Sociology of Everyday more clearly-detMed and which provide oppc Life", in the Social Science Teacher, Volume Four, nities to use a wide variety of sources and meth Number One, 1974). One group, for example, was abie to use sou There are two main advantages to using the and methods i-anging from the County Rec social survey. Of tico and the parish registers to participant ot vationatthe village bingo evening, the Sur (1) Itprovides an ollustraticeof riparadigrn services in church, the 'local', the cattle market within wirich the bulk of acaciamic research the fish quay, in addition to the usual quantitz has, so far, been undertaken, arid which is methods of questionnaires and interviews. stillwidely used by no4ernrnent, market re Ari.rch and opinion pollster.. How to prepare. The pt eparation may convenie be subdivided into the ethical. the academic (2) Itis only by using a parti,:ular method and the practical. experiencingthedifficultiesand inade- quacies implicit within it that students can a.Ethical. In social research of any descrip develop any real understanding ot its inade- the researcher is intruding into the privacy of o quacies and limitations. In this way one can people (even through records). "It is importan begin to develop the 'healthy scepticism' so keep students away from the pubhc at large. essentialto sociologists and some insight subjects of sociological enquiry, unlike Nuti into the socially constructed quality of cate- frogs, can and do object" 14)I could not dose gories and assumptions. more strongly vvith this prescription. In over years of fieldwork I have never met objecti The final decision to be made at this stage of Rejections,yes. But these can behail the proceedings is where the survey will be made. courteously. Clearly, though, care is needed. The location will depend upon the funds and time It is important, therefore, that a group abor. available. There are enormous advantages to taking embark upon 3 survey should not only 'be tok a group away for about 4 to 6 days despite the 'be made aware of' the ethical problems invo inhibitionsofcost. 'On location' a grouo will but, probably through discussion, should hay, usually spend at least twice as much time 'ontask' opportunity to develop h commitment to cer as, it would operating from school or college on a principles which will governtheir behaviou, daily basis. Free from all ttia distractions of daily the field and, inparticular, utIhighlightt travel and domestic 'responsibilities'(e.g. club, obligationsto respondents and their treatn newspaper round, children) a grouo may work on of them. One can ask the warn how they wi different tasks, mixing work and pleasure in a con- feelif somebody knocked on their door WI' structive way, for up to twe!ve hours a day. The questionnaire, perhapiinthe middle of ar quality of the work is usually far superior too, as or a T.V. programme. And what sort ofis the degree of involvement and sense of put pose would they not want raised, quite apart from I increases in the new situation. Perhaps even more the quesuons were asked. What sortofin important iS the extent to which group cohesMn approach would be of (putting to a respondent and identity Mcreases. Students who may not have how should team members handle an unwilling known each other% names before the project bell:22respond toparticular iSsues.Professii ,e irmtleethers know that a low response rate may selected. Hero, too, the teacher must usehis validate conclusions so they have to balance their discretion but, having made the choice, it is one .ings;to respondents with the desire for a high gy to divide the team :mu sub-groups.Each opOse, iate. We have no such problem! When in ssturba!gerouotakes responsibilityfor a topic and elf :.fleld.our obligations toour respondents are our provides the vvhole team with a 'review of the giSe.,91-loritY.: Hence it is important nOt only to literature' on that topic. The review may be oral, itsesato them the voluntary nature.of interviews or written and duplicated. It may cover several iiiifdotic willingness to accept a nirresponse but titles or just a few pages in a standard text book, alloItiiittesii ;anonymity. This should be no mere depending on the level of the students. In addition Lialilliative; it must be respected! the sub-group (which could even be one person) W."13U1'.the ethieal question does not finish here. takes the responsibility for producing the initial CWfs need. as sociologists, to look at our research suggestionsabout how thattopic should be *aithcids; not only in terms of how scientific they researched, w!lat hypotheses or questions should see' but also in terms of the ethical assumptions beinvestigatedand,possibly,someofthe IMPlidt in them. - - - - Sociology and its methods questions cc. be included in a questionnaire, if over r,tisral in its origins concerned not only with under- is to be employed. The sub-group can later take thr. #andirig the social world but with controlling or responsibility for handling and processing the data 4anging it. Sociology today has the same two onthattopicbut, in each case, the sub-group 1,9oali.,"(5) This is an issue which may be treated reports to the whole team who take decisions *fare the team goes into the field, through lecture collectively.Otherwisethepwjectlosesits roie discussion, or by considering the implications coherence and the students miss the benefits of Iceome of the 'findings' atter the fieldwork has looking at other topics and discussing 'their own' *stir COMPleted. with other people. As the'consultant' on researchdesign the *yAiedemic,In considering the execution of the teacher can take a much greater share of the initia- istlevey .one wants the group to expand its know- tive in this area. Dne might begin by describing the Adge of the substantive areas to be explored, relationship between theory, research and society of social research and the relationship (i.e.'concrete' social phenomena). This has the jSiatween die two. i.e. between theory and practice. advantage of helping to clarify all three. "The way ijThis 'will involve'extracting kr:1m the library a list in which the word 'theory' is used in everyday of titlei which will provide the background to speech, and even at times by sociologists, can lead ifi,*ions like sock,: change, community, Gemein.the beginning researcher into some of the most qschaft, Gesellschaft, mechanical and Organic solida- unfortunate errors imaginable. A prevalent though kiity:Only the teacher can decide whether to go to completely erroneous idea, often held by students ,11,the' original text, to extracts or to summaries. Dne and laymen is that theory is synonymous with tide which has proved to be of great valueis speculation. - - The truth of the matter is that rrlieories of Society", edited by Talcott Parsons. theoryisderived from findings which are put PlCcontains relevant extracts from 'founding fathers' together, and the logical relations between findings sUch as Weber, Durkheim, Tonnies and Spencer. together build up theory."(6) -T.liere are others such as Fletcher, Thompson and The releionship is neatly illustrated by Matilda R.Nisbet (see bibliography) but teachers will have Riley(7) in her diagram of the research process. It ,iheir :own preferences.Ifthese are not readily provides a simple but comprehensive framework available in school or college try the borough or for telerenve tIvoughout the project and can be Vciitinty library for a term's loan and keep them related to any research. whatever the paradigm, ,eirailable in the classroom. with whih the groupisalreadyfamiliare.g. The titles relating to the substantive topics to ilmottAnd Yong,o Eli.tabethBott, Douglas, V,tisi researched will clearly depend upon the topics Adunstall. Goffman or EIr.cker.
=e- Sociological theory Concrete social phenomena
Objective
CDNCEPTUAL RESEARCH FINDINGS MODEL (ordered facts) INTERPRETATIVE PHASE
METHDDS DF INTERPRETATION 123 of.Sociological This leails logically to the identificationof data Paradigm:SomeAlternatives soutces and the methods by researchers tocollect, Research Design ..,.organise and interpretthatdata. (Maurice Doverger's book, "Introduction to Social Sciences", P.I. Nature of research rase: . Individual in role (in c collectivity) although French in context, provides a compre- ofinterrelated group hensive and detailed list cd sources andmethods Dyadorpair for analysing them.) Sources which have beenused members profitably in projects of this kind include: Subgroup Group, society Some combination of these Written documents: public archives and'official documents P41. Number of cases: Single case the press Few selected cases private archives literature, including biographies and diaries. Many selected cases Socioiemporal context: Statistics Cases from a single society at a single Pictures and photographs period Audio recordings Many Questionnaires, written and oral Cases from many socisties and/or periods Interviews IN V. Primary basis for selecting cases (sampling): Attitude inventories Representational Value scales Analytical ParVr.:ipant obiervation Both Experiments.: P.V. The time factor: Sttiamtieci studies (covering a single point in The next steP is to decide upon a researchdes.gn. for The design of a study is the researcher's plan Or assembling and organising certain facts, or data, by Dynamic studies (covering process change over time) following certain procedureF and processes.The the main features of such a plan in a project likethis P-IV. Extent of researcher's control over system under suidy: woukt include: No control Unsystematic control 1. Choosing an area or problem Developing a working hypothesis Systematic control 2. P-VII. Basic sources of data: 3. Defining the indeces New data, collected by the researcher for; Constructing research tools the express purpose at hand 5. Selecting the sample Available data (as they may be relevant : 6. Collecting the data Assembling the data to the research problem) 7. P-VIH. Method of gathering data: P. Coding the data Processing the data Observation 2. Questioning 10. Interpretation and conclusion. Combined observation and questioning rather Other Mann expresses the same sort of pattern Number of properties used in research: more simply: One A few 1.. The initial idea Relating the idea to theory Many 2. Method of handling single properties: 3. Limiting the hypotheses Unsystematic description 4. Collection of data Measurement (of variables) 5. Analysis c f data Method of handling relationships among 6. State:-Iccit of results Feedback to theory(8) properties: 7. Unsystematic. description Other writers express the process in yet different Systematic anslysis Treatment of syvem properties as: ways. It is an interesting exercisefor a group to collect as many of these as the availableliterature Unitary presents and to compare them on postersaround Collective the idea the classroom. In addition to reinforcing Having decided upon which design toadopt the of research design h helps to create an atmosphere project now follows the steps which it prescribes. within the classroom. task is Riley's The sub-groups should have completed their Anotherposterworth making items and ofSociological of devising hypotheses and questionnaire "Paradigm: Some Alternatives these can be examined for clarity.Precision, Research Design"(9) ambiguity, economy, etc. Before this is done, or perhaps before the sub-groups even begin theirtask, 12 4 . .We' teicherwmay wish to talk about the construe- difficult for students to grasp but they can be dealt Ion of, interview schedules and questionnaires in with in a similar manner. The N.F.E.R. publishes irder to Indicate common pitfalls. The team might Sylvia Richardson's British revision of the Allport vOrk through apracticalexample of a bad Vernon Scale of Values. This aims to measure the giestionnaire.(10)Alternativelytheteamcan relative importance of six basic interests or motives: liScussthe sub-groups'products and possibly theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political xinthict trial runs on fellow students, or within the and religious. Students find that taking the test and ieighbourhood, in order to identify the faults. Yet then reflecting upon it is an interesting and educa- inother strategy is to undertake a pilot study on a tional experience. Even more educati ,alisthe iffylimited scale. 'This hasthe advantage of experience of rewriting it for a wider population irovidingfirsthand experienceof ambiguous than the teachers and higher education students on erminology, badly phrased questions and whom it was originally validated. For example, "It iMissions, as well as the experience of meeting you were entering a university, had the necessary eipondents face to face and coping with the actual abilities, and were not concerned about getting a dministration of the tools. job would you rather read physics or English This also provides an opportunity to pugs literature?" was changed to, "If you decided to go espolses to sensitive issues and to consider the to night school, had the necessary abilities, and ithical question raised above. Most people do not were not concerned about getting a job would you find giving details of their interests 3nd activities father learn about science or poetry and plays." iut tiey can become very sensitive to giving details The process of rewriting leads not only to a better biOut family, income, land ownership, etc. (On understanding of test construction but to an under- lite:occasion the question, "How many acres do standingoftherelationshipbetweenbeliefs, POU farm?" intendedtocorrelate withothcr attitudes, values and ideology. ariables, led to e. rumour sweeping the village that If instruments of this sort are used in the sumay These fellers with the forms are from the income itisadvisable to make them self-administering. a* on the rates'.) if questions are deemed to be Thisenablesinterviewerstoconducta short 06 personal or or, invasion of privacy they may be interview and then leave the attitude ano value Iropped altogether. scales to be completed and collected later. Other- ];.,!OPpenheim, whichisan invaluable bock to wise the interview can be intolerably long. aveavailable,has a chapterspecificallyon Definingthepopulationandselectingthe iuestion-worrlingwhich contains many helpful sample, the next steps, serve to focus upon further uggestions. In the above situation, for example, he limitations of research techniques in common use. iidicates'.6ow the order of questions and the way How do vue e.efine the popuianon? What are the heyareintroducedarebothimportant. He boundaries of the community? Does it include all tiggeststhat'classificationquestions'should the dwellings within a certain radius or just those 011ow other questions and might be introduced on the electoral register? Flow many people cen be hits: "Now to help us to classify your answers included in the time available? What will constitute tatistically, may I ask you a few questions about a reasonable sample? Will it he random, probability Ourself and your family?" or purposive? How will we decide? Itis only by additionto questionnaires and interview actually facing these problems and seeking their Chedules one can take the opportunity to examine own solutions, involving arbitrary decisions and ititudes and values through the construction and compromise, that students come to appreciate the Se of attitude inventories and value scales. These limitations and imperfections of methods and con- fir:difficult concepts for most students to grasp clusions whose validity had previously remained euthey recur constantly throaghout the literature. unquestioned. This is a first step toward health.; ly.searcbing for them in a real life context and by scepticism and a willingness to:econsider Bridling the tools used to identify and to measure paradigms and perspectives, in this case positivism lkim students develop a greater depth of under and functionalism. tgnding than they would merely by discussing This is the most valuable and the most time- *in in the classroom. consuming part of the preparation but the other kOppenheim's book(11) provides helpful practical details are, intheir own way, equally *terial on attitudes but a ready made tool of important. It is worth obtaining at least two copies tteirest to sociologists is Eysenck's Inventory of of the electoral register. These can be obtained ocial.Attitudes.(12) By undergoing this test them- from The Electoral Registration Officer, County ilyes and then calculating their position on the Hall and should be 'adieal-conservative'and'toughminded-tender ordered well in advance of departure. The cost *ided' axes students come to understand not varies with the size, they are usually well under El. nly; what is involved in particular attitudes but Clipboards can be made from offcuts of hardboard lio'.sOmething of the way in which they hang and covered with plastic bags. (It always seems to 5gether. Encourage the team to hypothesise and rain when you're furthest from shelter.) A letter of aeetilate on the possibility' of correlation between identification should be prepared and duplicated rtain attitude positions and variables such as on headed notepaper before departure. Nobody )cial class, sex, age, churchgoing, voting patterns should be without one. It might read: "This is to riepolitical beliefs.- Confirm that the bearer .is a member lf,:=Values constitute a concept which is even more of 'thisSchool/College andis engaged upon a 125 research projectas part of his/her course. IfI can social change. help you in anyway/if you would like any further Team members need to be briefed on wnys of information youcan reach me at presenting themselves and conducting their Telephone interviews. "Asking questions to get valid answers Signature, Name(printed), Status. is a skilled and sensitive job. .... Interviews not only depend on' the quality of the questions asked but Large scale maps, 6inch and 25inch, are availa- on theawareness of, and control over, the inter- ble from the Ordnance Survey. (Get a Geographer action involved."(13) If questionnaires alone are to show the group how to identify the relevant used control over the interactionis less proble- sheet numbers from the grid numbers of a1 inch matic but researcheis will still need briefing, e.g. map.) Much background information can also be on expressing their own feelings, giving leads and gathered in advance from local history books, lOcal maintaining con fidential ity.
. guides, the reports of local government depart- ments and census returns. The archivist or local history librarian at the county library may well Handling the data.This task is made much easier providereferences and inforr.ation inadvance. and less tedioiis ii the quantitative data is handled Some have gone to great lengths and provided a the day itis collected. The sub-groups can each special exhibition relating to the village or locality take responsibility for analysing the responses to being studied. Alternatively the library staff or the one particular question or the group cat questions staff of the local newspaper 'probably know of an on 'their' topic. The categories should, to a larse 'amateur' locvl historian who would be prepared to extent, have been anticipated when the schedule or taik tc the group. When in the field one may want questionnaire was designed. "Wo should work Mth to do 'special' interviews with key figures e.g. vicar, thebasic presumption that questions are only (head) teacher, doctor, councillor, These can also included in a 'survey when the question designer be arranged beforehand, preferably early in the has alreaay some fair idea of what answers are visit. All these organisational tasks can be carried likely to come back and what general outline of out by the team. analysis will be imposed on them."(141 Even so Tasks which arc the specific responsibility of there will be much debate and argument over the theteacherinctude transport and materials.If categorisation of some replies. The social grading transport is required tt is ce.nvenient to have more ofoccupati,)ns :sa good esample despite the than one driver to provide relief and flexibility on detailed lists which are available, e.g. the Hall-Jones location. Have questionnaires and other printed scale in OpPenheim. Itis at this stage that quali- materials duplicated well in advance to allow for tative differences between the occupants et some unforseen staff illness, machine breakdowns, etc. apparently similar occupations become apparent, and arrange the materialsfor working on the e.g. a small tenant-smadholder arid a farm labourer. collected data. Plenty of blank paper, pens, pencils. When the responses hove been categorised they, rulers, coloured felt-tips and large squared paper orthepre-codedreplies,should be recorded, are useful. So, too, these days is a calculator. totalled arid entered on a master results sheet. Each sub-group can present its data .to the rest of the team both in the form of tables and visually, using In the Field, Once on locotion time will inevitably graphs, tan charts and pie charts. In addition they be limited. Make contact with key figures early (if can undertake simple analysis of average, distribu- this has nut already been arranged) for they may tion and correlation (depending upon age). When spark off new ideas which the team will want to all the responses have been tabulated in this way follow up. It's no good discovering these on the they can be presented in the form of a large wall last day. Spend approximately the first half of the chartfor examination and consideration by the time collecting the data and the latter half pro- whole team. cessing it, trying to catch up with subjects in the What sortof picture emerges? How can we sample who were not available earlier and follow- interpret the tabulated data? As well as being a ing up new ideas. social survey itis a sociologicalsurvey. So, have Often itis only when in the field that certain ourinitialhypotheses, rooted in theory, been 'facts' emerge. For example, inter-organisational upheld? What new hypotheses are suggested? analysis may show that Mr. X sitson mole committees, or is an officer of more organisations, than Mr. Y but Mr. Y may hold more critical posi- Presenting the report. The final stage of the tions.Inonefishingvillage a researchteam researchisto present the outcomes of allthis discovered thiit the village school-teacher held only activity in the form of a report. Each sub-group one post, apart from his job. He was secretary of can write a section. This might well include: the fishermen's co-operative (marketing organisa- the theoretical origins of the enquiry tion). But these two positions brought him into the hypotheses daily contact with more people than anybody else the results in words, figures and diagrams and, as fishing was the most important eco',rc the interpretation of those results activity after farming, itput him in a unique the conclusions drawn position of influence, It led the team to discuss the further hypotheses generated. natureofpower, thedivirsionoflabour and 126 Eva Nation. The final stage of the proj.:ct isa collectlee evaluation in terms of : NISBET and ENTWISTLE. Methods of Edu- a research exercise, cational Research. U.L.P. Unibooks. a learning experience. OPPENHEIM, A.N. Questionnaire. Designand Attitude Measurement. Heinemann. 1966 As a reseurch exercise the number ofquestions we can pose is seemingly limitless. Were PAYNE. S.L...The Art of Asking Questions. our hypo- Princeton U.P. 1951 theses sufficiently operational? Oidwe use the right sort of questions? Should SHIPMAN, M, The Limitations of Social they have been Research. Longman. 1972 closed/moreopen? Howdifficultwerethe questions? Could the questions have STACEY, M.(Ed.).Comparability in Social suggested the A. search. Heinemann. 1969 answers? Did we impose our definitionton teims which have their own everyday meanings? As a learning experience we might ask 2. Books concerned with practical exercisesand what projects: each of us felt we got out of theproject. What 'changes do we notice in each other? If LIGGETT, J. et.al. Exercises in Social Science. we were to Constable. 1958 do it again how would we change it?How much mote do we know about society RILEY, M.W. Sociological Research: about commu I A case approach, II Exercises and Manual. nity, kinship, social change, etc? And,finally, how much more do we know about sociology Harcourt, Brace and World. 1963 about WAKEFORD, J. The Strategy of Social the paradigms witnin which we operatedand their limitations? Enquiry. McMillan. 1968
References 3. For a discussion of methodologyat a more general theoretiml !eve!, See, for example:. BRUNER, J. Toward a Thaery ofInstruction. Harvard U.P.i 1966 p.114. DURKHEIM, E.The Rules of Sociological Method. Free Press. 1964 DEWEY, J. Democracy and Education.Free Press - 19661,1 39- MILLS, C.W.The Sociological Imagination. Oxford U.P. 1959 RILEY, M.W. SociologicalResearch.Harcourt Brace, 1963 p.3. NISBET, R.A. The Sociological Tradition. Heinemann. 1970 A.E.B. Notes for the Guidance of Teachers,The Project in A level examinations. PARSONS, T. et.al.tEds.). Theories ofSociety. Free Press. 1965 EASTHOPE, G. A History of SocialResearch Methods. Longman, 1974 p.3. THOMPSON, K. et.a1.(Eds.). Sociological Per- spectives. Penguin. 1971 MANN, P.H. Methods of SociologicalEnquiry. Blackwell, 1968 P.32. WEBER, M.The Methodology of the Social Ft/LEY, M.W. op. cit., p.4. Sciences. Free Press. 1949 MANN,P.H. op. cit., pp.43. 54. RILEY M.W. op. cit., p.18. 4. Books concerned with CommunityStudies There Is a good example in MANN, P.H.,O. cit., BANKS, J.A.(Ed.l. Studies in BritishSociety. pp.148 - 156. Routledge. 1969 BELL, C. and NEWBY. H. Community OPPENHEIM, A.N. Questionnaire Oesign and Studies. Allen and Unwin. 1971 'attitude Measurement. Heinemann. 1967. DENNIS, HENRIQUES and EYSENCK, H.J. The Psychology ofPolitics. SLAUGHTER. 1: Coal is our Life.Eyre and Spottiswood. floutledge, 1974. 1957 'SHIPMAN, M. The Limitations of Social Research. FAITH, R. Two Studies of Kinshipin London. Longman, 1972 pp.76 & 83. Athlone. 1956 MANN,P.H.op.vit.,p.164. FRANKENBERG. R.Village on the Border. Cohen and West. 1957 FRANKENBERG, R. Communities BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR SOCIOLOGYFl E LO- in Britain. WORK AND RESEARCH Penguin. 1966 KLEIN, J. Samples from English Cultures .1. Standard texts on research methods: (Vol. Routledge. 1965 JENKINS, 0. Enquiring about Society. STACEY, M. Tradition andChange: A Study Longman. 1974 of Banbury. Oxford U.P. 1960 . LAeovI rz, S.et.al.Introduction to Social WILLIAMS, W.M. The Sociology ofan English Village: Gosforth. Routledee and Kegan Research. McGrawHill. 1976 Paul. 1956 LEGGATT. T.IEd./.Sociological Theory and Survey Research. Sip. 1974 5. Statistics LUNDBERG, G.Social Research. Longman. 1962 CHAMPION, 0.Basic Statistics for Social MANN, P.H. Methods of Sociological Enquiry. Research. Chandler. 1970 Blackwell. 1968 CONNOLLY and SLUKIN. Statisticsfor the MOSER, C.A. Survey Methods in Social Social Scientist. Cleaver Hume.1962 Inve- CROCKER, A.C.Statistics for the teacher. stigation. Heinemann. 1958 N.F.E.R. 1974 127 Operating the Resourcesx.thange for a yea, has taught us some important lessons and so we are suspending the scheme for the time being in order to reorganise.Dur major problem this year has been thatthe scheme was established on the essumption that reprographic facilities would be available, at cost, at Loughton College. This did not happen with the result that there has been a tremendous delay in producing and distributing many of the earlier numbers which were to have been produced at Loughton. A second, and less serious problem, occurred with the Anthropology items which were to have been produced by the RoyalAnthropologicalInstitute.Photocopying 1.122 costs at the Institute rose so that is was not cost effective to do this, and they had to be produced elsewhere after a delay. We hope that by the time you read this the back.log of orders will have been cleared, or in a BOURCE few cases, money refunded. For the time being, the Exchange can accept no further orders and arrangements for the future win be announced inthe next Social Science HAN E Teacher. However, we are still anxious to obtain itemsfortheExchange soifyou have any resources you would like to share with others, please send them to: Roger Gomm, 1 Cross Green, Couered, Buntingford, Herts.
ANNUAL CONFERENCE 1977 September 16th 18th Leeds Polytechnic
Speakers: James Hemming, author and broadcaster and a vice-president of ATSS,on Developing Psychological Awareness, and Geoff Pearson, University of Bradford, on the Political Implications of Social Science Teaching. Preliminary list of study groups include: Race and Community Development, Teaching Race Relations,SocialStudiesandPersonalDevelopment, SexRoles, School-Based Resources Production, the new JMB 0-level Social Studies, the AEB Alevel Sociology Project, Language in, the Social Science Classroom, Social Science and Liberal Studies. Please send suggestions for study groups to Eric Roper, 48 Plantation Gardens, Leeds LS17 85X. In addition there will be a resource exhibition, entertainment, and a chanceto review the work of the ATSS Advisory Panels. All members are welcome and charges will be kept es lowas possible. Please book the date in your diary.
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING t- The AGM of the Association will be held on Saturday September 17th at Leeds Polytechnic. Resolutions for debate with any amendments to the constitution must be notified tome in writing by July 23rd, 1977. Constitutional amendments can be proposed by the Council, the Executive Committee, a Branch committee or not less than ten members of the Association. 'The election of a Chairman, Vice-Chairman, Secretary, Assistant Secretary, Treasurer and General Editor will take place at the AGM. Nominations for these offices must be sent tome by September 10th, 1977. Chris Brown, Hon Sec. 19 Mandeville Gardens, Walsall, WS1 3AT.
128 31 Cf.
ASSOCIATION FOR THE TEACHING OF THE SOCIAL 3CIENC:13
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The Social Science Teacher (Second Series) NON MEMBERS MEMBERS Vol. 5, No. 1Dec. 1975 Only available as Part of a complete Vol. 5, No. 2 Feb. 1976 set of Volume 5: price per set: £1.60 £2.40 Vol. 5. No. 3 Apr. 1976 40p 60p Vol. 5. No.'4 June 1976 Special Edition: Textbooks and Curriculum Projects 40p 60p Vol. 6, No. 1Oct.1976 Edition on Games and Simulations 50p 75p Vol. 6. No. 2 Dec: 1976 50p 75p Vol. 6, No. 3 Feb. 1977 Edition on The Teaching of Politics ''' 50p 75p Vol. 6, No. 4 Apr. 1977 Edition on Sex Roles and Society 50p 75p Vol. 6, No. 5 June 1977 Edition on Community Studies Teaching 50p 75p
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Occasional Papers No. 1 Is An Integrated Social Sciences A Level Out of Print but Possible? by Roland Meighan. photocopy version: 20p 25P
Briefings , No. 1 The Social Investigation Interview by Jaren Harris 35p 40P For orders of .,..n or more: 25p each 3013 each , No. 2 Individual Study Folders by Roland Meighan 10P 15p No. 3 Teaching Deviance at A Level by Roger Gomm 20p 25P No. 4 Plbnning the Content of Social Sciences Courses by Roland Meighan 20p 25P No. 5 Clarifying Values in the Class' oom by James McKernan 20P 25P No. 6 Once Upon A Time .. . Fairy Tales as a Social Studies Resources by Hazel Summer 10p 15p No. 7 A Sex Roles Socialisation Game by Mo:ra Wales 20P 25p No. 8 Social Research as a Teaching Strategy by Charles Townley 70P 25p
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N.B. All prices inclinle postate and pecking costs 129 ASSOCIATION FOR THE TEACHING OF iHE SOCIAL SCIENCES
President: Professor G.T. Fowler, M.P.
Chairman: Keith Poulter, SeniorLecturer, Loughton College of Further Education, Essex. (Home: 74, Cherry Tree Rise, Buckhurst Hill, Essex. Tel: 01504 0804).
Secretary: Chris Brown, Lecturer in Education, West Midland College, Walsall. (Home: 19 Mandeville Gardens, Walsall, WS1 3AT. Tel: Walsall 25388).
The Association aims to promote and develop the teaching of the social sciences, bothas separate disciplines and in an integrated form, at primary, secondary, and tertiary stages of education; to produce and disseminate appropriate teaching materials and adviceon teaching methods related to the social sciences; to provide opportunities for teachers i,nd educationists td meet for discussion and the exchange of ideas. Activity is mostly focussed at local levels to encourage maximum membership participation. Branth meetings (unless otherwise specified) are open to any interestedperson but where an admission charge is made, non ATSS members will be charged ata higher rate.
THE SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHER
General Editors: RolandMeighan, 7Green Lane, Birmingham 843 5JX. Tel: 021-357 6603. Frank Reeves, 9 Oak Street, Wolverhampton. Tel: 0902 29166.
eviews Editor: Helen Reynolds, 15 Serpentine Road, Harborne, Birmingham 17. Tel: 021-426 1777.
irculation Manager: Hazel Sumner, 2 Meadow Croft, St. Albans, Herts. Tel: St. Albi.,ns 50989.
dition Editors: Editions of Social Science Teacher are produced in a variety ofways, including volunteer teams, panels, groups within A.T.S.S. or by the General Editors.
The Social Science Teacher is the journal of the Association for the Teaching of the social iences, an association of teachers of the Social science disciplines (sociology, anthropology, onomics, politics, and psychology) in the primary, secondary, tertiary, and higher sectors f education. The journal is intended to provide an information service for social science teachers. The Ogazine contains news items, letters, articles, reviews and advertisements. Common themes dude the theory of teaching the social sciences, teaching methods, latest ideas in the field f .social science, teaching notes, and reviews of books, curriculum projects, and visual aids, C. The Social Science Teacher is issued free to members of the Association (50pan extra py) and is 75p to nonmembers, and is published five times a year. ;iAdvertising rates are available on application to the General Editors. 130 PAGE CONTENTS
Editorial by John Turner
Viewpoint by John Astley 4 A.T.S.S. News
Community Service at the Chalk Face Articles: 1. C.E. Moffat 14 Community and the Curriculum by Greg Charlton Community Studies 20 3. Directory for Teachers of by John Turner
Reviews
31 Resources Exchange
Strategy Briefings: No. 8 Social Research a3 a Teaching pull-out centre popes by Charles Townley
Section Cartoon Headings byBeverley Curl
this journal do not necessarilyrepresent the views of Views expressed in contributions to for the expression of divergentideas A.T.S.S. or the editors. Thejournal provides opportunities and opinions.
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