rock supportsmanyspecies. for otherspecies. The openwaterabovesubtidal animals canformreefs,which mayprovideahabitat circumstances coloniesof temperate watermarine usually associatedwithtropical corals,butincertain colonised by a range of encrusting animals.Reefs seaweeds, but rock surfacesinshallowwateraredominatedby has asignificantinfluenceonbiodiversity. Well-lit the degreeoflightpenetrationandthereforealso The depthofwaterabovesubtidalrockgoverns invertebrate communities. rocky wallsofsurgegulliesinparticularsupportrich much morediversitythanunbrokenbedrock. The a widerrangeofenvironmentalconditionsand with asurfacecutbygulliesandcrevicessupporting nature oftherocksurfacecanthereforebeimportant, in suspensionandthelevelsofoxygenation. The the turbidityofwater, thequantityoffoodcarried habitats, particularlyinshallowareas. They influence of subtidalrock on thebiodiversity major influences wave actionare the exposureto tidal streamsand the strengthof anchorage. However, little morethanan rock providing the seawater, the are suppliedin as foodandnutrients terrestrial habitats, biodiversity thanin of aninfluenceon habitats hasless in subtidalrock The typeofbedrock 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Habitat Description Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage. Improve knowledgeofthebiodiversityimportancesubtidalrockhabitatsinDumfries& Priority Action (SR1) rock surfacesindeepwaterare Hydroids Tubularia indivisaarefound SUBTIDAL ROCK Dense aggregationsofOatenPipe on rockfacesexposedtostrong currents. (PaulNaylor) are sediments. off Dumfries&Galloway, aredominatedbysoft of theUK’s inshoreareas, includingmostofthose headlands, fringingislandsandinrockyinlets.Most Subtidal rockintheUKtendstooccuraround 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Bay in rock, mostnotablythewreckof‘TheJasper’ of wrecksprovideahabitatsimilartoshallowsubtidal occurs atthemouthofLochRyan(MCA). A number where thishabitatextendstoadepthof20m.Italso of Galloway subtidal rockcommunitiesarefoundaroundthe 50km longand3.5kmwide.Particularlyimportant Channel. This trenchisupto302mdeep,about sediments) istheBeaufort’s Dyke The deepestareaofsubtidalrock(andother 2.3 SiteExamples fringe aroundthecoast in biodiversity. To theeastitisrestricted toashallow seabed tothewestofIsleWhithornisrichest and alongthewestcoastofRhins. The rocky between BayandMullofGalloway Subtidal rockexposuresoccuralongtheSolway 2.2 CurrentDistribution carried out. species composition,butlittlemonitoringhasbeen shellfish dredgingoverreefs,mayhaveaffected Galloway. Climatechangeandfishing,including no evidenceofsignificantdamageinDumfries& Subtidal rockhabitatsaregenerallyrobust,with 2.1 RecentTrends 2. action plansmay alsocontainrelevantinformation: and/or overlap withsubtidalrock,andthe following A numberofhabitats occurincloseassociation 2.4 Associated Habitats Head. in afewlocations,mostfrequently around Dumfries &GallowayStatus (SAC/SSSI) andScareRocks . Sabellariaspinulosa Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership intheNorth reefs arefound Burrow (SSSI), . Mull 43 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SUBTIDAL ROCK P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Subtidal Sands and Gravels, Subtidal & Intertidal Scar 3.2 Fishes (high importance) Grounds, Honeycomb Worm Reefs, Intertidal Rocky Fishes such as Tompot Blenny Parablennius Shores. gattorugine and Conger Eel Conger conger find shelter in gullies and crevices of subtidal rock. 3. Importance for Associated Species The fearsome looking Wolf Fish Anarhichas lupus occurs in a similar habitat, usually only in deeper 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) waters. Other demersal (bottom dwelling) fish include To the west of the Isle of tunicates and Greater Spotted Dogfish Scyliorhinus stellaris, sponges dominate the seabed community. On rock commercial species such as Cod Gadus morhua and surfaces in deep water where there is insufficient Haddock Melanogrammus aeglefinus, Ballan Wrasse light for algae to grow, the sponge Amphilectus Labrus bergylta in shallow water and young Pollack fucorum may cover up to 30% of the rock surface. Pollachius pollachius amongst seaweeds. Other typical species include Oaten Pipe Hydroid Tubularia indivisa and Elephant’s Ear Sponge Pachymatisma johnstonia. SUBTIDAL ROCK SUBTIDAL At Burrow Head the boulder habitats and rock surfaces in shallow water are current swept and dominated by sea squirts and important reefs of the polychaete worm Sabellaria spinulosa. These solid, but fragile, reefs are several centimetres thick and raised above the surrounding seabed. They provide a habitat that allows many other species to become established. There are also dense stands of the bryozoans Hornwrack Flustra foliacea and Bugula plumosa and populations of Rosy-feather Stars

Antedon bifida. Tompot Blenny (on sponge), a common inhabitant of rock crevices and wrecks. (Paul Naylor)

Amongst many open water (pelagic) fishes are Atlantic Herring Clupea harengus and Mackerel Scomber scombrus. Basking Sharks Cetorhinus maximus are sometimes recorded during the summer.

3.3 Mammals (high importance) Harbour Porpoises Phocoena phocoena and Bottlenose Dolphins Tursiops truncatus are regularly recorded in open waters around the , along with smaller numbers of Minke Whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata, Common Dolphins Delphinus delphis and other cetaceans. Rosy-feather Stars Antedon bifida are abundant in some locations. (Paul Naylor) 3.4 Birds (medium importance) Many species of crab and the Common Lobster

SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA A number of fish-eating birds feed in the open Homarus gammarus take refuge in gullies and waters above subtidal rock, including Gannets Morus crevices, emerging to feed at night. The uncommon bassanus, Guillemots Uria aalga, and Razorbills Alca Brown Sea-cucumber Aslia lefevrei has been torda. recorded from crevices in bedrock at the entrance to and the crevice-dwelling Daisy Anemone 3.5 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) Cereus pedunculatus, uncommon in , has also been recorded at one site in Loch Ryan. Rock surfaces in shallow water are dominated To the east of the the fauna is less by kelp forests, which form a transition between diverse and erect bryozoans and hydroids dominate. subtidal and intertidal rocky shores. These consist

44 Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P of a range of brown seaweeds, including Oarweed after the two world wars and the last dumping in Laminaria digitata, Sugar Kelp Saccharina latissima 1976. Surveys have not shown contamination of and Dabberlocks Alaria esculenta. Many, smaller, red seabed sediments or commercially exploited fish seaweeds find refuge amongst the kelp. The Bootlace and shellfish. Weed Chorda filum occurs in Bay, where it • Bottom fishing gears, though rarely deployed in is sheltered from excessive wave exposure. rocky areas, can damage fragile communities.

Kelp thins out with increasing depth and red algae • Marine litter can kill some species which ingest dominate; Rhodochorton purpureum is a common it or become tangled in it. Lost fishing gear may species of crevices. Drachiella heterocarpa, a small continue to catch fish (“ghost fishing”). red seaweed confined to the subtidal zone of wave- • Discharge of contaminants and nutrient exposed coasts, particularly subtidal cliffs, has an enrichment from run-off and sewage, or even extremely limited western distribution in Britain with ship-based pollution, can result in localised few Scottish records. It occurs at Burrow Head. On changes to seabed communities. rock surfaces in deep water seaweed may be • Dumping of spoil from dredging operations absent altogether. ROCK SUBTIDAL or coastal development work would seriously 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) damage subtidal rock habitats. Marine turtles such as the Leatherback Dermochelys • Recreational diving has the potential to result in coriacea and Loggerhead Caretta caretta feed in minor localised damage. This is not likely to apply open water over subtidal rock during part of their to Dumfries & Galloway where diving conditions annual migrations. over most areas are highly dangerous for all but the most experienced divers. 3.7 Fungi (low importance) Fungi are well represented in marine environments 6. Strategic Actions but virtually all are microspecies. Nevertheless, several species associated with seaweed are likely to 6.1 Recent and current activity play a role in the ecology of subtidal habitats. • Schemes of Management have been prepared by Solway Partnership, on behalf of SNH 4. Environmental, Economic & Social for The Solway and & Sands SACs. Importance of Biodiversity These include some areas of reef, and SNH is undertaking broadscale habitat mapping of Luce • Inshore fishing, using both static and mobile Bay. equipment, in waters above subtidal rock habitats is economically important to some coastal 6.2 Other recommended actions communities. • Assess the distribution and biodiversity • Sea angling for species associated with this importance by collating existing information habitat is of recreational importance for a large and identifying known locations for subtidal rock number of people, and therefore of economic habitats. importance. • Protect from potentially damaging activities. In other parts of the UK this has been achieved 5. Factors affecting the Habitat through marine nature reserves and voluntary codes of conduct. & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA • A lack of knowledge of species and habitats present, due to limited research and surveys. • Undertake research and survey work, including promotion of the Marine Conservation Society’s • Very little statutory protection, even in Seasearch programme. designated sites. • Raise awareness of the biodiversity of subtidal • Beaufort’s Dyke and surrounding waters were rock habitats to generally benefit marine used as a munitions disposal site during the conservation issues. 20th century, with significant quantities dumped

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 45 46 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SUBTIDAL SANDS & GRAVELS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T have declined sincethelate20thcentury. efficiency andcatchingcapacity, though landings to boatsandfishinggear have generallyincreased significant impactonhabitat quality. Improvements activity sincethemid-20th century, which hashada and QueenScallops,hasbecome themainfishing Commercial shellfishing,particularlyforScallops 2.2 RecentTrends coasts ofDumfries&Gallowayforhundredsyears. Fish andshellfishhavebeenharvestedaroundthe 2.1 History 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus subtidal gravel. fine sandysediments,butdoesincludesomeareasof found onUKseabeds. The Solwayisdominatedby Sands andgravelsarethemostcommonsediments 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext also supportsmanyspecies. The openwaterabovesubtidalsandsandgravels a metreormoreabovethesurroundingseabed. more andthebestexamplesofbedsareraisedupby Individual musselsarefrequently25yearsoldor frequent ingravels,mudsormixedsediments. may carpetsteeprockysurfaces,butaremore Horse Musselbedsformatdepthsof5-70m. They of exposuretowaveaction. structure, thestrengthoftidalcurrentsanddegree their biodiversity, isgreatlyinfluencedbyparticle drift ormud. Their stability, andthereforemuchof banks andgravelabovethebedrock,glacial extensive inarea,theyusuallyformonlythin from bedrock,asintheNorthSea. Although often from shells,asinmostofthewestUK,or Subtidal sandsandgravelsarederivedeither 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage areas bycollatingandmakingavailableexistinginformation. Assess thedistributionandbiodiversityimportanceofsubtidalsandgravelhabitatsinselected Priority Action (SSG1) SUBTIDAL SANDS&GRAVELS sand Loch Ryan(MCA). Horse Musselbedsarefoundat sheltered centralandveryinnerbasin. in themouthtomixedsedimentsandmud Ryan (MCA)gradefromcleansandsandgravel especially in and othersedimentsalsooccurintheouterSolway, patterns oferosionandaccretion.Subtidalsands channels whicharecontinuouslychangingtheir unusually dynamic,separatedbythesixmainriver inner Solway Subtidal sandbanksareextensivethroughoutthe 2.4 SiteExamples few placesontheWigtownshirecoast. Loch Ryan.SmallHorseMusselbedsarefoundina inner Solwaybutalsooccurintheouterand Subtidal sandsandgravelsaremostextensiveinthe 2.3 CurrentDistribution Flats. Grounds, SeagrassBeds, Intertidal SandandMud information: SubtidalRock,&IntertidalScar following actionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithsubtidalsandsandgravels,the A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.5 Associated Habitats Common Cuttlefish,amasterofcolour-change camouflage. Luce Bay(SAC).SedimentsinLoch (SAC/SPA/Ramsar/SSSI) andare Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Burrow Headand (Paul Naylor) SUBTIDAL SANDS & GRAVELS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3. Importance for Associated Species Hundreds of species, including sponges, soft corals, anemones, hydroids, tubeworms, brittlestars, urchins, 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) starfish, barnacles, and crabs may occur on dense Due to the dynamic nature of the sand banks in Horse Mussel Modiolus modiolus beds, depending the inner Solway, few invertebrates are found within on depth, degree of water movement, substrate, and or on them other than small polychaete worms and mussel density. amphipods. Numbers of species increase towards the outer estuary, in the silty areas between Castlehill Point and , with the bivalve molluscs Fabulina fabula, Nucula sulcata and Abra alba. In Luce Bay the variety of sediments and the sheltered environment leads to a much richer invertebrate fauna. This includes Sand Brittlestars Ophiura ophiura, Sand-burrowing Brittlestars Amphiura brachiata, Sand Stars Astropecten irregularis, Burrowing Heart Urchins Echinocardium cordatum, and Masked Crabs Corystes cassivelaunus. Common Cuttlefish Sepia officinalis lie buried in the sand during

the day but emerge at night to search for prey. They SANDS & GRAVELS SUBTIDAL spawn gregariously on shallow sandy bottoms. Gravel Sea Cucumber Neopentadactyla mixta is uncommon in Commercially exploited shellfish include Great Scotland. (Paul Naylor) Scallops Pecten maximus and Queen Scallops Aequipecten opercularis in firm sand and gravel. In 3.2 Fishes (very high importance) Loch Ryan there is one of the largest beds of Native Lesser Sand Eels Ammodytes tobianus shoal in Oyster Ostrea edulis found in Britain, if not the world. shallow open waters above subtidal sand and are Brown Shrimps Crangon crangon are abundant an extremely important food for many seabirds and throughout the Solway, but mainly fished to the east fish. Commercial fish include: Plaice Pleuronectes of . They are a vital component in the platessa, the most commonly caught flatfish in the ecology of the . Solway, on muddy bottoms; Common Soles Solea solea, widespread on soft muddy ground; Flounders Pleuronectes flesus on the surface of mud and sand banks including brackish waters; and small numbers of Haddock Melanogrammus aeglefinus on hard, coarse sand banks.

Lesser Spotted Dogfishes Scyliorhinus caniculus are relatively common on sandy or muddy grounds, feeding at night, but the largest dogfish is the shark- like Tope Galeorhinus galeus, also found in inshore waters over sand and gravel in summer, but only in deeper water in winter. There is some evidence from local anglers of a substantial decline in this species. Basking Sharks Cetorhinus maximus sometimes SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA move into quite shallow waters over subtidal sand The Solway is an important summer feeding area for Basking Sharks. (Paul Naylor) during the summer, in pursuit of plankton shoals.

Loch Ryan supports a number of other uncommon 3.3 Birds (very high importance) invertebrates, most notably Gravel Sea Cucumber The waters of the region’s bays and estuaries support Neopentadactyla mixta found in coarse gravel banks enormous numbers of birds, especially during the at the entrance to the loch and Chinaman’s Hat Shell winter. The following are of national importance: Red- Calyptraea chinensis, associated with the oyster throated Diver Gavia stellata in Loch Ryan, Great beds.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 47 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus in the inner Solway • Sea angling for species associated with this and Loch Ryan, Slavonian Grebe Podiceps auritus habitat is of recreational importance for a large in Loch Ryan, Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo in the number of people, and therefore also of economic inner Solway, Eider Somateria mollissima in Loch importance. Ryan, Common Scoter Melanitta nigra in the outer Solway, Scaup Aythya marila in the inner Solway, and Loch Ryan, and Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator in the inner Solway and Loch Ryan. Numbers of Scaup in Dumfries & Galloway (over 3,300 each year between 1999 and 2004) are particularly notable, making the region by far the most important British area for this species.

3.4 Mammals (medium importance) Harbour Porpoises Phocoena phocoena are regularly seen throughout the Solway. Small numbers of Grey Seals Halichoerus grypus are also recorded.

SUBTIDAL SANDS & GRAVELS SUBTIDAL 3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium Great, or King, Scallops Pecten maximus excavate their own importance) hollows in sand or gravel beds. (Paul Naylor) Marine turtles in Scottish waters were once thought to be infrequent wayward wanderers, but it is now 5. Factors affecting the Habitat believed that Leatherback Turtles Dermochelys coriacea regularly visit the Solway in late summer and • Disturbance from bottom-fishing gear. autumn as part of their annual migration. Loggerhead Turtles Caretta caretta are also sometimes recorded. • Potential pollution from future aquaculture activities, and chemical and sewage 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) discharges, both directly and via inflowing rivers. Although subtidal sands and gravels generally do not • Radioactive discharges from Sellafield and have extensive seaweed communities some species Chapelcross, and the firing of over 6000 depleted do occur, including a nationally rare red seaweed uranium projectiles into the Solway by the Ministry Spyridia filamentosa that reaches its northern limit of Defence may have some impact, though this is and is locally common in Loch Ryan. It is found not proven. throughout the loch, particularly in the southern basin. Another red seaweed Chondria dasyphylla, • Oil spills and ballast water from shipping. Also rare in Scotland, grows on gravel banks, pebbles TBT (tri-butyl tin) has been used as an anti- and shells in Loch Ryan. The common red seaweed fouling paint on ships and leisure craft since the Rhodothamniella floridula binds coarse sand into 1980s. It has affected the reproductive capacity of sand banks. molluscs, including Native Oysters. • High levels of suspended sediment in Loch 3.7 Fungi (low importance) Ryan detrimentally affects Native Oysters and A number of fungal microspecies are associated with other shellfish. seaweeds and fish. • Sea-borne litter, especially plastic bags and SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA balloons (often released in large numbers as part 4. Environmental, Economic & Social of charity events) are ingested by marine turtles Importance of Biodiversity in mistake for jellyfish, frequently leading to their death. • Scallop fishing and processing is an important • Offshore developments such as wind turbines, local industry. aggregate extraction and the laying of undersea • Loch Ryan supports the largest Native Oyster pipelines and cables may pose a threat to some fishery in Scotland. species.

48 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Dumping of dredging spoil may smother • The commercial significance of Loch Ryan’s important habitats. oyster population provides a mechanism for monitoring the water quality and general health • Non-native invasive species such as Wireweed of the loch’s coastal waters through the Marine Sargassum muticum and Leathery Sea-squirt Laboratory in Aberdeen and by SEPA. Styela clava have been recorded in Loch Ryan. Others such as the American Oyster • Upgrading of sewage treatment works Drill Urosalpinx cinerea and the Slipper Limpet has taken into account the biodiversity of Loch Crepidula fornicata may potentially spread to Ryan. Dumfries & Galloway in the future. All can reduce • TBT has been banned and use is being phased native species. out.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Maintain high water quality from direct and indirect discharges or run-off. • Guide inappropriate development away from sensitive sites or the adjacent coastal land to

reduce damage to benthic communities and SANDS & GRAVELS SUBTIDAL species, especially where they are particularly fragile, vulnerable or unusual. Where this has already occurred examine the feasibility of re- establishment or restoration. • Agree codes of practice between Masked Crab, common on sandy seabeds. (Paul Naylor) conservationists and ferry operators that minimise impacts on biodiversity from ferries. 6. Strategic Actions • Implement Schemes of Management for 6.1 Recent and current activity European Marine Sites. • Loch Ryan’s marine environment was recognised • Examine the potential of Loch Ryan to qualify in 1990 when it was designated as a Marine for higher level designation than Marine Consultation Area (MCA) following a survey Consultation Area. carried out by the Marine Nature Conservation • Promote and highlight the value of the marine Review Survey. This is a non-statutory wildlife resource. mechanism for site protection that recognises the quality and sensitivity of the marine environment. • Schemes of Management have been prepared by Solway Firth Partnership, on behalf of SNH, for The Solway and Luce Bay & Sands SACs. • Scottish Natural Heritage is undertaking broadscale habitat mapping of Luce Bay. • The Solway Firth Partnership and Loch Ryan

Forum bring user groups together to discuss & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA management issues. • Monthly bird counts and annual beached bird surveys are undertaken on most sites during the winter.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 49 50 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SUBTIDAL & INTERTIDAL SCAR GROUNDS Columbia inCanadaandthewestcoastofScotland. Substantial areasarefoundoff thecoastofBritish Subtidal scargroundsoccurthroughouttheworld. 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext inundation bysandsupportgreaterbiodiversity. animals isseasonal.Otherareasawayfromperiodic spawning andrecruitmentofmanymarineplants of yearwhentherockbecomesexposed,as by sandagain.Colonisationisinfluencedthetime and colonisationbymarinelifebeforebeingcovered scoured bysand,withonlybriefperiodsofexposure Low-lying scargroundmaybeperiodicallycoveredor raised abovethelevelofsurroundingsandyseabed. such aspebbles,cobblesandbouldersthatare intertidal situations. They consistofcoarsesediments sandy seabedsandoccurinbothsubtidal Scar groundsareintermediatebetweenrockyand 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. SUBTIDAL &INTERTIDALSCARGROUNDS Dahlia anemoneUrticinafelina,a colourfulinhabitantofoffshore Habitat Description Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayCouncil decision-making byensuringthattheyareincludedinallrelevantcoastalstrategies. Ensure thatthebiodiversityimportanceofsubtidalandintertidalscargroundsistakenintoaccountin Priority Action (SISG1) scar grounds.(PaulNaylor) Worm Reefs,IntertidalRockyShores. Gravels, IntertidalSandand MudFlats,Honeycomb information: SubtidalRock, SubtidalSandsand the followingactionplansmay alsocontainrelevant overlap withsubtidalandintertidal scargrounds,and A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats (SAC). in WigtownBayandontheeastsideof (SSSI), Powfoot Examples ofsubtidalscargroundsarefoundat 2.3 SiteExamples patchy distribution. of theSolway. Onthenorthside,thishabitathasa Scar groundsaremorecommonontheEnglishside 2.2 CurrentDistribution recent years. change intheextentordistributionofscargrounds There doesnotappeartohavebeenanysignificant 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Common MusselsMytilusedulisoftenoccurinlargenumberson Dumfries &GallowayStatus Hestan Rock (SAC/SPA/Ramsar/SSSI), Southerness Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership scar grounds.Mossyard.(PeterNorman) , RavenshallPoint Luce Bay (SSSI) SUBTIDAL & INTERTIDAL SCAR GROUNDS

3. Importance for Associated Species grounds do not support important numbers of birds. Nevertheless, common species such as 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus and Curlews The invertebrate fauna of scar grounds is often richer Numenius arquata feed on intertidal scar grounds. than surrounding muds, sands and gravels, though species composition can change rapidly over time. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

Subtidal scar grounds make a contribution to fisheries, either directly or as a source of food for commercially fished species.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Physical damage of intertidal scar grounds by manual shellfish harvesting, which may be associated with disturbance from tractors and off Mussels on intertidal scar at Southerness. (Richard Mearns) road vehicles. Early colonisers of exposed scar grounds include • Physical damage can result from recreational barnacles Semibalanus balanoides and Elminius pressure, though the number of people walking modestus, with Common Periwinkles Littorina littorina

over scar grounds is unlikely to be high. SCAR GROUNDS & INTERTIDAL SUBTIDAL arriving later. Even on scar ground exposed for longer periods, the dominant species can change rapidly. The Breadcrumb Sponge Halichondria panicea is typical. Others include Dahlia Anemones Urticina felina, Rosy-feather Stars Antedon bifida and Common Starfish Asterias rubens.

Mussels Mytilus edulis can vary enormously in abundance. In years following a good settlement, they may out-compete other invertebrates and seaweeds, but mussel populations may then be reduced following sand inundation.

3.2 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) Colonisers of newly exposed scar grounds include Oystercatchers, regular visitors to scar grounds. (Gordon McCall) gutweeds Enteromorpha linza and E. intestinalis, Sea Lettuce Ulva lactua, and Purple Laver 6. Strategic Actions Porphyra umbilicalis. Some of these may later become abundant, joined by Bladder Wrack Fucus 6.1 Recent and current activity vesiculosus, a brown seaweed Fucus ceranoides, • Scar grounds are protected from damage from a red seaweed Dumontia contorta and Carrageen shellfish harvesting in the Solway Shellfish Chondrus crispus. Many species of invertebrate are Management Association’s management plan.

associated with these seaweeds. & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA 6.2 Other recommended actions 3.3 Fishes (medium importance) Common Gobies Pomatoschistus microps and Sand • Map the location of all scar grounds, survey Gobies P. minutus may be present throughout the their biodiversity importance and monitor warmer months from May onwards. changes. • Raise awareness of subtidal and intertidal scar 3.4 Birds (low importance) grounds, their location, biodiversity importance Due to their relatively limited distribution scar and possible threats.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 51 52 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS INTERTIDAL SAND & MUD FLATS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T survive inareas withvariableandlowsalinity, so biodiversity. Mostmarineorganismsareunable to Input offreshwaterhasamajor influenceon types exist. Between theseextremesa widerangeofsediment present inthesediment,evenjustbelowsurface. little waterexchangeandoftenhaveoxygen deposited. They remainsaturatedwithwaterbuthave usually wherelargequantitiesofriverderivedsiltare environments. Mudsforminthemostshelteredareas, low tide.Moreshelteredsandsoffer morestable are highlymobileandmaydryoutconsiderablyat currents preventthedepositionofsilt. These banks to windand/orwaveaction,orwherestrongtidal Coarse sandsoccurwheresedimentsareexposed salinity. according tosedimenttype,stabilityandwater in biodiversity extremely rich of life,theyare conspicuous signs show littleorno often appearto the factthatthey mud flats.Despite to finesediment coarse sandflats range frommobile coasts. They occur onopen bays, butalso of estuariesand a majorcomponent mud habitatsform Intertidal sandand 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:SolwayFirthPartnership encouraging universitiestocarryoutresearchintheSolway. Increase knowledgeofthebiodiversityintertidalsandandmudflatsinDumfries&Gallowayby Priority Action (ISMF2) Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage collating existinginformationandincreasingitsavailability, by2012. Assess thedistributionandbiodiversityimportanceofintertidalsandmudflatsinselectedareasby Priority Action (ISMF1) INTERTIDAL SAND&MUDFLATS Nith estuarymudflats.January2008. (Richard Mearns) least 32,000ha. mud flatsisfoundinDumfries&Galloway, withat Europe. A significantproportionoftheUK’s sandand of theNorthSeaand Atlantic seaboardofwestern represent nearlyathirdofthetotalestuarinearea and the163estuarieswhichmakeupthisfigure About 50%oftheUKcoastline(9849km)isestuarine 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext stable. change, whilstfringingsandbanksaregenerallymore River channelsareinparticularsubjecttoconstant exposure tostrongtidalstreamsandwaveaction. changing erosionalanddepositionalregime Intertidal flatscanbeverymobileduetotheever- they mayoccurinvastnumbers. of specieshaveadaptedtoestuarineconditions,but away fromfreshwater. Onlyarelativelysmall number species varietygenerallyincreaseswithdistance third largestarea ofestuarineintertidalflat intheUK, The innerSolway 2.3 SiteExamples fluctuation inwatertemperature. estuary isshallowinnature, leadingtoconsiderable rather thanmuds,dominatemuchoftheSolway. The Highly mobileintertidalsedimentflatsoffinesands, 2.2 CurrentDistribution a regulatedfisheryre-openedin2006. dredging in1994andcompletelyclosed2001,but and mudflats. Thefisherywasclosedtomechanical but alsotheassociatedbiodiversityofintertidalsand 1980s and1990s,affecting notonlycocklestocks, The harvestingofcocklesrosedramaticallyinthe 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus (SAC/SPA/Ramsar/SSSI) hasthe Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership INTERTIDAL SAND & MUD FLATS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

covering some 26,000ha. Rough Firth, Auchencairn Bay (SSSI) and Orchardton Bay (SSSI) are predominantly composed of intertidal sand and mud flats, with around 1,150ha in total extent. A greater proportion Bay is constantly covered by the sea, but around 750ha of intertidal areas are also present, and a similar area in nearby Fleet Bay. Approximately 2,900ha of intertidal sand and mud flats are found in Wigtown Bay (LNR/SSSI), and 1,160ha at Luce Bay (SAC). Loch Ryan (MCA) is shallow over its entire area with an average depth of 2 to 5 metres. The southern basin of the loch includes intertidal areas with little freshwater input. Brown Shrimp, a crucial species in the food chains of subtidal and intertidal sandy seabeds. (Paul Naylor) 2.4 Associated Habitats Brown Shrimps Crangon crangon occur at between A number of habitats occur in close association and/ 3-50 million shrimps over 20 square kilometres or overlap with intertidal sand and mud flats, and of sand flat, whilst in clean medium to fine sand the following action plans may also contain relevant flats, such as in the centre of Luce Bay, there are information: Subtidal Sands and Gravels, Subtidal dense populations of the burrowing heart urchin & Intertidal Scar Grounds, Seagrass Beds, Coastal Echinocardium cordatum and razor shells Ensis spp. INTERTIDAL SAND & MUD FLATS INTERTIDAL Sandy Beaches. The nationally rare Wine-glass Hydroid Obelia 3. Importance for Associated Species bidentata grows up to 2.5cm long in tree-like pink colonies in intertidal areas in the inner Solway. 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) Most of the invertebrates A few terrestrial species occur on the upper shore, of intertidal sand and mud especially where freshwater flows over the sediment. flats burrow in the sediment This includes a ground beetle Bembidion maritimum to prevent themselves from at its only Scottish site in Wigtown Bay. drying out and being eaten by surface living predators 3.2 Birds (very high importance) such as birds and fish. They The invertebrate rich sand and mud flats of the feed on other invertebrates, Solway support nationally and internationally plants, or detritus filtered important numbers of over-wintering birds. Winters out from overlying water or are generally mild and many species spend the whole within the sediment. season in the area, but the region’s intertidal flats Empty shell of Burrowing are also of critical importance to birds refuelling on Heart Urchin or Sea Potato The composition of Echinocardium cordatum. migration. The number of birds using the inner Solway invertebrate communities Torrs Warren, June 2007. during the winter swells to over 140,000, making varies according to the (Peter Norman) the estuary the seventh most important in the UK sediment type and salinity, but typical species in terms of bird numbers. Internationally important on the Solway include the Peppery Furrow Shell species are as follows (all in inner Solway): Shelduck Scrobicularia plana, the Baltic Tellin Macoma balthica Tadorna tadorna, Pintail Anas acuta, Oystercatcher and the Common Cockle Cerastoderma edule. The Haematopus ostralegus, Knot Calidris canutus,

latter species can fluctuate widely in numbers as Dunlin Calidris alpina, Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA a result of natural processes. A single successful lapponica, Curlew Numenius arquata and Redshank settlement of spat can result in densities of more than Tringa totanus. Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis 1000 per square metre, but there can be a reduction also use the sand and mud flats as night-time roosts. of up to 80% during a hard winter. The Laver Spire Nationally important species are as follows (all in Shell Hydrobia ulvae is commonest in the upper half inner Solway): Shoveler Anas clypeata, Ringed of the intertidal zone and may occur at densities of Plover Charadrius hiaticula, Golden Plover Pluvialis 200,000 per square metre. The Estuary Ragworm apricaria, Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola, Lapwing Hediste diversicolor and the Lugworm Arenicola Vanellus vanellus, Sanderling Calidris alba and marina are also common. Greenshank Tringa nebularia. Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 53 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.7 Fungi (low importance) Fungi are well represented in marine environments but virtually all are microspecies. Nevertheless, several species associated with seaweed are likely to play a role in the ecology of subtidal habitats.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Sand and Mud Flats play an important role in Plaice spend most of their time on the seabed. (Paul Naylor) coastal defence, dissipating wave energy. 3.3 Fishes (high importance) • Sand and mud flats provide feeding and nursery Sand and mud flats support fish such as the Common areas for commercially exploited fish. Goby Pomatoschistus microps and Flounder • Intertidal communities are directly exploited for Platichthys flesus and provide an essential nursery shellfish such as cockles and shrimps, or for ground for fish such as Sea Bass Dicentrarchus angling bait including lugworms and ragworms. labrax, Plaice Pleuronectes platessa, Common Sole • Important economic benefits result from wildlife Solea solea and Atlantic Herring Clupea harengus. A

INTERTIDAL SAND & MUD FLATS INTERTIDAL (especially bird) watching, and recreational sea number of pelagic species, such as the Lesser Sand angling. Eel Ammodytes oobianus and mullets Mugilidae and are resident for part of the year, whilst others, including the scarce Sea Lamprey Petromyzon 5. Factors affecting the Habitat marinus, River Lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis, Allis Shad Alosa alosa and Twaite Shad Alosa fallax, • Creation of enclosed bays through barrages, migrate over sand and mud flats to their freshwater for power generation, amenity and perceived spawning grounds. The Cree estuary holds one of aesthetic reasons destroys mud flats and the the very few spawning grounds for Sparling Osmerus associated wildlife interest. eperlanus in Scotland. • Coastal defences could interfere with existing patterns of movement of sediments. 3.4 Mammals (medium importance) Harbour Porpoises Phocoena phocoena are • Industrial and agricultural run-off or polluted frequently seen in shallow water over sand and mud storm-water discharge, including eutrophic river flats. water, can create abiotic areas or encourage the growth of algal mats that will adversely affect 3.5 Flowering Plants (medium importance) invertebrate communities. Seagrass forms dense beds (see separate Habitat • Piping or channelling freshwater over the upper Action Plan) but few other flowering plants are able to shore may remove critical invertebrate habitats. survive in these hostile environments. A few species • Intertidal fisheries such as cockling and dredging occur on the landward edge of sand and mud flats, for fish can damage the seabed. including glassworts Salicornia spp., Common Cord Grass Spartina anglica and Townsend’s Cord Grass • Aquaculture has the potential to cause damage if S. x townsendii. not carefully located and managed.

SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA • Recreational pressure, including bait digging, can 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) in exceptional circumstances lead to depletion of The surface of intertidal flats may be covered certain species. with green algae such as Gutweed Enteromorpha • Vehicle use over sand and mud flats at low tide intestinalis or Sea Lettuce Ulva lactua during the affects sediment structure, influencing suitability summer months. The nationally scarce brown for invertebrates and disturbing feeding birds. seaweed Sphacelaria plumigera occurs in intertidal, often shaded, sandy pools. It has been recorded in • Introduction of non-native invasive species. For Wigtown Bay. example Cord Grass has spread along coasts

54 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

and colonised some upper-shore mud flat areas, areas important for birds roosting on the tideline disrupting the ecology. Auchencairn Bay and Fleet was carried out on behalf of BNFL in 1993. Bay have been particularly affected. • Implementation of the Solway Firth Partnership’s • Sea level rise may result in insufficient mobile Management Strategy is in progress. sediment to adjust to new tidal levels in some cases; in other circumstances erosion of mud flats may reduce their extent and quality. • Capital and maintenance dredging for navigation has a negative impact on sediment supply and the sediment biota.

6. Strategic Actions Mud flats with lugworm casts. Sandyhills Bay, June 1991. (Peter Norman) 6.1 Recent and current activity 6.2 Other recommended actions • A Regulatory Order for shellfishing in the Solway was introduced in 2006. Fishing effort, locations • Ensure that development plan policies protect and methods are currently regulated and estuaries from coastal development and other monitored by the Solway Shellfish Management activities that could, individually or cumulatively, INTERTIDAL SAND & MUD FLATS INTERTIDAL Association under a permit system. cause environmental damage. • The first stage of a Shoreline Management Plan • Promote management within the framework was published by Dumfries & Galloway Council of SACs and other coastal zone strategies and SNH in 2005 as an aid to the planning of sea that permit the natural functioning of sediment defences. systems. • Meet and maintain Class A (Excellent) water quality standards in all of the region’s estuaries using the Scottish Environment Protection Agency Estuary Classification Scheme to monitor chemical, biological and radiological quality. • Review current and future dredging operations to ensure minimum impact on the estuarine Cockle shells. (Richard Mearns) environment. • Consider the value of further site protection • Schemes of Management have been prepared systems outwith designated sites using by Solway Firth Partnership, on behalf of SNH for mechanisms such as local sites, voluntary The Solway and Luce Bay & Sands SACs. SNH reserves, no-take zones and sanctuary areas. is undertaking broadscale habitat mapping of Luce Bay. • Ensure that all inshore fisheries operate using methods that have a minimum impact on the firth. • Wigtown Bay Management Committee oversees sustainable management of this site using local • Encourage collaboration between bait diggers bylaws. and conservationists to establish methods for maintaining bait digging areas such that there is • Implementation of a Scheme of Management, minimum impact on biodiversity & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA prepared by SNH for the inner Solway SAC is underway, and a Scheme of Management is in • Highlight the importance of intertidal habitats to preparation for Luce Bay SAC. All ‘Competent decision-makers, tourism bodies and the public. Authorities’ must ensure that any operations • Increase the use of information packs and marine under their management do not cause chests in schools in association with the Solway disturbance or deterioration of the interest Firth Partnership. Develop their information features of these European Marine Sites. content for different age groups. Offer all schools • The Wetland Bird Survey gathers information and education/interpretation facilities about estuaries. monitors bird populations of estuaries. A study of Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 55 56 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEAGRASS BEDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T hence theyarelessadapted tophysicaldisturbance. sediment sinceitislessdisturbed bywaveaction, Seagrass bedshavehigher siltcontentinthe • • • are nowconsideredtobevariantsofonespecies: in theUK,thoughZosteramarina seagrass (alsocalledeelgrass)havebeenidentified from significantwaveaction. Threespeciesof such aslagoonsandchannelswhicharesheltered estuaries, marineinletsandbays,inotherareas subtidal areasonsandsandmuds. They arefoundin Seagrass bedsdevelopintheintertidalandshallow 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Dwarf Seagrass half-tide toLowWater Spring. found onmudbanks,creeksandestuariesfrom Narrow-leaved Seagrass Low Water Springtideto4m. estuaries, onshelteredgravel,sandormudfrom in fullymarinesituationsandoccasionally Common Seagrass Habitat Description Water. lower saltmarshcommunitiesaroundMeanHigh habitats toZ. Angustifolia Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage. Target: Repeatthe1993-94surveyof Assess changesintheextentandspeciescompositionofseagrassbeds. Priority Action (SB1) Seagrass, RoughFirth, August 2006.(PeterNorman) Zostera noltii Zostera marina butmayextendtothe Zostera angustifolia SEAGRASS BEDS andZ.angustifolia occursinsimilar isfound Zostera angustifolia is

recorded intheNithEstuary. Auchencairn Bay. Seagrassbedshavealso been same locationsinKirkcudbright Bay, RoughFirthand of thesecommunitiesinScotland. threats, butthereiscurrentlynoestimateoftheextent covering thelatestinformationondistributionand status ofseagrassinScotlandwaspublished1993 disturbance andnutrientpollution. A reportonthe the UKseagrassbedsaredecliningduetophysical as nationallyscarceintheUK.Insomeareasof All threespeciesofseagrassarecurrentlyregarded 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext 2. SSSI). and atBaldoonSands Firth, inAuchencairnBay(SSSI), Kirkcudbright Bay, aroundRoughIsland sands. ZosteranoltiiisfoundatManxman’s Lakein at LochRyan(MCA)onshelteredfineormuddy shore andinshallowsubtidalareas,forexample Beds ofZosteramarina 2.3 SiteExamples marina has beencarriedoutintheregionforsubtidal but thisdidnotincludeLochRyan.Norecentsurvey a variabledensitywasrecordedduringthesurvey, Approximately 5squarekm(500ha)ofseagrassat the twointertidalspecies( Solway assessedtheoccurrenceandabundanceof 94 ontheDumfries&Gallowaypopulationsof between 1831andthepresent.Work during1993- & Galloway, recordedfromseven10kmsquares All threespeciesofseagrassarepresentinDumfries 2.2 CurrentDistribution to expandsincethe1990s. monitoring, seagrassbedsappeartohavecontinued Although therehasonlybeenlimitedrecent 2.1 RecentTrends Dumfries &GallowayStatus and Z.noltii . Zostera angustifolia intheSolwayFirthby2013. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership inWigtownBay(LNRand occurontheextremelower Z. noltiiandangustifolia occursinmanyofthe Fleet Bay inRough Z. ). SEAGRASS BEDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats 3.3 Fishes (medium importance) A number of habitats occur in close association and/or Adult pipefish Syngnathus spp. and various species overlap with seagrass beds, and the following action of goby make use of the shelter provided by seagrass plans may also contain relevant information: Intertidal beds. Seagrass beds provide important nursery areas Sand and Mud Flats. for Plaice Pleuronectes platessa and Common Soles Solea solea. 3. Importance for Associated Species 3.4 Birds (medium importance) 3.1 Flowering Plants (very high importance) Seagrass provides an important source of food for Apart from the three species of seagrass themselves, wildfowl such as Wigeons Anas penelope and Brent no other flowering plants are associated with this Geese Branta bernicla, though the latter species only habitat. However, the three species of seagrass are occurs in small numbers in the region at Loch Ryan. the only marine flowering plants found in Britain and they cannot be found in any other habitat. 3.5 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) The green seaweeds Pringsheimiella scutata and 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) Epicladia perforans are epiphytic on seagrasses and SEAGRASS BEDS The invertebrate fauna of seagrass beds typically other seaweeds. consists of those species associated with the particular sediment type, but the roots of the seagrass 4. Environmental, Economic & Social increases stability of the sediments and provides Importance of Biodiversity shelter and attachment for a number of species. • Seagrass beds are generally regarded as Seagrass provides an important nursery area for valuable and important habitats because shrimps and, in some areas, cephalapods such productivity is high and large amounts of organic as Common Cuttlefish Sepia officinalis. Various material are contributed to the surrounding areas. invertebrates take refuge and sometimes breed on This increases food and nutrient levels for other and around seagrass leaves, including Snakelocks organisms. Anemones Anemone viridis, Harbour Crabs Liocarcinus depurator, Sea Hares Aplysia punctata, • Seagrass binds mud and sand, reducing erosion and Netted Dog Whelks Hinia reticulata. Invertebrates and encouraging deposition of suspended in the surrounding sediment include Common Cockles material. In some areas, the sediment is raised Cerastoderma edule, Common Periwinkles Littorina above the general level, such that in the subtidal littorea, Lugworms Arenicola marina, and Sand areas, waves break further offshore, thus Mason Worms Lanice conchilega. A dense seabed sheltering the adjacent beach. In intertidal areas, fauna of non-selective deposit feeders is usually the raised level may decrease erosion of the present in Z. noltii beds. fragile habitats, including saltmarsh, higher up the shore.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Physical damage from shellfish harvesting by suction or clam dredges has been recorded in Rough Firth and Auchencairn Bay, manual

gathering of shellfish in the same locations, & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA and bait digging in Wigtown Bay. The most dramatic effect of hydraulic suction dredging was reported in Auchencairn Bay when the complete disappearance of Zostera marina was recorded from the dredged areas.

Sea Hares Aplysia punctata (mating trio) graze amongst seagrass beds. (Paul Naylor)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 57 HONEYCOMB WORM REEFS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Warmer sea temperatures as a result of global warming, coupled with low levels of sunlight, may cause significant stress and dieback of seagrass. • Seagrass is known to accumulate tributyl tin and possibly some other marine pollutants, which may reduce nitrogen fixation in the plant and possibly cause a build up of pollutants in the food chain. There is no evidence to suggest that local seagrass beds have been affected. • Colonisation of intertidal muds by invasive cordgrass Spartina anglica has occurred in parts Greater Pipefish make use of the shelter provided by seagrass beds. (Paul Naylor) of Wigtown Bay, Fleet Bay, and Auchencairn Bay but has not so far impacted on seagrass beds. • Construction of pipelines can directly impact on seagrass beds, though none are known to have

SEAGRASS BEDS 6. Strategic Actions so far affected beds within Dumfries & Galloway. • Coastal engineering projects such as flood and 6.1 Recent and current activity sea defence works, dredging of harbours and • The Loch Ryan non-statutory Marine navigation channels, and land reclamation can Conservation Area is in place to promote damage seagrass beds and cause changes in consultation and conservation safeguards. depth, turbidity and current regimes. Only minor • The Solway Firth Partnership, Wigtown Bay operations have so far occurred within the region, LNR Management Committee and Loch none of which are known to have affected local Ryan Forum provide opportunities for users of beds. these areas to discuss activities that may affect • A wasting disease caused by slime moulds is seagrass beds. believed to have affected local seagrass beds in • Seagrass beds are specifically protected from the 1930s, especially in Wigtown Bay. It has been potentially damaging shellfish harvesting under reported more recently in some parts of the UK, the management plan drawn up by the Solway though there is currently no evidence of its return Shellfish Management Association. to Dumfries & Galloway.

• Domestic sewage discharges and agricultural 6.2 Other recommended actions run-off is high in nitrate levels and may reduce seagrass biomass whilst increasing epiphytic • Survey Zostera marina beds to determine the plankton and phytoplanktonic blooms. Most of the current distribution and extent of Dumfries & beds in Dumfries & Galloway are in locations with Galloway populations. high water quality. The Z. noltii beds in Wigtown • Raise awareness of the importance of the marine Bay below Orchardton Farm are thought to be environment of Dumfries & Galloway. beneficially affected by agricultural run-off. • The extent of seagrass beds may alter as a result of natural factors such as severe storms, exposure to air, freshwater pulses, or the

SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA seasonal effects of wildfowl grazing. In Dumfries & Galloway, these factors are not considered significant.

58 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership the northeast Atlantic, which extends southtothe Britain isthenorthern extremityoftherange in 1.2 NationalandInternational Context within theoldervacatedtubes. have colonised,withsome animalseventuallyliving second yeararangeofseaweeds andanimalswill New reefshavefewassociatedspecies,butbytheir location ofreefstendstoberelativelystable. of larvaeontoexistingcolonies.Inthelongterm, but reefslastlongerasaresultoffurthersettlement have alifespanof3-5years,possiblyupto9 colonies ortheirdeadremains.Individualworms stimulated tosettlebythepresenceofexisting more massivereefformations.Larvaearestrongly take theformofhummocks,sheets,overlaysor appearance. The reefscanbe30-50cmthickand in tightlypackedmasseswithadistinctivehoneycomb The worms,whicharefilterfeeders,constructtubes shells. pebbles andcockle substrates, including also formonother action. They can to moderatewave grains, andstrong of suspendedsand with agoodsupply substrate, water there isarocky particularly where the lowwatermark, the shorearound extensive areas over They cancover Sabellaria alveolata. Honeycomb Worm marine polychaete sand builtbythe Honeycomb wormreefsarecomposedoftubes 1.1 1. Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayEnvironmentalResourcesCentre. information. Encourage identificationandrecordingofHoneycomb Worm reefsthroughtheproductionofpublic Priority Action (HWR1) Habitat Description Physical Characteristics HONEYCOMB WORMREEFS Honeycomb Wormreef.Barlocco- Orroland coast,February2008. (Richard Mearns) predators, mayalsooccur within thecolonies. as Fabriciastellaris gaper shell reefs inBritainhere. are someofthebestdevelopedandmostextensive in theSolwayareneartheirnorthernlimit,butthere south DevonandtheClyde.Honeycombwormreefs worm reefsarerestrictedtothewestcoastbetween Mediterranean andMorocco.InBritainhoneycomb Bay (SSSI), Southerness (SAC/SPA/SSSI), The mostextensivereefsarefoundinthe 2.3 SiteExamples the west. locations from Annan intheeasttoRhinscoast are intheouterSolway, buttheyoccurinseveral Greatest concentrationsofhoneycombwormreefs 2.2 CurrentDistribution evidence tosuggestadecline. Recent trendsareimpreciselyknown,butthereisno 2.1 RecentTrends 2. bivalves suchanutshell barnacles, dogwhelks,winkles, musselsandother within crevicesofthereefs,includingsmallcrabs, A numberofmarineinvertebratesarefoundonand 3.1 Invertebrates(highimportance) 3. information: SubtidalRock,IntertidalRockyShores. following actionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithhoneycombwormreefs,andthe A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Auchenmalg (SAC)areas. Bay/Islands ofFleet(SSSI),andStairhaven/ Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species Sphenia binghami Meikle Ross(SSSI), and Golfingia Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Nucula nucleus . Smallwormssuch Rascarrel/Balcary spp,andtheir Kirkandrews anda 59 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS HONEYCOMB WORM REEFS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T INTERTIDAL ROCKY SHORES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.2 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Over time, seaweeds including Dulse Palmaria palmata, Polysiphonia spp, Ceramium spp, gutweeds • Dieback occurs following extremely cold winters, Enteromorpha spp and Sea Lettuce Ulva lactuca particularly at higher shore levels. colonise the reefs. • Although they can tolerate burial by sand for days or even weeks, prolonged burial causes mortality. • Coastal engineering works, where it affects supply of sand can cause both positive and negative impacts depending upon the nature of the work. • Competition with Common Mussels. • Wave exposure may affect recruitment • Recreational activities such as trampling by beach users and bait digging by anglers have the Rock Goby (eating prawn), one of several fish that may be found in the reef crevices. (Paul Naylor) potential to cause damage, though on a localised

HONEYCOMB WORM REEFS and limited scale. 3.3 Fishes (low importance) Blennies Blenniidae and other common seashore fish are found within the crevices.

3.4 Birds (low importance) Several species of wading bird occasionally feed on the reefs at low tide, including Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus and Turnstones Arenaria interpres.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

The formation of honeycomb worm reefs may lead Turnstones feed on intertidal rocky shores, including to the creation of more rockpools on the lower shore, Honeycomb Worm reefs. (Gordon McCall). which can be of educational and recreational value as well as biodiversity value. 6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Honeycomb worm reefs are identified in the Solway Firth and Luce Bay & Sands SACs.

6.2 Other recommended actions

SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA • Locate and map all honeycomb worm reefs in Dumfries & Galloway. • Raise awareness of honeycomb worm reefs through interpretation.

Close-up of individual Honeycomb Worm tubes. Ravenshall, July 2007. (Peter Norman) 60 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership seen inotherhabitats. often resultsinazonation of floraandfaunararely exposure andlengthoftime coveredbyseawater not alwayseasytodistinguish, thediffering wave Although thepreciseboundaries betweeneachare lower shore, The mainintertidalzonecanbedividedintothe extends offshore uptodepthsof20mormore. exposed. The remainderoftheseseaweedforests tides aresomeoftheuppermostplantscompletely out oftheseaatlowwater, butonlyonthelowest rocky shores. The kelpstipesareoftenseensticking Kelp forestsoccurontheseawardedgeofsome overall biomassthanintertidalsandandmudflats. therefore haveahighdiversityofspecies,iflower rocky shoreshaveawidevarietyofmicrohabitatsand limpets andsmallredseaweedspredominate.Most seaweeds, whilstonexposedshoresbarnacles, Sheltered rockyshoresaredominatedbylargebrown wave actionisthebiggestinfluenceonbiodiversity. geology and topography determines the type of shore, exposed opencoaststoshelteredbays. Although the or boulders,andcanbelocatedanywherefrom Intertidal rockyshoresconsistofbedrockoutcrops 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:SolwayFirthPartnership Target: Completeastudyonshellfishgatheringby2015. marketing ofshellfishfromintertidalrockyshores. Examine thecurrentextentandfuturepotentialforsustainablecollectionco-ordinatedlocal Priority Action (IRS1) Habitat Description INTERTIDAL ROCKYSHORES the midshore, Ranger-led schoolvisitatWigtown Bay. (Dumfries &GallowayCouncil) and theuppershore. Sea basin. the rockyseashorefoundwithinwholeofIrish of theUK. The SolwayFirthhasalargeproportionof Intertidal rockyshoresarecommonaroundthecoast 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext rather thanmarinehabitats. biodiversity, withmuchmoresimilaritytoterrestrial in quitedifferent environmentalconditionsand However, thesmalldifference inelevationresults boulders influencedbywavesplashandseaspray. ordinary hightidesandconsistsofrockfaces The splashzone tolerant organisms. they areonlyinhabitedbythemostenvironmentally fluctuations intemperature,salinityandpHsothat are subjecttoextremedaily, tidalandseasonal richest habitat.Shallowerpoolsontheuppershore with deeppoolsonthelowershoreproviding their size,depth,shapeandpositionontheshore, The biodiversityofrockpoolsisdependenton at MullofGalloway Kelp forestsarefoundatLadyBay inLochRyanand There areextensiverocky shores atnumeroussites. 2.3 SiteExamples assemblage ofspeciesthroughout theregion. coast isfarmoreexposed,resultinginadiverse facing andshelteredSolwaycoast,butthewestern of Southerness.Mostrockyshoresareonthesouth are diverseandextensive,particularlytothewest Galloway, butother intertidalrockyshorehabitats Extensive kelpforestsarerareinDumfries& 2.2 CurrentDistribution on thishabitat. recent humanactivitieshavehadasignificantimpact Intertidal rockyshoresarerobustandfew, ifany, 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus is foundjustabovethelevelof . The rockypond atPortLogan Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership , 61 SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS INTERTIDAL ROCKY SHORES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

used to keep fish, provides an unusual feature, now sites in the UK, although identification and taxonomy promoted as a visitor attraction and marine life centre. problems mean that they are likely to be under- recorded. 2.4 Associated Habitats A number of habitats occur in close association and/or The mid shore is often dominated by Bladder Wrack overlap with intertidal rocky shores, and the following Fucus vesiculosus, though Egg Wrack Ascophyllum action plans may also contain relevant information: nodosum may be abundant in sheltered conditions. Subtidal & Intertidal Scar Grounds, Intertidal Sand On more exposed shores other species dominate; and Mud Flats, Honeycomb Worm Reefs, Coastal a brown seaweed Alaria esculenta is common in Strandlines, Coastal Shingle Beaches, Coastal Sandy exposed conditions, whilst the red Aglaothamnion Beaches, Coastal Cliffs and Slopes. sepositum is confined to extreme wave battered shores. The green seaweed Tellamia contorta is known from the Rhins, but is difficult to find and probably widespread, being largely restricted to the inside of living periwinkle shells.

The upper shore is characterised by Channel Wrack Pelvetia canaliculata and sometimes Spiral Wrack

INTERTIDAL ROCKY SHORES ROCKY INTERTIDAL Fucus spiralis, though Sea Lettuce Ulva lactuca and Gutweed Enteromorpha intestinalis can be common in brackish conditions.

Rockpools support many of the same species of algae found elsewhere on rocky shores, but Rockpools are fascinating subjects for outdoor education and seaweeds enjoyment. Orroland, April 2007. (Richard Mearns) rarely dominate. The pool rims 3. Importance for Associated Species are typically encrusted with 3.1 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) red coralline Seaweeds are the main producers of energy in this algae, especially habitat, and show clear zonation on most intertidal Lithothamnion rocky shores. species and Corallina Kelp forests consist of a range of brown seaweeds, officinalis, which including Oarweed Laminaria digitata, Sugar Kelp are difficult to Saccharina latissima and Dabberlocks Alaria find elsewhere esculenta. Many smaller red seaweeds find refuge on the mid and amongst the kelp. upper shores.

On the lower shore brown seaweeds are frequently A few mosses dominated by Serrated Wrack Fucus spiralis. can also Petrospongium berkeleyi has been recorded at Mull Sea Ivory lichen Ramalina siliquosa, withstand sea common on upper shores. Powillimount, of Galloway, one of only a handful of Scottish records, spray and March 2008. (Peter Norman)

SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA but is otherwise restricted to southwest England and are found in Wales. Another scarce brown seaweed Corynophlaea the splash zone. Most typical is Seaside Grimmia crispa at is epiphytic on a common Schistidium maritimum on boulders just above the red one, Chondrus crispus. Red seaweeds are found high tide mark. throughout the intertidal zone, but are perhaps most diverse on the lower shore. Two tiny bright red-purple 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) species Erythrotrichia investiens and E. bertholdii Invertebrates on rocky shores are predominantly grow on other algae in the lower intertidal and shallow marine species, with smaller numbers of terrestrial subtidal zone. They are recorded from very few other species on the upper shore.

62 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P INTERTIDAL ROCKY SHORES ROCKY INTERTIDAL

Wave exposure is the biggest influence on biodiversity. Black Head, Killantringan, March 2007. (Peter Norman)

The gaps between holdfasts in kelp forests support The hoverfly Eristalinus aenus is found in rotting a diverse range of invertebrates including the Blue- seaweed in rockpools, as well as brackish pools rayed Limpet Helcion pellucidum, sea urchins, sea on saltmarshes, and has been recorded in several squirts and sponges. locations along the coast of Dumfries & Galloway.

The lower shore also includes marine species 3.3 Fishes (medium importance) such as Edible Crab Cancer pagarus, whilst some Intertidal rocky shores are the main habitat for a species of the mid and upper shores are virtually number of fish species, although most are present restricted to intertidal rocky habitats, including Rough in the mid and upper shores only during the spring Periwinkle Littorina saxatilis, Common Limpet Patella and summer, moving downshore, or even offshore, vulgata, and Dog Whelk Nucella lapillus. Of terrestrial in the winter. The Common Blenny Lipophrys pholis, species, two nationally scarce ground beetles are Rock Goby Gobius paganellus and Butterfish Pholis associated with the upper shore. Aepus marinus, gunnellus are typical species. recorded in the , is found under stones on fine sand or shingle and in rock crevices; Aepus 3.4 Birds (medium importance) robini ( and ) shows Purple Sandpipers Calidris maritima feed in the a greater tendency to inhabit deep sand or silt-filled splash zone of rocky shores. In Dumfries & Galloway rock crevices. & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA they are only regularly recorded in small numbers around the at Southerness. Other birds Although the invertebrate fauna of rockpools that feed on rocky shores include Turnstones Arenaria generally reflects local rocky shore communities, a interpres, Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus, few species appear particularly well adapted to pool and Rock Pipits Anthus petrosus. The latter two living including some tiny sea slugs, cushion stars species regularly nest just above the intertidal zone. and brittlestars. Beadlet Anemones Actinia equina, Shore Crabs Carcinus maenas, and several species of prawn are more typical rockpool inhabitants.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 63 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) 6. Strategic Actions A range of colourful lichens dominate the splash zone, including the black Verrucaria maura, the 6.1 Recent and current activity orange Caloplaca marina, the yellow Xanthoria • Guided walks and school activities are run by parietina, the grey Lecanora atra and the green Sea the Ranger Services of Dumfries & Galloway Ivory Ramalina siliquosa. Council, National Trust for Scotland and Hoddom and Kinmount Estates. These include 3.6 Mammals (medium importance) annual participation in World Oceans Day. Otters Lutra lutra feed on intertidal rocky shores and • “The Sea Chest”, which contains books, CDs and undisturbed rocky shores are used by Grey Seals activities related to the sea shore is available for Halichoerus grypus and rarely Common Seals Phoca loan from Scottish Natural Heritage to schools vitulina as haul-out sites, but few other mammals and community groups throughout Dumfries & make extensive use of this habitat. Galloway.

3.7 Flowering Plants (low importance) 6.2 Other recommended actions Typical flowering plants of the upper shore include Common Scurvy Grass Cochleria officinalis, Thrift • Promote the use of intertidal rocky shores for Armeria maritima and Buck’s-horn Plantain Plantago educational visits. INTERTIDAL ROCKY SHORES ROCKY INTERTIDAL coronopus.

3.8 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) Adders Vipera berus and Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara occasionally visit intertidal rocky shores, but the habitat does not support important reptile and amphibian populations.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

• Intertidal rocky shores provide the classic outdoor classroom for teaching ecology from pre-school up to post graduate levels. • Rockpooling is a popular recreational activity for visitors to the coast.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Pollution from shipping wastes and cargoes, such as oil and chemicals. • Pollution from the land, including sewage discharges, run-off from roads and farmland, and the dumping of garden waste and other SEA & SEASHORE HABITATS SEA commercial waste, including rubble tipped to prevent erosion. • The extent and impact of commercial shellfish gathering is not accurately known. Serrated Wrack Fucus serratus, a typical seaweed of the mid shore. Port Kale, June 2003. (Maggi Kaye)

64 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership mostly annual species. Their seedsarewashed in beaches andconsistofvarious specialistplants- Vegetated strandlines occuronsandyorshingle driftwood usually formsthebulkofstrandline material,but landward ofthenormalhighwatermark. tides meanthatthiszonemayextendseveralmetres shingle beachesandsaltmarshes.Extremehigh This includessandybeaches,intertidalrockyshores, where spaceallowstheaccumulationoftidaldebris. Coastal strandlinesoccuronalllow-lyingcoasts 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:SolwayFirthPartnership/ScottishNaturalHeritage. from physicaldamage/removalofthembyincludinginformationinpublicationsorinterpretationpanels. Raise awarenessoftheimportancecoastalstrandlinesandpotentialimpactsthatmayresult Priority Action (CS1) Habitat Description Strandline atCarrick,FleetBay. May2008.(RichardMearns) is alsousuallypresent. COASTAL STRANDLINES Seaweed common intheUK. to supportafullstrandlinefloraandfaunaarenot other organicdebrisaccumulatesinsufficientquantity Stretches ofcoastwhereseaweed,driftwoodand 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext varies considerablyfromoneyeartoanother. botanical compositionofstrandlinecommunitiesoften sand) untiltheygerminate. The developmentand (midday temperaturesmaybe20ºChigherinopen excessive evaporationandextremesoftemperature by thetideandprotectedstrandlinedebrisfrom (Merse). Coastal SandyBeaches, Saltmarshes Intertidal RockyShores,Coastal ShingleBeaches, action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwithcoastalstrandlines,andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.3 Associated Habitats the west. perhaps commonestonthemoreexposedcoastsof cliffs andslopesdirectlyabutthesea. They are Galloway coastline,beingabsentonlywherecoastal Strandlines occuronmuchoftheDumfries& 2.2 CurrentDistribution region. now carriedoutonseveralbeachesinthewestof strandline material.Mechanicalbeach‘cleaning’ is ecological andenvironmentalimportanceofnatural strandlines, aswellalackofunderstandingthe amounts ofunsightlylitterbeingwashedupwithin methods. This hasarisenasaresultofincreasing remove strandlinesonbeachesusingmechanical There hasbeenanincreasingtendencytoregularly 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 65 COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL STRANDLINES 3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) A large number of common invertebrates frequent coastal strandlines including spiders such as Pardosa purbeckensis; ground beetles such as Broscus cephalotes, Dicheirotrichus gustavi and Pogonus chalceus; and several species of rove beetle and kelp fly. Of greatest abundance are sandhoppers Talitris saltator. The richest communities occur in thick, wet and rotting seaweed rather than amongst small amounts of dry weed. These invertebrates are the main prey items for birds feeding on strandlines.

Scarce and rare invertebrates also occur. The Mouse-eared Snail Ovatella myosotis is found in muddy sheltered places at high tide level in brackish

COASTAL STRANDLINES COASTAL estuaries and saltmarshes in Dumfriesshire, often under driftwood and other flotsam. Indeed, a number of invertebrates, especially beetles, feed preferentially or exclusively on sea-soaked wood on the strandline. Frosted Orache on the strandline at Brighouse Bay. June 2004. (Peter Norman) The nationally scarce spider Argenna patula occurs in strandline litter on the estuary at Wigtown Bay, whilst the woodlouse Armadillidium album and the 3.3 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Sand Dart moth Agrotis ripae have been recorded Typical species of the strandline include Frosted on Luce Sands, one of their few Scottish locations. Orache Atriplex laciniata, Sea Sandwort Honckenya Amongst the species found below the strandline peploides, Sea Rocket Cakile maritima and Prickly debris at Auchencairn Bay is the nationally scarce Saltwort Salsola kali, the latter experiencing drastic ground bug Scoplostethus pictus, which in the UK has decline in some parts of Britain. The nationally scarce a predominately southern distribution. Early Orache Atriplex praecox occurs on vegetated strandlines of sand and shingle beaches, and Isle of 3.2 Birds (high importance) Man Cabbage Coincya monensis subsp. monensis Waders such as is virtually restricted to coasts between Liverpool and Oystercatchers Glasgow, as well as the . Haematopus ostralegus, 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium Turnstones Arenaria importance) interpres and Slow Worms Anguis fragilis and Common Lizards Curlews Numenius Zootoca vivipara may occasionally forage on the arquata feed on the strandline. In the areas where Natterjack Toads strandline, along with Epidalea calamita occur, these animals have been passerine birds such found using driftwood and other strandline materials COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL as Rock Pipits Anthus as daytime refuges. Such refugia are very important petrosus, Linnets for the toads. Carduelis cannabina, Twites Carduelis 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) flavirostris and Few species of fungi occur in strandlines, although Choughs Pyrrhocorax Ringed Plovers on seaweed a small number of species occur on driftwood. pyrrhocorax. Other strandline at Loch Ryan, January Microfungi may be important in the breakdown of species roost on the 2008. (Gavin Chambers) shells and other inorganic substances produced by strandline at high animals. tide.

66 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6. Strategic Actions Importance of Biodiversity 6.1 Recent and current activity • Through the decomposing action of invertebrates • The Marine Conservation Society Beachwatch and bacteria, strandlines supply most of the and Adopt-A-Beach campaigns encourage organic material in the upper sections of sandy communities to monitor and clean beaches in an beaches. Without this organic material and the life environmentally responsible way. it supports these beaches are more prone to be washed away during storms. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Strandlines are very often the first stage in the • Avoid wholesale mechanical cleaning of formation of coastal sand dunes. Removal of beaches, especially tidelines. strandlines may therefore weaken the natural protection against erosion and flooding afforded • Remove plastic litter from strandlines by hand by dunes. picking to avoid ecological damage. • In some locations, such as Balyett in Loch Ryan, • Encourage educational activities, including birdwatchers are attracted to view birds that feed community beach cleans. on the strandline. STRANDLINES COASTAL

Driftwood with nest holes of leaf-cutter bees. Claymoddie, Luce Bay, August 2007. (Peter Norman)

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Mechanical beach cleaning totally destroys this habitat. Even seasonal or occasional removal of the strandline will disrupt invertebrate breeding COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL cycles. • Use of driftwood for barbecues and bonfires can locally reduce invertebrate communities. • Recreational use at high tide locally disturbs roosting birds.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 67 68 COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL SHINGLE BEACHES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T and hydrological conditionsarealsoan important is amatrixoffinermaterial suchassandorsilt, shingle saline, mobileandpoorin organic matter. Vegetated vegetation cangrow, adaptedtoconditionsthatare a relativelystableareaon which specificshingle Above normalhightidelines,shinglecanbecome influences. that areexposedtoextremeenvironmental Unvegetated shingleisabletopersistonbeaches ridge system. shingle canformamorecomplexspitandmultiple beaches canhavearelativelysimplestructure,orthe pile upshingleontheshoreabovetideline. These energy environmentswheretheseacanmoveand 200 mm(largestones).Shinglebeachesforminhigh- grain sizebetween2mm(largesandsize)and The term shingle is applied to any sedimentrangingin 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Habitat Description Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: Completeaninvertebratesurvey Assess theimportanceforinvertebratesofcoastalshingleinDumfries&Galloway. Priority Action (CSB1) willalsoestablishonbeaches wherethere COASTAL SHINGLEBEACHES ofselectedbeachesby2015. Port ofCounan,LuceBay, withSeaKale. August 2007.(PeterNorman) on LuceBayarescarcein the UK. vegetated raisedshinglebeaches ofthetypefound shingle occurs,andlongstretches ofpartially beaches. Only4000haofsemi-stable vegetated However, mostofthisconsists ofsimple,unvegetated by shinglebeaches,whicharewidelydistributed. It isestimatedthat30%oftheUKcoastfringed occurrences outsidetheseareas. west Europe,JapanandNewZealand,withfew Coastal shingleisgloballyrestrictedtonorth- 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext inland. and scrubmayformonmorestableshinglefurther beaches, but vegetation formsontheseawardsideofshingle in bythesea.Usuallyherb-richopen strandline vegetation,including supply comesfromrottingseaweedandother influence onvegetation.Muchoftheinitialnutrient mossandlichenheath,grassland, Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership driftwood pioneer washed COASTAL SHINGLE BEACHES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2. Dumfries & Galloway Status

2.1 Recent Trends Some coastal shingle has been mechanically excavated, but the generally poor access to most of the region’s important shingle beaches has protected them from excessive extraction and recreational disturbance.

2.2 Current Distribution Most shingle beaches in Dumfries & Galloway are bounded on the landward side by raised beaches (with roads at some locations), cliffs and other maritime slopes, rocky protrusions and remnant sand dunes. On the sea-ward side they are fringed by various marine habitats including mud and sand, cobbles and boulders.

There are many unvegetated shingle or sparsely SHINGLE BEACHES COASTAL vegetated beaches, with those in Loch Ryan being of particular importance for nesting birds. The most Yellow Horned-poppy, one of several flowering plants restricted to important areas for vegetated coastal shingle are coastal shingle. Port of Counan, July 1999. (Peter Norman) the bays of Kirkcudbrightshire from Balcary Point to Horned-poppy Glaucium flavum is at its northern Gypsy Point, and the eastern shore of Luce Bay from limit and the nationally scarce Oysterplant Mertensia Carghidown cliffs to the Mull of Sinniness. Vegetated maritima close to its southern limit. shingle is present along 35 km of the Solway Firth coastline, with 41 sites where shingle is greater than Pioneer vegetation, including species such as Sea 100 m in length. Spurge Euphorbia paralias and Sea Kale Crambe maritima, can tolerate periodic movement. Other 2.3 Site Examples notable species include Portland Spurge Euphorbia The eastern shore of Luce Bay (SAC) contains portlandica, Early Orache Atriplex praecox, Isle of some of the most extensive and important vegetated Man Cabbage Coincya monensis subsp. monensis, shingle beaches in Britain. Smaller vegetated shingle Ray’s Knotgrass Polygonum raii, and Wood Vetch beaches are found on the Kirkcudbrightshire coast, Vicia sylvatica. including Rascarrel Bay (SSSI) and Abbey Burnfoot (SSSI). The Scar in Loch Ryan, near , is the The raised shingle beaches of the Solway are most important shingle beach in the region for birds. important for shingle scrub, comprising of Gorse Ulex europaeus and Bramble Rubus fruiticosus that 2.4 Associated Habitats thrives in acid conditions. Blackthorn Prunus spinosa, A number of habitats occur in close association and/ Hawthorn Crataegus monogyna, and Burnet Rose or overlap with coastal shingle beaches, and the Rosa pimpinellifolia also occur, often in prostrate

following action plans may also contain relevant form on the lower shore. Rascarrel Bay has a locally HABITATS COASTAL information: Intertidal Rocky Shores, Coastal unique shingle habitat that supports wet scrub Strandlines, Coastal Sandy Beaches, Coastal Cliffs composed of sallow Salix cinerea and Hazel Corylus and Slopes. avellana.

3. Importance for Associated Species 3.2 Invertebrates (high importance) Many species of invertebrate are dependent upon 3.1 Flowering Plants (very high importance) shingle vegetation. The most interesting sites are Shingle sites on the Solway Firth are significant those where the shingle extends above the normal locations for 16 plant species at or near their northern high tide limit and is at least partially vegetated. or southern limits of distribution. For example, Yellow

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 69 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

The larvae of the micro-moth Scrobipalpa clintoni feeds within the leaves of the common plant Curled Dock, but the moth was only discovered in 1965 and so far in Britain has only been recorded on sand and shingle beaches on the west coast of Scotland, including at Borgue and .

Driftwood on shingle beaches is usually exposed to full sunlight and drying winds. It therefore supports fewer invertebrate species than dead wood in other locations, but can be extremely important for a few species, especially for bees and wasps that feed on adjacent flower-rich grassland.

3.3 Birds (high importance) Birds such as Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus and Ringed Plovers Charadrius hiaticula nest on shingle beaches and feed at the adjacent

COASTAL SHINGLE BEACHES COASTAL strandline and shore. The Scar at Wig Bay in Loch Ryan supports Dumfries & Galloway’s largest tern colony with Common Terns Sterna hirundo, Arctic Cladonia portentosa lichen. Claymoddie shore, Luce Bay, Terns Sterna paradisaea, Sandwich Terns Sterna August 2007. (Peter Norman) sandvicensis and sometimes rare Little Terns Sterna 3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium albifrons nesting on the shingle. Other species roost importance) on the strandline at high tide. All three Scottish reptile species are found on coastal vegetated shingle.

3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) Mosses and liverworts may be totally absent from mobile shingle, but some species occur on more stable vegetated shingle beaches including Broom Fork-moss Dicranum scoparium and Neat Feather- moss Scleropodium purum.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Sandwich Terns nest on undisturbed shingle beaches. Loch Ryan, April 2008. (Gavin Chambers) Importance of Biodiversity

3.4 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Shingle beaches are found on exposed coasts There are interesting lichen communities on with high-energy waves. They therefore provide undisturbed upper shingle areas where no organic important protection against coastal erosion, including material has collected, and amongst pioneer protection for several roads and houses. COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL vegetation. Species of Cladonia are most obvious, including C. portentosa and C. furcata subsp. furcata. 5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Disruption of the dynamics of shingle beach processes by coastal defence or other construction works that interrupts the steady supply of new shingle material.

70 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Dredging of offshore shingle/gravel ridges, 6. Strategic Actions stopping the natural addition of this material to the shingle beaches. 6.1 Recent and current activity • Damage by gravel and sand extraction for • SNH commissioned an Inventory of Shingle private and commercial purposes. Vegetation Survey in the Solway in 2000. • Several sites, including those containing • The first phase of the Dumfries & Galloway significant plant species, have no formal Shoreline Management Plan was published in conservation status and are at risk from dumping 2005. This identifies important shingle beaches of building rubble, garden waste and household and the protection they provide against erosion. rubbish, unauthorised parking or disturbance • Some areas have been given protection through from inappropriate recreational use. statutory designations. • Non-native species, especially Japanese Knotweed, have invaded some areas of shingle. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Wash from high speed ferries may cause • Manage pedestrian and vehicle access to erosion and disturbance to bird colonies in Loch coastal shingle areas to minimise disturbance. Ryan. • Discourage tipping of garden and household • There is a lack of understanding of the value of waste on shingle areas. SHINGLE BEACHES COASTAL shingle areas. • Undertake a baseline survey of breeding birds • Climate change may threaten a number of on shingle areas. Dumfries & Galloway’s coastal shingle beaches. • Raise awareness of the importance of coastal shingle through educational events and publications. COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL

Carline Thistle, with bumblebee Bombus terrestris. Port of Counan, August 2007. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 71 72 COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL SANDY BEACHES Sheltered beachesaresteepwith biodiversity. wave action,andthishasanimportantinfluenceon The natureofthebeachislargelydeterminedby remains permanentlyburiedunderthesurface. and emptyoflife.However, themajorityoflife rock, andsandybeachesmayappearflat,featureless Sand isahomogeneoushabitatincomparisonto 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. the UK. Sandy beaches arewidespreadaround the coastof 1.2 National and InternationalContext from onesedimenttypeto another andbackagain. parts ofthebeach.Somebeaches mayevenchange fine sands,orhavedifferent conditions indifferent Most beachesareintermediate betweencoarseand biomass ofotherlife. bacterial populations,whichsupportsanenormous accumulate organicmaterialthatfuelsteeming seawater, buthaveloweroxygenlevels. They and finesandsthattakelongertobeflushedby Wave exposedbeachesareflatwithlowprofiles examples, biodiversityislimited. and holdlittleorganiccontent.Inthemostextreme drain wellanddryrapidly. The sandtendstobeclean Lead Partner:SolwayFirthPartnership. Target: ProduceaguidetoDumfries&Galloway’s beaches,includingtheirbiodiversity, by2012. their biodiversityandsustainablemanagement. Encourage peopletovisitandenjoycoastalsandybeachestheirassociatedhabitatslearnabout Priority Action (CSB1) Habitat Description White PortBayatthemouthofRoughFirth.June2005. COASTAL SANDYBEACHES coarse sands (Peter Norman) that Coastal ShingleBeaches, Coastal SandDunes. Intertidal SandandMudFlats, CoastalStrandlines, action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: overlap withcoastalsandybeaches,andthefollowing A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats other smallerbeaches. Logan notable beachesat Southerness andMersehead. There arealso attheheadofLuceBay, andbetween The mostextensivesandybeachesarefoundaround 2.3 SiteExamples located tothewestofSoutherness. Most ofDumfries&Galloway’s sandybeachesare 2.2 CurrentDistribution largely unspoiltbymajordevelopments. Dumfries &Galloway’s coastalsandybeachesremain 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Sea Sandwort,apioneercoloniserofsandybeaches.Brighouse Dumfries &GallowayStatus and BroadseaBay Sandyhills, Sandgreen,Port Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership , alongwithanumberof Bay, June2004.(PeterNorman) COASTAL SANDY BEACHES

3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Invertebrates (high importance) Though some invertebrate groups are rare or absent from sandy beaches, bristleworms Polychaete, bivalve molluscs and amphipod crustaceans are abundant and total biomass may be enormous. Most species are tiny, but these vastly outnumber the larger invertebrates. The upper shore of free-draining beaches of coarse sand is a hostile environment for marine life and only a few burrowing invertebrates such as amphipods Bathyporeia spp, an isopod Eurydice pulchra and a tube worm Scolelepis squamata are likely to occur to any extent.

A small number of terrestrial invertebrates also Sanderlings are mainly seen on Solway beaches in the spring and occur, such as a ground beetle Dyschirius thoracicus autumn. (Gordon McCall) recorded on bare sandy shores in Kirkcudbrightshire. 3.3 Birds (low importance) BEACHES SANDY COASTAL A few species are associated with vegetation, but this is of minor importance in comparison to the fauna Sandy beaches are of low importance for birds associated with dead material on the strandline. compared to intertidal sand and mud flats. The main specialists are Sanderlings Calidris alba, though most 3.2 Flowering Plants (medium importance) of these birds pass through Dumfries & Galloway only during a few weeks each spring and autumn. Other On more stable sands, usually at the top of the waders, gulls and terns occasionally feed and roost beach, a number of pioneer plants are able to secure on sandy beaches. a foothold. These include Frosted Orache Atriplex laciniata, Sea Sandwort Honckenya peploides, Sea 3.4 Fishes (low importance) Rocket Cakile maritima and Prickly Saltwort Salsola kali. The latter species has undergone a dramatic Dragonets Callionymus lyra are found partly buried decline in some areas, possibly as a result of in very shallow waters on sandy beaches. Lesser recreational pressure. Weavers Trachinus draco are active at night but spend the day buried in sand, except for their backs and dorsal fins, which can give a painful sting if trodden on.

3.5 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) Some tiny fungi are adapted to live on detritus in the upper layers of sandy beaches, producing miniature fruitbodies attached to grains of sand.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social

Importance of Biodiversity HABITATS COASTAL

Sandy beaches have a very high recreational, tourism and landscape value.

Sea Rocket. Bay, September 2007. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 73 COASTAL SAND DUNES COASTAL SANDY BEACHES SANDY COASTAL

Seemingly barren beach - the biodiversity is all buried in the sand. Ardwell Bay, July 2006. (Peter Norman)

5. Factors affecting the Habitat 6.2 Other recommended actions • Avoid wholesale mechanical cleaning of • The driving of vehicles on sandy beaches can beaches, especially tidelines. damage fragile communities. • Encourage educational activities, including • Litter is more of an eyesore than a threat to community beach cleans. biodiversity, but in some cases can affect wildlife. • Promote the natural importance and • Mechanical beach cleaning can damage sustainable management of Dumfries & biodiversity and disrupt natural beach processes. Galloway’s beaches.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • A number of beaches are designated Bathing Waters where water quality is monitored to ensure that it meets required standards. Beaches have shown a gradual improvement since monitoring began.

COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL • A few beaches have been adopted by community groups under the Marine Conservation Society’s Adopt-a-beach campaign.

74 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership develop, often shell sandamoreacidicplant communitycan a species-richhabitat.However, inlocationswithout results fromthebreakdown ofshells,andresultsin The highcalciumcontentof fragile soilwithaverylowwatercontent. stable environments,butstillhaveaveryshallowand Fixed dunes burial andseasprayrestrictstherangeofplants. dunes, areactivelybuildingdunes.Constantsand Further inland able tocopewithwind,saltanddroughtconditions. sandy beaches. They arecolonisedbypioneerplants Embryo dunesformatransitionalzoneatthetopof sand availability, butothersextendwellinland. narrow coastalstripswheregeologicalfactorslimit prevents dispersalofthesand.Somedunesoccurin are blownontothelandbywind.Vegetation that driesoutatlowtideandwherethesandgrains to 2mm. The criticalfactoristhepresenceofabeach adequate supplyofsedimentwithinthesizerange0.2 Sand dunesdeveloponcoastswherethereisan 1.1 Physicalcharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:DefenceEstates/ScottishNaturalHeritage. Improve habitatqualityofcoastalsanddunes. Priority Action (CSD1) Lyme GrassandMarramonembryodunesatBackBay, Habitat Description , orgreydunes,aremoreshelteredand foredunes, sometimescalledyellow dune heath COASTAL SANDDUNES . May2006.(PeterNorman) dominated by Heather dunegrasslands . scrub. other dunewetlandand38haofwoodland dune heathandbracken,2haofslack,133ha of neutral-calcareousfixeddunegrassland,192ha foredune, 253haofacidicfixeddunegrassland,37ha Galloway, comprisingof2haembryodune,32ha An estimated689haiscurrentlyfoundinDumfries& importance. exceed 50haandareconsideredtobeofnational around 31,000hainScotland.InBritain43sites is widelydistributedaroundtheBritishcoastlinewith throughout Europe. Around 50,000haofdunehabitat Coastal sandduneshaveawidedistribution 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext the latter. areas ofthedunesystem,withwillowsdominatingin and fens.Dunescrubdevelopsinbothdrywet system. They caninclude seasonalpools,swamps Dune slacksareareasofwetlandwithinthedune interest. geological, botanical,entomological andornithological some dunegrassland,and isoutstandingforits predominantly acidicdune heathwithslacksand beach anddunesystemin southernScotland.Itis encompasses thelargestand mostcomplex Torrs Warren (SAC/SPA/Ramsar/SSSI) 2.3 SiteExamples Nith estuarywestwards. Sand dunesarerestrictedtothecoastlinefrom 2.2 CurrentDistribution experienced coastalerosion. in thelastdecade.Someduneshave,however, damage hasoccurredinDumfries&Galloway become recognisedandlittledeliberatelossor The biodiversityvalueofsandduneshasincreasingly 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership 75 COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL SAND DUNES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

A narrow belt of Marram-dominated dunes occurs Colletes Bee Colletes floralis has not been refound from Southerness to Mersehead (SSSI) and at recently. Fox and Emperor Moths Macrothylacia rubi (LWS). At the head of Brighouse Bay and Saturnia pavonia occur on dune heaths, as well (SSSI) there is a small area of embryo dunes and as other heathland. dune grassland. Narrow belts of dune habitat occur elsewhere on the Galloway coast, for example at Narrow-mouthed Whorl Snails Vertigo angustior are Sandyhills Bay, Almorness, Fleet Bay, Monreith, restricted to moist places with short grasses, mosses and Killantringan Bay. or low herbs that are quickly warmed by the sun. In Dumfries & Galloway they are found only on marshy 2.4 Associated Habitats dune grassland behind dunes at Almorness. The first A number of habitats occur in close association and/ Scottish record of a nationally scarce money spider or overlap with coastal sand dunes, and the following Mecopisthes peusi was found at Mersehead in 2001. action plans may also contain relevant information: Coastal Sandy Beaches, Scrub Woods. 3.2 Flowering Plants (very high importance) Sand dunes, especially foredunes, form a very 3. Importance for Associated Species hostile environment and flowering plants require adaptations to aid survival, such as the spreading COASTAL SAND DUNES COASTAL 3.1 Invertebrates (very high importance) rhizomes of Sand Couch Elytrigia juncea, the Foredunes contain a small but specialised succulent leaves of Sea Spurge Euphorbia paralias, invertebrate fauna. Two species of moth are virtually and the fleshy tap root of Sea Holly Eryngium restricted to this habitat. The Coast Dart Euxoa maritimum. cursoria, which feeds on dune plants such as Sea Growth of Marram Sandwort, Sand Couch and Early Hair Grass, has Grass Ammophila been recorded rarely in Dumfries & Galloway; the arenaria is nationally scarce Belted Beauty Lycia zonaria has stimulated by yet to be confirmed in Dumfries & Galloway but may being covered in occur on foredunes. sand, whilst Lyme Grass Leymus Coastal sand dunes are better suited to support arenarius with warmth-loving invertebrates than any other habitat. its ability to roll A common ground beetle Calathus mollis is almost its leaves in dry Perennial Flax at its only Scottish locality exclusively found in fixed dunes, with records from weather, is one of on dune grassland at Brighouse Bay. June 2004. (Peter Norman) Kirkcudbrightshire and Wigtownshire. A spider- the principal dune- hunting wasp Evagetes crassicornis has been builders. recorded at Torrs Warren, in one of only six 10km squares in Scotland, whilst Dune Robberfly Philonicus Although fixed dunes have a greater range of albiceps and Pied- species, many are still highly specialised. Sand winged Robberfly Sedge Carex arenaria colonises and stabilises with Pamponerus the help of a fast-growing rhizome. The grass Bromus germanicus are hordeaceus subsp. thominei has been recorded in near their northern Dumfries & Galloway only at Torrs Warren. limits in Galloway. COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL Dunes are especially Coralroot Orchid Corallorhiza trifida has been important for bees recorded in the dune slacks at Torrs Warren, its only and wasps, with bare recent site in the region. Common Wintergreen Pyrola sand of particular minor is also found here. value for hunting and burrowing. A mining Perennial Flax Linum perenne is abundant at its only bee Colletes fodiens Scottish site on the dune grassland at Brighouse is present at its only Bay, and within Dumfries & Galloway Pyramidal Scottish site at Torrs Orchid Anacamptis pyramidalis is only regularly found Warren, although its Lichen-covered foredunes at Torrs here and at Port Logan. relative the Northern Warren. June 2007. (Peter Norman)

76 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians (very high importance) Natterjack Toads Epidalea calamita, commonly breed in dune slacks in Britain, but in Dumfries & Galloway more commonly occur in association with saltmarshes. They are found in dunes only in the Southerness to Mersehead area. Great Crested Newts Triturus cristatus are known to breed in the slacks at Torrs Warren.

All three Scottish reptiles, Adders Vipera berus,

Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara and Slow Worms Dune heath, scrub and slack at Torrs Warren. June 2007. Anguis fragilis are regularly recorded from dune (Peter Norman) systems in Dumfries & Galloway. Tortella flavorirens is exclusively coastal in Britain. Although it can be found below cliffs and sometimes 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) in crevices in coastal rocks it is most abundant in

Few fungi are calcareous sand dunes, usually on fairly stable sand. SAND DUNES COASTAL associated with Several bryophytes are also found in dune slacks. mobile sand, but a number of dune 3.6 Birds (medium importance) specialists are No birds are entirely restricted to dunes, but a number found on fixed of species breed here as well as in other habitats. dunes, including These include Skylarks Alauda arvensis and Linnets Dune Brittlestem Carduelis cannabina. Others such as Common Psathyrella Kestrels Falco tinnunculus, Short-eared Owls Asio ammophila. Some flammeus, and Barn Owls Tyto alba hunt over dunes. species may enable pioneer 3.7 Mammals (low importance) dune grasses to The mammal fauna consists of common and capture essential widespread species, such as Field Voles Microtus elements such agrestis, Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus, and Foxes as phosphorus. Vulpes vulpes. In the absence of livestock, Rabbit A rare birds-nest Moor Club Clavaria argillacea. Torrs grazing may be important in maintaining some plant fungus Cyathus Warren, November 2007. (Peter Norman) and invertebrate communities. stercoreus has been recorded on rabbit dung amongst Marram at 3.8 Fishes (low importance) Torrs Warren. Fixed dunes and dune heaths are also important for lichens, particularly species of Cladonia Dune slacks that hold permanent water support that give the dunes their grey appearance. Slacks are common fish species such as Three-spined the most important dune habitat for fungal diversity, Sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus. though relatively few species are restricted to this 4. Environmental, Economic & Social habitat. HABITATS COASTAL Importance of Biodiversity 3.5 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) Mosses and liverworts thrive on bare patches • Coastal sand dunes provide natural protection of calcium-rich sand, which naturally occur on against erosion and flooding. For example, foredunes where cycles of erosion and re-deposition Southerness golf course receives considerable provide fresh surfaces of bare damp sand. Sand-hill protection from the adjacent dune system. Screw-moss Syntrichia ruralformis is one of the first • A number of dune systems occur behind popular to colonise, forming extensive mats that bind the sand bathing beaches, such as Sandyhills and together. Once these areas become colonised by Brighouse Bay, though they are not frequently larger flowering plants the bare sand disappears and used by visitors other than to access the beach. the habitat becomes less suitable. Yellow Crisp-moss Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 77 COASTAL SALTMARSHES (MERSE) P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

recreational use. Provision of boardwalks and the fencing of sensitive areas can control excessive trampling and erosion, though use of tanalised fences and galvanised wire can damage bryophytes. Use of trail bikes has been noted at Southerness, and is extremely damaging. • Increasing sea levels and storm frequency resulting from climate change can cause foreshore steepening and increased wave attack at the base of dunes, resulting in erosion.

6. Strategic Actions

Mating Dark Green Fritillary butterflies on dune heath. Torrs 6.1 Recent and current activity Warren, June 2007 (Peter Norman) • The most important sand dunes in the region are protected from significant damage COASTAL SAND DUNES COASTAL 5. Factors affecting the Habitat through a range of statutory and non-statutory designations. This does not, however, always • The continued supply and movement of sand ensure positive habitat management. within the site is fundamental to maintaining the • Sands dunes are included within the Luce Bay diverse conditions on the site. Sand is supplied by and Sands SAC management scheme and onshore currents and moves landward over time. process. • Mechanical beach cleaning removes vegetation • The West Freugh Conservation Group aims to behind which sand would normally accumulate. balance potentially conflicting land uses at Torrs • Military use and construction of military facilities Warren. at Torrs Warren has damaged some dune habitat. • Erosion control, through fencing and planting However, military use is likely to have protected it of Marram Grass has been carried out by from greater damage from other land uses. Southerness Golf Course. • Forestry is not widespread on dunes in the • Visitor management at Sandyhills Bay region. Only a relatively small part of Torrs Warren involves boardwalks on well-used access has been planted with conifers, and even here an routes. At Brighouse Bay, previous parking on interesting flora and fauna remains. dune grassland has been prevented, though • Few of the region’s dunes have any form of responsible access on foot encouraged through managed grazing. Light grazing with suitable provision of gates and interpretation. livestock can maintain a diverse vegetation • Low-intensity grazing management at Brighouse structure and benefit invertebrates. Bay has been reinstated. • Deliberate burning of dune heaths has been used as a management tool in the past, but 6.2 Other recommended actions produces few benefits for the habitat. Burning COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL • Consider restoration of sand dunes at Torrs of rank ungrazed heather may result in serious Warren through removal of conifer plantations. damage. There is also a risk from accidental fires. • Examine the feasibility of grazing reintroduction • Dumfries & Galloway’s dunes do not suffer badly at selected sites. from non-native invasive species, as in some other parts of the UK. However, bracken and • Arrange guided walks and environmental scrub invasion has been a problem at Torrs education activities and publications. Warren. • Conduct invertebrate surveys. These would • Public access can be beneficial on ungrazed be highly likely to result in the discovery of new sites, but dunes can be damaged by heavy species for the region.

78 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership COASTAL SALTMARSHES (MERSE) levels ofintertidal mudandsandareas, where fine soil. They develop onthemiddleandupper tidal high daytimetemperatures, andwithpoorlyaerated periodically inundatedbythe tide,oftenexposedto Saltmarshes areareasofspecialised vegetation 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Continue withcurrentmanagement. Priority Action (CSM1) Southwick Merse, August 2007. (RichardMearns) on theSolway. Scotland’s saltmarsh,approximately 2,000ha,isfound around 6,750ha in Scotland. A significant proportion of approximately 29,000haofsaltmarshintheUK,with Channel and Atlantic shores ofEurope. There are Saltmarshes occurontheNorthSea,English 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext few plantscalled accumulate inpatchesto produce areasof marsh with decreases towardstheuppershore,butsaltmay Saltmarsh sedimenthasaveryhighsaltcontentthat migration, storms,tidalcyclesandgeologicaluplift. of marshterraces Solway marshesprovidethefinestBritishexamples diversity andprovidearangeofmicrohabitats. The through creeks Tidal waterflowsinandoutoftheareassaltmarsh of thesaltmarshformsacliff2-3mhigh. saltmarshes. Invariousplacestheerosionaledge A rangeofsmall-scalelandformsisassociatedwith communities andfreshwatergrasslands. with theuppermarshformingtransitionsreed mid anduppersaltmarshthereismorevariation, Lower saltmarshmaybespeciespoor, buton in determiningstructureandspeciescomposition. grazing bydomesticlivestockisparticularlysignificant important precursorofmorestablesaltmarsh,where, vegetation colonisessandandmudflatsisan and durationoftidalinundation. Vegetation varieswithclimateandthefrequency open seashore. coastal shinglebars,butsomeexamplesareonthe sheltered situationswithinestuariesandbehind sedimentation. Usuallysaltmarshestablishesin the plantsslowwaterflowandthusincrease flowering plants(halophytes).Onceestablished, environment conducivetothegrowthofsalttolerant sediments offer asubstrate inalowenergystable andrunnelsthataddtothestructural saltpans. formedbytheprocessofcreek Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Pioneer saltmarsh 79 COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL SALTMARSHES (MERSE) P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2. Dumfries & Galloway Status surrounding pastures of the Solway during the winter, along with large numbers of Pink-footed Geese 2.1 Recent Trends Anser brachyrhynchus and Greylag Geese Anser There has been little pressure recently for anser. Other wildfowl such as Pintails Anas acuta improvement of marshes for agriculture. and Wigeons Anas penelope feed on and around saltmarshes. Golden Plovers Pluvialis apricaria and 2.2 Current Distribution Lapwings gather in mixed flocks of up to 1,000, and Peregrines Falco peregrinus, Merlins Falco Extensive saltmarshes are found in the inner Solway columbarius and other birds of prey frequently hunt and Wigtown Bay, but smaller areas occur in most over saltmarshes during the winter. of the region’s estuaries, and occasionally on more exposed coasts. Twites Carduelis flavirostris are small finches that breed in small numbers in Dumfries & Galloway. 2.3 Site Examples Flocks of up to 230 have been recorded on Almost 3,000ha of saltmarsh are found on several saltmarshes during the winter, although their origins sites in the inner Solway Firth (SAC/SPA/SSSI). On are unknown. the Scottish side of the estuary this includes sites at Browhouses, Dornock, Annan, Priestside Bank, Drying creeks and pans are often a good hunting Caerlaverock (NNR), Kirkconnell Merse, Carse ground for Grey Herons Ardea cinerea. Bay, Green Merse and Southwick Merse. Several COASTAL SALTMARSHES (MERSE) SALTMARSHES COASTAL sites show a complete sequence from pioneer 3.2 Flowering Plants (high importance) to upper saltmarsh and transitions to freshwater The natural zones of vegetation on a saltmarsh result habitats. The greatest extent of saltmarsh in the outer from the degree of inundation by incoming tides. Solway is c450ha at Wigtown Bay (SSSI/LNR). Plants with a higher tolerance to salt and inundation Smaller areas include c135ha in Rough Firth and are found on the lower saltmarsh, whereas those with Auchencairn Bay (SSSI), c75ha in Kirkcudbright a more limited tolerance will be found in the upper Bay, c25ha in Fleet Bay and c35ha in Luce Bay. marsh. Saltmarsh vegetation also reflects the age, type of sediment and management of the marshes. 2.4 Associated Habitats

A number of habitats occur in close association and/ Pioneer saltmarsh is typified by species such as or overlap with coastal saltmarshes, and the following Common Glasswort Salicornia europaea, which action plans may also contain relevant information: colonise the Intertidal Sand and Mud Flats, Reedbeds. mud flats, Annual Seablite 3. Importance for Associated Species Suaeda maritima and Common 3.1 Birds (very high importance) Saltmarsh Grass A number of other wildfowl and wading birds rely on Puccinellia saltmarsh for either breeding, feeding or roosting maritima. during the course of the year. Salicornia beds are uncommon on Breeding waders include Oystercatchers Haematopus a European and COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL ostralegus, Curlews Numenius arquata and UK scale. These Redshanks Tringa totanus, Lapwings Vanellus species also occur vanellus and Snipe Gallinago gallinago. Redshanks on open creeks are particularly important as they have declined as and saltpans. breeding birds in many other habitats. Historically Above the pioneer the Solway merses used to be important for breeding zone there is Sea Lavender at Auchencairn Bay. Dunlins Calidris alpina, gulls and terns although these a transition to August 2008. (Peter Norman). species now rarely breed. grassy lower and mid saltmarsh dominated by Sea Milkwort Glaux The entire world population of Svalbard Barnacle maritima, Sea Arrow-grass Triglochin maritimum, Geese Branta leucopsis feed on the saltmarshes and

80 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Sea Plantain Plantago maritima Red Fescue Festuca 3.4 Invertebrates (high importance) rubra Sea Aster Aster tripolium and Thrift Armeria The invertebrate fauna is especially rich in the maritima. Common Sea Lavender Limonium vulgare upper saltmarsh zone. Though most species are and Lax-flowered Sea Lavender Limonium humile, of terrestrial rather than marine origin, many are both at the northern edge of their ranges, are found specialists in this habitat, including a spider Pardosa on ungrazed or lightly grazed marshes. purbeckensis, and the ground beetles Dyschirius nitidus, D. salinus, Bembidion minimum, and B. normannum, which have all been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway.

The Tadpole Shrimp Triops cancriformis was known in Dumfries & Galloway from Southwick in 1945, but was considered lost when this area was eroded by the sea in 1960. It was rediscovered in a small seasonal upper saltmarsh pool at Caerlaverock in September 2004. It is known only from one other site in Britain, a single freshwater pond in the New Forest.

The commoner saltmarsh invertebrates provide food

for large numbers of waders, wildfowl and other birds. (MERSE) SALTMARSHES COASTAL Sea Milkwort, Ringdoo Point, Luce Bay. June 2007. (Peter Norman). 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) Saltmarsh provides a specialised habitat in which The upper saltmarsh is dominated by extensive fungi play an important, though not obvious, role. grazed communities of Saltmarsh Grass Puccinellia A number of micro species are associated with maritima and Saltmarsh Rush Juncus gerardii, and saltmarsh plants and soil, and a few larger species tussocky patches of Sea Rush Juncus maritimus. It and lichens also occur, although few are restricted to also includes Sea Wormwood Seriphidium maritimum, this habitat. In some areas there is a local tradition the uncommon Seaside Centaury Centaurium littorale of collecting field mushrooms Agaricus spp. from the and Lesser Centaury Centaurium pulchellum at merse. northern edge of its range, as well as many plants that are not specialist salt-tolerant species, including the nationally rare Holy Grass Hierochloe odorata.

Saltpans and creeks are usually species poor, but on their fringes can be found Saltmarsh Flat Sedge Blysmus rufus, Brackish Water Crow-foot Ranunculus baudotii and Sea Purslane Atriplex portulacoides, the latter at the northern edge of its range.

3.3 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) More than 15% of the UK population of the COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL internationally uncommon Natterjack Toad Epidalea calamita is found in Dumfries & Galloway. In many parts of Britain this species is associated with sand dunes and lowland heaths, but at its northern limit in Britain the north Solway population is centred upon upper saltmarshes from east of Powfoot to Mersehead. Tadpole Shrimp caught at Caerlaverock. October 2004. (Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust).

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 81 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) 5. Factors affecting the Habitat British saltmarshes support relatively few mosses and liverworts. A few species can tolerate the high salinity, • Grazing by domestic stock has historically been such as Hennediella heimii, which is more frequent practised on Dumfries & Galloway’s saltmarshes, here than in any other habitat. Lower saltmarsh restricting many species to creek banks that may be totally devoid of bryophytes, though the are less accessible to livestock. High grazing Solway provides virtually the only UK records of pressure results in a short grassy sward favoured Pseudephemerum nitidum in this habitat. Most by geese, but previously grazed saltmarshes, if species are found in mid to upper saltmarshes, abandoned, become dominated by rank grasses especially where grazed and flushed with freshwater. in the mid to upper marshes, which have limited botanical diversity. Overgrazing by sheep is highly Various microscopic algal species of the genus unsatisfactory for most invertebrates and most Vaucheria, are found on Solway saltmarshes breeding birds. sometimes forming large green mats. Most occupy • Destruction of the natural terrestrial transition slightly different niches, including creeks and affects many saltmarsh species that specialise in brackish waters. Although under-recorded, some of the upper zones of saltmarsh, some of which are these species are rare elsewhere in Britain. only tidally inundated by the highest tides.

3.7 Fishes (low importance) • Cordgrass colonisation of open mud in

COASTAL SALTMARSHES (MERSE) SALTMARSHES COASTAL The widely fluctuating salinity of saltpans restricts Auchencairn, Orchardton Bays, Fleet Bay, their use by fish, but juvenile Flounders Pleuronectes Nith Estuary and Rough Firth occurred rapidly flesus are more tolerant than most and can during the late 20th century producing extensive sometimes be found in these pools, along with Three- monoculture swards of reduced wildlife value. spined Sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus. This expansion continues, albeit at a slower rate. Some colonised areas have steadily built in height 3.8 Mammals (low importance) and progressively been transformed into more typical saltmarsh communities, though some new Brown Hares Lepus europaeus and other mammals clumps of cordgrass have also been detected. are often seen on saltmarshes, but no species are particularly dependent on this habitat. • Erosion has been rapid on some areas of saltmarsh in the region in recent years, though 4. Environmental, Economic & Social for the Solway as a whole accretion may be Importance of Biodiversity balancing erosion. At Eastpark, Caerlaverock there has been a substantial gain in pioneer saltmarsh, with 67ha accreting between 1999 and • Saltmarshes act as a valuable natural flood- 2006 and no significant losses. defence, dissipating wave energy and reducing scour. • Saltmarsh is vulnerable from pollution of the estuaries it fringes, particularly oil spills and • Saltmarshes provide valuable grazing for sheep subsequent clean up operations. Waste tipping, and cattle. In some areas saltmarsh lamb has sewage effluent and agricultural run-off also alter been specifically marketed as a very high quality the flora and fauna of the saltmarsh. product. • Wildfowling can affect numbers of birds using COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL • Wildfowling takes place on many saltmarshes saltmarshes to feed and roost. in Dumfries & Galloway, with visiting wildfowlers providing economic benefits to local businesses • Sea level rise and maintenance of sea defences during the winter months. may cause coastal squeeze (loss of upper and lower habitat).

82 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

6. Strategic Actions 6.2. Other recommended actions • Allow undisturbed saltmarsh to undergo the 6.1 Recent and current activity natural processes of erosion, deposition and • Most saltmarsh in the region is within SSSI plant growth without intervention. In unmanaged designations, with mechanisms in place to saltmarshes, there will be a series of successional prevent deliberate losses of marsh. stages with a varied structure. • Saltmarshes are included within the Solway • Avoid flood defence works, development, European Marine Site management scheme. reclamation or agricultural improvement on saltmarshes. The upper marsh will have the • Scottish Natural Heritage ran a Merse highest interest, but retain a full transition of Management Scheme that aimed to integrate the vegetation types needs of saltmarsh into local agricultural units. This Scheme has now been incorporated into the • Re-creation of saltmarsh may be possible on Scottish Rural Development Programme. a limited number of sites in the Solway by the breaching of sea walls or modification to allow • Careful management of wildfowling is in operation ingress of tidal waters and encourage saltmarsh in Dumfries & Galloway. establishment. Accretion rates may also be • ‘New’ marsh has been allowed to establish in increased or sediments stabilised at some places where retaining walls have been broken locations in order to promote saltmarsh formation.

down, such as at Annan Waterfoot. In 2000, The However, there are no payments to support this at (MERSE) SALTMARSHES COASTAL Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust at Caerlaverock present and any plans would need to cater for a allowed 8ha of improved grassland to become continuity of special niches. Managed realignment seasonally inundated by the tide and thus could raise particular problems with seepage change the composition of the sward, through a marsh, where the hydrology may not adjust. conscious decision not to maintain the sea wall. Gains of saltmarsh using this method may be at • In 2001, RSPB completed an assessment of all the expense of open intertidal areas and upset larger saltmarshes in the region and provided local natural sediment patterns. advice on their management for breeding and wintering birds to landowners. • Historic Scotland has completed an assessment survey of the coast including erosion and geomorphology and its potential impact on archaeology and paleoenvironmental aspects of the inner Solway. COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL

Saltmarsh cliff at Powfoot. July 2006. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 83 84 COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL CLIFFS AND SLOPES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T caves bare rockexposures. A fewhardcliffs also have sea rock facevegetation andcliff crevices,aswell as including microhabitats, range of develop a but may and erosion, weathering resistant to These are sandstone. granite and created by hard cliffs with vertical in landforms, the variation determines geology underlying the sea. The or erosionby between landandsea,formedbyslippageand/ Coastal cliffs andslopesoccuratthejunction 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Committee. Lead Partner:SolwayHeritage/Farming&Wildlife Advisory Group/RegionalProposal Assessment coastal slopesthroughestablishmentofaheath/grasslandrestorationpilotproject,by2012. Demonstrate integratedmanagementforfarming,biodiversity, recreation,andculturalheritageon Priority Action (CCS1) Rhins coastnearDunskeyCastle.July2006.(PeterNorman). , someofwhich arefloodedbythetides.

COASTAL CLIFFS&SLOPES Coastal heathnearDunskeyCastle. August 2006. (PeterNorman) Soft moderately used coastalfootpaths. sites andcar parks, thoughthereareanumber of and relativelylittlecoastal development, caravan England, therearefewcoastal defencesatcliff bases, However, unlikemanycoastalcliffs andslopesin with intensificationoffarming onthecliff top. slopes hasoccurredinrecent decades,combined Almost totalabandonmentofgrazingoncoastal 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus (2,373km) isfoundinScotland. with approximately4,650km,abouthalfofwhich significant proportionofEUseacliffs andslopes, facing coastsofEurope. The UKsupportsa Sea cliffs occurdiscontinuouslyalongthewest 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext sheltered hollowsfavouredbymanyinvertebrates. southerly facingslopesoftenprovidingwarmand bearing onexposureaswellsunlight,with most exposedcoasts. Aspect canhaveanimportant influence ofsaltmayextendupto1kminlandonthe to theseaandleastatcliff top,althoughthe to thewindandsaltspray, whichisgreatestclose Flora andfaunaisgreatlyinfluencedbyexposure modify growthformandhabitatstructure. such asmaritimewoods,themaincoastaleffect isto in theequivalenthabitatsinland,whilstothers, composed ofmanyspecialisedspeciesrarelyfound of these,suchasexposedmaritimegrasslands,are bracken, andcoastalscrubwoodland. heath, coastalgrasslandseepages variety ofdifferent communities,including coastal slopes.Theseslopesarecolonisedbya vertical cliffs atall,orthe cliffs areinterspersedwith Some sectionsofthecoasthavenoverticalornear into acomplexofsmall,distinctmicrohabitats. freshwater runningoverthem. They toooftendevelop stable, beingactivelyerodedbyboththeseaand cliffs, derivedfromsandandclaydeposits,areless Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership coastal Some , COASTAL CLIFFS & SLOPES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.2 Current Distribution The various habitats of coastal slopes are botanically Of Dumfries & Galloway’s 350km of coastline, only rich, with perhaps coastal grasslands being richest very small areas of low soft cliffs occur, mostly in of all. Typically these support Thrift Armeria maritima, the inner Solway. Hard cliffs with vertical exposures Sea Campion Silene uniflora, Bloody Cranesbill are more typical of the outer Solway, extending very Geranium sanguineum, and Wood Vetch Vicia approximately to 11km. A further 97km is composed of sylvatica, with Purple Milk-vetch Astragalus danicus coastal slopes with grassland, scrub and woodland, and carpets of Spring Squill Scilla verna at some not including slopes behind raised beaches. Coastal locations. Some of the more inaccessible grassy heath occurs only in very small pockets, particularly slopes support rare species such as Sticky Catchfly on the Rhins. The maximum cliff height in Dumfries & Lychnis viscaria, Purple Oxytropis Oxytropis halleri, Galloway is 110m at Dunman, near Mull of Galloway. Bithynian Vetch Vicia bithynica, Yellow Vetch Vicia lutea, Small Restharrow Ononis reclinata, and Sea 2.3 Site Examples Stork’s-bill Erodium maritimum. The Mull of Galloway (SAC/SSSI) is the most Typical species of coastal heath include Bell Heather important site in the region for both plants and birds. Erica cinerea, Burnet Rose Rosa pimpinellifolia and Other important sites include Portling to Castlehill Western Gorse Ulex gallii, the latter rare in the rest of Point (part SSSI), Balcary to Torrs Point (SSSI), Scotland. The rare Dotted Sedge Carex punctata is Borgue Coast (SSSI), Burrow Head, and the associated with coastal seepages. west coast of the Rhins. Important coastal scrub AND SLOPES CLIFFS COASTAL and woodland occurs at Ravenshall (SSSI) and 3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) Southwick (SSSI). The Solway islands – Rough Island, Hestan Island, (SSSI), the Soft cliffs are of outstanding national importance for Islands of Fleet (SSSI) and Scare Rocks (SSSI) invertebrates, but no studies have been made of the all include coastal cliffs and slopes. Sea caves few sites that occur in Dumfries & Galloway. include Barlocco Heughs, Dove Cave and Cave of Uchtriemackean. The invertebrate fauna of hard cliffs is relatively modest in comparison, but where shallow trickles or 2.4 Associated Habitats films of water run over hard surfaces algae, mosses and liverworts form the base of the food chain for A number of habitats occur in close association and/ a small, but exceptionally specialised invertebrate or overlap with coastal cliffs and slopes, and the assemblage including caddisflies, beetles, and flies. following action plans may also contain relevant For example, a slender-footed fly Liancalus virens information: Coastal Shingle Beaches, Coastal has been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway, but is Saltmarshes (Merse), Waterfalls, Inland Rock more usually found in Devon and Cornwall. Some Outcrops. invertebrates are associated with carrion and guano from seabird colonies and, remarkably, the House 3. Importance for Associated Species Martin Flea Ceratophyllus hirundinis is almost entirely restricted to cliff nests, with just a few records from 3.1 Flowering Plants (very high importance) nests in coastal buildings. Hard cliffs support a limited range of species, but many are highly specialised and of restricted local Pointed Snails Cochlicella acuta are found on dry, and national distribution, including Rock Sea Spurrey grassy coastal slopes, mostly on the west coast of COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL Spergularia rupicola, Roseroot Sedum rosea, Britain, and have rarely been recorded more than Scot’s Lovage Ligusticum scoticum, Rock Samphire a mile inland. The locally uncommon Bloody-nosed Crithmum maritimum, and Ivy Broomrape Orobanche Beetle Timarcha tenebricosa has been recorded at hederae. Golden Samphire Inula crithmoides is found Rough Firth, whilst records of the attractive, iridescent at its only Scottish location. Remnant examples of Rose Chafer Cetonia aurata are concentrated on the prostrate Juniper Juniperus communis occur on cliffs Rhins coast. between Sandyhills and the Rhins. Ledges occupied by breeding seabirds develop a less important plant Coastal grassland is important in a Scottish and/or community, more able to cope with high nutrient local context for some butterflies and moths, including levels. Soft cliffs are relatively botanically poor. Northern Brown Argus Aricia artaxerxes, Wall

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 85 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Lasiommata megera, Grayling Hipparchia semele, Thrift Clearwing Bembecia muscaeformis, Forester Adscita statices, Crescent Dart Agrotis trux ssp. lunigera and Northern Rustic Standfussiana lucernea. The larvae of a micro moth Agonopterix rotundella feeds on Wild Carrot on coastal cliffs in Wigtownshire, its only Scottish location, but the Small Blue butterfly Cupido minimus is probably now extinct.

The nationally scarce spider Talavera petrensis has been recorded from coastal heath at the Mull of Galloway. The only other Scottish record is from Rum.

Soft, eroding cliffs are important for some invertebrates. Inner Virtually the entire Scottish populations of Speckled Solway, February 2008.(Richard Mearns). and Dark Bush Crickets Leptophyes punctatissima Rissa tridactyla, Herring Gulls Larus argentatus, Great and Pholidoptera griseoaptera are found in areas Black-backed Gulls L. marinus, and small numbers of of rough grassland with coastal scrub in Dumfries Black Guillemots Cephus grylle and Puffins Fratercula & Galloway. Scrub also provides valuable nectar arctica. Exceptionally high densities of breeding sources for many insects. Coastal woodland may COASTAL CLIFFS AND SLOPES CLIFFS COASTAL Peregrines Falco peregrinus, Ravens Corvus corax support invertebrates that are absent inland, such as and, rarely, Choughs Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax also the nationally scarce bark beetle Dryocoetinus alni, breed. Several colonies of cliff-nesting House Martins found at Ravenshall. Delichon urbica occur. The Spiders Meta menardi and Porrhomma Although a few birds will visit sea caves, and the convexum are found in sea caves, whilst at scientific name of the Wren Troglodytes troglodytes Ravenshall is the rare cave-dwelling woodlouse means cave dweller, caves generally do not form an Trichoniscoides saerocensis. Common invertebrates, important bird habitat. Choughs will, however, nest in such as Herald Moths Scoliopteryx libatrix are also caves. occasionally found in sea caves.

Coastal scrub supports perhaps the best populations 3.3 Birds (very high importance) of Linnets Carduelis cannabina, Stonechats Saxicola Hard cliffs are most important for breeding birds, torquatus, Lesser Whitethroats Sylvia carruca and supporting nationally important numbers of Gannets Common Whitethroats Sylvia communi in a local Morus bassanus, Cormorants Phalacrocorax carbo context. Small numbers of Twite Carduelis flavirostris and Lesser Black-backed Gulls Larus fuscus as well breed on coastal heath. as regionally important numbers of Guillemots Uria aalga, Razorbills Alca torda, Shags Phalacrocorax 3.4 Fungi and Lichens (high importance) aristotelis, Fulmars Fulmarus glacialis, Kittiwakes The fungal flora of coastal cliffs and slopes is rarely of major importance, usually consisting of species common in other habitats, but a broad array of lichens occurs in this habitat. In many cases quantity

COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL is more important than the quality, with some rock faces having 100% cover of typical species such as Verrucaria maura, Caloplaca marina and Sea Ivory Ramalina siliquosa. However, rare species have also been recorded including Cladonia peziziformis on coastal heath near , Degelia ligulata on rocks in coastal seepages at Portpatrick, Caloplaca britannica on nutrient-rich bird perching sites in the Rhins and Sticta canariensis on moist rocks or trees at Dirk Hatteraick’s Cave. The coastal woods at Young Peregrine Falcons at Portpatrick. (Gordon McCall) Southwick and Ravenshall are particularly lichen rich.

86 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) 3.7 Mammals (low importance) Seaside Grimmia Schistidium maritimum is a moss Several common species of mammal are found on restricted in Britain to coastal rocks on northern and coastal slopes. However, part of the importance of western coasts, usually in shallow crevices where coastal cliff and slope stems from the fact much of there is some shelter or an occasional trickle of it is free from the effects of grazing and predatory fresh water from above. It may also colonise artificial mammals. substrates. Above the influence of salt spray, there is a high diversity of mosses and liverworts, especially 4. Environmental, Economic & Social on cliff faces with gullies and freshwater seepages. Importance of Biodiversity Sea Spleenwort fern Asplenium marinum also finds a home in these damp crevices. • Coastal and marine habitats have an extremely high landscape and amenity value. Much of this Sea caves, especially those not regularly flooded by habitat falls within National Scenic Areas and the sea, can also be important for bryophytes. Light Areas of Regional Scenic Significance. intensity is the critical factor here, but a few species are able to survive in the low light levels near cave • Coastal cliffs and slopes have very high entrances. recreational value, and include some of the most well-walked footpaths in the region on the Colvend coast and at Balcary, Portpatrick and COASTAL CLIFFS AND SLOPES CLIFFS COASTAL Mull of Galloway. The latter site includes a cliff top café. • Coastal areas were of great importance to early people and, due to the relatively limited disturbance of such areas in recent years, many remain rich in archaeology.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Coastal protection works prevent natural erosion processes. Hard rock faces and soft cliffs require no management. • Reduction or cessation of grazing in some areas Dark Bush Crickets are at the northern edge of their range on the has caused an over-dominance of scrub on Galloway coast. Ravenshall, August 2007. (Richard Mearns) maritime grasslands. Overgrazing in other areas by sheep (and perhaps feral goats in a few areas) On cliff tops Soft Shield Fern Polystichum setiferum has caused a loss of plant diversity and removal is sometimes found, whilst Neat Crisp-moss Tortella of cover for nesting birds. nitida has been recorded in Kirkcudbrightshire. It is • Positioning of winter cattle feeding stations frequent on dry, sunny rock outcrops set just back within the coastal strip reduces plant diversity. from the sea in south west England and Wales, even forming extensive patches on wall tops in some • Cultivation of cliff top vegetation has truncated COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL coastal towns, but it is rare in Scotland. the natural transition between maritime and terrestrial vegetation resulting in a loss of plant 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (high importance) diversity and limited interchange of some animal Coastal slopes support important populations of species between the coastal strip and inland all three native reptiles, Adders Vipera berus, Slow areas. Worms Anguis fragilis and Common Lizards Zootoca • Drift from herbicide and pesticide sprays. vivipara. Amphibians are of lesser importance in this • Burning of gorse and other vegetation at habitat. inappropriate places and/or inappropriate times of year.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 87 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Eutrophication associated with agricultural run-off and from seabird colonies, especially at Almorness and Murray Isles. • Clearance of rocky outcrops and boulders to increase grazing areas. • Dumping of farm rubbish and rubble. • Inappropriate forestry has affected a few sites. • Moderate use of footpaths by walkers can be of benefit, especially in the absence of grazing, but excessive trampling may cause damage. • Rock climbing can disturb nesting birds or damage flora. • Adjacent developments in the form of caravan sites and golf courses may increase disturbance and trampling.

COASTAL CLIFFS AND SLOPES CLIFFS COASTAL 6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Monitoring of larger seabird colonies by RSPB and volunteers. • Seabird ringing by North Solway Ringing Group. • Monitoring of Peregrine and Raven breeding success by Dumfries & Galloway Raptor Study Group. • Sticky Catchfly population enhancement by SWT, SNH and Royal Botanic Garden . • SSSI notifications have given a degree of protection. • Reserve status or similar provides protection, and in some cases management, at Southwick (SWT), Rockcliffe and Murray Isles (NTS). • The Mountaineering Council of Scotland has produced an information sheet about birds and climbing, which contains guidance on responsible

COASTAL HABITATS COASTAL climbing.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Implement Coastal Zone Management strategies at local, regional and national levels. • Encourage further survey work and research into the ecology of this habitat.

Sea Caves and cliffs. Barlocco, April 2007. (Richard Mearns)

88 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Committee. Lead Partner:GallowayFisheries Trust/District SalmonFisheriesBoards/RegionalProposal Assessment Target: 30kmofriverbankby2015. to encourageregenerationofsemi-naturalhabitats. Encourage semi-naturalhabitatsonthebanksofriverheadwatersbyfencing(andplantingifnecessary) Priority Action (RH1) Gairland Burnat GlenheadWood.March2007. RIVER HEADWATERS (Peter Norman) and west. headwaters inBritainaremostlyfoundthenorth Headwaters arecommonthroughoutEurope.Upland 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext channels, itismostcommoninheadwaters. course ofrivers,becausethenarrowness wildlife andthoughitnaturallyoccursthroughoutthe in diameterand1mlength.Itsupportsarangeof pieces ofpartiallysubmergedwoodlargerthan10cm of treetrunks,rootboles,logs,branchesandother rarely thecasetoday. Coarsewoodydebrisconsists headwaters mayhavebeenwellwooded,thisis sediments. Although historicallythebanksofriver sparsely vegetated,resultinginahighinputof River banksofheadwaterstendtobesteepand of dissolvedoxygenandcarbondioxide. reaches, lowinnutrientsbutcontaininghigherlevels channel sediments. The wateriscolderthaninlower rocky bottomsstrewnwithbouldersandothercoarse are characterisedbynarrow with irregularvelocity, oversteepgradients. They headwaters arehigh-energyenvironmentsthatflow, Most Britishriversriseintheuplands. Their 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. led byfishandanglinginterests. native treesandstabilisation oferodingriverbanks, and thefencingofsections ofheadwaters,planting techniques throughtheForests andWater Guidelines; through agriculturalgrantschemes;improvedforestry overgrazing, overburningandmoorlanddrainage headwaters. These includethediscouragementof begun toaddresshistoricalimpactsonriver Over thelast20yearsanumberofprojectshave 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Habitat Description Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership river channelswith 89 WETLAND HABITATS RIVER HEADWATERS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.2 Current Distribution 3.2 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) Most of the region’s rivers have a north to south flow. Due to the physical and chemical composition of River headwaters are therefore mostly located the river headwaters, algae, mosses and liverworts are Southern Uplands, in the north of the region. often the dominant vegetation. Alpine Water-moss Fontinalis squamosa is one of the few mosses that 2.3 Site Examples actually grows in the water, usually in river channels All of the region’s main rivers rise in the uplands and with fast flowing water. It is recorded from several have important associated headwaters. Examples sites in Dumfries & Galloway including the , include Tarf Water (SAC/SSSI) for the River Water of Luce and Water of Ae. Bladnoch, Water of Trool and Water of Minnoch for the River Cree, Big Water and Little On river banks there are many species and much for the River Fleet, Water of Ken and Blackwater variation between different watercourses, but of Dee for the River Dee, Scaur Water and Carron typical bryophytes include: Yellow Fringe-moss Water for the , and Moffat Water and Racomitrium aciculare in profusion on top of rocks Water of Ae for the River Annan. in fast-flowing, base-poor headwaters; Fountain Apple-moss Philonotis fontana and Drab Brook-moss RIVER HEADWATERS 2.4 Associated Habitats Hygrohypnum luridum by fast-flowing burns in the uplands; Water Earwort Scapania undulata often A number of habitats occur in close association and/ prominent by acid burns; and Transparent Flapwort or overlap with river headwaters, and the following Jungermannia hyalina commonly found on gritty rock action plans may also contain relevant information: ledges near water-level in stream gullies or on boulder Exposed River Shingle, Waterfalls, Upland Springs tops in rocky rivers. On shaded damp rocks and and Flushes, Blanket Bogs, Acid Grasslands, Inland trees, including in deep headwater valleys, is found Rock Outcrops, Upland Heaths, Native Wet Woods. the locally rare Wilson’s Filmy-fern Hymenophyllum wilsonii. Tunbridge Filmy-fern Hymenophyllum 3. Importance for Associated Species tunbrigense occurs in similar habitats, but is very rare, possibly extinct in the region. 3.1 Fishes (very high importance)

The characteristic fish of river headwaters is the 3.3 Invertebrates (very high importance) Brown Trout Salmo trutta. It thrives in the cold, well- Invertebrates of shallow fast-flowing waters include oxygenated river channels. They, and their close water bears, mayflies, caddisflies, blackflies and molluscs. The region’s largest common dragonfly, the Golden-ringed Cordulegaster boltonii is even able to breed in such habitats. Most of these creatures live under stones and/or have flat bodies to reduce resistance to the current.

A number of notable aquatic invertebrates have been recorded in headwater river channels Dumfries & Galloway, WETLAND HABITATS including a water beetle Hydraena Salmon migrate upstream to spawn in the clean gravel beds of pygmaea headwaters. (Laurie Campbell) under mossy Golden-ringed Dragonflies breed in the flowing boulders in relative the Salmon S. salar require clean, silt free waters of headwater burns. Garroch Glen, July steep streams gravel beds in which to spawn. These beds, known as 1999. (Peter Norman) in Galloway, redds, are found upland headwaters as well as some with recent records from only three 10km squares lowland tributaries. Eels Anguilla anguilla are also typical of headwaters. 90 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.5 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) A number of fungi, mostly micro species, are specifically adapted to river habitats. Some are specialist wood-rotters that create suitable conditions in coarse woody debris for invertebrates to colonise. The largest and most obvious species is the uncommon Vibrissea truncorum, recorded from the River Cree.

A greater range of lichens occurs on headwaters than on lower stretches of rivers, though few are restricted to this habitat. The most important areas are bouldery stretches or waterfalls, where there is much exposed rock. Coarse woody debris in Water of Trool. Caldons, May 2006. (Peter Norman) 3.6 Mammals (medium importance)

in Scotland. All Scottish records for River Skaters RIVER HEADWATERS Aquarius najas relate to Galloway, including Water Water Voles Arvicola terrestris have declined of Trool and Blackwater of Dee. The next nearest substantially in Britain, especially in lowland areas. populations are in North Wales. Freshwater Pearl Although fast flowing rocky headwaters with little Mussels Margaritifera margaritifera once occurred vegetation is a poor habitat for Water Voles, slower in most of the region’s headwaters, but now only flowing stretches with bankside cover may provide the small and vulnerable populations of this rare mollusc best remaining Water Vole habitat in the region. survive. Their larvae grow for almost a year attached to the gills of salmonid fish. 3.7 Flowering Plants (low importance) Most flowering plants are unable to gain a foothold Although little research has been carried out in the in the river channel of headwaters. River banks UK, extensive studies in North America suggest are also generally species poor, though in some coarse woody debris is of high importance for marshy areas with low grazing pressure species a range of specialist invertebrates. These feed such as Grass of Parnassus Parnassia palustris, directly on wood, or on the algae, bacteria and other Heath Spotted Orchid Dactylorhiza maculata and Bog materials on the surface of wood, or indirectly benefit Asphodel Narthecium ossifragum occur, along with from the changes coarse woody debris has to the thickets of willow, including the locally scarce Dark- river and stream structure. Coarse woody debris is leaved Willow Salix myrsinifolia. Serrated Wintergreen particularly important for craneflies, with Lipsothrix Orthilia secunda is an evergreen herb of pine and errans particularly notable in Dumfries & Galloway. birch woods, open moorland and on ledges in rocky Deep pools immediately downstream of coarse woody gullies and stream banks, mainly in the Highlands. debris dams also support mayflies Ephemeroptera. It was recorded at Grey Mare’s Tail (Moffat) in the 1950s and next to Caldons Burn in 1962, but has not A number of invertebrates, such as a ground beetle been relocated at either location. Bembidion atrocoeruleum, are associated with river banks of upland streams across the region. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Overhanging vegetation on the river banks also Importance of Biodiversity

provides an important source of invertebrate food for WETLAND HABITATS fish. Headwaters exert a major influence on the hydrology and quality of rivers downstream, affecting issues 3.4 Birds (medium importance) such as drinking water, flooding, soil erosion and The characteristic bird of river headwaters is the fishing. Dipper Cinclus cinclus, which feeds underwater on mayfly and caddisfly larvae. Goosanders Mergus merganser, Common Sandpipers Actitis hypoleucos and Grey Wagtails Motacilla cinerea also occur.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 91 LOWLAND RIVERS & BACKWATERS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

5. Factors affecting the habitat • Pollution through agricultural and forestry chemicals or oil, though generally not significant • Acidification, caused by atmospheric emissions in the region, has the potential to pose a localised from industry and transport in other parts of the threat to headwater biodiversity. country/world. Those in the west of the region • Removal of coarse wood debris, as this is often such as the Luce, Cree, Bladnoch, Fleet and seen as potentially hazardous. Watercourses Dee, have been most severely affected due to containing high amounts of coarse woody debris heavy rainfall levels, poor buffering capacity of are therefore uncommon. the bedrock and the capacity of extensive conifer plantation to capture atmospheric pollutants. 6. Strategic Actions • Prior to the implementation of recent guidelines, conifer planting often occurred right up to the 6.1 Recent and current activity edge of watercourses, and some of these trees • Many of the factors affecting the habitat resulting still remain. They cast a heavy shade, limit from forestry practices are addressed through vegetation growth, and expose the banks to the Forest and Water Guidelines. In particular, erosion. RIVER HEADWATERS forest restructuring is minimising the impact of acidification. • River catchment plans have been completed for the Bladnoch, Nith, Annan and Dee-Ken catchments. • As part of the Water Framework Directive, a River Basin Plan for the Solway-Tweed is in preparation and will be published by December 2009.

6.2 Other recommended actions • Establish more native broadleaves along the banks of headwaters. • Archaeological sites and other important An aquatic lichen Dermatocarpon luridum, found on rocks in features of the historic landscape may be more upland burns. Tarff Water, May 2008. (Peter Norman) frequent in the uplands. Identify all such sites and ensure habitat works protect and, where possible, • Many of the upland drainage systems installed in enhance them. the last century still operate, affecting the capacity • Carefully plan and execute all road building of upland areas to mitigate peak headwater flows. in forests and other areas in the vicinity of • High turbidity levels due to inputs of fine headwaters, including choice of materials, timing sediments such as clay, silt and fine sands of work and ongoing operational requirements. resulting from poor management of cultivation, Consultation with all relevant organisations is drainage, road building and timber harvesting. essential. This reduces aquatic light levels, biomass • Do not culvert headwaters wherever possible. productivity, fish feeding and migration, and when WETLAND HABITATS it settles it damages fish spawning areas. • Nutrient enrichment following large scale forestry felling or application of fertiliser.

92 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership LOWLAND RIVERS&BACKWATERS backwater systems. rivers, particularlythoseassociated withextensive highest biodiversityoccurs onunmanagedlowland rivers encompassawidevariety ofhabitats. The regimes associatedwithindividual rivers,andmost and riparianwildlifehasadapted tothenaturalflow new channelsformandoldonesarecutoff. Instream and rearranged,meandersmigrate,bankserode, downstream, materialsareconstantlytransported highly dynamicsystems: As waterworksitsway quantity ofsedimentsitcarries.Lowlandriversare flows, thenatureofflowitself,andtype on thepropertiesofbedrockoverwhichit The natureoflowlandriverchannelsisdependent 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Seasonal backwateronWater of Ae, August 2004.(PeterNorman) Lead Partner:ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency/Regional Proposal Assessment Committee. avoiding sitescurrentlyofhighbiodiversityorhistoricalimportance. Target: Identifypotentialsitesforbackwaterrestorationononeoftheregion’ appropriate. Assess thefeasibilityofrestoringorreinstatingariverbackwatersystem,andencouragethiswhere Priority Action (LRB1) many partsof Scotland. south-west England,Wales, northernEnglandand in Dumfries&Gallowayare foundonhardrocksin and Europe.Similarriverhabitats tothosefound Lowland riversarewidespread throughoutBritain 1.2 NationalandInternational Context Exposed RiverShingle Gravel barsareincludedinaseparateactionplanfor mud arealsoimportantforspecialisedbiodiversity. part ofriversystems.Banksexposedsand,siltand the presenceofsomeerosionfeaturesisanecessary meanders. Though excessiveerosionisdamaging, Eroding pollution. Backwaters actasrefugeareasduringperiodsof are usuallyinfluencedbyfloodstosomeextent. main channelatall,suchasinoxbows. The latter end; orlackanypermanentconnectiontothe reduced flow;connectedonlyatthedownstream at bothendsandthereforehaveacontinuous,if Backwaters shelter, shadeandfoodformanyspecies. protection, modificationofflows,andprovision nutrient re-cycling,riverbankstabilityanderosion It fulfilsmanyfunctions,includingwaterpurification, a watercoursehaslittlevariationinphysicalstructure. healthy andsustainableecosystem,especiallywhere In-stream andriparianvegetationisvitalfora a rangeofaquaticbiodiversity. where deepwaterflowsswiftly. Theyareimportantfor pools maintain them.Rifflesoftenoccurinassociationwith floods soaconstantsupplyofmaterialisneededto formations. They areconstantly beingreprofiledby gravels, stonesorboulders, where shallowwaterflowsrapidlyovercoarse gravels, throughtosilt,clayandalluvium. of awidevarietysedimentsizesfromcobblesand The channelbed , areasofdeeperslow-flowingwater, andruns, bankside cliffsoftenoccurontheoutsideof maybeconnectedtothemainchannel inlowlandriversmaybecomposed Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership s majorriversby2012, arenaturalin-channel Riffles, 93 WETLAND HABITATS LOWLAND RIVERS & BACKWATERS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2. Dumfries & Galloway Status plenty of bank side vegetation. Backwaters are important refuges for young fish from the current of 2.1 Recent Trends the main flow. There has been a recent trend towards more natural techniques of river engineering, though the majority of Most coarse fish such as Pike Esox lucius and hard engineering river defences installed in the past Perch Perca fluviatilis lay their eggs on in-stream are still operational across the region. vegetation. Others such as Minnows Phoxinus phoxinus use gravely areas, such as the tail-end of 2.2 Current Distribution riffles. As most of Dumfries & Galloway’s rivers flow from Sparling (otherwise known as Smelt) Osmerus north to south, most stretches of lowland river habitat eperlanus spend most of their life in the sea, but is located in the south of the region. require unpolluted water and a sandy or gravely channel bed for spawning, around the upper limit of 2.3 Site Examples the tidal influence. They have declined enormously in The main rivers in Dumfries & Galloway are, from Britain, the River Cree being one of the few remaining west to east, the Water of Luce, , spawning rivers. Important populations of Allis Shad River Cree, Water of Fleet, River Dee, River Urr, Alosa alosa, Twaite Shad Alosa fallax and lampreys River Nith, River Annan, Kirtle Water, River Sark are also found in the region’s rivers. and Border Esk. All have high biodiversity value, LOWLAND RIVERS & BACKWATERS though also have some areas of degraded habitat 3.2 Invertebrates (very high importance) along their course. Lowland rivers support very high numbers of invertebrates – 10-15,000 per square metre of 2.4 Associated Habitats channel bed. Each species is well adapted to its A number of habitats occur in close association and/ environment. For example on rocky beds mayflies or overlap with lowland rivers and backwaters, and of the genus Ecdyonurus have strong limbs to the following action plans may also contain relevant enable them to cling onto the undersides of rocks, information: Exposed River Shingle, Lowland Burns whilst stonefly nymphs search out crevices where and Ditches, Waterfalls, Reedbeds, Swamps, Native turbulence is reduced. Gravel, sand and silt beds Wet Woods. support fewer species, but burrowing invertebrates such as non-biting midge larvae occur in high density. 3. Importance for Associated Species A large number of water beetles are associated with 3.1 Fishes (very high importance) lowland rivers, particularly exposed mud and silt Under the Fresh Water Fisheries Directive, 75% of banks in slow flowing stretches and backwaters: Dumfries & Galloway’s watercourses are designated Hygrotus versicolor was found in the River Dee salmonid waters, capable of supporting Atlantic in 1996, its only Scottish location; Bidessus Salmon Salmo salar Salmon and/or Sea/Brown minutissimus, a nationally rare species has been Trout S. trutta. The other 25% of watercourses are found in fine silt, often among plant roots, at the edge designated as ciprinid waters. This designation of the River Nith at Lochside; Hydraena pulchella includes whole catchments and not just the main occurs in clean silt on the river edge, currently known rivers. Indeed, many of the minor tributaries provide from only four rivers in Scotland; and Heterocerus

WETLAND HABITATS the redds where salmonids spawn and are an integral marginatus on mud banks beside the River Urr, part of the overall catchment. known from only three rivers in Scotland. Other important invertebrates of river sediments include a Most freshwater fish are opportunist feeders, but cranefly Nephrotoma guestfalica of shaded sandy salmon are especially dependent on aquatic insects banks at two sites in Dumfriesshire, out of only four in and crustaceans, whilst trout and other species Scotland. rely on invertebrates associated with in-stream vegetation or that have fallen in the water from Emergent vegetation in backwaters perhaps riparian vegetation. Eels Anguilla anguilla are found supports the most diverse range of invertebrates, in a wide range of freshwaters, but seem to prefer with large numbers of water fleas, caddisfly larvae, slow moving lowland rivers with muddy bottoms and

94 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P water beetles, damselflies and water snails. The latter group includes the Flat Valve Snail Valvata cristata, uncommon in Scotland and restricted to well oxygenated, slowly flowing or still water with rich vegetation, especially in quiet clean backwaters.

3.3 Non-flowering Plants (high importance) The long fronds of Greater Water-moss Fontinalis antipyretica are a familiar sight in pools and runs on most of the region’s rivers. It is the world’s largest moss. Other typical bryophytes of riverside rock or gravel include Yellow Fringe-moss Racomitrium aciculare, Long-beaked Water Feather-moss Otters are found on all of Dumfries & Galloway's rivers. Rhynchostegium riparioides, Brook-side Feather- (Laurie Campbell) moss Amblystegium fluviatile and Water Earwort 3.5 Mammals (high importance) Scapania undulata. Otters Lutra lutra occur on all watercourses in Dumfries & Galloway, but those with abundant in- Riparian vegetation supports fewer specialist stream and riparian vegetation support highest species than riverside rock, but several species population densities. Bankside tree roots, especially have been recorded in association with the silt that oaks, Ash and Sycamore are of great importance LOWLAND RIVERS & BACKWATERS accumulates on tree trunks in the flood zone. These as holt sites. Water Voles Arvicola terrestris are include Many-fruited Leskea Leskea polycarpa now rare on lowland rivers in Dumfries & Galloway, and River Bristle-moss Orthotrichum rivulare. The probably due to predation by American Mink Mustela nationally scarce Spruce’s Bristle-moss Orthotrichum vison. They also prefer tall and luxuriant bankside sprucei, a riverside epiphyte of Alder, Ash, and willow vegetation, but it must not be excessively shaded where occasionally inundated, has been recorded by trees and shrubs. Water Shrew Neomys fodiens beside Cargen Water, near Dumfries. distribution is poorly known, but vegetation cover is essential. All bat species hunt over waterbodies, but 3.4 Flowering Plants (high importance) Daubenton’s Bats Myotis daubentonii are specialist Rivers with floating mats of water crowfoots, hunters low over slow flowing open water, preferring including Stream watercourses more than 9m wide and sheltered by Water Crowfoot overhanging trees. Ranunculus penicillatus ssp. 3.6 Birds (high importance) pseudofluitans For many of the birds that use rivers as breeding and Pond Water and feeding grounds, in-stream and riparian Crowfoot R. vegetation in the form of emergent plants, terrestrial peltatus, are herbs, scrub and trees is a fundamental component, considered providing cover, food and nesting sites. Mallards particularly valuable, Anser platyrhynchos and Moorhens Gallinula both in their own chloropus are able to nest on most rivers, but Little right and in terms of Grebes Tachybaptus ruficollis rely on an abundance the shelter and food of vegetation and are often restricted to backwaters, WETLAND HABITATS they provide for fish whilst Goosanders Mergus merganser need hollow and invertebrates. trees. Kingfishers Alcedo atthis and Sand Martins Other mid stream Riparia riparia dig nest burrows in steep or vertical species include sandy bankside cliffs over water. Many stretches Yellow Water-lily of lowland rivers are also important for wintering Nuphar lutea, Purple Loosestrife, a typical plant of lowland river banks. River Dee at wildfowl, especially species such as Teals Anas Intermediate Water- Threave, July 1994. (Peter Norman) crecca and Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula. starwort Callitriche hamulata and various pondweeds and water-milfoils.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 95 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium • Agriculture and other point source and diffuse importance) discharges have adversely affected rivers. Common Frogs Rana temporaria and Palmate Newts • Sewage treatment works are unable to treat Lissotriton helvetica have been known to breed in some chemicals which are detrimental to fish and quiet backwaters, but the commonest amphibian in invertebrate species. river habitats is the Common Toad Bufo bufo, which wraps it strings of spawn around plants in still or slow • Accidental pollution spills from various sources flowing water up to 30cm deep. including agricultural slurry, silage effluent, sheep dip, and industrial products such as oil, can have 3.8 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) a drastic impact. A number of fungi, mostly micro species, are • Construction/engineering projects, such as specifically adapted to river habitats, and play an roads, urban development and mineral extraction, important role in the decay of submerged leaves. have led to modification of natural river systems. Their spores are abundantly found in river foam, and • Urban development, including industry and a few species are known only from this source. housing, has the potential to affect run-off quantity and quality into rivers. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity • The construction and operation of dams and reservoirs, such as those in the Ken-Dee Hydro

LOWLAND RIVERS & BACKWATERS Scheme, affects rivers and their biodiversity. • Angling for salmon and other freshwater fish in Dumfries & Galloway provides a major source • Although limited livestock access along certain of income to local economies and is a highly reaches can produce muddy margins beneficial significant component of local employment for birds and invertebrates, removal of patterns, both directly and in related tourist woodland, bankside scrub and overwintered industries. vegetation through grazing or agricultural cultivation dramatically reduces the suitability • Rivers and streams provide a wildlife corridor of a river stretch for many species. Vegetation link between fragmented habitats in intensively removal to provide better access for anglers is farmed areas. This is particularly the case in the also carried out, but this is rarely beneficial for the lower reaches of the rivers Dee and Urr. conservation of biodiversity.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat • Introduction of North American Signal Crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus undermines riverbanks and consumes large amounts of aquatic • In the west of the region acidification of vegetation, disrupting the ecological balance of watercourses such as the Luce, Cree, Bladnoch, rivers. Introduction and spread of other invasive Fleet and Dee has led to loss of Salmon and/or plant and animal species, including non-native Trout populations. fish via live bait, also affects the habitat. • Changes in flow patterns by forestry and other • Excessive ground water and surface water land uses in river catchments has affected fish abstraction has the potential to cause damage. stocks in areas of Galloway. • Recreational disturbance, such as canoeing • Land drainage and flood defence works, if

WETLAND HABITATS and angling may have localised impacts. not sensitively carried out, can reduce riverine habitats, isolate streams from their floodplains • Lack of education about catchments and their and reduce river productivity. Dredging the use, problems and current action has led to channel bed with a mechanical digger increases unnecessary damage. suspended sediment load and turbidity for some distance downstream. In the long term it can destroy or disrupt features such as pools, riffles, point bars, floodplains and bankside vegetation. Settling out of the material in suspension will alter composition of the substrate. Disposal of soil from dredging on land may also be damaging.

96 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Backwater pools and willows on River Nith at Dalscone, January 2007. (Peter Norman)

6. Strategic Actions • Water quality, hydrology and salmonid production LOWLAND RIVERS & BACKWATERS are monitored by organisations such as SEPA, 6.1 Recent and current activity Galloway Fisheries Trust and District Salmon • The EU Water Framework Directive requires Fisheries Boards. integrated catchment management across the European Union. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Catchment management plans have been • Meet and maintain the Good Ecological Status produced for the Annan, Nith and Dee-Ken (according to Scottish Environment Protection systems, co-ordinated by SEPA. Agency River Classification System) in all of the region’s rivers. • River habitat enhancement schemes have been undertaken by bodies such as the Nith District • Reduce pollution in watercourses through more Salmon Fishery Board, The River Annan effective treatment of effluent and alternative District Salmon Fishery Board and Galloway disposal methods. Encourage the creation of Fisheries Trust. These schemes have included buffer habitats adjacent to watercourses. exclusion of livestock through fencing, planting • Where bank stabilisation is necessary, use of stabilising deciduous trees, sensitive bankside environmentally sensitive materials and soft protection methods, and sensitive instream works engineering techniques wherever possible. to diversify substrate and flow types. • Ensure that adequate consultation takes • Monitoring of the hatchery release programme on place when developments are proposed in river rivers Luce, Bladnoch, Cree, Fleet, Dee, Nith and catchment systems. Piltanton Burn by Galloway Fisheries Trust or

District Salmon Fisheries Boards. • Take care to avoid any actions that may result WETLAND HABITATS in the spread non-native invasive species. • Education of public value and sensitivity of Eradicate existing non-native invasive species rivers and the species they support, through where this is feasible and resources allow. for example ‘Salmon in the Classroom’ primary school projects. • The ecology of rare fish, particularly Sparling, Allis Shad, Twaite Shad and lampreys has been studied on the Cree by Galloway Fisheries Trust, SNH, consultants and universities.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 97 98 WETLAND HABITATS LOWLAND BURNS & DITCHES throughout lowland Britain. Small watercoursesandditches arecommon 1.2 NationalandInternational Context lowland watercourses. many ofthesamecharacteristics asditchesandsmall the informationinthisplanisrelevant. managed forlanddrainagepurposesandmuchof indistinguishable fromditches.Manyoftheseare and deepeningtosuchanextentthattheyare lowland burnshavebeenmodifiedbystraightening in theactionplansforotherhabitats.However, many Ditches thatareobviouslyman-madeincluded vegetation. material, anddenseaquatic,emergentmarginal bottoms withdeadleavesandotherdecayingplant narrow channelwidthandoftenhavemuddy warm formuchoftheyear. They havearelatively flowing waterthatishighinnutrientsandrelatively Lowland burnsandditchesusuallycontainslow- 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Varied riparianhabitatsincluding Alders, shingle,poolsandriffles Lead Partner:ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency/Farming &Wildlife Advisory Group. Target: Makedirectcontactwith500farmersby2012. and farmvisits. Raise awarenessoftheimportancesmallburnsandditchesthroughpublications,demonstrationdays Priority Action (LBD1) Habitat Description LOWLAND BURNS&DITCHES on theCrichopeBurn.June2007.(PeterNorman). Canals share Marshes, NativeWet Woods, ConiferPlantations. information: LowlandRiversandBackwaters,Fens, following actionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithlowlandburnsandditches,the A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.3 Associated Habitats directly intothesea,withoutenteringamajorriver. larger rivers,butanumberoflowlandburnsflow areas ofDumfries&Galloway. Mostarelinkedto Small burnsandditchesarecommoninlowland 2.2 CurrentDistribution recent drainagesystemstendtousepipeddrains. Few newopenditchesarebeingcreatedtoday– 2.1 RecentTrends 2. fodiens. Otters Arvicola terrestris andWater ShrewsNeomys important habitatintheregion forWater Voles lowland burnsandditches are probablythemost Although detailedsurveyinformation islacking, 3.2 Mammals(highimportance) another smallburnclose-by. Kirkgunzeon Lanein2004.Ithassincebeenfound was discoveredforthefirsttimeinScotland prefers slow-flowing,muddy-bottomedwatercourses, Calopteryx splendens damselfly LestessponsaandBandedDemoiselle breed inburnsandditches,includingEmerald ‘higher quality’ freshwaters. A numberofdragonflies It occursinweed-chokedditches,butrarely UK, buthasbeenrecordedinKirkcudbrightshire. hypnorum organic mud. The MossBladderSnail have aquaticlarvaeinditchesfullofsaturated fauna fromthatinopensituations.Somespecies Ditches andpoolsintheshadesupportadifferent 3.1 Invertebrates(highimportance) 3. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species is rareinScotlandanddecliningthe Lutra lutraalsousesurprisingly small Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership . The latterspecies,which Aplexa LOWLAND BURNS & DITCHES

watercourses for feeding and movement, sometimes with just a few centimetres of water.

3.3 Fishes (high importance) Typical fishes of small slow flowing watercourses include Three-spined Sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus, Eels Anguilla anguilla and Brook Lampreys Lampetra planeri. Lowland burns and ditches may also be important for spawning and juvenile fish, even if there are few adult fish. They can be particularly important for Trout Salmo trutta.

3.4 Flowering Plants (high importance) A high diversity of plants occurs in lowland burns and ditches, and all available microhabitats are usually colonised. For example, there are submerged species such as Spiked Water-milfoil Myriophyllum spicatum Bog Beacon Mitrula paludosa, found on rotting leaves in ditches in and Various-leaved Water Starwort Callitriche Spring. Slogarie, April 2008. (Peter Norman) LOWLAND BURNS & DITCHES platycarpa; plants with leaves that float 3.7 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) on the water surface such as Common A number of fungi grow on submerged leaves in Duckweed Lemna stagnant conditions in ditches. They play an important minor and Pondweeds role in the decay process. The most obvious of them Potamogeton spp.; is Bog Beacon Mitrula paludosa, which produces plants in shallow water orange fruit bodies in late spring. such as Brooklime Veronica beccabunga 3.8 Birds (low importance) and Watercress Moorhens Gallinula chloropus and Sedge Warblers Rorippa nasturtium- Acrocephalus schoenobaenus are among the aquaticum; and common breeding birds in marginal vegetation beside emergent plants such lowland burns and ditches. Herons Ardea cinerea, as Reed Canary Grass Snipe Gallinago gallinago and Green Sandpipers Phalaris arundinace Ditch with range of aquatic Tringa ochropus visit to feed; the first two throughout vegetation, Cree Valley. June 2006. and bur-reeds (Peter Norman) the year, the latter mostly on its migration through the Sparganium spp. Few region in the autumn. rare species occur, but Round-leaved Water Crowfoot Ranunculus omiophyllus is not common in Scotland 4. Environmental, Economic & Social outside of the south west. Importance of Biodiversity

3.5 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium • Most agricultural and urban drains feed into minor importance) watercourses rather than larger rivers. Without Common Toads Bufo bufo, Common Frogs Rana

them, land drainage would cease to operate. WETLAND HABITATS temporaria, Smooth Newts Lissotriton helvetica and Some also provide drinking water for livestock. Palmate Newts Lissotriton helvetica commonly breed • The network of burns and ditches enhances the in slow flowing burns and ditches. landscape. 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Algae play an important role in the ecosystem of lowland burns and ditches. Most are single-celled • A perception that minor watercourses and species, but filamentous green algae, such as ditches are no more than drainage channels Spirogyra, are also common. hinders their conservation.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 99 WATERFALLS

• Culverting ditches and small watercourses virtually eliminates their biodiversity interest. • Mechanised dredging or ‘cleaning’ of small watercourses is frequently carried out. There has been little assessment of the long-term biodiversity impact of such works. • Though they are naturally rich in nutrients, additional nutrient enrichment through agricultural operations causes loss of biodiversity. • Due to their widespread distribution, pollution often enters larger watercourses via small burns and ditches. Pollution sources include slurry, pesticides, road run-off and sewage discharges. • North American Mink are widespread and may exert a serious impact on fish, bird and especially Water Vole populations. LOWLAND BURNS & DITCHES 6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • Galloway Fisheries Trust and Solway Heritage carried out an ecological assessment of selected small watercourses that run directly into the sea. • Training days have been organised by SEPA and the Farming & Wildlife Advisory Group, as part of the Dee-Ken Catchment Management Plan, to demonstrate good practice.

Steep, but well-vegetated banks on Abbey Burn, near Dundrennan. 6.2 Other recommended actions June 2006. (Peter Norman) • Highlight the importance of even the smallest burn or ditch in terms of the biodiversity it supports and its linkages it has with other wetlands. WETLAND HABITATS

100 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Dumfries &Galloway’s waterfalls. There isnoevidence ofsignificantrecent changesto 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&Galloway Status of Britain. therefore occurmorefrequently inthewestandnorth Waterfalls tendtobeconcentratedintheuplands,and 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext river. plunge pool and frostfreeconditions. At thebaseoffalls, and receiveconstantlylowlightlevels,highhumidity falls arecushionedfromenvironmentalextremes but overhangsandcrevicesbehindbesidethe damp conditionsimmediatelyadjacenttothefalls, In thesprayzoneacloudoffineresultsin polished smoothbytheerosiveforceofwater. The rockoverwhichthewaterflowsisusually trickle toatorrent,dependingonweatherconditions. The waterflowingoverwaterfallscanvaryfroma support similarbiodiversity. waterfalls havesimilarenvironmentalconditionsand landscape features,low is ofhigh,spectacular perception ofwaterfalls them. Although thepublic streams hangingabove leaving thefeeder wide U-shapedvalleys, when glaciers gouged out some werealsoformed different rocktypes,but other weaknesses,orto either duetofaultsand erosion ofthebedrock, form duetodifferential Waterfalls usually Characteristics 1.1 Physical 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership Dumfries andGalloway. Raise awarenessofthebiodiversityimportancewaterfalls,byproducingaguidetowaterfalls Priority Action (WF1) isusuallyoneofthedeepestparts WATERFALLS Spout of Achentallach, near Twynholm. May2008. (Peter Norman) Outcrops, UplandSpringsandFlushes. Backwaters, LowlandBurnsandDitches,InlandRock Cliffs andSlopes,Headwaters,LowlandRivers plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Coastal or overlapwithwaterfalls,andthefollowingaction A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats peninsula. Wife atSouthwick,andvariousfallsaroundtheRhins On thecoastareBlackBurnWaterfall nearLot’s Burn andHolyLinn include is GreyMare’s Tail inMoffatdale (SAC/SSSI).Others The highestandbestknownoftheregion’s waterfalls 2.3 SiteExamples immediately beforeenteringthesea. watercourses oftenflowoverraisedbeachslopes the headwatersandonGallowaycoast,where region’s watercourses. They aremostfrequentin Waterfalls occuralongallpartsofmostthe 2.2 CurrentDistribution Shining Flapwort voluta recordedbya waterfallinGarliesWood, and common species to therocksurfaceavoid beingdislodged.Less Nardia, Marsupellaand tend tobeverysmallinstature. Severalspeciesof extremely richliverwortflora, thoughthespecies Waterfalls inrockyravinestheuplandshavean Lemanea to fixnitrogeninnutrient-pooruplandareas;andred tough, leatherytuftsofTolypothrix filaments ofPhormidium crusts onrocksurfaces;slimybrownandgreen such asChamaesiphon thrive intheconditionscreatedbywaterfalls.Genera Both felt-formingandfilamentousblue-greenalgae 3.1 Non-floweringPlants(veryhighimportance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species GreyMare’s Tail onatributaryofthePalnure is commononmanywaterfallsinthespring. includePaleScalewort Jungermannia paroica on theGarpleBurnnearDalry. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Scapania grow tightly pressed and Homoeothrix frequent thelipsoffalls; have theability at several Radula form flat 101 WETLAND HABITATS WATERFALLS EXPOSED RIVER SHINGLE

locations, often on very wet rock ledges or on rocks on Common Toads Bufo bufo, Common Frogs Rana in the water. The latter species is largely restricted to temporaria and Palmate Newts Lissotriton helvetica, Wales, Northern England and Scotland. Mosses are enabling them to breed in parts of the river system more common on lowland waterfalls. Holt’s Mouse-tail which otherwise may not be suitable. Moss Isothecium holtii, a distinctive moss restricted to western Britain, requires high humidity and is 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) frequently found by waterfalls. Although not confined to waterfalls, a number of lichens occur on damp rocks in the splash zone On shaded rocks in the spray zone there are including Collema flaccidum. The spores of some several ferns that benefit from the high humidity. fungi are abundantly found in river foam, and a few These include the locally rare Wilson’s Filmy-fern species are known only from this source. Hymenophyllum wilsonii. Tunbridge Filmy-fern Hymenophyllum tunbrigense occurs in similar 3.6 Birds (low importance) habitats, but is very rare, possibly extinct, in the Waterfalls often feature in the breeding territories region. WATERFALLS of both Dippers Cinclus cinclus and Grey Wagtails Motacilla cinerea, and the nest may actually be 3.2 Invertebrates (medium importance) located behind the falls. However, neither species are Few invertebrates are waterfall specialists, but dependent on waterfalls. saturated moss and surfaces constantly kept wet by waterfalls or fast-flowing streams may support 3.7 Fishes (low importance) populations of rove beetles, including Dianous Waterfalls usually present a barrier in the movement coerulescens and Lesteva pubescens at their of fish. Some species, such as Salmon Salmo salar northern distribution limit on the . Mayflies, are able to leap low falls and Eels Anguilla anguilla stoneflies and caddisflies also occur. Aquatic may be able to go round them overland in certain invertebrates above waterfalls benefit from reduced conditions, but most species are constrained by them. fish numbers. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social 3.3 Flowering Plants (medium importance) Importance of Biodiversity Virtually no flowering plants are able to Waterfalls are significant features in the landscape, withstand the harsh and the larger ones usually have individual names. environment of Several are tourist attractions. waterfalls, but in the spray zone a number 5. Factors affecting the Habitat of species, such as Bog Pimpernel Anagallis • Pollution of watercourses has the potential to tenella take advantage adversely affect waterfall wildlife. of the humid conditions. Purple Saxifrage • Pressure for removal of natural waterfalls to Saxifrago oppositifolia allow fish access to a greater part of the river has occurs on only two sites come from some anglers. in Dumfries & Galloway, • Inappropriate abstraction may reduce waterfall WETLAND HABITATS one of which is beside Purple Saxifrage. flow. the Grey Mare’s Tail in (Laurie Campbell) Moffatdale. • There is the potential for disturbance from recreational disturbance. 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) No amphibians are strongly associated with waterfalls, but the barrier that high falls present to the upstream movement of fish reduces predation

102 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership the UK. exposed shinglehabitaton severalriversystemsin glacial deposits.Studiesindicatesignificantlossesof younger rocksthatareresistanttoweathering,or are significantlowlandrivershinglesassociatedwith and westwherethebedrockishard,althoughthere Europe. ItismostcommoninBritainthenorth Exposed rivershingleiswidespreadthroughout 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext across floodplains. and silt,iscloselyassociatedwithriversmeandering of finergravels,sometimesmixedwithareassand the lowerreachesmore and pebbles.In small boulders composed of banks oftenform, unstable shingle extremely valleys, as inU-shaped channels, such but inmoreopen shingle features, the formationof channels prevent steep-sided of riversnarrow upper reaches deposition. Inthe transport and sediment dependent onthenaturalprocessesoferosion, and islands. These featuresaregenerallytransient, Exposed rivershingletakestheformofbanks,bars 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:ScottishNaturalHeritage/ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency. Target: Assess of20potentialsitesby2015. Identify areasofexposedrivershinglewithimportantinvertebrateinterest. Priority Action (ERS1) Habitat Description EXPOSED RIVERSHINGLE

stable shingle Carrifran. July2006.(PeterNorman) Upland shingleonFirthhopeBurn, , composed River Headwaters,LowlandRiversandBackwaters. action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: overlap withexposedrivershingle,andthefollowing A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats Moffat Water hasextensiveareasofshingle. Bridgend ontheWater of Ae. Onheadwaters,the region forinvertebratesistheextensiveshingleat (LWS) andAuldgirth exposed rivershingleat On theRiverNiththereareimportantareasof 2.3 SiteExamples Dumfries &Galloway. Exposed rivershingleoccursonallthemainriversin 2.2 CurrentDistribution remain atriskofremovalthroughengineeringworks. importance ofexposedrivershingle,thesehabitats Despite anincreasingawarenessofthebiodiversity 2.1 RecentTrends 2. sediments intheupperCree/Minnoch. fly Spiriverpalunulata shingle banknearDumfries;andNorthernStiletto- Bidessus minutissimus edge;awaterbeetle mostly neartothewater’s associated withexposedriverineshingleorsand, areolatus, recent (1990s)recordsfromtheNithof associated withexposedrivershingle. There are A numberofscarceandrareinvertebratesare 3.1 Invertebrates(veryhighimportance) 3. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Importance for Associated Species ascarcegroundbeetleexclusively Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership . Perhapsthebestsitein onexposedsandyriverine found infinesiltona Carnsalloch ShingleBank Perileptus Ae

103 WETLAND HABITATS EXPOSED RIVER SHINGLE P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

There are old records from southern Scotland of 3.4 Fishes (medium importance) other rare invertebrates associated with this habitat, The removal of exposed shingle denudes the and it is likely that new surveys would find some river of substrates that are an essential part of the of these in Dumfries & Galloway. They include the river system. This removes the possibility of such nationally scarce ground beetles Perileptus areolatus, substrates forming important fish spawning habitats in Thalassophilus longicornis, Bembidion bipunctatum, other parts of the river. B. litorale, B. testaceum and B. monticola and a click beetle Negastrius sabulicola. A tiny and probably much overlooked rove beetle Meotica anglica is associated with riparian gravel and sand, but appears to be largely subterranean and rarely seen on the surface. It is currently known only from four sites in the world, all in the UK, including one in southern Scotland close to the Dumfriesshire border. It may therefore also be present in the region.

Though common in many habitats in Europe, in Britain the Five-spot Ladybird Coccinella 5-punctata EXPOSED RIVER SHINGLE is rarely found more than a few metres from unstable river shingle. Here, it is very rare and endangered, being rediscovered in 1987 following an absence of around 30 years. There are no records from Dumfries Field Pansy on Water of Ae shingle. May 2008. (Peter Norman) & Galloway, but one from near Carlisle suggests that its occurrence is not totally out of the question. 3.5 Flowering Plants (low importance) 3.2 Birds (high importance) Unstable shingle may support no flowering plants Relatively few birds use exposed river shingle, but at all. Any that are able to colonise need to be fast some species more typically found on the coast growing prostrate plants that can withstand both regularly nest on river shingle. These include drought and flood conditions. On morestable shingle Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus and Ringed the main colonisers are mainly opportunistic ‘weed’ Plovers Charadrius hiaticula. Little Ringed Plovers species. Charadrius dubius have also nested on river shingle at a few locations in Dumfries & Galloway, 4. Environmental, Economic & Social virtually their only Scottish breeding sites. Common Importance of Biodiversity Sandpipers Actitis hypoleucos, Grey Wagtails Motacilla cinerea and Pied Wagtails Motacilla alba • River shingle forms an important habitat for regularly feed on river shingle. several fish that are of economic importance. 3.3 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) • Shingle is one of several riverine features that Common mosses, such as River Feather-moss add variety to watercourses, contributing to their Brachythecium rivulare and Fountain Apple-moss visual appeal in the landscape. Philonotis fontana, are the prime colonisers of upland WETLAND HABITATS unstable shingle. As the shingle becomes more 5. Factors affecting the Habitat stable they are replaced by flowering plants. • River engineering, such as straightening, dredging, or grading of river banks is likely to remove this habitat totally unless special care is taken. • Extraction of gravel results in local destruction of the habitat. Even if adjacent areas of shingle are not removed, they may be loosened and become more susceptible to being washed away.

104 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Livestock encroachment on riverside shingle 6.2 Other recommended actions and other river bank features. • Consider designating as Local Wildlife Sites • Agricultural pollution (especially the use of those sites supporting viable populations of pyrethroid sheep dips), nutrient enrichment, and important invertebrates, where this is necessary acidification. to secure their long-term protection and appropriate management. • Water level regulation and control of flow by damming and flood alleviation schemes. • Advise landowners, managers and advisors of the presence of this habitat and the importance of • Colonisation of river banks by Himalayan balsam beneficial management for their conservation. Impatiens glandulifera and other invasive plant species. • Carry out comprehensive invertebrate surveys of potentially important sites. 6. Strategic Actions • Raise awareness of the importance of exposed riverine sediment species and of the conservation 6.1 Recent and current activity issues associated with them. This may be • SNH funded a survey of exposed river sediments achieved by articles in wildlife, environmental, in the Nith catchment in 1996 and 1997. The and user-group (e.g. anglers, engineers) journals. EXPOSED RIVER SHINGLE aim was to survey the habitat resource and to characterise the sediment types favoured by the specialist invertebrate fauna. • Entomologists from the Scottish Entomologists Meeting in 2005 carried out brief surveys of a selected number of sites, and discovered a number of important invertebrates. WETLAND HABITATS

Partially vegetated river shingle on the Water of Ae. May 2008. (Peter Norman)

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 105 106 WETLAND HABITATS EUTROPHIC LOCHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T and severallochs arenowsuffering fromhyper- continues toincrease levelsofeutrophication Intensive agricultureinthe catchmentsoflochs 2.1 RecentTrends 2. being around1785km total extentisnotaccuratelyknown,thebestestimate in thenorthandwest,especiallynearcoast. Their of southernandeasternBritain,buttheyalsooccur Eutrophic watersaremosttypicalofhardwaterareas 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext matter. Their bedsarecoveredbydarkmud,richinorganic algae inmidsummeroftenmakesthewatergreen. abundant invertebrates,anddensepopulationsof 7. Anaerobic mudrichinorganicmattersupports calcium carbonateperlitre,andapHofmorethan classified ashavingmorethan30milligramsof which makesthemveryproductive. They havebeen Eutrophic lochshavenaturallyhighnutrientlevel, 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. waters). in Scotland(around15%ofallScottishstanding Lead Partner:ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency. Management PlanaspartofEUWater FrameworkDirective. Maintain goodecologicalstatusofeutrophiclochsbyimplementingmeasuresincludedinRiverBasin Priority Action (EL1) Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description Carlingwark Lochwithfringingreedswamp.June2008. 2 intheUKwitharound240km EUTROPHIC LOCHS (Peter Norman) 2

Mesotrophic Lochs,Reservoirs. Reedbeds, Fens,Marshes,NativeWet Woods, plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Swamps, overlap witheutrophiclochs,andthefollowingaction A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats Carlingwark Loch(SSSI)andSoulseatLoch. of thebestknownareCastleLoch(SPA/SSSI), There aremanyeutrophiclochsintheregion.Some 2.3 SiteExamples the southofDumfries&Galloway. Eutrophic lochsareconcentratedinthelowlands 2.2 CurrentDistribution invertebrate deaths. eutrophication, leadingtoalgalbloomsandfish/ include Gadwalls Gallinula chloropus platyrhynchos Little GrebesTachybaptus ruficollis include GreatCrestedGrebes Typical breedingwaterfowlofeutrophiclochs 3.1 Birds(highimportance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species Coots arecommon nestingbirdsoneutrophiclochs. , CootsFulicaatraandMoorhens Anas strepera,Garganeys . Rarerbreedingspecies

Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Podiceps cristatus, , MallardsAnser (Gordon McCall) EUTROPHIC LOCHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

querquedula, Pintails Anas acuta, Shovelers Anas 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) clypeata and Tufted Ducks Aythya fuligula, whilst the Planktonic algae are usually abundant in the water very rare Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis column, where they are responsible for production of has attempted to breed recently. In winter, wildfowl most of the nutrients that support other biodiversity. numbers are swelled by large numbers of Teals Anas The rare aquatic fern Pillwort Pilularia globulifera crecca, Wigeons Anas penelope, Pochards Aythya grows in eutrophic lochs where competition is farina, Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula and Coots. reduced by fluctuating water levels or disturbance, such as in Loch Ken. It is however, susceptible to Although grassland feeders, a number of wintering over-eutrophication. geese and swans use eutrophic lochs for roosting. Most important are Whooper Swans Cygnus cygnus, 3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) Pink-footed Geese Anser brachyrhynchus, Greylag Most eutrophic lochs contain too many predators to Geese Anser anser and White-fronted Geese Anser be suitable for breeding amphibians, though some albifrons. may be able to find suitable sites on quiet lochsides. Common Toads Bufo bufo are more able to withstand 3.2 Mammals (high importance) predation than other amphibians. The dense emergent and marginal vegetation of EUTROPHIC LOCHS eutrophic lochs provide ideal habitat for Otters Lutra 4. Environmental, Economic & Social lutra. An abundance of insect life also makes these Importance of Biodiversity lochs valuable for all species of bat, with Daubenton’s Bats Myotis daubentonii being specialist feeders over • Many eutrophic lochs are located close to towns water. and villages and are significant landscape and recreational assets for these communities. 3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) Zooplankton is abundant in the water column of eutrophic lochs, and there may be abundant bottom- 5. Factors affecting the Habitat dwelling invertebrates. Many lochs have a diverse invertebrate fauna, including snails, crustaceans, • Nutrient enrichment caused by organic and water beetles and dragonflies. Blue-tailed damselflies inorganic fertilisers damages plant and animal Ishnura elgans and Common Blue damselflies communities and results in a loss of biodiversity. Enallagma cyathigerum can be abundant. Duck • Algal blooms and excessive weed growth are Mussels Anodonta anatina are known in the region a problem in many lochs, compounded by high only from Castle Loch (Lochmaben). nutrient inputs through diffuse pollution. • Changes in land-cover can result in increased 3.4 Fishes (medium importance) siltation and release of nutrients into the water Eutrophic lochs are important for their high body, causing increased eutrophication. Removal populations of coarse fish, including Pike Esox lucius, of waterside vegetation and reedswamp is Roach Rutilus rutilus and Tench Tinca tinca, which is damaging, as they act as barriers to particulate uncommon in Scotland. matter and absorb nutrients.

3.5 Flowering Plants (medium importance) • The introduction of fish or removal of predators leads to the loss of natural fish

Pondweed communities of eutrophic lochs include WETLAND HABITATS populations and may affect plant and invertebrate less common species such as Flat-stalked Pondweed communities. Heavy stocking of bottom-feeding Potamogeton friesii, Lesser Pondweed P. pusillus, fish such as Carp Cyprinus carpio can cause Blunt-leaved Pondweed P. obtusifolius and turbidity and accelerate the release of nutrients Fennel Pondweed P. pectinatus, all recorded from from sediments. Carlingwark Loch. There is often a marginal fringe of reedswamp that can include scarce species such as Cowbane Cicuta virosa, Sawwort Serratula tinctoria and Lesser Tussock-sedge Carex diandra.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 107 MESOTROPHIC LOCHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

• Recreational and sporting use may create disturbance. Marginal vegetation may suffer from trampling and wave erosion; the action of boat hulls and propellers destroys aquatic plants and stirs up sediments, contributing to enrichment. The construction of marinas and other leisure facilities may also destroy valuable habitat and can lead to increased pollution. However, recreational use can often be sustained with minimal damage to biodiversity, through adequate management programmes

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity

EUTROPHIC LOCHS • The EU Water Framework Directive requires preparation and implementation of River Basin Management Plans. These will include a series of measures to maintain good ecological status of all waterbodies. • Loch Ken, Castle Loch and Carlingwark Loch have management plans and advisory management committees. • Nutrient levels are monitored by SEPA at some lochs, such as Castle Loch and Carlingwark Loch. • Dumfries & Galloway Council carry out control of algal blooms in Carlingwark Loch by the annual installation of specially designed straw booms Flood debris supports a varied, if inconspicuous, biodiversity. that chemically counteract the algae. Woodhall Loch, March 2007. (Peter Norman)

6.2 Other recommended actions • Conduct research to determine the level of agricultural run-off reaching lochs and the impact in terms of eutrophication. • Investigate the causes of algal blooms and possible solutions. WETLAND HABITATS

108 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 1,750 mesotrophic standingwatersinScotland. rare typeofwaterbody, butthereisanestimated nitrogen andphosphorous, theyareanincreasingly to theirsensitivityartificially increasedlevelsof District aretwoofthebest examples inEngland.Due Britain. Bassenthwaiteand DerwentwaterintheLake the marginsofuplandareasinnorthandwest Mesotrophic lakesandlochsarelargelyconfinedto 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext submerged andemergentplants. a hardsubstratum,oftenclearwater, butplentyof litre, andapHofaround7. They alsousuallyhave as having10-30milligramsofcalciumcarbonateper and totalphosphorous. They havebeenclassified narrow rangeof nutrients, particularly organic nitrogen Mesotrophic lochsarecharacterisedbyhavinga 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency. Basin ManagementPlanaspartofEUWater FrameworkDirective. Maintain goodecologicalstatusofmesotrophiclochsbyimplementingmeasuresincludedinRiver Priority Action (EL1) Habitat Description Sea Cavesandcliffs. Barlocco, April 2007.(R.Mearns) MESOTROPHIC LOCHS eutrophic. was formerlymesotrophic but nowappearstobe Loch Kindar mesotrophic. They include vegetation surveysandchemical samplesasbeing A numberoflochshavebeenassessedfrom 2.3 SiteExamples lochs intheregion. There isnocomprehensiveinventoryofmesotrophic 2.2 CurrentDistribution threatened habitat. Mesotrophic lochsareanincreasinglyrareand continues toincreaselevelsofeutrophication. Intensive agricultureinthecatchmentsoflochs 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus (LWS). MillLoch Loch Kindar, April 2007.(RichardMearns) Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Milton Loch (SSSI)atLochmaben (SSSI)and 109 WETLAND HABITATS MESOTROPHIC LOCHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats A number of habitats occur in close association and/ or overlap with mesotrophic lochs, and the following action plans may also contain relevant information: Swamps, Reedbeds, Fens, Marshes, Native Wet Woods, Eutrophic Lochs, Reservoirs.

3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Flowering Plants (very high importance) Mesotrophic lochs potentially have the highest diversity of large plants and contain a higher proportion of nationally scarce and rare aquatic plants than any other loch type. Typical species include Yellow Water-lily Nuphar lutea and Amphibious Bistort Persicaria amphibia. Slender Naiad Najas flexilis Four-spotted Chaser dragonfly, Lochmaben 2008. (Paul McLaughlin)

MESOTROPHIC LOCHS is a rare aquatic plant usually found in deep, clear, mesotrophic lochs. It occurs predominantly in western 3.4 Invertebrates (very high importance) Ireland and the Scottish Highlands and Islands, but Mesotrophic lochs are among the richest of all has been recorded from Loch Kindar. caddisfly habitats. Other macroinvertebrates are well represented, with particularly important groups being 3.2 Birds (very high importance) dragonflies, water beetles, stoneflies and mayflies. Mesotrophic lochs support the greatest number and Aquatic marginal and terrestrial transition zones can diversity of waterbirds of any waterbody type. Typical be rich in terrestrial groups such as flies and beetles. breeding species include Great Crested Grebes Hairy Dragonflies Brachytron pratense are typical of Podiceps cristatus Mallards Anser platyrhynchos and well-vegetated mesotrophic lochs in England, but are Tufted Ducks Aythya fuligula. Less common nesting restricted to a few sites in Scotland, including Colvend wildfowl include Gadwalls Anas strepera, Pintails Lochs in Dumfries & Galloway. Anas acuta, Shovelers Anas clypeata, and Teals Anas crecca. 3.5 Mammals (high importance) Emergent and marginal vegetation of mesotrophic In winter, mesotrophic lochs may be used by lochs provide ideal habitat for Otters Lutra lutra. An large numbers of feeding and roosting Whooper abundance of insect life also makes these lochs Swans Cygnus cygnus, Pink-footed Geese Anser valuable for all species of bat, with Daubenton’s Bats brachyrhynchus, Greylag Geese Anser anser, White- Myotis daubentonii being specialist feeders over fronted Geese Anser albifrons, Pochards Aythya water. farina and Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula. 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) 3.3 Fishes (very high importance) Planktonic algae are usually abundant in the water The mesotrophic Mill Loch at Lochmaben once column, where they are responsible for production of supported Vendace Coregonus albula at one of its most of the nutrients that support other biodiversity. few British sites. This species now appears to have Stoneworts are more complex types of algae, often WETLAND HABITATS become extinct due to eutrophication, but has been pioneers on the open beds of newly created water introduced to Loch Skene, an oligotrophic loch in the bodies, forming dense underwater meadows. They Moffat Hills. A wide range of coarse and salmonid fish are not confined to mesotrophic lochs, but are is also found in mesotrophic lochs. often swamped by the vigorous growth of flowering plants in more nutrient-rich waterbodies. Just a few stoneworts have been recorded in Dumfries & Galloway, including Translucent Stonewort Nitella translucens in Morton Loch.

110 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.7 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) • Water-borne recreation traffic can damage Most mesotrophic lochs contain too many predators aquatic plants at the point of launch, or through to be suitable for breeding amphibians, though some bankside wave erosion, passage through strands may be able to find suitable sites on quiet lochsides. of vegetation, or the cutting action of propellers. Common Toads Bufo bufo are more able to withstand Increased turbidity from boat-wash may also predation than other amphibians. compound plant loss. This again may promote unwanted algal growth. 4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity 6. Strategic Actions

Mesotrophic lochs are significant landscape and 6.1 Recent and current activity recreational assets for local communities and visitors. • The EU Water Framework Directive requires preparation and implementation of River Basin 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Management Plans. These will include a series of measures to maintain good ecological status of all • Nutrient enrichment (eutrophication) has a waterbodies.

major impact on mesotrophic lochs, causing MESOTROPHIC LOCHS • SEPA has prepared a provisional inventory of increased growth of aquatic algae and larger Scottish mesotrophic lochs, based on existing plants. If eutrophication reaches a threshold, the survey information. The inventory is not likely to submerged aquatic flora will deteriorate and may be comprehensive. disappear. Many aquatic invertebrates are very sensitive to pollution. Pollution may have many sources, including discharge of sewage effluent, 6.2 Other recommended actions forestry and agricultural run-off, and accidental • Carry out a survey to identify current spillages of, for example, slurry. Airborne water mesotrophic lochs in Dumfries & Galloway, acidification is also a factor in some upland and those that were naturally mesotrophic but catchments. which have been changed as the result of man’s • Activities such as ploughing, afforestation and activities. peat cutting can increase soil erosion with a • Control discharges of effluent from wastewater consequent increase in water-borne sediments. In treatment works and other point sources of suspension, these cause turbidity and reduction pollution to ensure that the quality and quantity of in light levels, inhibiting the growth of rooted they do not pose a threat to mesotrophic lochs. aquatic plants and increasing the likelihood of algal blooms. Settled sediments may continue to • Investigate the causes of algal blooms in introduce nutrients into the water column and may mesotrophic lochs of Dumfries & Galloway. change the lake bed substrate. • Introduced fish for angling can have an adverse effect on loch ecosystems by eating the invertebrates that graze algae and keep it in check. The introduction of bottom-feeding fish such as carp will disturb the sediments, leading to turbidity and the release of nutrients, which will WETLAND HABITATS encourage algal blooms. If not properly managed, angling can also result in disturbance of wildlife, including nesting birds.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 111 112 WETLAND HABITATS OLIGOTROPHIC LOCHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T Southern uplands inthenorthofregion. Oligotrophic lochs arepredominantlylocated inthe 2.2 CurrentDistribution management toreduceeffects on uplandlochs. decades, andconsiderable improvementsinforest There hasbeenlittlenewafforestation inrecent 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus frequent onlyintheuplandsofnorthandwest. Europe. They arealsowidespreadinBritain,but Oligotrophic watersarewidespreadthroughout 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext less than6. milligrams ofcalciumcarbonateperlitre,andapH areas. They havebeenclassifiedashaving0-2 poor waterbodies,highlyacidicandconfinedtopeaty Dystrophic lochsarethemostextremeofnutrient carbonate perlitre,andapHof6-7. been classifiedashaving0-10milligramsofcalcium aquatic plantandinvertebratecommunity. They have cold, welloxygenatedclearwaterswithonlyasmall in acidicuplandareasandarecharacterisedby Oligotrophic, ornutrientpoor, lochstypicallyoccur 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:ScottishEnvironmentProtection Agency. Basin ManagementPlanaspartofEUWater FrameworkDirective. Maintain Priority Action (EL1) Loch DeewithWater Lobeliaintheforeground.July2007. good ecologicalstatusofoligotrophiclochsbyimplementingmeasuresincludedinRiver OLIGOTROPHIC LOCHS (Richard Mearns) Conifer Plantations,Reservoirs. Blanket Bogs,UplandHeaths, Acid Grasslands, action plansmayalsocontainrelevantinformation: or overlapwitholigotrophiclochs,andthefollowing A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Lochar Moss. nineteenth andearly20thcenturypeatextractionon category. The lattersiteisentirelyman-madethrough Ironhirst Loch but DernaglarLoch(SSSI)inWigtownshireand Dystrophic lochsarerareinDumfries&Galloway, supporting severalrarespecies. the region, with relatively little human modificationand Skene (SSSI)isprobablythemostimportantsitein several oligotrophiclochsandinDumfriesshire Wigtownshire and LochenbreckLoch Loch Dee,Skerrow, StroanLoch Dungeon Loch ofTheDungeon (SSSI), (SSSI), oligotrophic: The lochsoftheGallowayHillsaremostly 2.3 SiteExamples despite occurringonawider rangeofsubstrates. distribution butislesscommon throughoutitsrange, Spring Quillwort restricted totheHighlands,LakeDistrictandWales. habitats inDumfries&Galloway, butotherwisemainly lochs witharockysubstrate.Itisfrequentinsuch perennial relatedtoferns,foundinoligotrophic Quillwort Isoeteslacustrisisasubmergedaquatic 3.1 Non-floweringPlants(highimportance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species Round LochofGlenhead Loch Valley (SSSI), (SSSI), Loch Enoch Lochs(SSSI)includes inDumfriesshiremayfallintothis Isoetes echinospora Loch Grannoch,Fleet, Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership (SSSI), . Away fromthisarea,in (SSSI), Long LochofGlenhead Round LochofThe Loch Neldricken (SSSI), hasasimilar (SSSI) Long Loch

OLIGOTROPHIC LOCHS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Though poor in aquatic mosses and liverworts, in Britain. Common Scoter Melanitta nigra may also oligotrophic lochs are reasonably rich in riparian occasionally attempt to breed. More common, though bryophytes. Typical species of loch side boulders still scarce, breeding wildfowl include Teals Anas include Pendulous Wing-moss Antitrichia curtipendula crecca and Wigeons Anas Penelope. A number of and Spreading-leaved Grimmia Grimmia curvata. scarce upland breeding waders, such as Dunlins Calidris alpina feed on the edges of oligotrophic lochs. 3.2 Flowering Plants (high importance) In winter, these lochs support few birds with only Though oligotrophic lochs do not support a great Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula regularly recorded in diversity of flowering plants, a number of species of small numbers. high conservation value are found. These include: Awlwort Subularia aquatica, an annual aquatic that 3.5 Fishes (medium importance) grows on silt, gravel or stony substrates in shallow Brown Trout Salmo trutta are often the commonest water; Water Lobelia Lobelia dortmanna, a slow- fish species in oligotrophic lochs, though conditions growing attractive herb with little ability to withstand rarely ideal for optimum growth. Arctic Charr shade or competition; Intermediate Bladderwort Salvelinus alpinus are scarce in Britain, occurring Utricularia intermedia, a semi-carnivorous, rare- mainly in the Scottish Highlands. In Dumfries & flowering species of shallow water; and Esthwaite Galloway they used to be found in Loch Grannoch OLIGOTROPHIC LOCHS Waterweed Hydrilla verticillata at its only extant UK and Loch Dungeon, but now probably only occur just site. More typical species include Alternate Water- over the border of the region in Loch Doon. Vendace milfoil Myriophyllum alterniflorum and Bog Pondweed Coregonus albula have been introduced to Loch Potamogeton polygonifolius. Skene and appear to be prospering.

3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) 3.6 Mammals (low importance) The invertebrate fauna of oligotrophic lochs is Remote, undisturbed oligotrophic lochs appear dominated by mayflies and caddisflies in shore zones, to fulfil the public perception of ideal Otter Lutra though a few common species from the lowlands, lutra habitat. In reality the low productivity and lack such as a diving beetle Hydroporus erythrocephalus, of dense riparian vegetation mean that they are are equally at home in such habitats. The only known infrequently visited world site of a pond snail Lymnaea burnetti is Loch by Otters and other Skene, although it is probably not a distinct species, mammals. but a form of very common Lymnaea peregra that has resulted from the harsh environment and genetic 3.7 Fungi and isolation. Lichens (low importance) Oligotrophic lochs are generally the richest lochs for lichens, though the degree of shade and type of rock has an important An aquatic lichen Porpidia hydrophila on submerged rocks in Loch Trool. March

bearing on species WETLAND HABITATS 2007. (Peter Norman) composition.

3.8 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) Goldeneye, one of the few ducks to frequent oligotrophic lochs in In some circumstances Common Frogs Rana winter. (Gordon McCall) temporaria, Common Toads Bufo bufo and Palmate Newts Lissotriton helvetica may be found in 3.4 Birds (high importance) oligotrophic lochs, but the habitat is generally poor for The Black-throated Diver Gavia arctica is a nationally amphibians. rare breeder and has attempted breeding on lochs in the Southern Uplands, the most southerly location

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 113 SWAMPS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

4. Environmental, Economic & Social Importance of Biodiversity

Often located in remote areas, oligotrophic lochs are an important component of wild-land environments.

5. Factors affecting the Habitat

• Acidification as a result of atmospheric deposition of pollution, exacerbated by local geology, soils and land use, especially forestry. Despite recent improvements in forest design and management, acidification remains an issue. • Eutrophication caused primarily by nitrates

OLIGOTROPHIC LOCHS or phosphates in run-off from surrounding agricultural or forestry operations, though most land surrounding oligotrophic lochs in Dumfries & Galloway is not subject to intensive management.

6. Strategic Actions

6.1 Recent and current activity • The EU Water Framework Directive requires preparation and implementation of River Basin Management Plans. These will include a series of measures to maintain good ecological status of all waterbodies. • The Loch Dee Project and subsequent research has looked into the causes and possible solutions of acidification. • SEPA monitor freshwater acidification at several sites. • Fish populations are monitored by Galloway Fisheries Trust. • Forestry Commission Scotland has made changes to the structure of forests in line with

WETLAND HABITATS agreed Forest and Water Guidelines. A completely frozen Lillie's Loch, near Clatteringshaws. January 2003. (Peter Norman) 6.2 Other recommended actions • Continue research and action to reduce the impacts of acidification of oligotrophic lochs. • Consider reintroduction of Arctic Charr to Loch Grannoch, if conditions are considered suitable.

114 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership Galloway isnotknown. majority likelytobemarsh). The extentinDumfries& is notknown. since the1990s,buttrend inDumfries&Galloway In Scotland,therehasbeen anincreaseinswamps 2.1 RecentTrends 2. approximately 3370km extent ofswampsinScotland,but1998therewas possible tomakeanaccurateassessmentofthe association withotherwetlandtypes,itisnot to thefactthatthishabitatusuallyoccursinclose probably havedeclinedinthelast50years.Due Swamps arewidespreadacrossEurope,though 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext in associationwithreedbeds. one endandcarrattheothersometimesoccur found separately. Bothoftengradeintoopenwaterat occur togetherandmayintegrate,butcanalsobe one ortwospecies.Fenandswamphabitatsoften year. They usuallyhavetallvegetationdominatedby is abovethegroundlevelformuch,ifnotall,of Swamps arevegetatedhabitatswherethewatertable 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Dumfries &Galloway Status Habitat Description Continue withcurrentmanagement. Priority Action (S1) Fringing swampatHightaeMillLoch,Lochmaben2008. 2 offen,marshandswamp(the SWAMPS (Paul McLaughlin) Reedbeds, Fens,NativeWet Woods. Lochs, MesotrophicOligotrophic may alsocontainrelevantinformation:Eutrophic overlap withswamps,andthefollowingactionplans A number of habitats occur in close associationand/or 2.4 Associated Habitats Cumrue Loch(LWS) andColvendLochs Dowalton Loch Loch (SSSI), Blackpark Marsh Marshes a numberofdesignatedsites,including region, butlargerareasofthishabitatisfoundon A largenumberofsmallsitesarepresentacross the 2.3 SiteExamples reedbeds andopenwaterhabitats. fragmented. Itisusuallyintegratedwithfens,carrs, In Dumfries&Gallowayswampiswidespreadbut 2.2 CurrentDistribution aquatilis Water SedgeCarex Ranunculus lingua, Greater Spearwort Cicuta virosa including Cowbane common plantsoccur, However, less Sedges C.vesicaria rostrata orBladder Sedges Carex by bedsofBottle often dominated comparison tofens, vegetation in species poor Swamps have 3.1 FloweringPlants(highimportance) 3. Importance for Associated Species andGreatFenSedgeCladiummariscus (SPA/SSSI), , Auchrochar Wetlands (SSSI), (SSSI), , Threave (SPA/SSSI),

. Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership Kenmure Holms(SPA/SSSI), Hightae MillLoch Bogbean, Lochmaben,May2007. (Paul McLaughlin) Ken-Dee Carlingwark (LWS). (LNR), . 115 WETLAND HABITATS SWAMPS REEDBEDS

3.2 Birds (medium importance) 4. Environmental, Economic & Social A number of birds nest and feed within swamps, and Importance of Biodiversity swamp vegetation may be particularly important in providing cover for their young. Species include Little Swamps provide protection from bankside erosion in Grebes Tachybaptus ruficollis, Water Rails Rallus lochs and rivers. aquaticus, Shovelers Anas clypeata, Teals Anas crecca, and Pintails Anas acuta. During the autumn 5. Factors affecting the Habitat and winter, swamps form an important roosting habitat for harriers. • Dumfries & Galloway’s swamps are mostly small in extent and highly fragmented. 3.3 Invertebrates (medium importance) • As with other wetland habitats, swamps are Swamps are an important habitat for several species dependent on good water quality and can be of snail, including the nationally rare Lilljeborg’s Whorl damaged by pollution and excessive nutrient SWAMPS Snail Vertigo lilljeborgi, which is restricted to decaying inputs from vegetation in sedge and rush swamps, sometimes surrounding shaded by Alders. It has recently been recorded at land-uses a few sites in Wigtownshire, but may have been lost leading to form Kirkcudbrightshire and Dumfriesshire. eutrophication.

3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (low importance) • Though drainage Amphibians such as Common Frogs Rana temporaria of swamps are found in swamps is rarely successful, changing water levels in adjacent rivers and lochs will lead to the loss or displacement Water Horsetail swamp. Carrick Ponds, June 2007. (Peter Norman) of swamps. • Grazing with cattle can maintain plant diversity, but there is an increasing reluctance to graze stock in such habitats. Ungrazed swamps can Common Frog, Lochmaben, March 2007. (Paul McLaughlin) quickly become dominated by a single species, such as Reed Sweet Grass. 3.5 Mammals (low importance) • Invasive plants such as American Skunk A number of mammals hunt for food in swamps, Cabbage may pose a threat in some locations. though a mosaic of wetland habitats is probably more important to them than swamps alone. Typical 6. Strategic Actions species include Otters Lutra lutra, Water Shrews

WETLAND HABITATS Neomys fodiens and all species of bats. 6.1 Recent and current activity

3.6 Non-flowering Plants (low importance) • In other parts of the UK, loss of cattle grazing has been replaced by grazing with water buffalo. A number of bryophytes are adapted to the semi- aquatic conditions of swamps, including the Lesser Cow-horn Bog-moss Sphagnum inundatum. 6.2 Other recommended actions • Identify the current extent and distribution of 3.7 Fishes (low importance) swamps in Dumfries & Galloway. Though a number of fish species can be found in swamps, the habitat is not of critical importance to them.

116 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership of anyextensive newreedbeds. grown, butthis hasnotsofarresultedin thecreation conservation andwatertreatment perspectivehas Since thelate1990s,interest inreedbedsfroma is likelytohaveresultedin theircontinualdecline. succession ofreedbedsto scrubanddrierhabitats removal ofreedbedsinrecent years,butthenatural There hasbeenlittledeliberatedrainageor 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries&GallowayStatus than 100haofreedbedsinDumfries&Galloway. nationally scarcehabitat. There areprobablyless mostly insmallblocksoflessthan1ha,makingita reedbed sitesintheUKtotallingaround6,530ha, Europe. In1994therewereapproximately1000 global context,beingsomeofthefarthestwestin British reedbedsaregeographicallyimportantina 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext woodland species. gradual dryingofthebed,allowinggrowthscrubor of deadvegetationand there isheavysiltation.Elsewhere,theaccumulation reedbed maypersistinarelativelystablestateunless sites thataresubjecttoregularfreshwaterflooding,a the eventualsuccessiontowoodland.Intidalareasor or openwaterandreedbedsformatransitionstagein Common Reedisanactivecoloniserofwetground swamp, fenandotherwetlandhabitats. Common Reed maybea component of many typesof there isnocleardistinctionbetweenthetwo,and surface areoftenreferredtoasreedfens.Inpractice reedswamps. Reedbedswithwateratorbelowthe water inthesummertheyareoftenreferredtoas waters. Wheretheyhave20cmormoreofsurface but reedbedsarealsofoundinbrackishandtidal the CommonReed.Mostarefreshwaterhabitats, Reedbeds aredominatedbystandsofoneplant, 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. HabitatDescription Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayBiodiversityPartnership. Target: 20haofnewreedbedby2015. Create newreedbedsinDumfriesandGalloway. Priority Action (RB1) reed litterwillresultinthe REEDBEDS Reedbeds fringe many lochs and ponds. Collochan Loch, Terregles, around theedgeof Some ofthelargerbrackishreedbedsarefound 2.3 SiteExamples many lowlandlochs. are perhapsmostfrequentasanarrowfringearound flowing stretchesofsomerivers.However, reedbeds scattered throughoutlowlandfarmlandandonslow have somereedbeds;theremanysmallreedbeds scattered buthighlyfragmented.Mostoftheestuaries Reedbeds inDumfries&Gallowayarewidely 2.2 CurrentDistribution lowest invertebrate interest being those of open water. important habitats forinvertebrates;the areas of All stagesinthe developmentofreedbeds are 3.1 Invertebrates(highimportance) 3. Importancefor Associated Species Fens, Swamps,Marshes. Saltmarshes (Merse),LowlandBurnsandDitches, plans mayalsocontainrelevantinformation:Coastal or overlapwithreedbeds,andthefollowingaction A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Glentoo Loch with moreextensiveareasatafewsites,suchas freshwater reedbedsfringemanylochsintheregion, Kirkcudbright BayandintheNithEstuary. Narrow of Rivers Tarff andDeeintheupperreachesof and LochruttonLoch Wigtown Bay Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership April 2006.(PeterNorman) , attheconfluence (LWS).

117 WETLAND HABITATS REEDBEDS P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T MARSHES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Forty species of bugs, moths, beetles and flies are 3.5 Flowering Plants (low importance) known to feed only on reed, with a further 24 insects The wettest reedbeds may contain Common Reed feeding partly on reed during their life cycle. A wide Phragmites australis and little else, but most reedbeds range of invertebrates is also associated with reed include some other species, including Yellow Flag even if they do not feed directly on it. These include Iris Iris pseudacorus and Reedmace Typha latifolia. predators (mainly beetles and spiders) and parasites Less common associates include Cowbane Cicuta of the reed-feeding invertebrates which live in the virosa and stands of Greater Tussock Sedge Carex stems, including gall-forming flies and solitary wasps. paniculata.

3.2 Birds (high importance) 4. Environmental, Economic & Social The Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus is a Importance of Biodiversity reedbed specialist, rarely nesting in other habitats. Although common in England, it was not known in Common Reed is known to be an efficient natural Scotland until breeding was recorded in Dumfries water purifier, and is increasingly being used REEDBEDS & Galloway in the 1990s. It continues to expand its specifically for this purpose in constructed reedbeds. range. Water Rails Rallus aquaticus, Sedge Warblers Acrocephalus schoenobaenus and Reed Buntings 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Emberiza schoeniclus also breed in reedbeds, though are less dependent on this habitat. Marsh Harriers • Loss of reedbeds through land drainage and Circus aeruginosus are occasional breeders in conversion to intensive agriculture. Dumfries & Galloway, favouring reedbeds for nesting, but also using other habitats. Bitterns also probably • Lack of management leading to drying, scrub once bred in Dumfries & Galloway and are still encroachment and succession to woodland occasionally recorded as visitors. They require large • Pollution and siltation of water sources feeding reedbeds, but if such conditions could be created it reedbed systems causing eutrophication and is highly likely that they would return as a breeding death of reed and associated organisms. species. 6. Strategic Actions Reedbeds provide roosting sites for a few of other species, particularly Swallows Hirundo rustica, 6.1 Recent and current activity House Martins Delichon urbica and Starlings Sturnus vulgaris, and occasionally Hen Harriers Circus • Reedbeds have been constructed by Scottish cyaneus. Wintering wildfowl also use them. Water for water treatment purposes at various locations (e.g. Beeswing treatment works). 3.3 Mammals (high importance) • In 1997 RSPB began creating new reedbeds on Although by no means confined to this habitat, it has land of low conservation interest at Mersehead. been suggested that Water Voles Arvicola terrestris that inhabit extensive reedbeds are better able to 6.2 Other recommended actions withstand predation by Mink Mustela vison. Water Shrews Neomys fodiens and Harvest Mice Micromys • Assess the current extend and distribution of minutus also breed in reedbeds, the latter at its reedbeds in Dumfries & Galloway. northern limit in Britain. Otters Lutra lutra frequently • Increase the size of reedbeds in Dumfries & WETLAND HABITATS lie-up in the dense cover of reedbeds during the day, Galloway. A few large reedbeds are preferable to and hunt for Eels and other fish during the night. many smaller ones. • Encourage the continued use of reedbeds for 3.4 Fishes (medium importance) water treatment purposes. The fish species of reedbeds are similar to those of lowland rivers. They include Pike Esox lucius and Eels Anguilla anguilla in ditches and Minnows Phoxinus phoxinus and Three-spined Sticklebacks Gasterosteus aculeatus amongst the reedstems of flooded reedbeds.

118 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership brackish orfreshwater and aresometimesusedasstockbarriers, which assistinmaintaininghighgroundwaterlevels watercourses. Bothhabitatsusuallycontain flat groundthatareregularlyfloodedbyadjacent whilst floodplaingrazingmarshes inundated pasturesfoundbehindtheseawall, grazing. Coastalgrazingmarshesareperiodically involves deliberateperiodicfloodingandlivestock some havealonghistoryofmanagementthat Though grazingtakesplaceonmanymarshes, agricultural landwithpoordrainage. with littlehumanmodification.Manyothersoccuron have existedatthesamelocationformanyyears and manyofthese lochs andponds, the marginsof example around circumstances, for relatively natural formed under areas. Somehave found inlowland They areusually most oftheyear. the surfacefor table closeto has thewater mineral soilsthat occurring on to vegetation but usuallyrefers ill definedterm Marsh isarather 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. includes cuttingforhayor silage. a highbiodiversity. Othermanagementsometimes water levelsthroughoutmuch oftheyear, andsupport of landmanagement,soditches tendtohavehigh or permanent.Seasonalflooding isanintegralpart Lead Partner:Dumfries&GallowayFloodLiaisonand Advisory Group Target: Carryoutafeasibilitystudyby2015. enhancement andfloodalleviation,takingintoaccountofcurrentland-uses,landscapesculturalheritage. Identify areaswherenewfloodplaingrazingmarshcouldbecreatedthatwillcontributetobiodiversity Priority Action (MA1) Habitat Description Extensive marshes,alongwithswampand pools wet woodlandatKenmureHolms,New Galloway, June2007.(PeterNorman) thatcanbeseasonal areareasof MARSHES ditches, Scotland, themajoritylikelytobemarsh. been recreated at SSSI) onthe River Dee.Coastalgrazing marshhas Bladnoch floodplain between Torhouse MillandMochrumParkonthe marshes, aspartofamosaic ofwetlandhabitats, Loch Ken(SPA/SSSI). There areexcellentgrazing Extensive marshesarefound aroundthefringesof 2.3 SiteExamples in areassuchasBroadlandortheSomersetLevels. are nositesthathavethefullrangeoffeaturesfound extremely limitedextentanditispossiblethatthere less than500hainarea. Dee, Ken,Nithand Annan, butitisestimatedtobe Dumfries &GallowayisfoundontheriversBladnoch, but fragmented.Mostfloodplaingrazingmarsh In Dumfries&Gallowaymarshhabitatiswidespread 2.2 CurrentDistribution created byconservationorganisations. A fewnewcoastalgrazingmarsheshavebeen difficult, leadingtoabandonmentofthesepractices. of climatechange,canmakegrazingandmowing Changes tofloodingpatterns,perhapsasaresult management ofthishabitatcontinuestodecline. there havebeennorecentlossesbutthetraditional is notknown.Forfloodplaingrazingmarshes, since 1990s,butthetrendinDumfries&Galloway In Scotland,therehasbeenanincreaseinmarshes 2.1 RecentTrends 2. approximately 3,370km more widespreadandabundant-in1998therewas found outsideEngland).Othertypesofmarshesare plant species(5,000haintheUK,halfofwhichis semi-natural, supportingahighdiversityofnative collectively. Onlyasmallproportionofthisfigureis found inScotland,Wales andNorthernIreland grazing marshintheUK.100,000haofthisare There areanestimatedtotalof300,000ha 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext Dumfries &GallowayStatus Caerlaverock . Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership (LWS) and atThreave(SPA/ 2 offen,marshandswampin Coastal grazingmarshis , Mersehead , and in 119 WETLAND HABITATS MARSHES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

2.4 Associated Habitats birds such as A number of habitats occur in close association and/or Grasshopper overlap with marshes, and the following action plans Warblers may also contain relevant information: Lowland Burns Locustella and Ditches, Eutrophic Lochs, Mesotrophic Lochs, naevia also Fens, Swamps, Reedbeds, Neutral Grasslands, nest in this Native Wet Woods, Agriculturally Improved habitat, whilst Grasslands, Urban Watercourses and Wetlands. Spotted Crakes Porzana 3. Importance for Associated Species porzana are very rare 3.1 Flowering Plants (high importance) breeders in dense Often the dominant plants of marshes are rushes, ungrazed but many other species are also found. Typical Snipe often nest in tussocky marshes. MARSHES marshes. (Steven Round) wildflowers include Marshes may Meadowsweet also be used by hunting birds of prey, including Hen Filipendula ulmaria Harriers Circus cyaneus, Marsh Harriers Circus and Ragged Robin aeruginosus and Barn Owls Tyto alba. Lychnis flos-cuculi, whilst Small Water 3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) Pepper Persicaria minor, an annual of A wide range of invertebrates is associated with wet marshy places marshes, such as a ground beetle Pterostichus trampled by stock, minor, a common marsh species recorded at various is mostly confined locations in the region. The Silver Hook Deltote to the southwest in uncula, a day-flying moth that is locally distributed in Scotland. Orchids Scotland, frequents marshes and other wet habitats. include Northern The caterpillars of Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary Marsh Dactylorhiza Boloria selene feed on Marsh Violet, and this butterfly purpurella and Early Globeflower, a local speciality is possibly more common on fens and marshes than Marsh Dactylorhiza of marshes and wet meadows, in other habitats in Dumfries & Galloway. Dundrennan, June 2006. incarnata. (Peter Norman)

Typical plants of grazing marshes include Cuckoo Flower Cardamine pratensis, Marsh Cinquefoil Potentilla palustris and various sedges and rushes including Carnation Sedge Carex panacea and tussocks of Soft Rush Juncus effuses. Less common species include Marsh Stitchwort Stellaria palustris. Purple Loosestrife Lythrum salicaria and Common Reed Phragmites australis are typical ditch species.

WETLAND HABITATS 3.2 Birds (high importance) Snipe Gallinago gallinago, Curlews Numenius arquata and Redshanks Tringa totanus are typical breeding The caterpillars of Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary butterflies often feed on Marsh Violets. (Richard Mearns) birds of marshes in Dumfries & Galloway, though have declined in recent years. Lapwings Vanellus The greatest diversity of invertebrates on coastal vanellus require less dense vegetation and are and floodplain grazing marshes is usually found in therefore more common on grazing marshes. Winter the ditches or other permanently saturated ground. flooding attracts wildfowl, particularly Barnacle Geese Dragonflies, ground beetles, water beetles and Branta leucopsis, Greylag Geese Anser anser and some groups of flies are of most importance, though Pink-footed Geese Anser brachyrhynchus. Smaller few surveys have been completed in Dumfries &

120 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

Galloway. Non-biting midges Chironomidae are • Loss of traditional management regimes, the most abundant group of insect. Larvae, pupae including the frequency and timing of grazing and adults form a critical part of the food chain for and cutting, affects habitat composition. ducklings and many other birds. They depend on • Eutrophication (nutrient loading) or other organic material in the damp surface layer of the soil. pollution of groundwater or surface water results in changes to plant 3.4 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium diversity. importance) No amphibians have a marked association with • Increased salt marshes, but all 6 species have been found in this water flooding habitat, including Natterjack Toads Epidalea calamita. due to sea level Few reptiles are found, though there have been rise threatens unconfirmed reports of Grass Snakes Natrix natrix. coastal sites. • Floodplains, though MARSHES 3.5 Mammals (medium importance) part of a single Otters Lutra lutra, Water Shrews Neomys fodiens, ecological unit, and Water Voles Arvicola terrestris all use marshes, are rarely under though the latter tend to avoid sites with brackish single ownership water. Bats also take advantage of high invertebrate or management. levels for feeding. It is therefore Northern Marsh Orchid. Carrick, Gatehouse of Fleet, June 2007. difficult to allow a (Peter Norman) 3.6 Non-flowering Plants (medium importance) more natural flood A range of mosses, liverworts and algae is found in regime without affecting adjoining sites. grazing marshes. 6. Strategic Actions 3.7 Fungi and Lichens (low importance) A range of grassland fungi occurs on marshes, 6.1 Recent and current activity especially those that have not been heavily improved. Most coastal grazing marsh is managed for Some such as field mushrooms Agaricus spp. and conservation by organisations such as the Wildfowl mottlegills Panaeolus spp. are also able to withstand and Wetlands Trust, RSPB and Dumfries & some fertilisation. Galloway Council/Wigtown Bay Wildfowlers Club.

4. Environmental, Economic & Social 6.2 Other recommended actions Importance of Biodiversity • Establish the location and extent of marshes, especially coastal and floodplain grazing marshes, in Dumfries & Galloway. • Floodplain grazing marshes act as a natural form of flood alleviation, absorbing high river flows • Survey coastal and flood plain grazing and reducing the speed that rainwater reaches marshes in the region and use the data obtained watercourses. In doing so they also filter water, to identify areas where restoration is possible and thereby improving water quality. to act as a baseline for a monitoring programme.

• Coastal grazing marshes give protection from • Consider the feasibility of creating new WETLAND HABITATS coastal flooding and erosion. areas of marsh on land of low conservation and farm value, by raising water levels or allowing 5. Factors affecting the Habitat a watercourse to overflow onto its natural floodplain. • Drainage of land for agriculture has reduced the • Conduct farm walks on sites with marshes. extent of marshes. • Changes to flooding regimes and water levels has occurred as a result of engineering works such as hydro-electric schemes and flood defences, as well as climate change. Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 121 122 WETLAND HABITATS UPLAND SPRINGS & FLUSHES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T biodiversity value. springs andflushesarerarer, butare ofexceptional leached byveryhighrainfall. More the surroundingsoilshave oftenbeenextensively nutrients washeddownthrough thebedrock,whilst surrounding landbecausetheyhaveaccumulated tend toberelativelynutrientrichincomparisonthe tend tobecommonestintheuplands,buteventhese acid anddeficientinlime. very different fromthosethatgrowwherethewateris the plantsthatgrowinspringsandflushesare emerges. Wheretherocksarealkalineorrichinlime, the chemicalcompositionofrocksfromwhichit The mineralcontentofthewaterisdeterminedby tends tobefairlyconstantthroughouttheyear. water isusuallycold,buttemperatureandacidity(pH) affected byshort-termfluctuationsinrainfall. The underground aquifers,andarethereforenotgreatly seepages aregenerallyderivedfromveryextensive flow, spring-fed low volumeof Despite the vegetation. stones orsparse over soil,gravel, flows diffusely or othersources, either fromsprings form wherewater, slow seep.Flushes more usuallyasa either strongly, or out oftheground, bubbles orflows where water watercourses, the sourceofmany Upland springsare 1.1 PhysicalCharacteristics 1. Lead Partner:BordersForest Trust Target: MonitorspringsandflushesatCarrifranuntil2012. Monitor thequalityofspringsandflushesinuplandsDumfries&Galloway Priority Action (USF1) Habitat Description UPLAND SPRINGS&FLUSHES Butterwort, atypicalplantofunshaded flushes. Laghead,GatehouseofFleet, Acid springsandflushes June 2007.(PeterNorman) base-rich

of Britain. habitats, butarewidespreadthroughouttheuplands Springs andflushesaresmall-scalelocalised 1.2 NationalandInternationalContext surface waterrun-off. be verymuchgreaterthanitisinthosederivedfrom means thatdiversityinspringfedflushestendsto community ofplantsandanimals.Inpracticethis highly productiveresourceforasurprisinglydiverse combined withwell-oxygenatedwaterprovidesa all butthesteepestgradients.Richorganicmaterial allows thedevelopmentofathickmuddysubstrateon The lowflowvolumeofmostspringsandflushes Outcrops, UplandHeaths. information: Fens, Acid Grasslands,InlandRock following actionplansmayalsocontainrelevant or overlapwithuplandspringsandflushes,the A numberofhabitatsoccurincloseassociationand/ 2.4 Associated Habitats Hills (SAC/SSSI). Important flushcommunitiesarefoundinthe 2.3 SiteExamples and notuncommoninDumfries&Galloway. Spring-fed flushesinuplandareasarewidespread 2.2 CurrentDistribution recent changestouplandspringsandflushes. As farasisknown,therehavebeennosignificant 2.1 RecentTrends 2. Dumfries &GallowayStatus Dumfries and GallowayBiodiversity Partnership . Moffat UPLAND SPRINGS & FLUSHES P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3. Importance for Associated Species

3.1 Non-flowering Plants (very high importance) Upland springs and flushes are often dominated by mosses and liverworts. Typical species of acid flushes include the bright green Fountain Apple- moss Philonotis fontana and the brilliant yellow-green Marsh Forklet-moss Dicranella palustris. Cow-horn Bog-moss Sphagnum denticulatum, with its stout curved red-gold shoots, is a common plant in springs which emerge through peaty soils.

The most common liverwort in springs and flushes is Water Earwort Scapania undulata, but Cordate Starry Saxifrage is found in higher altitude open flushes. White Coomb, July 2007. (Peter Norman) Flapwort Jungermannia exsertifolia is characteristic of stony upland flushes, where it often forms extensive plants are associated with them in Dumfries & turfs. It also grows in springs as rather spongy Galloway: Hairy Stonecrop Sedum villosum, Starry mounds. Saxifrage Saxifraga stellaris, Mossy Saxifrage UPLAND SPRINGS & FLUSHES The greatest diversity of species occurs in base- Saxifraga hypnoides, Pale Forget-me-not Myosotis rich upland flushes, with species such as Lesser stolonifera, Alpine Sawwort Saussurea alpina, Alpine Clubmoss Selaginella selaginoides and Flat-leaved Rush Juncus alpinoarticulatus, Hair Sedge Carex Bog-moss Sphagnum platyphyllum, the most base- capillari, Sheathed Sedge Carex vaginata, Bog Orchid demanding Sphagnum that occurs uncommonly in Hammarbya paludosa and Alpine Foxtail Alopecurus Dumfries & Galloway at the edges of open stony borealis. More typical species include Butterwort calcareous flushes. There are also a few regional Pinguicula vulgaris, Carnation Sedge Carex panicea records for Rigid Bog-moss Sphagnum teres in and Star Sedge Carex echinata. moderately base-rich flushes, often in a narrow band alongside the flush. Warnstorf’s Bog-moss Sphagnum Taller and more continuously vegetated flushes, warnstorfii grows in a similar habitat. merging into fens and marshes, occur wherever the lie of the land concentrates the flow of surface water A number of rare species also occur in this habitat: into hollows, gullies and valley bottoms. Sedges and Varnished Hook-moss Hamatocaulis vernicosus is rushes are more common here than bryophytes. a plant of neutral flushes, especially springheads where alkaline water breaks through an acid peatland, 3.3 Invertebrates (high importance) or areas where alkaline flushes spread on to acid Springs and flushes on wet muds tend to be the flushed ground. In Dumfries & Galloway it was most densely-vegetated and to have the richest recently refound at its former site in the Dalveen invertebrate fauna, those on peat are often very acid Pass. Water Grimmia Schistidium agassizii, a moss and sustain fewer species. Some spring and flush with few British records, has been recorded from invertebrates are at least partially subterranean and flushed igneous outcrops in a valley in the Galloway a number are aquatic, frequently occurring in the Hills. Splachnum vasculosum was found on dung upper sections of seepages. Microscopic aquatic WETLAND HABITATS in springs and flushes at high altitude in the Moffat animals occur in enormous numbers, up to 16 million Hills in 1957 and 1985. Duval’s Thread-moss Bryum protozoans per square metre of Sphagnum moss. weigelii is also recorded from flushes in the Moffat Examples of larger aquatic species include the water Hills. beetles Hydroporus longulus and Hydraena britteni. Other invertebrate groups frequently encountered in 3.2 Flowering Plants (very high importance) springs and flushes include spiders, flies, and aphids. Though springs and flushes may represent only a A number of very rare snails and craneflies have also very small part of the total area of an upland site, been recorded from springs and flushes in northern they are distinct vegetation communities in their England, but little survey work has been completed in own right. A number of rare or uncommon flowering Dumfries & Galloway.

Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership 123 P R I O R I T Y H A B I T A T A B I T A H Y R I O T P

3.4 Birds (high importance) 4. Environmental, Economic & Social A number of upland waders and other birds feed on Importance of Biodiversity the invertebrates associated with springs and flushes. Such invertebrates are crucial for the survival of Red • Water from upland springs has long been Grouse Lagopus lagopus and Black Grouse Tetrao associated with many religions and is believed to tetrix chicks. In winter, springs and flushes become have therapeutic qualities. The town of Moffat is even more important for feeding birds when other founded on such associations. ground is frozen and invertebrates are otherwise • Around 30 brands of natural spring water, unobtainable. Similarly, they assume greater which by law must come from an unpolluted importance in dry periods during the breeding season, underground source, be free from microbial an increasingly common occurrence in recent years. contamination and have received no treatment apart from filtration, are currently sold in the UK. 3.5 Fungi and Lichens (medium importance) None is collected from upland springs in Dumfries A few lichens are specialists of springs and flushes, & Galloway, which is maybe just as well as the including Polyblastia cruenta, which forms an plant life of the original spring rarely survives the inconspicuous dark brownish-green layer over process. However, upland springs do supply a submerged stones in acid springs, and the distinctive number of private water supplies. bright orange Lonaspis lacustris, which is also

UPLAND SPRINGS & FLUSHES common on stones. • Scottish spring water is the basic liquid from which whisky is made. 3.6 Reptiles and Amphibians (medium importance) 5. Factors affecting the Habitat Common Frogs Rana temporaria abound in upland springs and flushes, and Common Toads Bufo bufo, • Sheep, cattle, deer goats, hares and rabbits Common Lizards Zootoca vivipara and Adders Vipera graze in springs and flushes and their trampling berus also hunt in this habitat. and poaching may help to keep the cover of vegetation open and prevent encroachment of trees and shrubs. However, in some places deer can badly damage springs. They wallow in springs and flushes in summer, coating themselves with peat in order to discourage flies and to protect themselves from the heat of the sun. • Large scale developments such as open-cast mining can destroy natural springs and flushes, and such features are almost impossible to reinstate following restoration. • Springs and flushes are susceptible to damage by Adder (Laurie Campbell) quad-bikes and recreational activities. WETLAND HABITATS

124 Dumfries and Galloway Biodiversity Partnership