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Musical Racialism and Racial Nationalism in Commercial Country Music, 1915-1953

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Musical Racialism and Racial Nationalism in Commercial Country Music, 1915-1953 Musical Racialism and Racial Nationalism in Commercial Country Music, 1915-1953 The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Parler, Samuel Jennings. 2017. Musical Racialism and Racial Nationalism in Commercial Country Music, 1915-1953. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences. Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:41140202 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA Musical Racialism and Racial Nationalism in Commercial Country Music, 1915-1953 A dissertation presented by Samuel Jennings Parler to The Department of Music in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of Music Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts May 2017 © 2017 Samuel Jennings Parler All rights reserved. Dissertation Advisor: Professor Carol J. Oja Samuel Jennings Parler Musical Racialism and Racial Nationalism in Commercial Country Music, 1915-1953 Abstract This dissertation probes the tension between multiracial performance history and discourses of whiteness in commercial country music during its formative decades, the 1920s through the early 1950s. I argue that nonwhites were pivotal in shaping the sounds and institutions of early country music. However, new commercial technologies like radio and audio recording enabled alternative racial meanings by removing the physical presence of the performer. Industry entrepreneurs exploited this fact to profess the music’s whiteness for commercial gain. Country’s racialization as white was further consolidated through a white- coded nationalist rhetoric emerging in the 1940s, motivated by white, working-class anxieties over the genre’s cultural prestige as it aspired to mainstream acceptance. Combining multisite archival research, musical analysis, and theoretical perspectives on class, race, and nation, this dissertation overturns popular narratives which view country music’s whiteness as inherent, static, and univocal. I approach these issues of racialization by contextualizing the careers of four early performers within broader social and commercial currents. Native Hawaiian steel guitarist Sol Hoʻopiʻi (chapter 1) inspired generations of white country musicians with his virtuosic style and eclectic repertory. However, his own recordings were consistently marketed as exotic, and he remains marginalized within country music historiography. By comparison, African American harmonicist DeFord Bailey (chapter 2) is today often cited as evidence of country music’s iii biracial history, yet early radio audiences tended to hear his music as white or un-raced. These performers expose the ironies of country music’s putative white identity and the ways in which new media could amplify or mask racial difference. White performers Carson Robison and Gene Autry (chapters 3 and 4) achieved commercial success in part by deflecting country’s working- class associations and reframing the genre as white and American. Robison’s anti-Japanese songs during World War II promoted racially-exclusionary politics while Autry’s postwar “pro- Indian” films advocated assimilation of American Indians. Nevertheless, both performers located country music audiences at the center of American cultural life. iv Contents Abbreviations vii Acknowledgments viii Introduction 1 The Early Era 6 Musical Racialism 8 Technology and Media 15 Racial Nationalism 20 Chapter Overview 24 Chapter 1: Sol Hoʻopiʻi, Hawaiian Steel Guitar, and Racial Politics in Country Music Historiography 29 Sources and Biography 35 Continuities with Country Music 48 Marking the Steel Guitar as Exotic 56 Hoʻopiʻi in Country Music Historiography 68 Assimilation Strategies and Conclusions 71 Chapter 2: Hearing Whiteness and Memorializing Blackness in the Music of DeFord Bailey 75 “Black Hillbilly Music” and Life at the Opry 79 Race-Based Advocacy for the Hall of Fame 89 Hearing Race on the Opry 105 Ironies of Musical Analysis 122 Conclusion 128 Chapter 3: Racial Nationalism and Class Ambivalence in Carson Robison’s World War II Songs 130 Racialized Identities and Repertories in the Prewar Era 135 Preparing for War 147 Anti-Japanese Rhetoric 152 Country Authenticity and Pop Song Elitism 159 Robison the Professional: Joining ASCAP 164 Robison’s Eclectic Musical Style 171 Marketing and Reception 179 Postwar Politics and Conclusions 182 v Chapter 4: Americanizing the First Americans: Assimilating Indians in Three Late Gene Autry Films 186 Screening New Deal Cowboys 189 Sounding Race in Cowboy Songs 193 Staging Others in Autry’s Prewar Westerns 198 Postwar Politics 204 Persistent Stereotypes 213 Towards Authenticity 219 Assimilation Narratives 233 Conclusion 246 Epilogue 247 Appendices 1. Dating the Origins of the “Grand Ole Opry” Name 254 2. Robison’s Recordings and Published Sheet Music 257 Bibliography 260 vi Abbreviations CPM: Center for Popular Music, Middle Tennessee State University CRC: Carson J. Robison Collection, 1903-1988, Special Collections and University Archives, Leonard H. Axe Library, Pittsburg State University DBC: David C. Morton DeFord Bailey Collection, Special Collections Division, Nashville Public Library FLACMHOF: The Frist Library and Archive of the Country Music Hall of Fame® and Museum GAPPBA: Gene Autry Personal Papers and Business Archives, 1900-2002, on loan from Mr. and Mrs. Gene Autry, Autry National Center, Los Angeles; MSA.28 GOOC: Grand Ole Opry Collection, 1930s-1960s (Collection Number: MSS 178), Special Collections and University Archives, Jean and Alexander Heard Library, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee PCAR: Motion Picture Association of America: Production Code Administration Records, Special Collections, Margaret Herrick Library WSMRTC: WSM Radio and Television Collection, 1928-1966 (Collection Number: MSS 535), Special Collections and University Archives, Jean and Alexander Heard Library, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee vii Acknowledgments In remembering all the friends, family, and institutions that have supported me throughout this project, I have been overwhelmed with gratitude. To begin with, I have been blessed with a truly exceptional dissertation committee. As my primary dissertation advisor, Carol J. Oja has been a model of impeccable scholarship, gracious professionalism, and compassionate humanity to which I will always aspire. She has especially emphasized to me the value of archival research and clear writing, as well as our ethical obligations to our historical subjects and fellow historians. Furthermore, in fall 2014 she agreed to co-teach my proposed course on blackface minstrelsy, which yielded vital insights into racial representation in early country music as the dissertation progressed. I was a student in Sindhumathi Revuluri’s “Music and Empire” course during my first year of graduate school. The course proved a decisive moment in my scholarly development; chapter 1 of this dissertation grew out of a paper written for that class. Since then, Sindhu has been an invaluable sounding board and critic, ensuring theoretical coherence and sophistication as I shaped arguments about country music’s racial and national identities. Jocelyn R. Neal, with her firm grasp of country music history and historiography, has likewise challenged my assumptions about the genre, pointing out useful examples and resources and insisting on greater documentary rigor. Jocelyn also introduced me into the community of country music scholars, particularly through meetings of the International Country Music Conference in Nashville. Beyond my committee, I have appreciated the encouragement and support of the faculty and staff of the Harvard Music Department. Faculty members Richard Beaudoin, Suzannah Clark, Christopher Hasty, Thomas Forrest Kelly, Alexander Rehding, Kay Kaufman Shelemay, Anne C. Shreffler, Kate van Orden, and Richard Wolf all provided valuable perspectives during viii coursework, in team-teaching, and in private conversation. Department administrators made Harvard feel like home and kept me on track at every stage of the grad school saga. My eternal gratitude belongs to Lesley Bannatyne, Kaye Denny, Eva Kim, Jean Moncrieff, Karen Rynne, Nancy Shafman, and Charles Stillman. Additional coursework outside the department, undertaken with faculty members Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Andrew Jewett, Daniel McKanan, and John Stauffer, exposed me to new disciplines and methodologies; several monographs assigned in those courses made their way into my bibliography. Beyond Harvard, Joy Calico, Dale Cockrell, Jim Lovensheimer, and Melanie Lowe introduced me to the world of musicology as an undergraduate at Vanderbilt University. Greg Reish and Travis Stimeling have shared helpful insights about country music and offered words of encouragement. Archival research for this dissertation took me on several adventures throughout the United States, and I am grateful to the small army of librarians and friends who facilitated my travels through unfamiliar archives and cities. My thanks to all those on staff at the Anne Potter Wilson Music Library and the Jean and Alexander Heard Library at Vanderbilt University; the Autry National Center; the Bancroft Library at the University of California, Berkeley; the Center for Popular
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