Movement Disorders Are Listed in Table 1

Home , Athetoid cerebral palsy, Basal ganglia disease, Movement disorder, Myoclonic dystonia

ean ncmo s.There have beennogood remains incommonuse. which Anexceptionis ‘athetoid cerebral palsy’, dystonic. more economically classifiedasdystonicorchoreo- suchmovements canbe term gradually fallingoutofuse; sinuous distallimbmovement) isa Athetosis (awrithing, Definitionsofcommonly encountered movement disorders are listed in Table 1. or dystonictremor). myoclonic dystonia sometimes be ‘mixed’ (for example, themovement disorder may more complicated, To make matters task totheinexperiencedphysician. may notbeasimple for example, chorea ormyoclonus, orticsfrom differentiating jerkydystoniafrom tremor, akinetic-rigid disorder) isrelatively straightforward, (hyperkinetic disorder) ortoolittle(hypokinetic or definition ofpatientsintothosewhomove toomuch Althoughthebroad oftheproblem. the phenomenology presenting withadisorder ofmovement istoestablish The key tosuccessindiagnosingandmanagingapatient CLASSIFICATIONDEFINITIONS AND DECLARATION OFINTERESTS single-photonemissioncomputedtomography (SPECT) syndrome (RLS), restless legs rapid eye movement (REM), progressive supranuclear palsy(PSP), Parkinson’s disease(PD), multiple systematrophy (MSA), examination (MMSE), mini-mentalstate magneticresonance imaging(MRI), induced parkinsonism(DIP), LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS KEYWORDS some broad principlesintheinvestigation andmanagement ofsuchcases. Itwillalsobriefly consider approach tothepatientwithamovement disorder. Thisoverview willdescribeapractical aswell aspatientpreference. social factors, baseduponclinicaland considerationisgiven totreatment, Thereafter, diagnosis. appropriately targetedinvestigations may thenberequired todeterminethe Oncethisfirststephasbeenmade, dominant problem chorea ordystonia?). isthe to correctly oftheproblem determinethephenomenology (for example, An essentialfirststepintheapproach tothepatientwithamovement disorder is the movement disorder itself. symptoms andthesemay have agreater impactuponthepatientandtheirfamily than Basalgangliadiseaseiscommonly associatedwithneuropsychiatric amiodarone). DIP causedby chorea insystemiclupuserythematosus; related (for example, sincethesemay bedirectly orindirectly movement from generalmedicalproblems, nottodivorce Itisimportant thedisorder of widespread neurological disorder. ormay ofamore bepart may betheonly manifestation ofadiseaseprocess, Abnormalityofmovement such asmyoclonus may alsoarisefrom otherstructures. disorders many movement disorders doarisefrom withinthebasalganglia, pathology Although become synonymous withbasalgangliadiseaseandextrapyramidal features. Theterm ‘movement disorder’ has the form andvelocity ofmovements ofthebody. ABSTRACT to diagnosisandmanagement abriefpracticalapproach Movement disorders: rfso nMvmn iodr,NwateUiest,Newcastleupon Newcastle University, England Tyne, Professor onMovement Disorders, Burn DJ P P APER APER The characteristicfeature ofallmovement disorders isanabnormalityof hra ytna xmnto,mvmn iodr aknoim tremor parkinsonism, movement disorder, examination, dystonia, Chorea, oaiercpo lcigaet(RA,drug- Dopamine receptor blockingagent(DRBA), No conflictofinterests declared. to have agenetic basis. 40 years ofage)are well recognised andare more likely althoughyoung onsetcases(definedaslessthan for PD, Olderageisthegreatest riskfactor present inlaterlife. whilefocal dystoniasclassically in thefirsttwo decades, Generalised dystoniaisalso more likely tocommence first decadeandisseven timesmore commoninboys. complextic disorder (Tourette’s syndrome) Thus, typically beginsinthe in termsofbroad classification. Ageofonsetisoftenhelpful obvious from theoutset. even ifthediagnosismay seem movement disorder, never beover statedwhenapproaching apatientwith andexaminationcan The valueofacareful history EXAMINATION FEATURES HISTORY OFCLINICAL AND somewhat subjective. sothefinalclassificationremains movement disorders, studies for inter-rater reliability ofspecificclasses of © 2006Royal CollegeofPhysicians ofEdinburgh Published online Published Correspondence to to Correspondence Department of Neurology, Regional Neurology, of Department J RCollPhysicians Edinb Neurosciences Centre, Newcastle Centre, Neurosciences General Hospital, Westgate Road, Westgate Hospital, General Newcastle upon Tyne, NE4 6BE 6BE NE4 Tyne, upon Newcastle tel. tel. fax. fax. e-mail e-mail +44 (0)191 256 3425 256 (0)191 +44 +44 (0)191 256 3534 256 (0)191 +44 [email protected] June 2006 June DJ Burn, DJ 2006; 36: 331–335 331

CME DJ Burn

TABLE 1 Definition of commonly encountered movement haloperidol, prochlorperazine) but can persist for years disorders. thereafter. A complete list of medications previously Movement disorder Definition taken by the patient should be obtained from the general practitioner, if necessary. Dopamine receptor blocking Parkinsonism A clinical syndrome with bradykinesia agents may also cause a range of other movement (slow movement) as the defining disorders, including parkinsonism and dystonia. feature, almost always accompanied Approximately 80% of DIP will resolve within eight weeks by rigidity, and often by tremor. of discontinuing the offending agent, although recovery Dyskinesia May be applied to any involuntary times of up to 18 months have been reported. Drug- movement, although commonly used induced parkinsonism may be impossible to differentiate to refer to drug-induced chorea and from PD, although it tends to be more symmetric, and is dystonia. more common in older women. While DRBAs are well Tremor A rhythmical, involuntary oscillatory known to cause parkinsonism, a link with agents like movement of a body part; subdivided sodium valproate, amiodarone, and cinnarizine is less well into whether the problem occurs at recognised; if in doubt, it is worth checking with the rest, with posture, on action, or with hospital drug information service. intention. Analysis of the following characteristics (adapted from Chorea A quick, irregular, semi-purposive, and predominantly distal involuntary reference 4) may assist in making the diagnosis: movement (patient may look restless or ‘fidgety’). 1 Specific distribution For example, RLS (although this is now known as restless limb syndrome since Dystonia An abnormal movement symptoms may also be reported in the upper limbs) characterised by sustained muscle contraction, frequently causing and ‘painful legs and moving toes’. Parkinson’s twisting and repetitive movements or disease is typically asymmetric in onset. abnormal postures. Blepharospasm (involuntary, prolonged eye closure) affects both eyes whereas hemifacial spasm only Ballism A proximal, high-amplitude affects one side of the face. movement, often violent and flinging 2 Specific actions and relationship to voluntary movement in nature; usually unilateral and may For example, a task-specific tremor or dystonia.

CME resolve through a choreic phase. Asking the patient to write or pick up a glass of water Tic An abrupt, jerky non-rhythmic may be very revealing. movement (motor tic) or sound 3 Speed of the movement (vocal tic) that is temporarily Slow Intermediate Fast suppressible by will power; tics may be simple or complex. Parkinsonism, chorea, tremor myoclonus, tics dystonia, and Stereotypy Purposeless voluntary movements dystonic tics carried out in a uniform fashion at the expense of other activity (e.g. 4 Rhythm Continuous (e.g. tremor) or intermittent (e.g. hand wringing, clapping, mouthing). asterixis (‘negative myoclonus’)). 5 Relation to posture For example, orthostatic tremor A video recording, made by the patient’s family, may be (presents as unsteadiness when standing still, but helpful in the case of a paroxysmal movement disorder. If suppressed by walking). this is not volunteered, it is a good idea to ask for one, 6 Relation to sleep Few movement disorders persist particularly when the examination is negative. If no during sleep; examples that do, include palatal tremor problem is apparent after a ‘routine’ neurological and segmental myoclonus. examination, consider whether the complaint may be task 7 Associated sensory symptoms Restless limb syndrome is specific (e.g. certain forms of dystonia, primary writing integrally associated with pain or discomfort; tics may tremor). This could be the perfect excuse to get the golf be associated with a vague discomfort or abnormal clubs out in clinic (the ‘yips’ as a focal dystonia when sensation in the prodrome before the movement. attempting to putt the ball) or even the darts (‘dartitis’ in 8 Suppressibility Volitional in tics (although associated darts players who have difficulty in releasing the dart). with increasing unease and rebound worsening upon release), by sensory ‘tricks’ in dystonia (such as a light Always consider drugs, both past and present, as a touch upon the opposite side of the face to suppress potential cause for the movement disorder. Tardive a spasmodic torticollis). dyskinesias (commonly stereotypic movements, often 9 Aggravating or precipitating factors Stress and anxiety orofacial in distribution) may develop after a relatively have no discriminatory value as they may worsen all short exposure to a DRBA (e.g. chlorpromazine, movement disorders. Myoclonus may be triggered by

TABLE 2 Points to remember in the history and examination. History Time course/functional disability/effect upon quality of life. Past medical history, including infections (e.g. rheumatic fever) and toxin exposure. Drug history – current, previous, and recreational (may need to contact family doctor). Alcohol responsiveness. Family history (draw out pedigree if necessary). Neuropsychiatric features (with carer to inform/corroborate). Autonomic symptoms (may be prominent and early in MSA, a degenerative form of parkinsonism). Sleep problems (REM sleep behaviour disorder – screaming, combative outbursts later in a night’s sleep – may occur early in PD, MSA, and dementia with Lewy bodies).

Examination Observe casually during history: • Any involuntary movements and their distribution; • Utterances and vocalisations (Tourette’s syndrome?); • Blink frequency (reduced in parkinsonism, profoundly so in PSP,increased in blepharospasm); • Excessive sighing (suggestive of atypical parkinsonism like MSA and PSP). Cognitive assessment (subcorticofrontal vs cortical problems) – MMSE often insensitive to the former; consider supplementing with verbal fluency task, e.g. number of words beginning with letter ‘C’ in a minute. Cardiovascular – lying and standing blood pressures, cool dusky blue periphery (MSA?). Gait (stance width, stride length, turning, dystonic posturing of limbs, arm swing), postural reflexes (pull test, standing behind patient) and axial tone (turn patient from side to side in vertical axis using shoulders). Eye movements (especially speed of fast eye movements and range). Limb examination (including specimen of writing and observe hand posture). Tremors/dystonic posturing. CME Tone – use reinforcement if necessary. Power and co-ordination. Fine finger and rapid alternating movements. Reflexes/plantars (areflexia in neuropathic tremor).

specific stimuli such as sudden, loud noise or touch. depression, which may be the major determinant of Carbohydrate-heavy meals and fatigue may quality of life, while up to 80% of people with PD may precipitate certain forms of paroxysmal dystonia, eventually develop dementia. Tourette’s syndrome may while sudden movement may induce paroxysmal be associated with attention deficit hyperactivity kinesogenic dsytonia. disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. 10 Ameliorating factors Alcohol may dramatically Huntington’s disease may be complicated by anxiety improve essential tremor and myoclonic dystonia. and panic attacks, depression, and schizophreniform Running or walking backwards may improve a psychosis, and is associated with an increased risk of dystonic gait, leading the unwary to suspect a non- suicide, in addition to the well-known association with organic cause. dementia. Rapid eye movement sleep behaviour 11 Distractibility and inconsistency Both are suggestive of a disorder may predate the onset of PD, multiple system non-organic (functional) cause, but note the caveat in atrophy, and dementia with Lewy bodies. It may lead to point 10 above. violent motor outbursts during sleep and self-injurious behaviour (as the person flings themselves out of bed Table 2 summarises a number of points to remember while asleep) or injury to the bed partner, yet is readily in the history-taking and examination of the patient treated by low-dose clonazepam. Sleep fragmentation with a movement disorder. The need to include brief is common in PD and is multifactorial in aetiology assessments of neuropsychiatric and sleep status (causes include nocturia, depression, and discomfort should be emphasised. Parkinson’s disease may be due to under-dosing). Many of these causes are accompanied in 20–30% of cases by significant amenable to treatment.

INVESTIGATIONS MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS

An increasing range of blood and cerebrospinal fluid Try to remember the following general principles in clinic: analyses, genetics tests, electrophysiological, structural, and functional imaging studies are available to supplement 1 Treat disability or poor quality of life, not recorded clinical acumen. Occasionally, tissue biopsy (for example, impairments. Thus, one patient with PD may tolerate skin, gut, or bone marrow) may even be necessary. It goes moderate to severe tremor, rigidity and/or without saying that establishing the correct bradykinesia and not wish to be treated, while another phenomenology of the patient’s movement disorder is an case could request treatment with much less severe essential first step before embarking upon more complex motor impairment; (and often costly) investigations. Many movement 2 Remove potentially exacerbating/causative drugs disorders are diagnosed clinically and investigations may whenever possible; play only a supportive or exclusionary role. Thus, patients 3 Always consider underlying (masked) depression with typical PD do not require MRI brain scanning. when there appears to be a mismatch between Magnetic resonance imaging scanning may, however, be impairment and reported disability; helpful for patients with ‘atypical parkinsonism’ or a sub- 4 Patients do not always volunteer neuropsychiatric optimal response to treatment. A few general themes features like visual hallucinations or hypersexuality may be summarised: (which may be induced by dopaminergic drugs). Don’t be afraid to ask; 1 Never overlook the value of ‘routine’ blood tests: 5 Members of a multidisciplinary team generally prefer renal, hepatic, and thyroid function tests may yield early referral; useful information as to the cause of tremor or 6 Never forget the need for genetic counselling and the myoclonus, for example; potential implications for other family members; 2 Have a low threshold to perform a serum 7 If a psychogenic movement disorder is suspected, the caeruloplasmin level in the young or middle-aged patient may best be managed by formal admission and person with a movement disorder: Wilson’s disease a staged, multidisciplinary approach; and may present in protean ways and is eminently treatable. 8 Don’t be frightened to admit to the patient that you’re At a cut-off of 0·2 g/l, serum caeruloplasmin is a cheap not sure about the diagnosis. Differentiating tremor- and simple test (although not very sensitive, as 5–20% dominant PD from essential tremor, or typical from of homozygous carriers will have normal results); atypical parkinsonism, for example, can be very CME 3 Phenocopies of PD may result from diverse genetic difficult. The main thing is not to ‘pigeon-hole’ the case causes, including certain spinocerebellar ataxias and too early on, at the risk of having to back-track at a juvenile-onset Huntington’s disease; later date. Invariably, time will tell. 4 Remember, structural imaging is of limited sensitivity in the diagnosis of most movement disorders. Few, if KEYPOINTS any, prospective studies have examined the positive predictive value of modalities such as MRI scanning in • Establishing the phenomenology of a movement patients presenting with early ‘unclassifiable disorder is essential in the diagnostic pathway. parkinsonism’; and • Do not forget to take a full family history, 5 Always remember the limitations of a test, to avoid particularly in a young onset case, or one with over-interpretation of the result. An example is 123I- clinically atypical features. ioflupane SPECT, also known as DaTSCAN. This tool • Dopamine receptor blocking drugs may cause any is helpful in discriminating essential tremor, DIP, or movement disorder and their adverse effects may psychogenic parkinsonism (when the scan is normal) persist after the offending agent has been discontinued. from PD (when the scan is abnormal). DaTSCAN • Many movement disorders are diagnosed clinically and cannot, however, differentiate typical from atypical investigations may play only a supportive or parkinsonism (that is, separating PD from conditions exclusionary role. such as MSA and PSP). It may also occasionally be • Neuropsychiatric and cognitive problems are normal in early tremor-dominant PD. The same point common in movement disorders and may be can be made in the context of caeruloplasmin dominant in determining the patient’s (and carer’s) ‘screening’ for Wilson’s disease. Given the false- quality of life. negative rate, if a high clinical index of suspicion exists, further investigations, including a 24-hour urinary copper excretion and ophthalmological assessment for Kayser-Fleischer rings, should be performed.

REFERENCES 3 Kishore A, Calne DB. Approach to the patient with a movement disorder and overview of movement disorders. In: Watts RL, 1 Barker RA. Disorders of movement excluding Parkinson’s Koller WC (editors). Movement Disorders: Neurologic Principles and disease. In:Warrell DA, Cox TM,Firth JD,Benz EJ (editors). Oxford Practice. New York: McGraw Hill; 2004. Textbook of Medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2005; 3. 4 Lees AJ. Odd and unusual movement disorders. J Neurol 2 Gasser T, Bressman S, Durr A, Higgins J, Klockgether T, Myers RH. Neurosurg Psychiatry 2002; 72(Suppl 1):I17–I21. State of the art review: molecular diagnosis of inherited 5 Quinn NP. Parkinson’s disease: clinical features. In: Quinn NP movement disorders. Movement Disorders Society task force on (editor). Parkinsonism. London: Balliere Tindall; 1997; 6:1:1–13. molecular diagnosis. Mov Disord 2003; 18(1):3–18.

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