Male Vision Dominates Female Presence in the Shakta  Jae-Eun Shin

Woman is the creator of the universe. The universe is her form. Woman is the foundation of the world; she is the true form of the body. Whatever form she takes is the superior form. In woman is the form of all things, of all that lives and moves in the world” (SHST 2. 13. 43-45). ** “For women there is no necessity to go on pilgrimage, to fast or to do other similar acts, nor is there any need to perform any devotion except that which consists in the service to their husband. Husband, for a woman, is the place of pilgrimage, the performance of penance, the giving of alms, the carrying out of vows, and her spiritual teacher.” (MT 8. 100-101) In Shakta tantric and some of Shaiva tantric traditions which awesome occupies the supreme selfhood, but a spark that inheres contribute to the Shakta tendency position. She is the nurturing mother naturally as a part of their being at women seem to have been positively of created beings as well as the birth” (M. Khanna 2000, 14). Shakta valorized and the female manifestation sovereign cosmic ruler who maintains recognize that women can be called has been viewed as a cosmic law and order through her spiritual preceptors, and initiate significant agent in the cosmogony invincible power and irresistible lineages and thus are a source of and the material cause of creation. energy (S. Gupta 2001, 462). She is spiritual power. However, there are substantial affirmed in many places to be the most Therefore, some scholars have differences in this matter among important of the (the been inspired by the divine, various tantric schools and texts. The circle of Ten Goddesses in tantric passionate and independent images universe is Shakti—the primal energy traditions), the primordial or primary of women and by the egalitarian of the cosmos, and all material objects , the adi Mahavidya. (NT as well as conscious souls are nothing aspects of tantric traditions. Outside 1.6 f. ; TT 1. 1-2, 3. 9-13). mainstream , Tantricism is but limited manifestations of her. As Exaltation of Women the world is both created from her and considered by some as a kind of Most of Shakta Tantras proclaim held in her, she is looked upon as the attempt to create a distinct “world- the exalted position of women as the cosmic mother who has created the of-their-own” setting, in which physical incarnation of Shakti and as world as if from her womb (often women can engage in religious the embodiment of the Great Mother. symbolized by a triangle) and who discipline freely and seriously on their “All women at birth are naturally the nurtures it herself (S. Gupta 1991, 206). own initiative, beside the patriarchal bearers of an intrinsic Shakti. This The goddess as an embodiment ethos of brahmanical religion (N. N. Shaktihood is not extrinsic to their of Shaktioccupies a distinctive Bhattacharyya 1992, 5; M. Khanna female experience as something to be position in the Shakta Tantra texts 2000, 110). Furthermore, it has been acquired from outside of their own from the early medieval period onward. suggested that the tantric goddesses The Tantras of Shrikula claim an presented ‘anti-models’ for women exclusive status for Tripurasundari The goddess as an who violate approved social values, and represent one of the most embodiment of Shakti customs, norms or paradigms and sophisticated models of Shakta mock the pativrata (D. Kinsley 1998, Tantra. , the male principle, is occupies a distinctive 6). In comparison with the earlier the static or inert principle, and Shakti position in the Shakta Orientalistic and androcentric is the dynamic aspect of creation Tantra texts... hypotheses, which have cast the (NSA 4. 5-6). In the Kalikula Tantras, stereotypical passive and oppressed

No.151 35 images of women as ‘ritual objects’ even within a single tradition may vary or ‘downtrodden prostitutes’ (K. Although women were and are not necessarily consistent. Smith 1987, 219-231; J. McDaniel entitled to initiation, Women may have a number of 1989, 171-175), indigenistic and permission for it was religious roles and their positions as feministic discourses trying to re- required from men. subjects of religious discourse may evaluate and re-interpret women’s be developed somewhat differently roles in Tantra (to demonstrate that in each of them. (A. Cameron 1994, they do not accord) are in contrast depending upon how the question is 152) In fact, in Shakta Tantra texts, with religious traditions that framed and who is doing the asking even within a single text, a number of unequivocally highlight male and answering (A. Hiltebeitel and K. passages presenting inconsistent dominance (M. Shaw 1998, 4-19, 2000, M. Erndl 2000, 11). An essentialist perspectives with exalted and 166-178 ; M. Khanna 2000, 109-122). and a historical understanding of liberated female images can be Theory has tended to depict women’s religious tradition as stemming from discerned. Take Kularnava Tantra, participation in Tantra either as the a timeless source needs to be which is one of the important result of their unequivocal reconsidered. As Brooks said, “there Tantras of Shakta Tantra, as a oppression or as a vehicle for their is no primordial Tantrism, only representative example. self-empowerment. However, historical appropriations of it” (1999, In the first place, the possibility Davidson proposed that “in the case xii). The perspective of historians of of autonomous determination of of early medieval India, it was neither religion should provide not only an women’s religious life - particularly of these two extremes, for they imply interpretation of this complexity but in regard to the tantric diksha - an essenstialization of, and binary also a careful consideration of the should be taken into consideration. structure between, agency and context in which it was formulated. The initiation rite, indeed, is the most Thus, the main question relates accommodation” (R. M. Daidson, essential preliminary or precondition to whether the texts are describing a 2004, 97). for worship and spiritual training in “real” situation or an “ideal” Real vs Ideal Woman Tantricism. Although women were situation: are the “texts which insist entitled to initiation, permission for it Most textual traditions, but that reverence be shown…literally was required from men. According to particularly the texts, have true”, or are they “representative of a the text, “The competence of the been perpetuated by men to reflect situation where attempts were being widow for initiation is subject to the their social and religious made to create and enforce a situation consent of the son, of daughter to preoccupations. The images and where women were to be ideally the father, of the wife to the husband, positions of women and gender treated as divine?” (K. Roy 1999, 226) a women has no right of her own for relations in them are “theoretically The focus on the female images getting initiated” (KT 14. 105). In the constructed” rather than simply within tantric traditions provides a same manner, Mahanirvana Tantra presented in the texts. Feminist fruitful and fertile area of ordains the duty of women as the writings on the gender issue within investigation for exploring the Vedic or Smritic creeds do. (8. 100- tantric traditions propose very relationships between gender, 101, 106) A woman was required to important interpretive strategies. religion and society. gain her religious status only through However, some of them tend either to Initiation and Guruship her relationship to a man, i.e. by being view the divine female images of the It has been suggested that the daughter of this father, the wife texts without considering socio- religious traditions themselves are of that husband, or the mother of historical contexts within which complex, and that the positions such and such a son. If such is the tantric texts were formulated or code that was (actually?) imposed ascribed to or occupied by women interpret them solely in the context of on women, or if male members in the what some feminists want to see Tantric circle directly or indirectly reflected in them. They look for what The initiation rite, indeed, (actually?) required their observance they consider compelling, liberating, is the most essential of it, it is very doubtful that a woman provocative and inspiring. preliminary or could attain an autonomous status In fact, the question of the and exercise initiative in the religious relationship between divine female precondition for worship domain. The tale of ’s incarnation images and women is multifaceted and and spiritual training in in the house of , which may complex, which frequently leads to Tantricism. be the outcome of the appearance of contradictory conclusions, a famous female , provides us

36 MANUSHI how others, probably the male society. Family background or side, perceived female belonging to the Kula circle was guruship— regarded as the necessary “The Isvara then tells his condition for a female guru. Also, consort – ‘I gave you that a widow was to be excluded from knowledge out of kindness but guruship (RT 2. 107f.) On the you communicated it to your other hand, it is well known that followers without my girls of low castes, and permission. You were therefore courtesans played a role in some cursed by me for having thus forms of Tantra. In these cases, abused the sacred knowledge. the more a woman can be But when you implored and characterized in her society as begged for pardon I ordered you depraved and debauched, the to go and incarnate yourself in more fit she is for the rite (M. the house of the Brahmin Eliade 1958, 261). This situation Meghadatta in the village of poses certain questions which Kanavira near Prayaga. There have no easy answers: Who was you worshipped me for thirteen able to be guru or be accepted as years and attained spiritual guru among women? Why was a perfection by propitiating me in good family background the form of a linga’ ” considered as one of the qualities (BrahmayAmala 1, cited in P. C. of a female guru in some Bagchi 1975, 102). situations, while in others a This story may allude to a woman of the lower castes and group of Brahmins who follow personality, and so on” (KT 7. 46-48); despised occupations was regarded the tantirc rituals and shows how whereas the male shisya chosen as an excellent partner? brahmanical perspective of women should be one “who is wise, deep- This brings us to an important was incorporated into the Tantric thoughted, heroic, enthusiastic, issue: one should not deal with women circle. According to the story, despite brave, intelligent, skilful in all actions, as a ‘homogeneous group,’ as their the fact that (Shakta) tantric tradition liberal, clever, and achieves the positions and roles may vary within accepted women as guru, all her impossible…”(KT 8. 23-30). There are, various tantric traditions, as some religious activity should have been of course, common qualities that tantric texts said that one should under the command of a male and might be asked for regarding both worship a woman of any of the four even her guruship was considered as men and women, but ‘bodily features’ classes (KT 4, 45), while others stated a kind of compensation for her and ‘conventional morality’ seem to that widows and prostitutes are misdeed – in this story represented have been more significantly required worthy of respect (KAN 21-96). in her not asking the male god for for women. Intelligence and strong Gender and Caste in Tantra permission to transmit her tantric will were scarcely considered as the The participation of widows, religious faith and practices. important characteristics of women - prostitutes and low caste women in Preconditions of Shakti at least in the text. Next, the qualities expected in a many tantric texts has been Further, the different considered evidence of the characteristics required of men and female guru and ritual partner (Shakti) in tantric texts denote the moral exploitation of women within the women respectively, offer their notion values and ethical codes conforming tantric circle. A more sophisticated of the gender identity and expected to the existing social hierarchy of that theory regarding low caste women in role within the Shakta tantric tradition. tantric sources is the notion that For example, the woman who is called association with these women a Shakti (female partner) “should be It is well known that girls provided men with an opportunity to beautiful, young, grave, pious, devoid of low castes, and overcome their social prejudice. Pride of suspicions, free of greed, of courtesans played a role in in social identity and virtue was pleasant smile on her face, soft- considered the most insidious and spoken, of good thoughts, free from some forms of Tantra. crippling of all the mental blocks on jealousy and envy, pleasing in the road to spiritual liberation.

No.151 37 Mingling with a social inferior—a the Tantric circle had partly woman of low caste—was meant to The Tantric circle had internalized the patriarchal and caste- attempt to force a male practitioner to partly internalized the hierarchical social values and abandon social pride and concerns patriarchal and caste- imposed them for the construction of about ritual pollution (M. Shaw 1998, hierarchical social values gender relations within the circle. 59-60). As Bolle has already Gender inequality or hierarchy is emphasized, association with these and imposed them for the never independent of class, estate women in tantric rites was considered construction of gender and ethnic hierarchy. In fact, they a part of “religious revaluation of relations within the circle. are inextricably linked; gender worldly data”, i. e., a vital part of the hierarchy is an expression of these practice of realizing the double-sided other hierarchies and they of it. That each group, it is still clear that those nature of existence by an intentional, is, they are various manifestations of groups were in the fringe of society regulated contact with socially a hierarchical ethic (Gerald D. and out of brahmanical social norm. disapproved persons and Barreman 1993, 370). According to the text, “in the absence substances as wine, meat, or bodily of any of the above ”, one can Historical Contexts excretion (1975, 69). If such religious worship a woman of any caste. It Let us consider gender and caste speculations served to help a tantric indirectly means women from hierarchical notions in tantric texts male practitioner proceed along the despised occupations or tribal groups within broader historical contexts. path of spiritual emancipation, could were preferred as the Shakti in the Tantricism, like all other religious a woman also proceed in the same tantric circle. On the other hand, a forms of expression, did not originate manner? As one can easily guess, high caste housewife was hampered or develop in a vacuum but must have tantric texts rarely if ever indicate that by many restrictions from been conditioned on all sides by the low caste men should be regarded as participating. According to the economic and social settings in which the best partner of a tantric female Kularnava Tantra, “Daughter, sister, it happened to prevail. Therefore, a practitioner. In fact, there are grand-daughter, daughter-in-law and number of contradictory restrictive regulations about the beloved wife” are categorised as perspectives on women and gender choice of partners; a Brahmin woman prohibited women, (11. 54) and one relations should be understood in should never be the partner of a man can go only amongst women who terms of historical processes of of lower social status, (YT 6. 37) and have been “purified by ritual” (8. 110). formation of Tantricism, representing if parakiya (another’s wife) is not a response to a specific socio- In some legends, high-caste available, one should ordain one’s historical situation, one that included women of a royal and priestly own wife (T. Goudriaan and S. Gupta maintaining the constrains of a background were said to have sectarian order. 1981, 79). Low status women from relinquished their caste status in Generally speaking, despised occupations or tribal groups order to take a low caste consort, were listed as “eight kula-shaktis’, notwithstanding multiple meanings although in those cases no one such as Chandali (untouchable), and a complex set of interpretive suggests that it was because the men Charmakari (leather worker), problems involved in historical usage, were socially disadvantaged, (mountain tribal), Pukkasi (hunter), the term ‘Tantra’ is most frequently promiscuous, gullible or stupid (M. used by to designate a body Shvapachi (who boils dog), Khattaki Shaw 1998, 61). This gender of literature, thought, and practice (meat seller?), Kaivarti (fisher) and distinction indicates that ‘religious Visvayosita (wife of all, i.e. distinguished in various ways from revaluation of worldly data’ was only prostitute?), and as “eight non kula- Vedic tradition. It seems to have been available for tantric ‘male adherents’; shaktis”, for example, Kanduki a parallel tradition preserved within (cook), Shaundiki (liquor seller), the cultural heritages of tribal or folk Shastrajivi (fighter), Ranjaki (dyer), The term ‘Tantra’ is most peoples in the peripheral cultural Gayaki (singer), Rajaki (sweeper), frequently used by Hindus areas and lower social strata (N. N. Shilpi (artisan) and Kauliki (weaver) to designate a body of Bhattacharyya 1992, 5-9). Hence, the (KT 7. 42-43). Most of those social formation of Tantricism, as a system group names and their probable literature, thought, and of doctrines and rituals, can be meanings are mentioned in the list of practice distinguished in explored from different angles in “Varna-sankara” of Manu (MS, various ways from Vedic various historical contexts, especially ch. 10). Though, there must be a tradition. after the post-Gupta period. These certain change of social status of include penetration of the Brahmins

38 MANUSHI into tribal belts through land grants, between them (K. Chakrabarti 2001, and even in other sectarian and sub- establishment of the all-embracing 188-194). For example, sectarian texts. The Vaishnavas were caste system and acculturation of a “Lalitasahasranama”, which is part of outspoken in their attack of the views number of tribes into the brahmanical the Brahmanda Purana, shows a of the Shaivas and Shaktas and vice social order, reciprocal interaction paradoxical conjunction of two versa. Thus school of and infiltration between local traditions. It tries to incorporate the Vaishnava denounced the Shiva religious traditions and other Tripurasundari, who is the most and Shakta rites in very specific terms religious systems, the influence of the important goddess in the Shrikula (C. Chakravarti 1972, 34). Mutual movement, and so on. Tantra, in the brahmanical pantheon. vilification was even common among Tantricism, as a distinct religious It recreates her to legitimize the tantric sub-sects. Among the system, was “the result of a fusion brahmanical social values; she is Shaktas, for example, we find the between brahmanical religion and called Varnashrama-vidhayini, the Kaulas finding fault with the Pashus tribal or folk religions.” (R. N. one who establishes the varna and (KT 2. 99) and others, leveling 1973, 171) Such myriad local ashrama (LSN no. 286), dharmadhara, criticism against the view and diversities and multiple levels of the supporter of dharma (LSN no. practices of the Kaulas. In such a power relations within which the 884) and vedajanani, the mother of complicated situation during the different strands of Tantricism the Veda (LSN no. 338). period when tantric texts were emerged may have been much more Denunciation of Tantras formulized, strategic responses were various and complicated than we are probably required of the Tantric circle Notwithstanding open yet aware of from our available in general, or each tantric text writer recognitions accorded to Tantra and historical sources. and compiler in particular. This process, though it has the many adjustments with it, , for example, Purana Tantra vs proceeded with innumerable Tantric writers sought a Vedic variations according to the localities and Devibhagavata Purana (VII. sanction for the sacredness of their and sects, must usually have been 39.26-30) are often not comfortable literature, as did their modern directed by intellectuals, as can be with them and at times show evident disciples such as Sir . concluded from the prominence of reluctance, even denunciation of They claimed that from the ocean of Sanskrit among the tantric literary practitioners. They do not only try to Vedas and Agamas, with the churning texts (S. Gupta, D. J. Hoens & T. undermine their value as being un- rod of Jnana, Shiva extracted the Goudriaan 1979, 29). One of the Vedic but also assert that they lead essence of Kula-dharma (KT 2. 10). discernable characteristic tendencies astray unwary people. , for in tantric texts, particularly Sanskrit example, says in Varaha Purana that The fact that the Vedic way is texts, is that they absorb or reshape the Tantras were compiled by the regarded as the one of the four popular religious elements with sage for “deluding the acharas belonging to the general communal aims in the social as well people fallen from the Vedic path” (VP category of Dakshinachara, i.e. as religious fields. 70. 41; 71. 9, 53-55). Vedachara, Vaishanavachara, The textualization of Tantras This tendency, however, is not Shaivachara, and Dakshinachara involved the interplay of many levels confined to the Puranas. reveals brahmanical superimposition of power relations in society; however Denunciation of the Tantras can be on the tantric texts. (N. N. the discussion of this process is traced in early Dharma works Bhattacharyya, 1992, 316-342). These outside the scope of this paper. texts can be clearly contrasted with explicitly anti-Vedic, anti-brahmanical Nevertheless, instances of The fact that the Vedic brahmanical recognition of tantric strands of tantric tradition. Therefore, tradition and vice-versa give us a way is regarded as the one it may be erroneous to think we can glimpse of the context in which of the four acharas extricate “pure” Tantricism from its religious and ideological hegemonic belonging to the general “tainted” brahmanical interpretations conflicts, tensions, and mutual category of (D. R. Brooks 1999, xii). On the contrary, the tantric texts, interrelations were very intricately Dakshinachara... reveals intermingled. Some Puranas, for especially Shakta Tantras, accentuate instance, tried to establish the notion brahmanical the superiority of Tantra over Veda. that though different, the two superimposition on the There are explicit claims that even the traditions are not irreconcilable, that tantric texts. scholars of all the four Vedas who are there are points of convergence ignorant of Kula are inferior to a

No.151 39 Chandala. On the other hand, if a when the ritual of initiation is fulfilled.” theoretical superiority and gain popular Chandala knows the Kula he is superior (14. 91) All the castes participating in support. On the other hand, by to a Brahmin (KT 2. 37). Furthermore, a Bhairavichakra are considered accepting the superimpositions of Kularnava Tantra represents “the twice born (KT 8. 96- 97 & 100). brahmanical social order—basically order of superiority” within a very However, the dissolution of caste patriarchal and caste oriented—on the strategic manner; “Veda is superior to identities does not continue outside gender relation, they might still exempt all; Vaishnava is superior to Veda; the ritual context. For example, “…at themselves from social condemnation, Shaiva is superior to Vaishnava; the end of the Chakra, of course, all religious denunciation and ideological Dakshina is superior to Shaiva; Vama the castes become separate again, i.e., conflict. In the exoteric and public is superior to Dakshina; Siddhanta is the social order of castes become sphere, they helped to confirm the superior to Vama; Kaula is superior to effective again” (KT 8. 96). Smarta ideal by requiring a subservient Siddhanta; and there is nothing The loss of caste identity when the position for women; in the esoteric and superior to Kaula” (2. 7) In their initiation has been completed is not private domain, they offered a secure hierarchical ordering, they show always the case for all circles. In fact, religious niche for both male and female seemingly inconsistencies, but in fact there are on the contrary many traces practitioners by associating women convey the position that the Kaula of caste distinctions in tantric texts. A with divine image. Women are power ideally wants to uphold, viz. familiar instance is the classification of bearers, but have little or no authority. establishing trantic, especially Kaula, people to be qualified for initiation with Therefore, women from tribal circles supremacy while creating minimal regard to their social estate; a Brahmin or low social strata were preferred as disruption to the authority of the Veda is qualified after a pupilage of one year, the favourable Shakti in esoteric rituals. and existing religious orders. a Kshatriya after two years, etc. (KT 14. By choosing a Shakti from among such Esoteric and Exoteric 104). Shudras and mixed castes, though backgrounds, male tantric practitioners A tantric dictum regarding the they are entitled to tantric diksha, have could fulfill their religious aims while secrecy of the left-hand path gives us to undergo a primal purification (KT 14. retaining conventional gender relations an idea about how they identified 103). The existing social hierarchy was and causing only minimal disruptions themselves in private and public or partly denied in the religious domain to the social order. Hence, despite the inwardly and outwardly; “Keep your but clearly admitted in the social fact that they were asked to treat all the Kaula identity secret, outwardly sphere. women in a respectful way and not to behave like a Shaiva, but when in Tactical Compromises condemn one’s Shakti if she had “ugly” society behave like a Vaishnava” (KT With regard to gender issues, thus, face and/or “black” skin, the relative 11, 83). Thus, by retaining a “double the inconsistent perspectives and dignity of a high-born wife (kulavadhu) was still considered as higher than the norm” - one esoteric and private, the norms regarding women and the dignity of a public-woman (ganika) (KT other exoteric and public – (D. R. Brooks ambivalent images of them that appear 1999, 26), Tantrics seem to seek to 11. 85). in Shakta Tantra texts can be considered exempt themselves from criticism and Some authors suggest that as a tactical attempt to codify creeds denunciation and assert their own Tantricism in general, in contra- and norms of behaviour as much as ritual and theoretical superiority within distinction to Vedic religion, possible to the existing social order, the ‘Hindu’ tradition. “incorporated elements of protest, while retaining the re-evaluation The inconsistent or ambivalent combining a claim to universality with ordinances mentioned in tantric texts necessary for worship of Shakti and the social inclusiveness” (M. Shaw 1998, show how they have applied the double goddess. At a theoretical level, the 21). The inclusion of low class or even norm to the religious and social sphere. great and divine goddess was outcaste categories such as the Many of tantric practices were supremely important and women were Dombas has been viewed as an attempt deliberately intended to breach the valorized as the embodiment of her. to reverse social hierarchies within the caste hierarchy and rule. It is even However, in practical terms, women’s tradition. Inclusiveness, however, asserted in the texts that during the rite actual social position was still rather within the Tantric circle asserts ‘neither there is no difference whatever among uncertain or subservient, even equality nor a lack of hierarchical those who belong to different castes, marginalized. As K. Roy has claimed, differentiation’. The religious because all men are Shiva and all “men were expected to worship women egalitarianism of Tantricism in practice women are Shakti. Kularnava Tantra symbolically and literally.” (K. Roy 1999, paradoxically acted as “a caste- says, “Shudrahood of a Shudra and 229). confirming” (S. Gupta, D. J. Hoens & T. Brahmanhood of a Brahmin all go away. By worshipping the ideal Shakti Goudriaan 1979, 32) and ‘patriarchy- There remains no distinction of caste and goddess, they tried to occupy confirming’ strategy.

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