Defining Genocide in Northwestern : The Devastation of Humboldt and Del Norte County’s Indigenous Peoples

Gavin Rowley

Abstract

In recent years, historians and the American public have increasingly debated wheth- er or not the crimes that have been committed against Native Americans in the constitute genocide. Although the Humboldt and Del Norte region was con- quered by Euro-Americans later than the rest of the US, genocidal crimes were prev- alent within the counties of Humboldt and Del Norte in Northwestern California. The genocide committed against the Indigenous Peoples there were carried out by vigilante groups with the support of the California state government as well as the US federal government. I argue not only that genocide, as defined by the UN, was committed against Native Americans in these counties, but also that genocide has had a lasting effect on the Native Americans in the area through continued oppression. These groups include the Tolowa, , , , and .

Introduction

In recent years, historians and the American public have increasingly debated whether or not the crimes that have been committed against Native Americans in the United States constitute genocide. According to the United Nations (1948), genocide is defined as:

any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life, calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; [and] forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

All of these crimes (and more) were committed to some degree against Native Amer- icans across the United States between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. Although the Humboldt and Del Norte region was conquered by Euro-Americans later than the rest of the US, genocidal crimes were prevalent within the counties of 87 Defining Genocide in Northwestern California

Humboldt and Del Norte in Northwest- tion of land. However, historians still ar- ern California. The genocide commit- gue that Native American genocide did ted against the Indigenous Peoples of not occur anywhere in the US. Northwestern California was carried out Those who argue that genocide was by vigilante groups with the support of not committed against Native Ameri- the California state government as well cans rely heavily on the fact that disease as the US federal government. Not only killed more Native Americans than any was genocide, as defined by the UN, traditional form of genocide (Madley committed against Native Americans 2016). This argument led some historians in these counties, but that genocide also to conclude that the collapse of Ameri- has had a lasting effect on Native Amer- ca’s Indigenous population cannot be icans in the area through continued cul- defined as a genocide. Some historians tural genocide. These groups include the believe that disease could not be effec- Tolowa, Wiyot, Yurok, Karuk, and Hupa. tively controlled as a weapon prior to The term “Indian” is used in this work to World War I, which led to the belief that refer all Indigenous people in the Hum- it could not have possibly been used to boldt Bay area in late 1800’s. The deci- commit genocide against Native Amer- sion to use this term is based on its legal icans. Despite the fact that this is still definition in United States as defined in being debated among historians, there 25 U.S. Code § 2201. I have included all is a plethora of evidence to suggest that of the names of the tribes that I know the acts committed in the far reaches of were involved in certain atrocities, but the Northwestern California were in fact with other accounts the most specific acts of genocide (Madley 2016). term used is Native American or Indige- There are several reasons why some nous Peoples. Genocide was perpetrated of their deaths may have not been avoid- against Native Americans of the region able, including Native Americans’ lack through vigilante as well as institutional- of immunity and the highly contagious ized violence. The Euro-American hatred characteristics of the diseases. Never- for Native Americans was evident in the theless, there are numerous accounts region, leading to the genocide of the In- of Indigenous people being inoculated digenous tribes. The California State and with deadly diseases with the intent to Federal government contributed direct- kill them. Although it is true that dis- ly to the genocide of Native Americans eases (especially smallpox) were by far through legislation that enabled crimes the primary killer of Native Americans to be committed against Native Ameri- during the nineteenth century, it does cans with no legal repercussions. While not negate the fact that disease was often all of the acts of genocide in the UN defi- spread with the purpose of killing Indig- nition were committed against Natives enous peoples (Jones 2017). While dis- during the mid to late nineteenth centu- ease (both incidentally and intentionally ry, there were also other events that con- inflicted) was the main reason for Native tinued into the twentieth century that American deaths, they were still subject- could be considered cultural genocide ed to many other genocidal acts, namely such as boarding schools and desecra- massacres, enslavement, and relocation. 88 Rowley

Unfortunately, most of the accounts of non-humans, which is illustrated by the the massacres are from the Euro-Amer- use of the term “exterminate,” since the ican perspective, which makes them word is most often used to discuss ver- biased. In addition, they often failed min. Natives were seen as subhuman by to identify which tribes they attacked. Euro-Americans, which was one of their While this is unfortunate, knowing the justifications, or rather excuses, to steal tribe that was attacked is not necessary land and enslave women and children for deciding whether genocide was com- with impunity. This mentality also made mitted against Natives Americans in the Native American deaths seem inconse- region. quential to the Euro-Americans (Rapha- Disease alone cannot explain the el and House 2011). genocide of Native Americans in the In addition to racial-eliminationist region. There was also an anti–Native ideology, legal utilitarian justification American ideology that fueled the gov- was a claim that Indigenous people did ernment-sanctioned massacres of Indig- not use their land properly and that Eu- enous people and culture. There are two ropean encroachment was justified be- theories, supported by Benjamin Mad- cause of Native Americans’ “failure” to ley and Adam Jones respectively, that exploit their ancestral lands. This theory explain how Euro-Americans excused relates to the legal term vacuum domi- the genocide of Native Americans: ra- cilium, which means “empty dwelling” cial-eliminationist ideology and legal (Jones 2017). This term suggested that, utilitarian justification. Racial-elimina- because Native Americans had not used tionist ideology was a belief that Eu- the land in the way that Euro-Americans ro-Americans would naturally develop saw fit, they had no right to own or con- and take over the lands of the Indige- tinue occupying their ancestral lands. nous Peoples because they were not as In the capitalist minds of Euro-Amer- technologically advanced or “civilized.” icans during the nineteenth century, Euro-Americans believed that Native they could not understand why a per- Americans could only benefit from be- son would not want to use their land to ing conquered and taught the “proper” make money. As a result, if a person was way to live. This led people of the time not using their land for crops, cattle, or to believe that Euro-Americans were mining, it was seen as a waste of valu- justified in taking whatever they wanted able resources. Both of these theories from Native Americans, even if it meant gave Euro-Americans the excuse they killing them in the process. In 1851, Cal- needed in order to begin the genocide of ifornia Governor Peter Burnett stated Native Americans. that “[A] war of extermination will con- These theories of justification for tinue to be waged . . . until the Indian Native American genocide were demon- race becomes extinct . . . The inevitable strated in the way that Euro-Americans destiny of the race is beyond the pow- treated the Indigenous Peoples. Relations er or wisdom of man to avert” (Madley between the Euro-Americans and the In- 2012:174). Euro-Americans believed that digenous population of Northwestern the extinction of Native Americans was California became increasingly hostile inevitable, and they thought of them as as they began to interact. Native Amer- 89 Defining Genocide in Northwestern California

icans did not trust the American settlers Indians, the settlers must exterminate because of the Natives’ displacement them” (Humboldt Times March 3, 1860). that was caused by unfulfilled promises This explicitly says what Euro-Ameri- by Euro-American leaders like Colonel cans’ intentions were at the time: geno- Redick McKee who was sent from the cide. This perpetual cycle of pedagogic East to negotiate with the Native tribes killing was one that the Indigenous Peo- on behalf of the California and US gov- ples of Humboldt and Del Norte Coun- ernments (Hoopes 1971). Starvation as a ties had no hope of winning, as the Eu- result of their displacement forced Na- ro-American had superior weapons and tives to steal from Euro-Americans in supply systems. Hatred towards the lo- order to survive. In addition, according cal tribes and the fact that Native Ameri- to Native Americans, the new strangers cans had to steal food and supplies from who arrived in their land were outside Euro-Americans to survive combined to the law and had no rights as far as the create what Benjamin Madley termed Indigenous Peoples were concerned (Ra- “pedagogic killing” which was then phael and House 2011). In Native Amer- used as an instrument of Native Amer- ican culture, property rights were high- ican genocide (Madley 2017). ly respected, but only when it was the Pedagogic killing was what Eu- property of another Native American. ro-Americans did in order to “teach” This meant that some Native Americans Natives that they should not damage felt it was permissible to steal from peo- or take anything that a Euro-American ple who were not indigenous to the area, settler owned, even if it was on Native especially those that were causing their American land or done in retaliation to genocide (Raphael and House 2011). Euro-American crime. An early example Euro-Americans viewed Native of this can be seen in 1852. In a letter ad- Americans as pests encroaching on their dressed to their “Fellow Citizens and the newfound land rather than people who People of Union Town and Humboldt had been there for centuries before them. Bay,” citizens of Humboldt County, B.F. This, and their superior weapons, made Jameson, T.D. Felt, and Kennerly Dobyns it easy for Euro-Americans to steal land wrote, “The Indians have murdered two from the Indigenous Peoples. The lack of our citizens, under circumstances tru- of supplies gave the Indigenous tribes ly horrible, and at a meeting of the cit- motivation to steal from Euro-Ameri- izens of the valley it was unanimously cans. Theft gave Euro-Americans a mo- agreed to commence war upon them im- tive to kill Native Americans, which mediately.” They promptly went on to caused Native Americans to kill more kill more than twenty Native Americans, Euro-Americans in acts of vengeance none of whom were suspects in the mur- (Madley 2017). Euro-American negative der of the two Euro-American citizens attitudes towards Native Americans can of Humboldt County (Hoopes 1971:55). be easily seen in an issue of the Hum- Euro-Americans used any excuse to at- boldt Times from March 1860. The au- tempt to exterminate Native Americans thor complained of Native Americans from land that they were eager to exploit. stealing food to survive and stated: “Un- The theories of justification for the geno- less the government will provide for the cide of Native Americans (racial-elim- 90 Rowley

inationist ideology, legal utilitarian led Euro-Americans to commit heinous justification, and pedagogic killing) cou- crimes (Coy 1929). pled with the belief that uncontrollable Hostilities began soon after the Eu- disease caused the massive amounts of ro-American settlers arrived. In mid- death, has led some historians to argue May 1850, the schooner Eclipse got that the extermination of Native Amer- stuck on the sandbar in Humboldt Bay. icans in the United States was an inevi- A few Euro-Americans stripped the ship table fact of Manifest Destiny. In reality, of anything valuable, and two Native massacres, enslavement, and relocation Americans followed, taking some left- all contributed to the genocide of Native over sails and ropes. This triggered the Americans in the region combined with Eclipse Captain Harry La Motte to go disease. The hatred that the Euro-Ameri- and search for the stolen property with a cans felt towards Natives combined with group of men. The group of men burned the theories of racial-eliminationist ide- an entire Wiyot village and murdered ology, legal utilitarian justification, and two Wiyot boys because of the “theft” the theory of pedagogic killing explain of items that they had originally con- how Euro-Americans excused the geno- sidered useless. In retaliation, a group cide of Natives. This further contributed of Natives killed two Euro-Americans to the common American belief in Man- at Eel River (Rhode 2008). This began ifest Destiny, or the inevitable conquer- the cycle of pedagogic violence against ing of Americas’ Native American pop- Native Americans that became charac- ulations. teristic of California, especially Hum- boldt and Del Norte County, during the Attempts at Relocation and nineteenth century; however, before the Euro-American Hatred killing fully commenced, attempts were made to resettle the Indigenous Peoples The prejudice of Euro-Americans of Northwestern California away from towards Native Americans led them to the newly arrived Euro-Americans with attempt to solve the perceived “Indian Redick McKee’s expedition of 1851. Problem” in the region, first through McKee was a Colonel in the US relocation by the federal government, military and one of the United States later through military intervention that Indian agents in California. As an Indi- was intended to keep the two groups an agent, he was charged “to maintain at peace. Both of these attempts were peace, to distribute presents, and to re- thwarted by the local population’s dis- claim ex-neophytes.” In this instance, dain for Native American tribes of the ex-neophyte refers to Native Americans area. When Euro-American settlers who had been “converted” to the Eu- first arrived in Humboldt County, there ro-American way of living and had since was little opposition from the Native returned to the Native community. Upon Americans. The Native Americans were seeing the conditions for Native Ameri- open to trade since the new settlers had cans in the lower Eel River Valley, he at- goods that they had never seen before. tempted to create a reservation for them Despite the relatively warm welcome and set aside land on the south side of from the Native Americans, prejudice the Eel River. He then made a treaty with 91 Defining Genocide in Northwestern California

the Native Americans, granting them a between the two groups. Fort Humboldt portion of the Eel River Valley for them- was established on 30 January 1853 by selves (Coy 1929). McKee saw this as a the United States Army (Raphael and great victory, but when the US Senate House 2011). The fort was intended to met to ratify the treaties, they were re- protect Euro-Americans as well as Na- jected, and despite McKee’s promise, no tive Americans from each other, but reservations were made. had little success in keeping the two at Instead, when McKee proposed the peace. The hatred that the newly arrived reservations to Congress, they respond- settlers in Humboldt County had for the ed with the Act of 30 August 1852, which Native people was the main reason for formally rejected the eighteen treaties the establishment of Fort Humboldt. and appropriated $100,000 for “the pres- After the fort was established, the ervation of peace with those Indians hatred for Native Americans was ev- who have been dispossessed of their ident. After receiving reports of 130 lands in California, until permanent [ar- whites being killed and $240,000 worth eas] be made for their future settlement” of property destroyed, Governor John (Hoopes 1971:51). The fact that the res- Bigler decided to send troops to set up ervations had not been granted to the the military fort in Bucksport. Colo- Natives was never explained to them, nel McKee sent a contradicting report which caused the Natives to believe that to Governor Bigler, stating that the Eu- they would have protection and their ro-American settlers were actually the own land. In reality, Native Americans of problem in Humboldt, not the Native the region were in a situation that wors- Americans, and urged prosecution of the ened over time due to aggressive Eu- offenders (Coy 1929). The fact that Gov- ro-American settlers. These settlers did ernor Bigler did not listen to McKee and not set aside land for reservations since pursue prosecution of these criminal Eu- they wanted all of the land to themselves ro-Americans reflects how Native Amer- and saw Native Americans as pests that icans were viewed by the majority of lo- “wasted” valuable land and resources. cals in Humboldt and Del Norte region. By not setting aside land, Euro-Ameri- Euro-Americans were not punished for cans ensured the pedagogic cycle would crimes committed against Native Amer- be continued because there was no land icans, while Natives were massacred for that Native Americans were safe to live simply being in Euro-American commu- on without the fear of Euro-American nities’ general area. encroachment. In a report to Governor Bigler, Gen- There were other efforts to solve eral Ethan A. Hitchcock wrote, “such a the perceived “Indian Problem” of the post would be most favorable for hold- Humboldt Bay region after McKee’s at- ing in check not only Natives, but the tempts to relocate the region’s Native whites who are so ready to create dis- Americans. Instead of moving Natives turbances on the slightest provocation” to their own settlement where they (Hoopes 1971:54). Another example of would be separated from Euro-Ameri- how settlers in the region perceived the cans, the US government decided to ap- local Indigenous Peoples can be seen in point troops to the region to keep peace the San Franciscan Bulletin on 18 June 92 Rowley

1860. It stated that “Even the record of murder has been committed it was for Spanish butcheries in Mexico and Peru the civil authorities to confine and pun- has [seen] nothing so diabolical. Hum- ish the authors” (Hoopes 1971:110). The boldt County has been the scene of a leaders of Humboldt and Del Norte great portion of these outrages” (Hyer Counties wanted Native Americans ex- and Trafzer 1999:129). Settlers of the re- terminated, while the military had been gion hated the Native Americans, and it ordered to protect both groups. This was well known even outside of Hum- meant that allowing civilian authorities boldt and Del Norte County. Around to decide Native American punishment the same time, another article located in was typically resolved harshly due to the Humboldt Times, discussed events Euro-American prejudice towards Na- in Palestine and compared them to Na- tives. While the outcome of Wigmore’s tive Americans. In this article it stated murder case was the release of the two that “The country is in possession of the Native Americans responsible, it was Arabs, who, in the point of civilization, not like this with most cases in the re- are but a small remove above the wild gion due to the Euro-American attitudes Indians of this continent” (Humboldt towards Native populations. Times September 16, 1854). Even though the Indigenous peoples had been there a Legislation Legalizing Genocide great deal longer than the American set- tlers, they were seen as foreign and used As a result of these ideologies, laws as a means for comparison to people that were passed that encouraged the forma- Euro-Americans saw as backward and tion of militias and thus the killing of Na- uncivilized. tive Americans on such a scale that could Humboldt County’s residents’ at- be considered genocide. Euro-Ameri- titudes are further demonstrated in the cans in the US passed laws forming vig- Humboldt Times when the murder of ilante groups in an attempt to end this Euro-American Arthur Wigmore was pedagogic cycle by systematically mur- discussed. After a Native named Billy dering Native Americans of the region. allegedly killed Wigmore and threw his Beginning in 1850, many state and fed- body into the slough on the Eel River, lo- eral laws were passed that gave impu- cals demanded that the soldiers at Fort nity to persecutors of genocide. These Humboldt act. This led to Captain Hen- laws allowed impunity from legal con- ry M. Judah’s guiding a group of ten pri- sequences, prohibited Euro-Americans vates to search for Wigmore’s murderer. from helping Native Americans, and al- When they found the two Natives they lowed for financial gain by joining mili- believed to be responsible, they were tias that would help to commit genocide given orders that reflected how they against Native Americans of the region. were supposed to deal with issues that One such law was the “Act Con- pertained to Native Americans. The or- cerning the Organization of the Militia,” ders stated that “US troops must prevent which called for a permanent militia of acts of hostility if possible and when nec- all free, white, and able-bodied citizens. essary chastise the Indian tribes guilty This gave rise to vigilante groups that of committing them. However, when would devastate Native American pop- 93 Defining Genocide in Northwestern California

ulations in Humboldt and Del Norte them with a greater quantity of superi- County (Childs and Swaine 1792). It or weapons and training them on tactics began the period of state-sponsored mi- while also punishing men who did not litias, making the massacre of Native join militias with a tax. Americans in California funded by the At the same time, legislation was state government. While there was no passed that made Natives unable to direct money provided to militias in this defend themselves, which allowed Eu- piece of legislation, they did provide ro-Americans to more easily commit weapons, supplies, and training as well genocide. One such law, “An Act for as benefits to any militiaman injured in the Government and Protection of Indi- the fighting of Native Americans. One ans,” was passed on 22 April 1850. This reason that this was a popular position allowed any Euro-American to apply to to apply for was that militiamen were a Justice of the Peace for the removal of paid relatively well. Privates were paid Native Americans from their land. Any five dollars a day and, for comparison, Euro-American could also apply for a miners in the Central and Southern Native American child to be an inden- Mines of 1851 were paid between three tured servant until they came of age. to eight dollars, typically. $5 in 1850 is “Coming of age” was 18 for males and 15 equal to $157 in 2018, when adjusted for for females. This legislation falls under inflation (Madley 2017). the United Nations definition of geno- Laws that were passed made the mi- cide because it is an example of forcibly litia men’s work more lucrative, which removing a child from one group to force caused more people to join the militia assimilation into Euro-American society. and fuel the genocide. On 3 March 1855, Relocation also contributed to the loss of Congress approved the 1855 State Mi- culture because it interrupted families litia Act, which provided militiamen and stopped the traditional ways that who had served for at least fourteen Native Americans taught their children days with 160 acres of land (Madley (Cultural Genocide). 2017). Congress also passed a law that There were also laws that exploit- increased the salary of the militia’s ad- ed Native Americans of the area which jutant and quartermaster, allowed for made it easy for Euro-Americans to militias to be armed more extensively, commit genocide. Any Native Ameri- exempted militiamen from jury duty, can found loitering, going to places that mandated regular drill exercises, and re- sold alcohol, begging, or doing anything quired all Euro-American men not in the that “lead to an immoral or profligate militia to pay an annual twenty-five cent course of life” could be brought before tax to fund the militia (Madley 2017). A a justice of the peace and ruled a va- year later, the 1856 Militia Act doubled grant, who could then be hired out to the militia tax to fifty cents annually for the highest bidder (Madley 2017:159). non-serving males and provided a mi- It also allowed a justice of the peace ex- litia manual on training and tactics to clusive jurisdiction over any matters all militia officers (Madley 2017). These dealing with Native Americans. Anoth- laws made militias into more profes- er law was later passed that prohibited sional and lethal units by furnishing Natives, blacks, and mulattos from tes- 94 Rowley

tifying in court against a white person, ceased in the region, yet it suggests that ensuring that Euro-Americans would Euro-Americans believed that Native never be found guilty of any wrong do- Americans could not become citizens ings (Act of 1850). This guaranteed that because they were too “ignorant and de- Euro-Americans would be able to legal- graded” to be worthy of citizenship as a ly massacre Native Americans because result of their perceived inhumanity in the majority of people in the area had a the eyes of the settlers. This is important racial ideology and would not testify in because it was an attempt to justify the favor of a Native American. fact that Native Americans did not have Other Californian legislation that basic rights under the US Constitution. was passed further deprived Natives of According to the Euro-Americans of the the means to protect themselves and al- time, Native Americans had not earned lowed genocide to take place. One such their citizenship and were denied cit- law was called the “Act to Prevent the izenship as a result. Though these are Sale of Firearms and Ammunition to In- all typical examples of genocide, there dians” and was passed on 24 March 1854. are other aspects of the UN’s definition It made the sale of firearms and ammu- of genocide that also apply to this situ- nition to Native Americans illegal and ation. While they are not the most com- punishable by a fine of $25 to $500 and/ mon examples that come to mind when or a jail sentence from one to six months. first thinking of the term genocide, oth- (Madley 2017). This law ensured that er crimes such as relocation, forced as- Native Americans would have much in- similation, and desecration of land were ferior weapons compared to Euro-Amer- committed against Native Americans icans, ensuring white dominance of the that were just as devastating to them as area. The act also punished anyone sell- the laws that legalized their deaths. ing Native Americans weapons, guar- anteeing that anyone sympathetic to The Devastation of Native the plight of Native Americans could American Tribes in Humboldt be punished for attempting to make the and Del Norte County: fight fair. Massacres and Reservations The cumulative effect of these laws and legislation was that they made it One of these other cases was the legal for Euro-Americans to enslave, “Red Cap War.” This so-called war was kill, and commit crimes against Native fought between Euro-American settlers Americans. The Indian Commissioner of Klamath and Humboldt and the Na- Edward P. Smith rationalizes not mak- tive tribes of Karuk, Hupa, and Yurok. ing Native Americans citizens of the US This was provoked by a Euro-Ameri- in 1874. He stated: “No amount of ap- can man who attempted to rape a Karuk propriations and no governmental ma- woman and wounded a Karuk man se- chinery can do much toward lifting an verely on 10 December 1854. In retalia- ignorant and degraded people, except tion, the Karuk killed what they thought as it works through the willing hands was the rapist’s bull, but he had actual- of men” (Prucha 2000:144). This was ly sold the bull to another person. The written after the massacres had mostly Karuk offered compensation for their 95 Defining Genocide in Northwestern California

mistake, but the man refused, and Eu- massacre the Tolowa, it was paid for by ro-Americans used this act of retaliation state with the “Act for the Suppression as their excuse for an attack on the lo- of Indians,” which appropriated $5,000 cal Indigenous population. By the end for campaigns to kill Native Americans of this “war,” eight Euro-American men (Madley 2012). At a similar time, the had been killed, while 70 to 80 Native Tolowa tribe was gathering at a place Americans had been massacred, which called Etchulet to perform a sacred cer- caused the Native Americans to retreat emony. The Coast and Klamath Mount- into the mountains while vigilantes ed Rangers surrounded the ceremony were “hunting them down like deer” and preceded to massacre 30 to 65 of (Madley 2017:235-6). The massacre was the Tolowa tribe. The Tolowa only had eventually stopped by Captain Judah, three guns with them, and anyone who which proved the army had the power ran from the rangers was hunted down to stop genocide, but they often chose (Madley 2012). This is yet another geno- not to. These types of events occurred cidal act under the UN definition, and frequently and normalized such geno- it was paid for by the state of Califor- cidal actions within the region as well. nia, which was supposed to be protect- Another such massacre was the ing both groups—at least, according to Yontocket Massacre, also known as the the military’s orders. Residents of Smith Burnt Ranch Massacre, which occurred River Valley supported the Etchulet in the Spring of 1853. It resulted in massacre. The Herald attempted to jus- the deaths of over 450 members of the tify the act, stating: Tolowa tribe. The culprits threw babies into fires, along with ceremonial regalia [T]he descent upon the Lagoon and other items. This is an act of geno- Ranch [Etchulet] happened to prove cide and cultural genocide because the fatal to the very worst class of In- Euro-Americans not only killed a signif- dians. It would be unjust to blame icant majority of the Tolowa people, they the companies for acts of cruelty, re- also destroyed any sign of their culture ported to have been perpetrated by by burning ceremonial items (Madley individuals, without giving them 2012). While this was a horrible event credit for their readiness in lending that destroyed much of the Tolowa peo- assistance to the settlers when the ple and their culture, it was just one in a safety of the latter was considered long line of genocidal massacres. to be in imminent danger (Madley With the introduction of state spon- 2012:183). sorship on expeditions to massacre Na- tive Americans in 1854 made possible Since Etchulet was near , by the “Act for the Suppression of In- Euro-Americans thought that because dians,” the Klamath Mounted and the there was a Native American tribe with- Coast Rangers in Del Norte County in the Smith River Valley’s communi- were created and added as California ty’s general vicinity, the massacring of State Militia Cavalry units (California 30 to 65 people was justified. Obvious- Militia and National Guard Unit Histo- ly not all Euro-Americans in the area ries 2016). Not only did Euro-Americans condoned the violence against Native 96 Rowley

Americans, but enough supported it Two other massacres were committed that none of the perpetrators were pun- on the Eel River and at South Beach on ished. the same day. All three vigilante attacks Another one of the worst massa- killed approximately 150 Native Amer- cres in Humboldt County history took icans (Humboldt Times March 3, 1860). place on 26 February 1860. Located on Vigilantes were responsible for Indian Island, where the Wiyot gathered these massacres, but the introduction for their sacred ceremonies, the tribe of Federal troops would increase the was sleeping. Early the next morning, a amount of destruction done to Native group of men rowed out to Indian Island Americans of the region. While vigilante on Humboldt Bay, where they proceeded groups were responsible for most of the to slaughter any person they could find massacres prior to the Civil War, once using knives, hatchets, and axes. The the war began on 12 April 1861, regular only documented first-hand account of soldiers in California were withdrawn to the massacre was written by Mrs. Jane help fight the Confederates to the East. Sam, a local Native woman who sur- This influenced Secretary of War Simon vived the massacre. She recounted the Cameron to telegraph California Gover- events of that day: nor Downey and request that he enroll infantry and cavalry units to form the Men went in all the houses and California Volunteers. These men agreed blocked the doors so Indian could to join the US Army for three years, and not get out… They took everything by the end of the war, 15,725 men had in the houses that belonged to the enlisted (Madley 2017:299). This group, Indians Bead, and other things. All combined with vigilantes, devastated women and children killed because Native American population of Hum- they could not get away. A few men boldt County more effectively than got out safe (Rhode 2014:1). ever before as a result of being federally supplied, trained, and funded. Colonel Not only did the perpetrators of the mas- Francis J. Lippitt was put in command of sacre kill defenseless and unsuspecting these troops. Colonel Lippit ordered the people, they also stole from them. Oth- preservation of Native American lives er reports stated that the victims were upon threat of death and disapproved mostly women and children, and the of vigilante groups. He also commanded Humboldt Times justified the act as nec- that they were “not to make war upon essary for the protection of citizens and the Indians but bring them in and place even stated, them permanently on some reserva- tion where they can be protected with- If in defense of your property and out bloodshed whenever it is possible” your all, it becomes necessary to (Madley 2017:301). break up these hiding places of your While not as extreme as earlier mas- mountain enemies, so be it; but for sacres, reservations could still be consid- heaven sake, in doing this, do not ered genocidal due to the horrible con- forget to which race you belong ditions that Native Americans were sent (Humboldt Times March 3,1860). to live in. For example, when discussing 97 Defining Genocide in Northwestern California

the in Northern were forced to do work without pay. California, the Humboldt Times said “no While Lippitt was one of the few people attempt has ever been made by officers in California who did not advocate for in charge . . . to look after, or care for any the blatant murder of Native Americans, [Indians]” (July 17, 1858:2 and October 2, it only lasted a short time. On 7 April 1858:2.) Native Americans at Smith River 1861, US Army General Wright ordered were not given blankets, clothes, or tools Lippitt “to make a clean sweep” (Mad- and suffered from measles, diarrhea, ley 2017:301). Along with this order, the and other epidemics (Madley 2012:186- Humboldt Times condemned Lippitt’s 7). Jane Sam, the survivor of the Indian policies, which persuaded him to take a Island Massacre, was also sent to the new approach (Hoopes 1971:125). Smith River Reservation. She described According to Lippitt, these peaceful how she and other Native Americans tactics of capture would no longer suf- were treated there: fice, and he intended to teach “these ig- norant savages the folly of such conduct Not treated well on Res no shoes but by inflicting on them a terrible pun- hat no clothes for children . . . noth- ishment” (U.S. War Department 1894). ing was given to those that worked By July 1862, the army had taken over no pay. Men folks that go out to 800 prisoners and placed them in a cor- hunt grub for a living, gets jailed ral located inside Fort Humboldt. The whipped with black snake, women conditions were horrible and resulted in and children same just for trying to a high mortality rate, which forced Lip- get something to eat. This is why In- pitt to move the Native Americans to a dians could not get along on Res— peninsula across the bay from Bucksport not treated right. I run away every (Hoopes 1971:126). The Humboldt Times chance I could get. Indians get sick reported that it would be sufficient to on Res (Rhode 2014:2) hold any number needed: “These Indi- ans are better managed, and with them Life on the reservation was horrible and a better system of control has been in- resulted in the deaths of many Native augurated than any we have ever wit- Americans from disease. Euro-Amer- nessed on a reservation” (September 6, icans of the time did not see them as 1862). The Native Americans were then human and did not recognize any of moved to the Smith River reservation. their fundamental human rights, so This upset people in Humboldt County they treated them as such by forbidding because it was easy to escape from and them to hunt and not providing them resume the fight against Euro-Ameri- with an adequate amount of food. This cans, and about half of them did (Hum- constitutes genocide because it is the act boldt Times October 4, 1862). After this, of placing the “conditions of life” on a vigilante groups formed and began to group. This means that they were not “help” the army by attacking and killing provided with adequate food, water, or as many Native Americans as they could shelter to survive. Additionally, this ac- find. Lippitt found their tactics barbaric, count suggested that some Native Amer- but the community supported them. The icans were being kept as slaves since they public view was that the military pres- 98 Rowley

ence in Humboldt was unnecessary be- small skirmishes still occurred after the cause of the feeling that the militias were signing, it is still considered the end of sufficient protection. This influenced the the Indian Wars in Humboldt and Del removal of troops from Fort Humboldt, Norte County, and the end of the Amer- but it was not the only reason (Hoopes ican Civil War soon followed. All these 1971:128). events directly contributed to the geno- According to Colonel Lippitt, the cide of Natives in the region because newly formed militia group called the massacring and “inflicting conditions of Mountaineer Battalion was undisci- life” are included under the UN defini- plined and should not be mixed with tion. What is equally important is that his Humboldt Volunteers, and the these acts normalized the destruction Humboldt Volunteers withdrew from of Native Americans culture which car- Humboldt County in order to avoid as- ried on after the blatant massacring had sociation (Lippitt 1892:188). Once Lip- come to an end. pitt departed, his tactics of capture and “protect” left with him. On 13 July 1862, Lasting Effects of Genocide the Humboldt Military District was giv- in Humboldt and Del Norte en to the commander of the Mountain- County eer Battalion, S.W. Whipple, who was also a newspaper owner and editor with Unfortunately, the end of the slaugh- a pro-extermination ideology (Hoopes ter did not mean the end of unequal 1971:130). For the remainder of the Civ- treatment for the Indigenous peoples of il War, Whipple and his Mountaineers Northwestern California. Although the entered the wilderness and killed Na- massacres had stopped by the twentieth tives indiscriminately until he met the century, there was continued cultural Hupa Tribe and was bested in battle, genocide. One example of this were the which lead to his replacement (Hoopes attempts to force Native Americans to 1971:130). assimilate into Euro-American culture Whipple was replaced by H.M. even before they were granted citizen- Black on 17 February 1864, and Natives ship in 1924 (National Archives and Re- were devastated by his tactics, which cords Administration 1924). Forced as- were reportedly “zealous and indefat- similation can be considered genocidal igable” (Wright 1892:247). His success because it involves forcing the children lead to the near end of hostilities by the of a group to be raised separate from summer of 1864. When Black was sent their family unit. This resulted in a loss east to teach at West Point, Whipple was of culture, but also an inability for Na- appointed once again to command the tive Americans to replenish their num- Mountaineers. Whipple continued to use bers because of the separation from their the same energetic tactics that Black was tribes. One of the most invasive forms of known for, and the “wars” between the forced assimilation, and the most com- Euro-Americans and the Native Ameri- mon in the US, was boarding schools. By cans would not come to a total stop until forcefully removing children from their the Hupa Treaty was signed in August homes and forcing them to assimilate in of 1864 (Hoopes 1971:132). While some Euro-American society, it stripped Na- 99 Defining Genocide in Northwestern California

tive Americans of their cultural identity wonder that he fails? Is it a surprise and resulted in cultural genocide. if he lapses into barbarism? Not hav- A document from 1889 on the “Sup- ing earned his education, it is not plemental Report on Indian Education” appreciated (Prucha 2000:198-9). stated why Euro-Americans felt the need to force Native Americans into these In this instance, Indian Commissioner boarding schools. It said, “[T]he Indians Jones blamed Native Americans’ fail- are far below the whites of this country ure to assimilate on the fact that they in their general intelligence and mode did not appreciate the education that of living . . . Education is the medium had been provided to them for “free.” through which the rising generation of These boarding schools were free in the Indians are to be brought into fraternal traditional sense but stripped Native and harmonious relationship with their Americans of their traditional cultures white fellow-citizens” (Prucha 2000:176- by removing them from the only place 7). The troubling aspect of this statement in which they could learn about it: their is that it fails to acknowledge the Native family homes. Each tribe had unique cul- American perspective of whether or not tures, languages, and customs, meaning they wanted to live in the Euro-Ameri- that a Native American could only learn can style. Most of the Indigenous Peoples about their traditions through tribal rela- of the area wanted to continue living in tions. By interrupting these families and their traditional way, and the introduc- forcing them to abandon their culture tion of the boarding school system inter- and customs they created an education rupted families and stopped the passing system that completely devalued and ig- of culture and language from one gen- nored Native tribal traditions and prac- eration to the next, which was an act of tices while placing Euro-American tradi- violence against Natives as Euro-Ameri- tions at the center of “civilized living.” cans destroyed their cultures. Euro-Americans assumed that Native William A. Jones in the “Annual American children did not receive any Report of the Commissioner of Indian real education at home, which dismissed Affairs” in 1901 explains a Euro-Amer- Indigenous People’s ancestral ways of ican perspective on why Native Amer- teaching and learning that is an import- icans had a problem with Euro-Ameri- ant part to all Native American societies cans forcing their children into boarding (Alvarez 2014:144). Native Americans schools. It stated: resisted assimilation because they were trying to preserve their own traditional Here [the Native American] remains ways of living in the face of overwhelm- until his education is finished, when ing pressure to abandon them. he is returned to his home-- which Examples of these boarding schools by contrast [to the boarding school] were found in multiple different loca- must seem squalid indeed—to the tions throughout Northwestern Califor- parents to whom his education must nia and the US. There was the Chema- make it difficult to honor, and left to wa Indian Boarding school, the Hupa make his way against the ignorance Boarding school, and the Sherman In- and bigotry of his tribe. Is it any stitution within this particular region 100 Rowley

(Lowry 2014). Oral histories by members sent to boarding schools were forbidden of the Yurok, Karuk, Hupa, Wiyot, and and punished for speaking in their own Tolowa discussed the Indian boarding language, which had the longest lasting schools they attended. These oral histo- effects of the near extinction of their tra- ries were all recorded in the early 2000s ditional languages. Multiple accounts and the people interviewed were all recounted being punished for speaking born between 1920-1940. While their age their Native language. One account even may have caused them to forget some said that they were given extra work as details of the events they were recount- a punishment for speaking their Native ing, this is still a valuable source because tongue (Nicholson and Bacon, inter- it is the only way to gain an indigenous viewed by Lowry, March 23, 2000). perspective on the topic of boarding It is easy to see how this could be schools, especially in Northwestern Cal- traumatizing for a child. They were ifornia. Frank Richards of the Tolowa stripped of everything they knew and tribe reported that schools were either forced to live in a way that was complete- classified as “Indian” or “Caucasian” ly different than how they were raised. until the 1940s (Richards and Lopez, in- Evelina Hoffman reported that she was terviewed by Lowry, May 4, 2001). This denied contact with her family while at segregation suggests that Euro-Ameri- the Hoopa Boarding school during the cans felt the same racial superiority that 1930s. As a result, she said the matron was obvious and normalized when they of the school felt like her mother (Hoff- were attempting to exterminate Native man and Van pelt, interviewed by Low- Americans through massacres and so- ry, December 16, 1999). This is a prime called wars. The only difference is that example of an interrupted family and a Euro-Americans were now destroying cultural genocidal act as a result. Typi- Native American culture and tradition cally, the younger years of a child’s life rather than killing them directly. are important for establishing a sense The way Indigenous children were of self. When the child was taken away taught was also different than - Eu from their family and forced to live as a ro-American children. Boarding schools Euro-American, it made it exceedingly taught Native children how to read difficult, if not impossible, to learn and and write, but they mostly focused on continue their traditional customs. teaching trades like carpentry, house- Many of the oral histories gave keeping, and farming. This implies that accounts of running away from their Euro-Americans did not believe Native school in order to avoid assimilation. Americans were as intellectual as Eu- Most of the people interviewed said ro-Americans because they refused to they were not forced to go to boarding teach Native American children the same school by Euro-Americans and their way as Euro-American children. Almost experiences were not always negative every interview that touched on the (Richards and Lopez, interviewed by topic of boarding schools reported that Lowry, May 4, 2001). However, boarding Indigenous children were never taught schools was one of the few options avail- about the history of Native Americans able if a Native American wanted to gain in California. Native American children an education and attending boarding 101 Defining Genocide in Northwestern California

school stripped children of their culture and a staple of their diet (Hoffman and and traditions by moving them away Van pelt, interviewed by Lowry, Decem- from their family. After the fact, board- ber 16, 1999). However, this did not stop ing schools have come to be seen as un- Euro-Americans from restricting Native successful and even cruel, with the Ca- American access to this highly valuable nadian government apologizing to the resource. When Euro-Americans want- Indigenous Peoples of Canada in 2008 ed to exploit the salmon rushing up the for forcing them to attend such schools , they opened canneries because it fits within the UN’s definition and allowed the Indigenous people to of genocide (Alvarez 2014:154). While work for them by netting and canning the United States has not made a similar salmon. When an energy company built declaration, these schools still had nega- a dam and restricted the amount of salm- tive effects on Native American popula- on that could go upriver, the canneries tions in the US. blamed the salmon shortage on the Na- In addition, this new generation was tive Americans. This resulted in the gov- also unable to be integrated back into ernment banning from fishing their traditional cultures because they in 1933, even on reservations. Commer- no longer fit into their home communi- cial and tourist fishing continued, but it ties due to their loss of language, tradi- was made illegal for Native Americans tions, and customs (Alvarez 2014:155). to fish from their sacred river. In 1969 Forced assimilation created a generation Raymond Mattz, a local Native Yurok, of Native Americans that were unable was arrested for gillnet fishing and told to integrate into Euro-American society to pay a fine of one dollar so that they because of the prejudice and negative could release him. He refused in order to stereotypes that existed. Alex Alvarez, fight for Native American fishing rights. a genocide specialist at Northern Arizo- The case ended up going all the way to na University, comments on what these the United States Supreme Court, and acts did to Native American people by after seven years the Yurok were granted saying that “Destroy[ing] the bonds that access to their sacred river, the Klamath unite a people as a people . . . effective- (Kohler 2009). The Yurok were denied ly destroy[s] that population” (Alvarez access to their sacred river for over 70 2014:156). Unfortunately, even though years; however, the Wiyot had lands sto- boarding schools had been ended, dam- len from them for much longer. age to Native American heritage and One recent example of Euro-Amer- culture continued to be inflicted on these icans exploiting traditionally Native communities after forced assimilation. American land is when the government Another example of cultural geno- decided to build a highway that was cide is traditional Native American over a sacred Native American site. This lands being desecrated in Northwestern road became known as the G-O Road California. The Klamath River is consid- because it stretched from Gasquet to ered sacred by some of the Indigenous Orleans. In 1988 Lyng v. Northwest In- People of Northwestern California, es- dian Cemetery Protective Association pecially the Yurok, and fishing was an (NICPA) the Forest Service argued that important way to sustain themselves the “completion of the road was very 102 Rowley

significant to the development of- tim olson and Bacon, interviewed by Low- ber and recreational resources in the ry, March 23, 2000). Imagine that events area.” Marilyn Miles counterargument such as these had happened in a Chris- for NICPA was that, “these practices go tian burial ground during the twentieth to the very core of the religion for a sub- century. There would surely be a huge stantially large number of people, and if public outrage, yet there is little support they cannot be conducted, if they have for Native American tribes to recover that same type of belief, but you phys- their stolen items. This is an example of ically would be terminating this partic- cultural genocide that has carried over ular religion for these people by allow- into the twenty first century. ing the government to act out in a very public way” (Risling Baldy 2018:19-21, Conclusion 24). The Supreme Court sided with the Forest Service and upheld the decision The Indigenous peoples of Hum- to build the road from Gasquet to Or- boldt and Del Norte County were subject- leans, which desecrated sacred Native ed to genocide as defined by the United American land. This shows some of the Nations when Euro-Americans arrived injustice that continues to plague the In- in California in the mid-nineteenth cen- digenous peoples of Northwestern Cali- tury. State and Federal legislation made fornia deep into the twenty-first century. the massacres not only possible, but they Besides injustices like taking land from ensured that there would be no negative Indigenous peoples, Euro-Americans legal consequences for the perpetrators have also stolen pieces of Native Amer- of the genocide. The California State ican culture. Euro-Americans have been and US Federal government contrib- stealing “wagon fulls” of religious rega- uted directly to the genocide of Native lia after massacring Native Americans Americans in Humboldt and Del Norte since the nineteenth century (McCovey, Counties. This genocide has had lasting interviewed by Lowry, March 16, 2000). effects on the Indigenous communities However, Euro-Americans were using through historical trauma and cultural archaeology as an excuse to rob Native genocide that continued even after the American gravesites up until the 1980s. massacring had come to an end through One man of the Yurok tribe, named the theft of their ceremonial land and Walt Lara Sr., reported witnessing Eu- items. Euro-Americans did not just kill, ro-Americans robbing graves at the vil- rape, enslave, and starve Natives—they lage of Chapek an astounding 15 times completely destroyed their culture and during his lifetime. Lara also specifical- their chances of ever regaining their tra- ly called for the returns of otter skins ditional customs by killing most of the that were used for ceremonial purposes Native Americans within the region. (Lara, interviewed by Lowry, March 22, In most cases, Euro-Americans re- 2000). Other stolen items include cere- fuse to acknowledge that genocide took monial regalia, baskets, and even human place and refuse to give back tradition- remains. Members of the Yurok tribe are al lands and items as a result. One ex- still attempting to take back some of ample of Euro-Americans stealing the their stolen items from museums (Nich- Indigenous peoples land in Humboldt 103 Defining Genocide in Northwestern California

County is the fact that Indian Island, cide research was essential in helping one traditional home of the Wiyot peo- me to locate relevant sources for this ple, has yet to be returned to the Wiyot topic, and I appreciated his help a great tribe. Because of this tragedy, the Wiyot deal. Grant has guided me throughout people have not done their traditional my college career, and I do not think dances since the massacre (Carlson, in- that I would be graduating without his terviewed by Lowry, July 27, 2000). This mentoring. I would also like to thank will hopefully be changing due to the my professors throughout the years for unanimous decision by the Eureka City their guidance. I also appreciate all my Council to transfer the island back to the peers who read my paper and gave me Wiyot tribe (Santos 2018). This shows yet feedback so that I could come up with another example of Native Americans the best paper possible. This paper in general in Northwestern California would not have been possible without being stripped of their culture through all your help. violence, but fortunately it is finally be- ing returned in part to at least one tribe, References though it is hardly adequate compensa- tion for the suffering the Wiyot have had Alvarez, Alex. 2014. Native America and to endure and the aspects of their culture the Question of Genocide (Studies that remain permanently lost to them. in Genocide: Religion, History, and It is important to note that while Human Rights). Rowman & Little- Native Americans are usually viewed field. as part of the past, they are still an im- “An Act for the Government and Pro- portant community that exist today and tection of Indians.” 1850. Act of are still facing the consequences of this 1850. Retrieved March 29,2019 from continued oppression through cultur- http://www.indiancanyon.org/ al genocide (Malloy 2019). Historians ACTof1850.html. will certainly continue to debate over “Act of June 2, 1924.” 1924. National whether or not genocide was committed Archives and Records Adminis- against Native Americans across the US tration. Retrieved March 3, 2019 in general, but this research will help to from https://www.archives.gov/ prove that genocide was in fact commit- historical- docs/todays-doc/?- ted against the Indigenous Peoples of dod-date=602. Northwestern California and hopefully California Militia and National Guard encourages understanding and compas- Unit Histories. February 8, 2016. sion for those who still suffer from this “Klamath Mounted Rangers. Ac- genocide. cessed March 13, 2019. Retrieved March 13, 2019 from http://www. Acknowledgements militarymuseum.org/Klamath- Mounted%20Rangers.html I would like to thank Kerri Malloy, Ty- Coy, Owen Cochran. 1929. The Hum- ler Oremus, and Grant Rowley for all boldt Bay Region, 1850- 1875. Los their guidance during the writing of Angeles, CA: California State His- this paper. Kerri’s expertise in geno- torical Association. 104 Rowley

Gone, Joseph. P. 2014. “Colonial Geno- Madley, Benjamin. 2012. “When the cide and Historical Trauma in Na- World Turned Upside Down.” Pp. tive North America.” Pp. 273-287 171-189 in New Directions in Geno- in Colonial Genocide in Indigenous cide, edited by Adam Jones. London; North America. Edited by Andrew New York: Routledge. Woolford, Jeff Benvenuto, and- Al Madley, B. November 2, 2016. “Tolowa exander L. Hinton. Duke University Genocide.” Campus Dialogue on Press. Race,Humboldt State University. Ar- Hoopes, Chad L. 1971. Lure of Humboldt cata, California. November 2. mp4. Bay Region: Early Explorations, Dis- Madley, Benjamin. 2017. An American coveries, and Foundations Estab- Genocide: The United States and the lishing the Bay Region. Dubuque, California Indian Catastrophe, 1846- IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Com- 1873. New Haven: Yale University pany. Press. Humboldt Times, September 16, 1854, Malloy, K. J. 2019. “Nowhere Is the Word Eureka, CA. Genocide Used: Americans Terminal Humboldt Times, July 17, 1858, Eureka, Narrative.” Plaza Grill. Arcata, Cali- CA. fornia. April 3. Humboldt Times, October 2, 1858, Eure- Norton, Jack. 2013. “If the Truth Be Told: ka, CA. Revising California History as a Mor- Humboldt Times, March 3, 1860, Eureka, al Objective.” American Behavioral CA. Scientist 58(1): 83-97. Sage Journals. Humboldt Times, September 6, 1862, Eu- Prucha, Francis Paul. 2000. Documents of reka, CA. United States Indian Policy. 3rd ed. Humboldt Times, October 4, 1862, Eure- Lincoln, NE: Univ. of Nebraska Press. ka, CA. Raphael, Ray and Freeman House. 2011. Hyer, Joel R., and Clifford E. Trafzer. Two Peoples, One Place. Humboldt 1999. Exterminate Them: Written County Historical Society. Accounts of the Murder, Rape, and Rhode, J. 2014. Wiyot History Papers. Enslavement of Native Americans HSU Special Collections. during the California Gold Rush. Rohde, J. 2008. “The Sonoma Gang: Re- Michigan State University Press. membering the Genocidal Scum Jones, Adam. 2017. Genocide: A Com- who Built Arcata.” North Coast prehensive Introduction. 3rd ed. Journal. September 11th. https:// London: Routledge. www.northcoastjournal.com/ Kohler, Jack. 2009. “River of Renewal.” humboldt/the-sonoma-gang/Con- Retrieved February 18, 2019 from tent?oid=2127928. http://www.cultureunplugged. Risling Baldy, Cutcha. 2018. “The G-O com/documentary/watch-online/ ROAD Thirty Years Later.” News festival/play/7457/River-of-Re- from Native California 32(1):19-21, newal. 24. Lowry, Chag. 2014. Indigenous Living Santos, Philip 2018. “Eureka City Council Biographies collection. HSU Special Advances Transfer of Indian Island Collections. Land.” Times Standard. December 105 Defining Genocide in Northwestern California

5th, Retrieved from https://www. Set” in War of the Rebellion: A Com- times-standard.com/2018/12/04/ pilation of the Official Records of the eureka-city-council-advances-trans- Union and Confederate Armies. Re- fer-of-indian-island-land/. trieved on March 11, 2019 on Google United Nations. December 9, 1948. Con- Books. vention on the Prevention and Pun- ishment of the Crime of Genocide. United Nations Treaty Series. U. S. Laws, Statutes, Etc. . . “An Act More Effectually to Provide for the National Defence by Establishing a Uniform Militia Through the United States.” 1792. Printed by F. Childs and J. Swaine. Philadelphia. Re- trieved from https://www.loc.gov/ item/rbpe.2180120a/. US Government Printing Office. 1892. “United States Congressional Serial

About the Author

Gavin Rowley was born in Humboldt County and grew up in McKinleyville. He attended Humboldt State University and ma- jored in History with a minor in Philosophy. He was a history tutor for his final semester at HSU. He received the 2019 Barnum award for best paper written on local (Humboldt County) history, which is a variation of the paper published in this journal.