Invasive Alien Species in – An Ignored But Great Threat to Native Biodiversity

Sunil Dubey Member IUCN - World Commission on Protected Areas, Commission on Ecosystem Management, Commission on Education and Communication India - Biodiversity Forest Cover – 21.67 % (FSI, 2019)

Plant Species ~ 49,000 (≈7% of the World, India-IUCN; BSI 2018) Angiosperms 18532 (BSI, 2018) Endemic >5400 (Hajra & Mudgal, 1997) Alien - 1599 (Khuroo et al. 2012)

Animal Species ~ 92,000 (≈6.5% of the World, India-IUCN; ZSI, 2013) Endemic Vertebrates 1130 (ZSI 2013) Alien – 68 (NBA-MOEFCC, 2018) Major Threats to Biodiversity

• Habitat destruction • Invasive Alien Species (IUCN, CBD) • Pollution • Poaching / Smuggling • Encroachment • Widening and Creation of New Transport Routes • Damming in up - streams • Weather Change • Decreasing Water Resource What is Alien Species?

‘Those which become establish in natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitat, an agent of change and threatens native biological diversity’ – IUCN (2000). ‘Those non-native organisms that cause or have the potential to cause harm to the environment, economies or human health’- GISP ‘A species occurring outside its normal distribution (ecological boundaries linked to species range), crossing the biogeographical barriers blocking its path.’

Examples: Parthenium hysterophorus (Native of Mexico & USA); Prosopis juliflora (Native of Mexico & C. America); Lantana camara (Native of C. America). Scope of Term ‘Alien Species’

The movement of species is not only between countries but may also be within the country.

The area of invasion can be part of a country, an entire country or several countries.

The in-country movement of a native species into an area in which it is not naturally present should be considered as part related to alien species (e.g. Pine invasion in the Himalayas, Cashew ). What is Invasive (Alien) Species ?

Invasive species: An alien species which becomes established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitat, an agent of change and threaten native biological diversity.

Invasion: Alien species not only persist but proliferate and spread beyond definite limits. May enter a vacant niche and establish, or may compete for a niche that is already occupied by native species. Invasive Alien Species in India Alien Flora • Major Native Regions Represented I. (Brazil, Peru, Chile, , Colombia, Ecuador), II. North America (Mexico, USA), III. Central America, IV. Caribbean, V. Northern Africa, Southern Africa, Madagascar VI. Middle East, S-E Asia, etc. • Major Families Represented (Reddy et al. 2008): Asterceae > Papilionaceae > Convolvulaceae > Caesalpiniaceae > Solanaceae > Amaranthaceae > Poaceae > Euphorbiaceae > Mimosaceae > Tiliaceae (Other – Fabaceae, Cactaceae, Myrtaceae, Oxalidaceae etc) . Habit-wise - Herbs > Shrubs > Climbers > Trees . Introduced, Exotics, Weeds. (* Turned to invaders) Alien Species in India – 1599 (Khuroo et al. 2012) - 842 genera and 161 families - Major families - (134 spp.), Papilionaceae (114 spp.) and Poaceae (106 spp.) - Native Ranges of alien flora in India South America (35% ), Asia (21%), Africa (20%), Europe (11%), (8%), North America (4%); Cryptogenic (1%). Major Invasive Alien Species in India – 173 (Reddy et al. 2008) - Potential Invaders – - Ageratina adenophora - Alternanthera philoxeroides (Alligator Weed), - Chromolaena odorata (Bitter Bush), - Eichhornia crassipes (Water hyacinth), - Hyptis suaveolens (Vilayati Tulsi) - Lantana camara (Lantana), - Parthenium hysterophorus (Congress grass), - Prosopis juliflora (Vilayati Babool / Ganda Baaval) - Senna uniflora (Oneleaf senna), - Senna tora (Sickle senna) • Aquatic Weeds ~ 160 (Sushilkumar, 2011) ~ 40% (of the 8 lakh ha of freshwater available in India for pisciculture) is unsuitable for fish production due to invasion by aquatic weeds. • Five primary aquatic weeds of the world as well as worst weeds in India - - Eichhornia crassipes, -Salvinia molesta, - Hydrilla verticillata, - Alternanthera philoxeroides - Pistia stratiotes Acanthospermum hispidum Ageratum conyzoides

Hyptis suaveolens Ageratum houstonianum Parthenium Martynia annua Alternanthera pungens hysterophorus

Argemone mexicana

Ximenesia encelioides Emex spinosa Heliotropium curassavicum Xanthium strumarium

Malvastrum Galinsoga Ipomoea hederifolia coromandelianum parviflora Clitoria ternatea Datura ferox Datura metel

Cryptostegia Gomphrena grandiflora celosioides Tridax procumbens Ricinus communis Jatropha gossypifolia Euphorbia prostrata

Chenopodium Citrullus lanatus ambrosioides Cestrum nocturnum Agave americana A. americana A. americana Agave sisalana var. variegata var. marginata

Opuntia Eichornia crassipes Opuntia dillenii O. elatior monacantha Oxalis corniculata elegans Oxalis Corymbosa

Oxalis latifolia Ruellia tuberosa Eucalyptus globulus Leucaena Leucocephala Pithecellobium dulce

E. camaldulensis

Annona squamosa Acacia farnesiana Prosopis juliflora Lantana camara

Parkinsonia aculeata Acacia tortilis Some of Major Alien Plant Species in India S. Alien species Family Habit Native Range N. 01 Acacia farnesiana Fabaceae Tree Tropical America 02 Acacia tortilis Fabaceae Tree N. Africa & Middle East Acanthospermum 03 Asteraceae Herb N. S. America hispidum 04 Adansonia digitata Bombacaceae Tree Tropical Africa 05 Agave americana Agavaceae Shrub Mexico 06 Agave sisalana Agavaceae Shrub E. Mexico 07 Ageratina adenophora Asteraceae Shrub Mexico, Central America 08 Ageratum conyzoides Asteraceae Herb Central and South America Mexico and Central 09 Ageratum houstonianum Asteraceae Herb America 10 Argemone mexicana Papaveraceae Herb Central America 11 Alternanthera pungens Amaranthaceae Herb Central and South America Alternanthera 12 Amaranthaceae Herb South America philoxeroides 13 Annona squamosa Annonaceae Tree S. America (West Indies)

14 Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae Shrub America Central America, 15 Cestrum nocturnum Solanaceae Shrub Mexico & Cuba Chenopodium Tropical America, 16 Chenopodiaceae Herb ambrosioides Central America 17 Citrullus lanatus Cucurbitaceae Creeper Southern Africa 18 Clitoria ternatea Fabaceae Climber Central & S. America 19 Cryptostegia grandiflora Asclepiadaceae Climber Madagascar 20 Datura ferox Solanaceae Shrub China 21 Datura metel Solanaceae Shrub Central America Desmodium Mexico and South 22 Fabaceae Herb neomexicanum America Arabia, NE Africa 23 Dipterygium glaucum Capparidaceae Shrub Pakistan 24 Dactyliandra welwitschii Cucurbitaceae Climber 25 Eichornia crassipes Pontederiaceae Herb Tropical South America 26 Emex spinosa Polygoniaceae Herb Mediterranean region 27 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Myrtaceae Tree Australia 28 Eucalyptus globulus Myrtaceae Tree Australia Sotuthern USA, West 29 Euphorbia prostrata Euphorbiaceae Herb Indies. 30 Euphorbia geniculata Euphorbiaceae Herb Argentina, W. Indies 31 Evolvulus nummularius Convolvulaceae Herb N. and S. America 32 Galinsoga parviflora Asteraceae Herb SW United States 33 Gomphrena celosioides Amaranthaceae Herb South America 34 Heliotropium curassavicum Boraginaceae Herb Western North America 35 Hyptis suaveolens Lamiaceae Shrub America S. North America, W. 36 Ipomoea hederifolia Convolvulaceae Climber Indies 37 Jatropha gossypifolia Euphorbiaceae Shrub Central to South America Central America and 38 Lantana camara Verbenaceae Shrub Caribbean Mexico and Central 39 Leucaena Leucocephala Fabaceae Tree America 40 Martynia annua Martyniaceae Shrub Central America Malvastrum S. USA, Mexico, Central 41 Malvaceae Herb coromandelianum America 42 Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Solanaceae Herb N. America & S. America 43 Opuntia dillenii Cactaceae Shrub Southern United States Central America to NS 44 Opuntia elatior Cactaceae Shrub America 45 Opuntia monacantha Cactaceae Shrub S-E S. America 46 Oxalis corniculata Oxalidaceae Herb Europe 47 Oxalis Corymbosa Oxalidaceae Herb Tropical South America Central and South 48 Oxalis latifolia Oxalidaceae Herb America Mexico and SW United 49 Parkinsonia aculeata Caesalpiniaceae Tree States Parthenium 50 Asteraceae Herb Mexico and USA hysterophorus Tropical and Sub-tropical 51 Pithecellobium dulce Mimosaceae Tree America SW USA, Mexico and 52 Prosopis glandulosa Mimosaceae Tree California 53 Prosopis juliflora Mimosaceae Tree Mexico, Central America

54 Psidium guajava Myrtaceae Tree Mexico to NS America

55 Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae Shrub Tropical Africa Mexico, Central and S. 56 Ruellia tuberosa Acanthaceae Herb America 57 Senna tora Fabaceae Herb South America Tropical S. America, 58 Senna uniflora Fabaceae Herb Brazil, West Indies, Mexico C. America and Trop. S. 59 Tridax procumbens Asteraceae Herb America 60 Xanthium strumarium Asteraceae Shrub Central America 61 Ximenesia encelioides Asteraceae Herb North and South America 62 Asteraceae Herb Mexico 63 Zinnia peruviana Asteraceae Herb Mexico, S. Peru Invasive Alien Animal Species in India . Inland Fishes – 14 . Marine Invertebrates – 17

. Mollusc – 1 (Giant African Snail) . Insect Species in Agriculture Ecosystem – 21

. Nematode in Agriculture Ecosystem – 1 (Potato golden nematode) . Invasive Alien Species of Islands (including insects, molluscs, fishes, amphibians, reptile, bird and mammals) - 14

(NBA-MOEFCC, 2018) Giant African Snail Achatina fulica

Native range - Eastern Africa, inclusive of Mozambique, Kenya, Tanzania and Somalia Tilapia Fish Oreochromis mossombicus

Native Range: Africa: Lower Zambezi, Lower Shiré and coastal plains from Zambezi delta to Algoa Bay. North African Catfish / Thai Magur Clarias gariepinus

Native Range: Africa, Niger and Nile River Bighead Carp Aristichthys nobilis / Hypophthalmichthys nobilis

Native Range: China, Japan, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam Biological & Habitat Attributes Conferring Invasiveness

• Reproduction (Greater Seed number, Lesser size & weight) • Animal Dispersal • Fitness Homeostasis (ability to modify in response to changing environment) • Larger Geographical Range • Competitive Superiority • Allelopathy • Alternative Mode of Reproduction • Phenotypic Plasticity (ability to show different phenotypes in response to change in environmental conditions) • Adjustability to Different Stories

• Fragmentation • Overharvesting / Unregulated Exploitation • Loss of Native Species • Change in Edaphic Characteristics • Poorly Adapted Native Species • Empty Niches • Absence of Predators / Consumers Economic impacts

 Annual Loss by Alien Invasive Species Throughout the World – USD 336 billion. (Pimental, et al., 2000)

 Major Impacted Countries – - United States (USD 137 billion) - India (USD 116 billion) - Brazil (USD 50 billion) - United kingdom (USD 12 billion) - South Africa (USD 7 billion) Ecological impacts

• Change in Species Composition • Reduced Species Diversity (Monospecific Thickets) • Alteration of Ecosystem Structure and its Bio-geo Chemical Cycles • Changes in the Trophic Structure and Nutrient Flow & Cycling • Increased Fire Regimes • Changes in Hydrological Pattern (surface as well as GW, Atmospheric Moisture, water consumption by Different Species) • Reduction in Competitive Performance by Native Species • Altered Land-use • Disease Outbreak (including human beings) • Subsequent Secondary Impacts (Productivity, Climate Change, Livelihood) Habitat Changes Leading to Climate Change • Degradation and Fragmentation of Habitats - Alteration in microclimatic conditions due to changes in solar radiation, wind, and humidity; - Isolation of habitat patches with a growing distance - Change in landscape features due to changes in size & shape of resulting patches. - Varying impacts on species persistence and ecosystem sustainability. - Direct impact on essential services viz. recycling of nutrients, flood and pest control, and maintenance of clean air, water, and soil etc. • Land Use Changes - Focus on maximum economic use of land for commercial development, allotment and use, without considering any ecological consequences, - Ignorance to individual and cumulative impacts to biological resources Invasive Alien Species Leading to Climate Change • Alien Invasive Species - ‘Alien invasive species: an alien species which threatens ecosystems, habitat or species’ (CBD) - ‘Invasive species means an alien species which becomes established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitats, is an agent of change, and threatens native biological diversity’ (IUCN) - ‘Invasive alien species are non-native organisms that cause, or have the potential to cause, harm to the environment, economies or human health’ (GISP) • Anthropogenic activities leading to alteration in the abundances and varieties of native species; • That leads to introduction of new and potentially detrimental non-native species to an area; • In turn that affects native species composition, abundance, • Long term persistence of IAS further degrades the biodiversity and the integrity of the affected natural areas, disrupts natural water and nutrient cycles, and natural disturbance patterns and ultimately the climate change Control of Invasive Weeds Mechanical Methods (Target Specific) • Slashing/Chopping, • Repeated Cutting (Ghana, Bharatpur Model) • Burning • Uprooting, • Grubbing (digging out roots and stumps), • Girdling

Limitations • Labour Intensive • Disturbance to the Landscape • Disturbance / damage to other species Biological Methods • Bio agents (e.g. Water hyacinth weevil - Eochetina spp. ) • Classical Biological Control (e.g. Rust Fungus Puccinia spegazzinii for Mikania micrantha - Ellison et al. 2006) • Biological Chemicals (e.g. Neem, Bacillus thuringiensis) • Competitive species (e.g. Marigold as Competitor of Parthenium; Anogeissus pendula competes with P. juliflora)

Limitations • Not Suitable for Plant Invaders • Limited foraging ability of the insects; • Species Specificity ; • Climatic Specificity of biocontrol agents; • Chances of Negative Impacts on native species. Chemical Methods

• Spray of Chemicals (viz, Glyphosate, 2-4-D for aquatic weeds); • Herbicides (e.g. clopyralid, dicamba, picloram and triclopyr, either alone or in combination - Pasiecznik et al. 2001).

Limitations •Coverage of Vast tracts is not possible; •Threat of Potential hazard to Other Native Species and Practicing Humans); • Retention in Environment leading to further negative impacts) Other Practices

• Early Detection; • Containment; • Increase Plantations of Native Species; • Restoration of Native Flora; • Reduce Habitat Requirements for Invasive Species (e.g. Lantana avoids dense shades) • Community Mobilisation on Value Addition of Native Species • Legalized check on Entry / Transportation / Trade Cut Rootstock Method for Lantana ( by CEMDE) Cutting the main tap root of Lantana plant beneath the ‘coppicing zone’ (transition zone between stem base and rootstock) The coppicing zone is subterranean and it has the capacity to proliferate and give rise to several shoots. It remains dormant while the growth of aerial shoots continues and gets activated when the aerial branches are chopped near the base or are burnt.

Step-1 branches of Lantana thicket formed by more than one clump should be lifted and tipped over from one end by using a wooden or bamboo pole Step-2 Using the specially designed digger, the person cuts the main rootstock of Lantana 3–5 cm below the soil surface by hitting the rootstock 3 or 4 times Step-3 Lift the clump/s and place the clump/s upside down Step-4 After drying the clumps, the clumps may be used as fuel Step-5 Weeding out of seedlings/young plantlets of Lantana Step-6 Ecological restoration of weed-free landscapes 1 4 5

2 6 Coppice Zone

3 Anogeissus pendula as potential competitor to P. juliflora Photo – Jeevda Sacred Grove, Jawai (Pali), Rajasthan

Prosopis juliflora Anogeissus pendula Think Globally Act Locally • Biological Diversity Act, 2002 - Chapter-X (Constitution of Biodiversity Management Committee)

- Section 41(1): Every local body shall constitute a Biodiversity Management Committee within its area for the purpose of promoting conservation, sustainable use and documentation of biological diversity including preservation of habitats, conservation of land races, folk varieties and cultivars, domesticated stocks and breeds of animals and microorganisms and chronicling of knowledge relating to biological diversity.

- Chapter-XI (Local Biodiversity Fund, section 42 – 47) • The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. (FRA,2006) - Section 3 (1)(i) – Right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community resources which they have been traditionally protecting and conserving for sustainable use) - Section 5: Duties of Holders of Forest Rights The holders of any forest right, gram sabha and village level institutions in areas where there are holders of any forest right under this act are empowered to: - 5(a) Protect the wildlife, forest and biodiversity - 5(b) Ensure that adjoining catchment areas, water sources and other ecological sensitive areas are adequately protected - 5(c) ensure that the habitat of forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers is preserved from any form of destructive practices affecting their cultural and natural heritage. Bauhinia purpurea Dodonaea viscosa Barleria cristata Don’t Ignore the Harm Hidden Behind the Beauty Thank You!

Salvia coccinea Tithonia Salvia leucantha