FARMING IN THE LANGKLOOF: COPING WITH AND ADAPTING TO ENVIRONMENTAL SHOCK AND SOCIAL STRESS by Carinus de Kock Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University. Supervisor: Mr J de Waal March 2015 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za i DECLARATION By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the owner of the copyright thereof (unless to the extent explicitly otherwise stated) and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Date: 25 February 2015 Copyright © 2015 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za ii ABSTRACT During the period 2006-2012, the Langkloof area, situated in the Eden District Municipality, suffered severely from environmental shocks and social stress including drought, flooding, hail, wildfire, heatwaves and reduced labour demand. These events negatively impacted many farmers and their livelihoods. In response to these external shocks and stressors, large-, medium- and small-scale farmers adopted numerous coping and adaptive strategies. This study performed a comprehensive livelihoods analysis of large-, medium- and small-scale farmers in the Langkloof area, using the widely recognized sustainable livelihoods framework developed by the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development, with a particular focus on coping and adaptive strategies against severe environmental shock and social stress. Variables used in the analysis were the vulnerability context in which farmers pursue a livelihood; livelihood assets (social, human, financial, natural and physical); the policies, institutions and processes in the external environment that influence the degree of ownership and access to assets; livelihood strategies pursued; and the various livelihood outcomes ultimately produced. The analysis of coping and adaptive strategies employed by farmers during these periods formed an integral part of this study. Sixteen livelihood asset indicators were identified to determine the total assets (human, social, physical, financial and natural) of the farmers. After scaling the indicators, a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to assign weights to each indicator and to subsequently calculate the total assets of each household. Regarding the coping and adaptive strategies employed by farmers against environmental shock and social stress, the average number of strategies was calculated for each household. Spearman’s rank correlations were calculated for total assets achieved (capacity) and the number of strategies employed against environmental shock and social stress. KEYWORDS Adaptive strategies, disaster, disaster risk, coping strategies, environmental shock, hazards, large-, medium and small-scale farmers, livelihoods, social stress, sustainable livelihoods, vulnerability Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za iii OPSOMMING Die Langkloofgedied, geleë in die Eden Distriksmunisipalitiet, is gedurende die tydperk 2006-2012 geweldig geteister deur omgewings- en sosiale gebeure, wat droogte, vloede, hael, veldbrande, hittegolwe en ʼn gevolglike verlaagde arbeidsaanvraag sluit. Hierdie rampe het verreikende nadelige gevolge op boere se lewensbestaan gehad. Terwyl hulle lewensbestaan tot die uiterste uitgedaag is, is verskeie hanterings- en aanpassingstrategieë teen omgewingskok en sosiale stres geïmplementeer. Met die gebruik van die Verenigde Koninkryk se Departement van Internasionale Ontwikkeling se volhoubare lewensbestaansraamwerk is ʼn gedetailleerde en alomvattende analise van groot, medium- en kleinskaalboere in die Langkloof se lewensbestaan gedoen, met ʼn sterk skem op hul hanterings- en aanpassingstrategieë teen omgewingskok en sosiale stress. Die analise veranderlikes het die kwesbaarsheidskonteks waarin boere hul lewensbestaan aanpak; hul verskeie bates (menslik, sosiaal, finansieel, fisies en natuurlik); die beleide, instansies en prosesse in die eksterne omgewing wat toegang tot en eienaarskap van bates reguleer; hul lewensbestaanstrategieë; en die lewensbestaansuitkomste wat bereik word, behels. Die analise van die boere se hanterings- en aanpassingstrategieë geïmplementeer teen omgewingskok en sosiale stres gedurende hierdie tydperk was ʼn integrale rol van hierdie studie. Sestien aanwysers is geïdentifiseer om die totale lewensbestaansbates (menslik, sosiaal, fisies, finansieel en natuurlik) van die boere te bepaal. Nadat die aanwysers geskaal is, is ‘n Hoofkomponentanalise (PCA) uitgevoer om gewigte aan elke aanwyser toe te ken vir die berekening van totale bates van huishoudings. Die hanterings- en aanpassingstrategieë ingestel deur boere teen omgewingskok en sosiale stres, is die gemiddelde aantal strategieë per huishouding. Spearman se rangorde korrelasies is bereken vir die totale bates (kapasiteit) en die getal strategieë geïmplementeer teen omgewingskok en sosiale stres. SLEUTELWOORDE Aanpassingstrategieë, gevare, groot-, medium- en kleinskaalboere, hanteringstrategieë, kwesbaarheid, lewensbestaan, omgewingskok, ramp, ramprisiko, sosiale stres, volhoubare lewensbestaan Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I sincerely thank My parents Jan de Waal Dave Hodgson Tiani Moolman Sarel Migael van Baalen Nitesh Poona Dr Justin Harvey Emeritus Senior Prof SJ Neethling Dr Peter de Necker. for their assistance, guidance and advice throughout this study. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za v CONTENTS DECLARATION ...................................................................................................... i ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. ii OPSOMMING ........................................................................................................ iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................. iv CONTENTS ..............................................................................................................v TABLES ................................................................................................................... x FIGURES ................................................................................................................ xi ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................ xiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................1 1.1 BACKGROUND: OVERVIEW OF ENVIRONMENTAL SHOCK AND SOCIAL STRESS IN THE LANGKLOOF, 2006-2012 .............................................. 2 1.2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK.................................................................................. 8 1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM ............................................................................................... 8 1.4 STUDY AREA ................................................................................................................ 9 1.5 AIM AND OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................ 12 1.6 OVERVIEW OF METHODS ...................................................................................... 12 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................... 14 2.1 FARMING IN SOUTH AFRICA ................................................................................ 14 2.2 DISASTER RISK THEORY ....................................................................................... 18 2.2.1 Understanding vulnerability .............................................................................. 19 2.2.2 Understanding hazards ...................................................................................... 24 2.2.2.1 Drought ......................................................................................................... 24 2.2.2.2 Meteorological drought ................................................................................. 25 2.2.2.3 Agricultural drought ..................................................................................... 26 2.2.2.4 Hydrological drought .................................................................................... 26 2.2.2.5 Socio-economic drought ............................................................................... 27 2.2.2.6 Floods ............................................................................................................ 28 2.2.2.7 Hail ................................................................................................................ 29 2.2.2.8 Wildfires ....................................................................................................... 29 2.2.2.9 Heatwaves ..................................................................................................... 30 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za vi 2.3 SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS THEORY ............................................................ 31 2.3.1 Historical background ........................................................................................ 31 2.3.2 Livelihoods in a south african context .............................................................. 32 2.3.3 Value of a suitable sustainable livelihoods framework ................................... 33 2.3.4 Review