Environmental Health Criteria 39 PARAQUAT and DIQUAT
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Environmental Health Criteria 39 PARAQUAT AND DIQUAT Please note that the layout and pagination of this web version are not identical with the printed version. Paraquat and diquat (EHC 39, 1984) INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMME ON CHEMICAL SAFETY ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA 39 PARAQUAT AND DIQUAT This report contains the collective views of an international group of experts and does not necessarily represent the decisions or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, or the World Health Organization. Published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization World Health Orgnization Geneva, 1984 The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) is a joint venture of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization. The main objective of the IPCS is to carry out and disseminate evaluations of the effects of chemicals on human health and the quality of the environment. Supporting activities include the development of epidemiological, experimental laboratory, and risk-assessment methods that could produce internationally comparable results, and the development of manpower in the field of toxicology. Other activities carried out by the IPCS include the development of know-how for coping with chemical accidents, coordination of laboratory testing and epidemiological studies, and promotion of research on the mechanisms of the biological action of chemicals. ISBN 92 4 154099 4 The World Health Organization welcomes requests for permission to reproduce or translate its publications, in part or in full. Applications and enquiries should be addressed to the Office of Publications, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, which will be glad to provide the latest information on any changes made to the text, plans for new editions, and reprints and translations already available. Page 1 of 123 Paraquat and diquat (EHC 39, 1984) (c) World Health Organization 1984 Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright protection in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Universal Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. CONTENTS ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR PARAQUAT AND DIQUAT PARAQUAT 1. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1.1. Summary 1.1.1. General properties 1.1.2. Environmental distribution and transformation - environmental effects 1.1.3. Kinetics and metabolism 1.1.4. Effects on experimental animals 1.1.5. Effects on man 1.2. Recommendations 1.2.1. General 1.2.2. Prevention and treatment 1.2.3. Experimental work 2. IDENTITY, PROPERTIES AND ANALYTICAL METHODS 2.1. Identity 2.2. Physical and chemical properties 2.3. Analytical methods 3. SOURCES IN THE ENVIRONMENT 3.1. Introduction 3.1.1. Industrial technology 3.1.2. Impurities 3.2. Production and use 3.3. Mechanism of the herbicidal effect 4. ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRIBUTION AND TRANSPORTATION 4.1. Photochemical degradation 4.1.1. Photochemical degradation on plant surfaces 4.1.2. Photochemical degradation of paraquat on soil and other mineral surfaces Page 2 of 123 Paraquat and diquat (EHC 39, 1984) 4.2. Microbial degradation 4.3. Environmental adsorption and transformation 4.3.1. Soil 4.3.2. Water 4.3.3. Air 4.3.4. Plants 4.3.5. Animals 5. BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF RESIDUES 5.1. Soil organisms 5.2. Effect of residues on crop yields 5.3. Effects on fish and aquatic organisms 5.4. Effects on birds 6. KINETICS AND METABOLISM 6.1. Animal studies 6.1.1. Absorption 6.1.1.1 Oral absorption 6.1.1.2 Pulmonary absorption 6.1.1.3 Dermal absorption 6.1.2. Distribution 6.1.3. Metabolic transformation and excretion 6.2. Observations on human beings 6.2.1. Observations on paraquat poisoning after ingestion: non-fatal cases 6.2.2. Observations on paraquat poisoning after ingestion: fatal cases 6.2.3. Significance of paraquat concentrations in cases of paraquat poisoning 6.3. Biochemical mechanisms 7. EFFECTS ON ANIMALS 7.1. Effects on experimental animals 7.1.1. Respiratory system 7.1.1.1 Pathomorphological lung studies 7.1.1.2 Species differences in lung injury 7.1.1.3 Functional lung studies 7.1.2. Renal system 7.1.3. Gastrointestinal tract and liver 7.1.4. Skin and eyes 7.1.5. Other systems 7.1.6. Effects on reproduction, embryotoxicity, and teratogenicity 7.1.6.1 Effects on reproduction 7.1.6.2 Embryotoxicity and teratogenicity 7.1.7. Mutagenicity 7.1.8. Carcinogenicity 7.2. Effects on farm animals 7.3. Dose-effect of paraquat 7.4. Methods for decreasing paraquat toxicity 7.5. Relation between age, sex, and toxicity 8. EFFECTS ON MAN 8.1. Accidental and suicidal poisoning 8.1.1. Case reports 8.1.2. Distribution of cases of paraquat poisoning 8.1.3. Route of entry 8.1.4. Formulations 8.1.5. Dose 8.1.6. Clinical and pathomorphological data Page 3 of 123 Paraquat and diquat (EHC 39, 1984) relating to fatal paraquat poisoning 8.1.6.1 Respiratory system 8.1.6.2 Renal system 8.1.6.3 Gastrointestinal system, the liver, and the pancreas 8.1.6.4 Cardiovascular system 8.1.6.5 Central nervous system 8.1.6.6 Adrenal glands 8.1.6.7 Pregnancy 8.1.7. Recovery from paraquat poisoning 8.2. Occupational exposure 8.2.1. Epidemiological studies and case reports 8.2.1.1 Spraying personnel 8.2.1.2 Formulation workers 8.2.2. Cases of occupational poisoning and local caustic effects 8.2.2.1 Oral ingestion 8.2.2.2 Dermal absorption 8.2.2.3 Local skin and nail effects 8.2.2.4 Ocular damage 8.2.2.5 Inhalation 8.3. Use of marijuana contaminated by paraquat 8.4. Guidelines for the treatment of paraquat poisoning 9. EVALUATION OF RISKS FOR HUMAN HEALTH AND EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT 9.1. Exposure 9.2. Poisoning by paraquat 9.2.1. Suicidal ingestion 9.2.2. Accidental poisoning 9.2.3. Occupational poisoning 9.3. Occupational exposure 9.4. Effects 9.4.1. Paraquat toxicity in animals 9.4.2. Paraquat determination in biological fluids and tissues 9.5. Earlier evaluations by international bodies 9.6. Conclusions REFERENCES DIQUAT 1. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1.1. Summary 1.1.1. General properties 1.1.2. Environmental distribution and transformation - environmental effects 1.1.3. Kinetics and metabolism 1.1.4. Effects on animals 1.1.5. Effects on man 1.2. Recommendations 1.2.1. General 1.2.2. Prevention and treatment 1.2.3. Experimental work 2. PROPERTIES AND ANALYTICAL METHODS 2.1. Physical and chemical properties 2.2. Analytical procedures 3. SOURCES IN THE ENVIRONMENT 3.1. Production and uses Page 4 of 123 Paraquat and diquat (EHC 39, 1984) 4. ENVIRONMENTAL DISTRIBUTION, LEVELS, AND EXPOSURE 4.1. Photochemical and microbial degradation of diquat 4.1.1. Photochemical degradation 4.1.2. Microbial degradation 4.2. Diquat adsorption, residue levels, and exposure in soil 4.2.1. Diquat adsorption on soil particles 4.2.2. Residue levels of diquat in soils 4.2.3. Effect of residual diquat on soil biological activity, and on plants and crop yields 4.3. Diquat transformation, residue levels, and effects on aquatic organisms and crops 4.3.1. Transformation and residue levels of diquat in water 4.3.2. Effects of residual diquat on aquatic organisms and crops 4.4. Diquat exposure and residue levels in plants and animals 4.4.1. Plants 4.4.2. Animals 4.5. Diquat levels in air and exposure of workers 5. KINETICS AND METABOLISM 5.1. Animal studies 5.1.1. Absorption 5.1.2. Distribution 5.1.3. Metabolic transformation and excretion 5.2. Observations on man 6. EFFECTS ON ANIMALS 6.1. Effects on experimental animals 6.1.1. Gastrointestinal system and liver 6.1.2. Renal system 6.1.3. Eyes and skin 6.1.4. Respiratory system 6.1.5. Nervous system 6.1.6. Effects on reproduction, embryotoxicity, and teratogenicity 6.1.6.1 Effects on reproduction 6.1.6.2 Embryotoxicity and teratogenicity 6.1.7. Mutagencity 6.1.8. Carcinogenicity 6.2. Effects on farm animals 6.3. Dose-effect of diquat 7. EFFECTS ON MAN 7.1. Case reports 7.2. Effects on agricultural operators 7.3. First aid and medical treatment 8. EVALUATION OF RISKS FOR HUMAN HEALTH AND EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT 8.1. Exposure 8.1.1. Relative contributions of soil, water, air, and food sources to total diquat uptake 8.1.2. General population exposure 8.1.3. Occupational exposure 8.2. Effects 8.2.1. Diquat toxicity in animals 8.3. Earlier evaluations of diquat by international bodies 8.4. Conclusions REFERENCES Page 5 of 123 Paraquat and diquat (EHC 39, 1984) NOTE TO READERS OF THE CRITERIA DOCUMENTS While every effort has been made to present information in the criteria documents as accurately as possible without unduly delaying their publication, mistakes might have occurred and are likely to occur in the future. In the interest of all users of the environmental health criteria documents, readers are kindly requested to communicate any errors found to the Manager of the International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, in order that they may be included in corrigenda, which will appear in subsequent volumes.