ASSESSMENT OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF NYABUGOGO AND NYABARONGO WETLANDS, CITY

BYUKUSENGE SOLVE

BSc FST

MEM136888/1211DF

A Dissertation presented to the College of Higher Degrees and Research Kampala International University, Uganda in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of a Degree of Masters of Science in Environmental Management and Development

November, 2013 DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, hereby declare that the work contained in this dissertation is my own original work and has not previously, in its entirety or in part, been submitted at any university or institution of higher learning for a degree or any other form of qualification.

SOLVE APPROVAL

The work reported was carried out under the following supervision

Supervisor: PROF. R. ~J.3(ENYA~ ZIRABA Signature L~.°4~ Date

Internal Examiner: PR~kBYARUGABA DOMINIC

Signature . ~ Date DEDICATION

To my Almighty God, beloved Mum, sister and her husband, brother and friends.

Ill TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

Declaration

Approval II

Dedication ill Table of Contents iv Acknowledgements vi

Abstract VII List of Figures ix

List of Plates X

List of Tables Xi Chapter One: Introduction 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Problem statement 3 1.3 Research objectives 5 1.3.1 General objective 5 1.3.2 Specific objectives 5 1.5 Hypothesis 6 1.6 Scope of the Study 6 1.7 Significance of the Study 6 1.8 Conceptual Framework 6 1.9 Defmition of terms 7 Chapter Two: Literature Review 8 2.1. Stakeholders 8 2.2 Community participation in wetland management 10 2.3 Status of wetlands in 12 2.4. Receiving bodies of Kigali city 13 2.5. Indigenous Knowledge in Wetland Management 15

iv 2.6 Sustainable Wetland Management .18 2.7 Improving Wetlands Management 20 Chapter Three: Methodology 24 3.1 Study area~ 24 3.2 Materials and Methods 28 3.2.1 Materials 29 3.2.2 Laboratory analysis 29 3.3 Field survey 30 3.4 Limitation to the Study 34 Chapter Four: Results and Discussion 35 4.1 Field survey results 35 4.2 Physical-chemical and bacteriological analysis of water quality 41 4.3 Microbiological quality analysis of water 46 4.5 Hypothesis testing 53 Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations 54 5.1 Summary of the study 54 5.2 Conclusion 55 5.3 Recommendations 57 References 58 Appendices 67 Appendix I 67 Appendix II~ 73 Appendix III Error! Bookmark not defined.

V ACI~OWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost I thank God the Almighty for providing me grace and wisdom to complete this dissertation. I would like to express my sincere and heartfelt thanks to my family.

I am very grateful to Prof. R. Bukenya Ziraba and Dr Sande Eric, for the encouragement, understanding, guidance and intellectual support in order to complete this report.

I am indebted to my external and internal examiners: Prof. Eric Edroma and Prof Dominic Byarugaba for their supports, guidance and advice throughout the study.

I would also like to express my deep appreciation to Gilles Karasira, in charge of Kigali Institute of Education (KIE) laboratories for his contribution in analysis of water samples in TUE laboratory.

I would like to extend my sincere gratitude and consideration to those who supported me directly or indirectly in carrying out this research.

Special thanks go to my fellow students and friends for their limitless love during my study. May God, the Almighty bless you all.

vi ABSTRACT

This study evaluated the extent of community participation in sustainable wetland management in Kigali City. The aim of the study was to establish the contribution of different stakeholders in sustainable wetland management, to identify the use of indigenous knowledge in wetland management and public awareness of existing management system and practices.

The study compared the difference between wetland sites with active community participation and wetland sites without community participation, in Kigali City, in assessing water quality by measuring selected physical, chemical and biological parameters in Nyabugogo and Nyabarongo wetlands.

The parameters covered were Temperature, Electric Conductivity, pH, Turbidity, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Total Dissolved Solids, Total Suspended Solids, Ammonia, Phosphates, oil and grease, Sulfides, Lead, Chromium, Iron, Lead, Nickel, Zinc, Mercury, Cadmium, Arsenic, Benzene and fecal coliforms. The water samples were collected, preserved and analyzed in the laboratory using standard methods.

Water quality analysis revealed that both wetlands have different concentration of heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Pb), Phosphates, Ammonia, oil and grease.

The survey results revealed that local people have traditional knowledge to conserve and use wetland resources, but indigenous knowledge have also limitations due to their beliefs and mindset that can lead to wetland degradation. Though farmers have sufficient knowledge on the causes and the potential solutions to overcome most constraints related to agricultural management, some

VII local farmers invade wetlands during dry season using unsustainable practices for the growing of crops (use of agro-chernicals in vegetables).

Farmers of highlands in northern part of Rwanda used traditional knowledge to predict rain season and drought through observing humidity in the pot-like dish inserted into the ground, water level increase in the pot indicate the onset of appropriate season for fanning. Wetlands of this region (Rugezi in Bulera district) are sources of major rivers and contain higher amount of vegetation. The drainage of these swamps may lead to drought in downstream or other forms of imbalance in the enviromnent like increased erosion or disruption of the climate. Wetland sedges provide critical areas for livestock grazing, especially during the dry season. Raised beds for agri-pisciculture have been implemented and have proved to be sustainable and effective. Farmers use farmyard manure and compost to increase soil fertility, believe that chemical fertilizers decrease soil fertility and then match cropping systems with soil type.

Keywords: Community participation, sustainability, indigenous knowledge systems

VIII LIST OF FIGURES

Figure3.1: Map of Nyabarongo wetland 24 Figure3.2: Map of Nyabugogo wetland 26 Figure 4.1: Variation of heavy metals in Nyabarongo wetland sites 42 Figure4.2: Variation of heavy metals in Nyabugogo wetland sites 42 Figure4.3: Variation of chemical parameters in wetland sampling sites 44 Figure 4.4: Variation in pH, Temperature and Ammonia 44 Figure4.5: Variation of BOC, COD, TSS, Turbidity and TSS 44 Figure 4.6: Variation of Conductivity 44 Figure 4.7: Variation of Faecal coliforms 46

ix LIST OF PLATES

Plate 2.1: Women involved in craft making from local available materials ...... 22 from the wetland Plate 4.1: Fecal coliform on MacConkey medium 51

x LIST OF TABLES

Table2. 1: Main receiving bodies of Kigali and environmental impacts 14

Table3 .2: Sample Size detennining the number of respondents in Kigali City. . . .33

Table 4.1: Distribution of respondents by age and sex 34

Table 4.2: Sex of respondents 34

Table 4.3: Use of indigenous knowledge in wetland management 35

Table 4.4: The level of participation in wetland management activities 35

Table 4.5: Wetland related management problems 36

Table 4.6: Physical-chemical and bacteriological parameters of water in 40

Nyabarongo wetland

Table 4.7: Physical-chemical and bacteriological parameters in 40

Nyabugogo wetland

xi LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ABS: Access and Benefit Sharing ACNR: Association pour la Conservation de la Nature au Rwanda AMEKI: Atelier de Meubles de Kigali ARECO: Association Rwandaise des Ecologistes AWF: African Wildlife Foundation BOD: Biochemical Oxygen Demand CBO: Community Based Organization CGIS: Center for Geographic Information System CHDR: College of Higher Degrees and Research CHUK: Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Kigali COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand DDT: Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane DWAF: Department of Water Affairs and Forestry EC: Electric conductivity ELECTROGAZ: Etablissement de Production et de Distribution d’Electricité, d’Eau et de Gaz FOG: Fats, Oil and Grease GEF: Global Environment Facility GoR: Government of Rwanda IKS: Indigenous knowledge system IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature ME: Kigali Institute of Education MIDIMAR: Ministry of Disaster Management and Refugee Affairs MINAGRE: Ministry of Agriculture and Resources MINALOC: Ministry of Local Government, Good governance, Community

XII MINECOFIN: Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning MINEDUC: Ministry of Education MINICOM: Ministry of Commerce MININFRA: Ministry of Infrastructure MINIRENA: Ministry of Natural Resources MINISANTE: Ministry of Health MINITERE: Ministry of Lands, Environment, Water and Mines NBS: National Biomass Study NEYP: National Environment Youth Project NGO: Non Governmental Organization NPK: Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium NTU: Nephelometric Turbidity Units pH: Hydrogen potential REMA: Rwanda Environment Management Authority RNRA: Rwanda Natural Resource Authority SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Scientists TDS: Total Dissolved Solids TEK: Traditional Ecological Knowledge TSS: Total Suspended Solids UNDP: United Nations Development Programme UNEP: United Nation Enviromnent Programme UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UTEXRWA: Usine du Textile au Rwanda WHO: World Health Organization WWF: World Wildlife Fund

xHl CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Wetlands are critical natural resources in developing countries where they perforrri a range of environmental functions and provide numerous socio economic benefits to local communities and a wider population (Dixon &Wood, 2003).Communities around wetlands, which depend on natural resources provided by them, are not only a component of the whole wetland ecosystems, but also the managers of these systems (Mingqi et al., 201 l).Worldwide, people have managed wetlands sustainably for generations. However, wetlands have been seen as wasted lands, which need to be made economically productive. New management approaches that depend heavily on technology, together with environmental changes, mean that many wetlands are now threatened (Kaaya, 2008).Mechanized utilization of wetland ecosystems destroys the phytosociognomy and paves way for robust weed infestation, example: in rice, schemes, sugarcane plantations and valley tea plantations like in Rwanda. Sustainable management of wetland depends on the participation of all stakeholders and strengthening the capacity of local individuals and communities to implement conservation initiatives (IUCN, 1996). However, stakeholders with different socio-economic background prefer different management activities (Sopha, 2013).

When people interact with their physical environment through rules and existing governance structures, these interactions have impacts in both directions. National Environment Youth Project (NEYP) and Association pour la Conservation de la Nature au Rwanda (ACNR) improved the livelihoods of communities through awareness of sustainable management and conservation of Nyabarongo wetlands.

1 The degraded wetlands were rehabilitated to previous state which improved the local lives through getting employment and benefiting from sustainable use of wetland resources. On the other hand, inadequate pollution control in Kigali City and illegal use greatly affected water quality and biodiversity of Nyabugogo wetlands and to the communities depending on the wetland for water supply with waterborne disease risks such as dysentery, diarrhea, typhoid fever, cancers Cholera, Guinea worm, Schistosomiasis, Lymphatic filariasis, Onchocerciasis, Shigellosis, Salmonellosis, Escherishia coli, fungal, parasitic and viral infections. Thus, the status of the wetlands has an impact on the status of the communities’ welfare which then affects the material condition of the wetlands (Mombo, 201 1).

Rwanda, as many other countries, has adopted and ratified the Ramsar Convention in order to address the wise and sustainable use of wetlands. According to the 1994 Ramsar Convention Manual, community consultation and participation are critical in the management and conservation of wetlands. However wetland management is still based largely on ‘protection’ and ‘law enforcement approach’ and there is considerable confusion over both the meanings and implications of terms such as decentralized management and participation. The general objective of National Wetlands Conservation Policy is to “promote conservation and sustainable management of Rwandan wetlands in order to maintain their ecological functions and uses for the welfare of the present and future generations and to promote participation of communities and local authorities as well as other partners for management and sustainable utilization of the wetlands (Government of Rwanda, 2003).

Given the land shortage in Rwanda and overpopulation problems, wetlands have been put under intensive cultivation for crops such as sugarcane, rice, flowers, sweet potatoes, Eucalyptus and tea plantations. Other uses include conversion of wetlands into livestock grazing areas because of good pasture all round the year.

2 This has however, been reduced due to the zero-grazing policy being enforced by government. Approximately 30 per cent (90,000 ha) of the swamps area is already being used for agriculture. Of these, 5,000 ha are used all year round (MINIRENA, 2008). Cultivation of swampland affects their chemical, physical and hydrological nature. The use of chemical fertilizers (NPK), fungicides (Mancozeb) and insecticides (DDT) has modified the chemical composition of these hydrologically-connected water resources. These chemicals seep through the wetlands and join other water sources most of which fonn rural domestic water supply points such as wells and streams. Spillages from industrial processes also pollute water and wetlands, for instance, during the washing of coffee in Kigali (e.g.: Agro-coffee Industry S.A.R.L, Coffee Processing Plant Complex, SICAF, COOPAC) .The physical and hydrological modifications mainly relate to erosion due to inappropriate agricultural practices. Drains and channels constructed to divert or to increase water out-flow from wetlands lower the water table and can lead to loss of biodiversity through drying out of the wetlands. Sand extraction and brick making in wetlands of Kigali city are regulated by the law. Policies indicate what to do, where to do it and requirements for getting authorization from the regulatory bodies.

1.2 Problem statement

Sustainable management of wetland cannot be achieved without active participation of all stakeholders including the local community (Darradi et al, 2005). In Kigali City, there is a lack of management strategies to ensure integration of all wetland users in the protection of water quality and different programmes and projects are not sustainable due to inadequate participation in their planning and monitoring. The aim of the study was to assess the contribution and engagement of different stakeholders on protecting and rehabilitating

3 Nyabugogo and Nyabarongo wetlands and by improving livelihood through providing employment and sustainable use of resources. The challenges facing Nyabugogo wetland management include lack of sustainable and appropriate wastewater management strategies in Kigali city. Untreated wastewater from many factories, CHUK (Centre Hospitalier Universitaire du Rwanda) and Muhima hospital, Nyabugogo slaughtering house and central prison are directly discharged directly in Nyabugogo wetlands and exceed its treatment capacity and many parameters are higher than recommended WHO standards of safe drinking water. In some places of pen-urban areas pit latrines are constructed close the wetlands and the sewage contaminate ground water causing waterborne diseases like diarrhea,. dysentery and typhoid fever. Many farmers are not aware of harmful effects of chemical products on their health and environment. Thus, many of them are still using DDT pesticides on vegetables; Rice growing mainly uses NPK (17-17-17), resulting in heavy deposition of phosphorous and Nitrogen in the marshland waters (MINITERE, 2005). The use of wetlands in Rwanda is regulated by organic law. However, local people are not consulted when taking decision on crucial wetland management issues of wetland reclamation and conservation. There is still little public awareness of proper utilization of wetlands. Due to their traditional mindset, some activities are still carried out prior to environmental management plan like wetland reclamation for agriculture, sand extraction, brick making and cutting of trees. These increase wetland loss and degradation.

Therefore, there is a need for a better coordination and collaboration among Ministry of Natural resources, REMA, MINAGRI, RNRA, MINALOC, Districts and local community to make appropriate institutional arrangements for engaging all responsible stakeholders in wetland conservation and management.

4 1.3 Research objectives

1.3.1 General objective

The General objective of this study was to explore to what extent community participation in Kigali City contributed to sustainable wetland management.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

In order to realize the objective, the following specific objectives were devised, and these were: • Determine to what extent community participation affects water quality of Kigali City wetlands; • Evaluate the use of indigenous knowledge in wetland management and awareness of existing wetland management systems; and • Compare physico-chemical and microbiological parameters of water between Nyabugogo and Nyabarongo wetlands in relation to WHO standard limits.

1.4. Research Questions To enable attaining research objectives and testing hypothesis research questions are described below: 1. What are the management strategies used by different stakeholders to maintain water quality of Nyabugogo and Nyabarongo wetlands? 2. How is the quality of water in Kigali City wetlands? 3. What are the indigenous knowledge used in sustainable management of Nyabugogo and Nyabarongo wetlands? 4. What is the structure of existing wetland management system?

5 1.5 Hypothesis

Wetland conservation will result in increase of water quality of Kigali city wetlands. Since wetlands are natural water purifiers especially if the climax vegetation of the habitat is dominated by Papyrus and cyperus species.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The study was conducted in Nyabarongo and Nyabugogo wetlands, Kigali City from May 2013 to September 2013 with a major aim of determining the extent of community participation to better conservation, restoration and water management in wetlands and evaluating the use of indigenous knowledge systems in managing wetlands. Laboratory analysis was done to analyze water quality of wetlands and a field survey to evaluate indigenous knowledge and existing wetland management systems were determined.

1.7 Significance of the Study

This study was important and useful to Kigali city which has undergone a number of wetland degradation including the most recent one of Gikondo-Nyabugogo wetland pollution. It shows the importance of all stakeholders to improve wetland management. The study will avail a copy in the library at the end of the study thus acting as a future reference to others having interest in the field of sustainable wetland management and community participation. The study provides adequate information to government agency and NGO’s to provide job opportunities to local communities and managing wetlands sustainably.

1.8 Conceptual Framework

The framework is composed by the following elements: sustainable wetland management, use of indigenous knowledge, participation in wetland management

6 and water quality management. Sustainable management of wetlands depends on participation of all stakeholders. Use of indigenous knowledge in wetland management is also critical for the management to be acceptable, exclusion of local people in the management of wetlands lead to failure. People have knowledge on their enviromnent and their different problems. Water is very important to livelihood of people and to wetland ecosystem in general. Maintenance of water quality protects wetland ecosystems and human health.

1.9 Definition of terms

Community participation: a process by which local people themselves are provided the opportunity and responsibility to manage their resources, define their needs, goals and aspirations and makç decisions affecting their well-being (Addun &Muzones, 1993).

Sustainable use of wetlands: Human use of a wetland resources so that it may yield the greatest continuous benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. Naturally wetland habitat species depend on propajule concept that: “Disturbance increases residence. This notion maintains their stability especially if papyrus is the main stand.

Indigenous knowledge: Indigenous knowledge is perceived as knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. It creates the basis for local level decision making in agriculture, health care, food preparation and preservation, education and natural resource management (Kaaya, 2008). Roggeri (1995) described traditional wetland knowledge as those interventions or techniques, which integrate the objectives of development with the maintenance of wetland functions and values.

7 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Stakeholders:

Stakeholders can be defined as the people who either will be potentially affected by the management of wetlands; will be involved by one way or another in the implementation of management activities; or who are likely to support or oppose the research or development project or the policy at stake. Stakeholders include: (i)Local user communities: Those people, who live in the vicinity and directly use the resources, and who, in developing countries, are typically partly in a subsistence relationship with the resources and partly in a market relationship. Local user community include: The farmers of Nyacyonga and Kabuye cells grow rice in Nyabugogo wetlands; in Gahanga sector, farmers plant sugar cane of Kabuye sugar factory, local population depending on wetland for domestic water supply, vegetable cultivation and fishing cooperatives; (ii) Local communities having an indirect interest in the management of the resource; for example, local communities which rely on some function of the wetland, such as flood control or coastal erosion protection, but do not directly use the resources; (iii) Remote user communities who come from a distance to use the resources and who may be in competition with the local users (or may have a long-standing arrangement with the local community), or may use a different component of the resources; middle men! women resource users.(iv) Commercial direct users of wetland resources (individuals, groups or legal entities such as companies) who have a purely commercial relationship with the resources;(v) Commercial indirect users who sometimes do not realize that they are users of the wetland resources. Examples include companies which discharge wastes into the wetland, or commercial operations harvesting wetland resources ‘downstream’, such as offshore harvesting of shrimp which spend their larval stages in the wetlands; these

8 factories include Kabuye Sugar works, UTEXRWA, and MIRONKO Plastic industries;(vi)Suppliers and marketers associated with wetland resource users can be a diverse group, including middlemen for wetland products, suppliers of inputs such as fuel and equipment, providers of credit. This group can be extremely resistant to change in the status quo and often have much better political connections than the local user community; (vii)Governrnent agencies with responsibility for management of some aspect of wetland resources such as REMA, MINIRENA, RNRA, MINAGRI, MINALOC and MIDIMAR. This might include a range of agencies with sectoral responsibilities for different resources, for example, Districts, and (viii) Supporters of wetland communities, such as: environrnei’tal and conservation organizations like IUCN, WWF, UNESCO IHE, UNEP, UNDP, BirdLife International, NEYP, CBD, ABS, STRC AU, GEF, AWF, RAMSAR, social and human rights advocacy groups, development assistance organizations and concerned individuals, and end consumers of wetland products. Thus, interventions in the management process which focus solely on a particular user community, or even on a user community and the relevant government agency, are often undeniiined by parts of the wider community that have not been included in project design considerations. From this perspective the range and scale of the difficulties facing the single operator (project team, government agency, technical advisor, NGOs such as ARECO Rwanda Nziza (Association Rwandaise des Ecologistes), GEF, NEYP project, ACNR. and individual community in trying to influence wetland resource use and management.

Usually, the expected outcomes of stakeholder involvement in natural resources management are (i) a better understanding of people concerns leading to solutions more adapted to their needs; (ii) an assessment of their knowledge about the wetland system, the integration of this knowledge in management options, and a

9 better targeting of awareness and education activities; (iii) ownership of the project and support to its implementation; (iv) reduction of potential conflicts among stakeholders; and finally (iii) improved communication and coordination of actions and stronger working relationships among stakeholders (Darradi et al., 2005).

2.2 Community participation in wetland management

Shrestha (2011) argued that community participation plays a vital role in the development of capacity for the management and utilization of their resources in a sustainable way. This was further echoed by Martin et al., (2009) who indicated that effective management of natural resources is best achieved by giving focused value for those who live with them, since an attempt to establish resource management without resource use is likely to be futile or unsustainable.

Community participation can be achieved through devolution of authority and capacity building of community based organizations. This was also confirmed by Nemarundwe (2003) who noted that destruction of wetlands was due to social and behavioural factors of local community. Marambanyika et a!., (2012) indicate that local people’s participation has resulted in restoration and increase in size of the wetland ecosystem. This is evidenced by abundance in flora and fauna species. Sustainable wetland utilization was achieved through empowering local communities as primary users and preservers whilst technical support came from government agencies. ACNR had established two site support groups (SSG) which enforce the regulations and by-laws that were formulated to protect the threatened wetland biodiversity. The Local farmers were taught how to protect the River banks and to restore the degraded parts of the wetland. Today, 30.5 hectares are planted with Penniseturn clandestinum and agricultural crops were removed

10 hence the Nyabarongo river site is strengthened. This was not just stipulated by the Rwanda environment law but helped farmers to get more livestock feed.

In Rwanda, the local authorities at the decentralized administrative levels are responsible for all activities of planning, implementing, coordination and monitoring of wetland related activities on the ground. However, failure of some community based natural resources management programmes has been noticed in various areas resulting in some scholars questioning the efficacy of the approach. Mukamuri et al., (2009) attributed this common failure not to local communities’ participation but to misconstrued participation of local people as they were merely asked to participate in projects conceptualized and developed by external experts and development agencies.

Silima (2007) further attributed failure of natural resources utilization programmes to poor participation of local communities in their planning, implementation and monitoring. Therefore, local communities instead of being custodians of wetland resources through incentives obtained as goods and services, they end up being a degrading force due to lack of shared goals with the project experts and development agencies.

Mbereko et a?., (2007) highlighted that the competing roles of government, traditional institutions, local leadership and non-governmental organizations were responsible for increasing degradation of wetland resources.

There is need for all stakeholders to participate in any wetland planning or management initiative. Some wetlands are trans-boundary resources and their management has implications for communities upstream and downstream as well as policy making at local, district and national level. It is critical that attention is paid to specific interests of all groups (wetland users, government, NGO’s, and

11 traditional institutions) so that wetlands can provide the maximum benefit to all (Wood, 2001).

2.3 Status of wetlands in Rwanda

In Rwanda, wetlands account for approximately 6.3% of the surface area. There are various types of wetlands, with peat bogs at higher altitudes (e.g. Kamiranzovu and Rugezi), papyrus swamps (Kanyaru-Nyabarongo and Akagera basins in Mayaga-Bugesera) and flood plains at lower altitudes (Bugarama swamps, <1000 rn), seasonally flooded valley wetlands in the mid altitude zones (Rwagitima and Kanyonyomba in the East, 1,400 to 2000 m) (Kanyarukiga & Ngarambe, 1999).

High population pressure, coupled with land scarcity, has resulted in the cultivation of increasingly marginal lands, particularly very steep slopes, but also valley bottom wetlands.

Agricultural use of wetlands is most common in the mid altitude zone. It has developed over the last two or three decades, from being limited to the two dry seasons, to almost continual cropping with the two wet seasons used as well. This has occurred primarily as a result of government, UNDP and UNEP initiatives seeking to address chronic food insecurity. These initiatives have usually focused on the technical aspects of drainage and irrigation, with the construction of permanent hydrological control structures, such as micro-barrages, deep drainage, channels and shallower irrigation channels, some of which are constructed in concrete. This multiple cropping of wetlands has involved a major transformation of these areas and their hydrological regime, creating a variety of problems. These include flooding in the wet season leading to crop damage and insufficient water for cultivation in the dry season. There are impacts on stream flow variability as

12 the intensive drainage rapidly conveys water through the wetlands, removing their ability to store water and provide hydrological regulation. The rapid development of these areas has meant there is still an on-going process of trial and error to identify the best use regime and there is only limited involvement of local farmers and wetland user institutions. Both are essential for achieving ecologically and socially sustainable regimes (REMA, 2010).

Ramsar declaration held in Kampala stated that: Rwanda is a catchrnent area of and is a critical watershed point for many streams, rivers and lakes. The infestation of notorious weeds like water Hyacinth continues to threaten the habitat stability of key wetland ecosystems. As part of regional water hyacinth management activities in the Lake Victoria Basin that also involve , , Uganda and several international partners, Rwanda is currently implementing efforts to rear and release the two Neochetina weevil species as biological control agents through coordination of training activities and training visits made to Uganda and Tanzania. Weevils for release in Rwanda have come from stocks maintained in Uganda. (Moorhouse, 2001).

2.4. Receiving bodies of Kigali city The majority of nonindustrial, industrial, and even solid waste pollutants end up by being concentrated in the receiving bodies, essentially made up of marshes and rivers flowing in the urban zone of the City of Kigali. Table 2.1 shows the most concerned receiving bodies which include: Nyabugogo River, which gather/collect the majority of domestic and industrial wastes of the city, the Mpazi River, particularly affected by industrial wastes, various marshes of small sizes, mainly fragile, shown in various points of the city (see point 5 of the table) and which are strongly mineral-bearing.

13 Table 2.1: Main receiving bodies of Kigali and environmental Impacts Receiving bodies Description of the impacts

Nyabugogo river Main discharge system of river catchments of Kigali

Receives the majority of polluted water (domestic and industrial waste water).

Mpazi river Effluents from CHUK, the Slaughter-house of Nyabugogo, SODEPAR.AL Tannery, as well as shopping centre located around new bus station of Nyabugogo. The polluting loads of Mpazi are directly discharged into Nyabugogo without passing to a purifying/treating marsh.

Marsh of Significant polluting loads, particularly from central prison, SULFO Rwanda and of commercial Nyabugogo area (restaurants, garages). Remain degraded a bit and fulfills (again) its ecological and Rwezangoro hydrological functions.

Gatenga marsh Partially mineral-bearing, needs to be restored to effectively play its treatment and regulating (upstream Rugenge) functions of the risings. Pollution by sedimentary charges from Rugenge basin (erosion) and waste water.

Small marshes of Strongly mineralized, drained and used in agriculture, refer to industrial pollution (Rugenge) do not Rugenge, Ruganwa, fulfill their treatment and regulating functions. Rwampara and Kibumba, small rivers of Rugwiro and Kagugu

Rubilizi Waste water from East Kicukiro , Kagarama and Kabeza areas undergo a gradual self-purification along the river and are treated in the marshy valley.

Mulindi (Mwanda) Waste and storm water of Kimironko, Nyarugunga, Munini and Ndera. Treatment function by the marsh.

Various districts of Natural enviromnent receiving from solid waste produced by the population. A part is taken to the city Nyanza disposal site.

Source: ELECTROGAZ 2008

14 2.5. Indigenous Knowledge in Wetland Management

Lewis (1989) described indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) as the same as Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). Lewis saw IKS as knowledge, which was shared and passed on to younger people through songs, stories, rituals and other verbal communications known as opera. The use of indigenous knowledge in wetlands management is perceived to be effective in many communities. An example is the use of oral history in the rehabilitation and management in Kanyapella basin of Australia. Research was conducted at Kanyapella basin to determine the potential role of oral history in the rehabilitation of the wetland. Local history was found to improve scientific understanding and enhance policy implementation regarding the management of Kanyapella basin. In addition, oral history is perceived to be valued as an important element in incorporating local ecological knowledge in ecosystem management and rehabilitation including wetland management. Oral history was obtained from the local resource managers who provided information on hydrological as well as ecological history of the wetland. Thus, the local history gathered was integrated into the draft management plan of the wetland (Robertson & McGee, 2003).

Indigenous knowledge can aid in the management of natural resources especially wetlands; after all it is human influence that has led to their degradation. Dixon & Wood (2001) describe how indigenous knowledge has been integrated in wetland management policy in South-Eastern Ethiopia. In Wendo Geneti hilly area big companies depend on the highland wetlands for irrigation water source. The local community in Illubabor cultivated on wetlands using indigenous practices, which ensured that wetlands were not degraded. The change in national government led to the change in the Ethiopian environmental policy. However, in order to improve food security in the Illubabor region the local government later promoted

15 the integration of local knowledge to promote and increase wetland management. In addition, the sustainability of wetland management was facilitated by traditional institutions, which were formed to ensure co-ordination and to empower wetland management activities.

Mitsch & Gosselink (2000) state that until the middle of the 20th century, wetland management in the United States of America usually meant draining the wetland except for a few wetland managers who maintained them for hunting, fishing, waterfowl and wildlife protection. In other words “For most of recorded history, wetlands were regarded as wastelands if not bogs of treachery, mires of despair, homes of pest and refuges of outlaws and rebel. A good wetland was a drained wetland free of this mixture of dubious social factors” (Larson & Kusler, 1997 cited in Mitsch & Gosselink, 2000). However, wetland drainage as a management tool is no longer in usage, thus wetlands were managed for particular reasons. Stearns in 1978, cited in Mitsch & Gosselink (2000) lists 12 goals for wetland management that are still applicable namely: maintenance of water quality, reduce erosion, flood mitigation, provide a natural system to process airborne pOllutants, provide a buffer between urban residential and industrial segments to ameliorate climate and physical impact such as noise, maintain a gene pool of marsh plants and provide examples of complete natural communities, provide aesthetic and psychological support for human beings, provide wildlife, control insect population, provide habitats for fish spawning and other food organisms, produce food, fibre and fodder and finally to expedite scientific inquiry.

In Northern Cameroon, a fish canal system has been developed to facilitate water movements between the river and the floodplain to allow inundation of the floodplain hence allows grazing even in dry years when flood levels are low (Roggeri, 1995). In Burkina Faso, numerous permeable check dams have been

16 built by villagers to increase agricultural production through increased moisture of the soil and increased water supply due to a rise in the water table and wells (Zazen, 1991).

In Rwanda, Mexico, Bolivia, India and Indonesia, raised beds for agri-pisci culture have been implemented and have proved to be sustainable and effective. In Mukondwa ward of Hwedza District in Zimbabwe, management of wetlands is done by the community, under the leadership of the village-head assisted by agricultural extension workers based in the community (Gadzirayi, 2006). This kind of management approach is based on local traditional values that emphasize the sustainable utilization of natural resources and can be applied to other parts of the continent.

The Washambaa of the Usambara Mountains in Tanzania have long cultivated their land by simulating the natural vegetation. Mixing trees and shrubs in the same plot with their crops helps to maintain soil fertility. Modern agro-forestry practices were studied and transferred to Rwanda through a donor-assisted project. Farmers and development workers in Rwanda adapted the model and enhanced it with the integration of cattle keeping and fodder planting. This helped farmers in Rwanda to grow more food and increase income while at the same time maintaining soil fertility.

The degree of wetland reclamation in South Western Kabale in Uganda is unrivalled in the region. The largest wetland units i.e. the Kiruruma south and Kiruruma north are permanently wet but this did not hinder those determined to reclaim them betweenl970-1985. Even today, much effort has to be put in to keep the drainage channels open otherwise the reclaimed wetlands can be too water logged for the current use (NBS, 1999).

17 2.6 Sustainable Wetland Management

Sustainable management of wetland depends on the participation of stakeholders. Involving stakeholders in planning and management is a necessary condition for sustainable wetland management. Both without understanding about enviromnental, knowing how to conserve the natural resources or without community participation in the management, it will not be a sustainable management and conservation progress over time. Special attention needs to be given to the local population who will be the first to benefit from improved management. Devolution of control over resources from central government to local structures may be a critical element in the success of approaches to wise use, and ways of achieving this need to be examined in all field projects” (Davis, 1993).

A balance has to be struck between the environmental functioning of wetlands and their use for livelihood purposes thus promoting sustainable wetland management. Many communities and international organizations have found a way of encouraging wetlands management. For example the Ramsar Convention promotes the sustainable utilization of wetlands. As mentioned earlier, this is evident from the Ramsar strategic plan for 2003-2008 where the Convention argues that the wise use of wetlands is one of the techniques that can be used in developed and developing countries. Ramsar Convention describes the wise use of wetlands as the sustainable utilization of wetlands for the benefit of human kind in a way that is compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem. Sustainable utilization is defined by the Convention as the human use of a wetland so that it may yield the greatest continuous benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations.

18 Many farmers in Kigali city are still not aware of proper utilization of swamps due to their traditional mindset hence simply exploit swamps regardless of resulting in harmful effects. May be the harmful effects rhym with increase in population viz static wetland size, in densely populated Rwanda. Developing nations, which face strong demands for socio-economic development, are encouraged to use and conserve wetlands in a sustainable manner. Conservation is recommended to manage the rate of change in ecosystems (Turner & Jones, 1991).

Wetland use usually involves people with different and possibly competing interests, working within a linked system where the action of one person can affect the benefits to others. There can easily be conflicts between different wetland users and so some coordination of activities is necessary to ensure that benefits are maximized and losses minimized. These coordination activities may be managed by formal or informal mechanisms, which can build on local knowledge and traditional institutions, or be of more recent origin. Such institutional developments are essential for the sustainable use of wetlands and the sound management of their catchments (Wood, 2001). In order to maintain the ecological integrity and environmental functioning of Wetlands, alternative sustainable methods of wetland utilization should be pursued and if possible improved, like ‘finger pond’ techniques developed by Denny & Turyatimga (1992) for the Ugandan Lake Victoria Wetlands. This involves cutting wide channels into the swamp at right angles to the shore. The soil removed from the channels would be heaped between the channels to form raised beds.These channels could be used to raise Clarias, Oreochrornis niloticus and the two native Oreochromis species. The fringe of the ponds could be used to cultivate papyrus or for horticulture. Fish culture would be based on polycultural techniques successfully used in South East Asia and now being developed in

19 Africa. Wetlands within the City of Kigali which are of international importance (RAMSAR site wetlands) are to be demarcated soon so as to maintain their ecological character through the implementation of ecosystem approaches within the context of sustainable development. “The wise use of wetlands has been a serious issue. This is a complex issue which requires strong and innovative partnership. Proposed RAMSAR site wetlands within the city of Kigali are about four, mainly Kitagurizwa wetland (Within Gasabo and Kicukiro districts), Rugende- Isumo wetland (Within Gasabo and Kicukiro districts), Nyabarongo— Aval wetland (Within Nyarugenge and Kicukiro districts) and Nyabarongo Arnont wetland (Within Nyarugenge district). To demarcate the limits of wetlands, trees will be planted alongside the boundaries of each wetland and tree species which are suitable for that activity have been found. These are Phoenix reclinata locally known as Umukindo, Markharnia platycalyx locally known as Umusave, Acacia polyacantha locally known as Umugo (REMA, 2009). Highland wetlands of the lacustrine area in Rwanda and Uganda have characteristic Myrica Salispholia, Syzigiuin Guinense.

2.7 Improving Wetlands Management

Rwanda does not have a wetlands policy and wetlands are currently being managed under the Environmental Organic Law and the Land Law. Conservation of wetlands is vital particularly in protecting and promoting wetlands normal functions. Using a watershed approach appears to be the best strategy for the management and rehabilitation of wetlands in Rwanda. Species of Papyrus sp and Cyperus sp form watershed habitats. Such an approach would be designed to restore the protection benefits, limit negative effects on trans-boundary water resources and conserve biodiversity in both natural and modified environments (Chemonics International mc, 2003).

20 Although wetlands management is prioritized in some Districts Development Plans, distances along river shores of respectively 10 meters for crops and 20 meters for housing are not always respected. Around some marshlands, buffer zones of 50 meters have been delineated and agro-forestry species have been planted, still annual crops often continue to be planted between trees and even between the wooded strips and in the marshlands and the buffer zones cannot serve their purpose of erosion control and protection against flooding. Experience has demonstrated that initiatives aimed at wetland conservation and management must be recognized as a long term process that aims at building a strong knowledge base. Uses that involve some level of modification of the original state of wetlands must be accepted as management options, subject to ensuring the maintenance of essential hydrological, ecological or other system functions. Capacity for wetlands management must be built at all levels to address institutional sustainability, ownership, user rights and access (REMA, 2009).

In May 2008 ACNR started a project called “Improvement of livelihoods, knowledge and sustainable management of Nyabarongo wetlands in Rwanda” donated by IUCN. Their aim was to raise the local community’s awareness for environmental conservation through workshops and meetings. They used Nyabarongo wetland as their unique source of subsistence without considering future generations. Nyabarongo wetlands, an Important Area in Rwanda is a refuge for wetland-dependent species and plays important roles in regulating water flow. They are home of the endangered Madagascar Pond heron Ardeola idae, the Near-threatened Papyrus gonolek Laniarius mufumbiri, the Vulnerable Grey Crowned Crane Balearica reguloruin gibbericeps, and Sitatunga Tragelaphus spekii. The unsustainable use of wetland resources and that of its watershed coupled with climate change have affected the wetlands and hence caused locals to suffer. With the help of Association pour la Conservation de la

21 Nature au Rwanda, the Inyange Site Support Group now harvests Papyrus for handicrafting after every four months. This allows for its (Papyrus) regeneration while the group members actively engage in monitoring and reporting illegal users of wetlands resources, for example, Sitatunga hunters. This action has benefited some species that were almost eliminated in the wetlands to recover significantly. Today, Cranes may be seen in the wetlands, a positive outcome, as this species was over hunted in recent years for meat and illegally captured for ornamental purposes. Local people too are also benefiting from sale of handicrafts made by sustainably making use of locally available materials from the wetlands.

Plate 2.1: Women involved in craft making from local available materials from the wetland Source: Marc Ndimukaga (2011)

Wetlands and floodplains may be intensely used as fisheries, grazing and agricultural areas (especially as market gardens) and are among the first areas to be impacted by man (Loffler, 1990). Thus, the various roles to which wetlands may be subjected gives rise to conflicting demands which may be detrimental to entire aquatic ecosystems and their dependent fisheries. In some landlocked countries (e.g., Uganda) with extensive wetland systems surrounding

22 commercially large lake fisheries, the stability of wetlands may be important in sustaining the viability of the fisheries apart from the other wetland functions. Lake Victoria is shown as being fringed by a wetland buffer zone that is progressively exposed to human impacts. This is a direct result of increasing population pressure and attendant demand for arable land and grazing pastures. What follows is a combination of effects which translate into ecological changes initially manifested in the littoral zone. In stage (c), agricultural run-off contributes to increased nutrient and silt loading of the inshore littoral zone. The final stage (d) is a disappearance of the potamon stream zone and fringing buffer zone, as well as fish habitat degradation. Pollution due to eutrophication also adds to a simplification of the inshore fish habitats and an alteration of the entire trophic structure (B alirwa, 1998).

Sedimentation in a wetland environment is affected by the hydrology and hydraulics of the wetland and surrounding area. The wetland cannot be isolated from the surrounding environment as erosion and/or deposition on areas outside the wetland may have a profound effect on the sedimentation characteristics within the wetland. The wetland type (i.e. riverine, tidal, depressional, bottomland hardwood, etc.) is also important when evaluating sedimentation. In a riverine bottomland hardwood environment inflowing sediment loads may be transported through the wetland with little deposition. In a depressional wetland all sediment inflow is retained, reducing in wetland size and/or depth.

23 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study area:

This study was conducted in selected areas of Kigali City. City of Kigali is made up of three districts namely Gasabo, Kicukiro and Nyarugenge. The Districts comprise 35 Sectors, l6lCells, and Cells are sub-divided into Imidugudu literally villages (1061).

The City of Kigali, Capital of Rwanda, is almost located at the center of the country in the natural area of Bwanacyambwe, close to the Basin of Nyabugogo

River. Geographically the center of Kigali is at 10 - 57’ Southern latitude and at

30° - 04’ of Eastern longitude. Altitude varies from 1500 to 1560 m according to the place. The site of Kigali offers a diversity of landscapes where flat bottoms of valleys are juxtaposed, massive hills at the leveled tops and escarped mountainous solid masses. The limit between the zone of the hills and that of mountains is not clear because of the complexity of the catchments being able to go down without transition to fall into the bottoms from the valleys.

Approximately 30 % of the surface of the city is consisted of the hills with slopes higher than 20 %. The differences in altitude (uneven) between the top of the hills and the bottoms of the valleys are about 100 to 200 m. The zones of bottom melt (marsh) occupy about 19 % of the total surface. Historically, the City of Kigali was created in 1908 on the hill of Nyarugenge. It was only an administrative station and a residence of the German administrative authority until 1916 and Belgian until 1962, year of the independence of Rwanda.

It is presently inhabited by approximately 1,135,428 inhabitants (National institute of statistics in Rwanda, 2012). Kigali is 70% urban with 30% that is

24 rural. The population is relatively young with the youth making up about 60%, with women making slightly more than 50%.

Figure 3.1: Map of Nyabarongo wetlands and where sample were taken

Nyabarongo wetland is located at 2°21’04” S and 30°21’27”E and covering 142.62 km2 (55.07 sq mi) (CGIS). Although close to the equator, the climate is comparatively temperate due to the elevation. The rainy seasons are from March to May and again from September to December (Streissguth, 2008).

In the upper reaches of the wetlands the forest is only flooded seasonally. Further down, common plants are Ficus verruculosa, Myrica kandtiana, Phoenix reclinata and Cyperus papyrus (Rwanda, 2013).

25 The water is generally around 25°C (77°F). Fish are abundant, and there are many species of waterbirds. Other include water turtles, crocodiles, monitors, snakes and otters (Hughes et al., 1992).

The Nyabarongo River Wetlands is an unprotected area surrounding the course of the Nyabarongo. It is of great importance for biodiversity conservation, especially , with species such as the endangered Madagascar Pond heron Aldeora idae, the Near-threatened Papyrus gonolek Laniarius (mufumbiri), the Vulnerable Grey Crowned Crane Balearica regulorum, and the Sitatunga Tragelaphus spekii. The wetlands are under serious pressure from agriculture of sugar cane, rice, corn, and vegetables. The following species in the Nyabarongo River Wetlands are red- listed as endangered: Papyrus gonolek laniarius (inufumbiri), Carruthers~ cisticola (Cisticola carruthersi), White-winged Scrub-warbler (Bradypterus carpalis), Papyrus Yellow Warbler (Chioropeta gracilirostris), Sharpe’s Pied- babbler (Turdoides sharpei), Northern Brown-throated Weaver (Ploceus castanops), White-collared Oliveback (Nesocharis ansorgei), and Papyrus Canary ( koliensis) (BirdLife IBA Factsheet, 2009). The wetland harshly suffered from intensive and illegal farming done on the shores of Nyabarongo river and handcraft activities which caused over use of natural components of the wetland, parts of the wetland have already been drained, but nowadays, no such activity is allowed in the proximity of the wetland.

In 2007 ACNR (Association pour la Conservation de la Nature au Rwanda) started an initiative to restore the original wetland by removing agricultural crops and planting natural components of it such as Penniseturn crandestinune (Mukundwa, 2011).

26 / + ‘4

I j

Legend Visited Sites

Sowce ~ ndr su~tr~’eboi~.vy ~ Nyabugogo We and n~di5ed by P~ab,~ M — I(~,, ‘• 1~~~~ G’¼t.My~fl3 / 0 05 1 2

Figure 3.2: Map indicating Nyabugogo wetland and sample sites Nyabugogo wetland is located at 1°51 ‘53.14” S and 30°05’26.41 “E with a total area of 0.6009 km2 (CGIS); it is located around the Nyabugogo stream in Gatsata sector, behind the garages and it is connected with the Gikondo industrial park, small channels which collect waste waters from houses and garages, go through the wetland at many points of it, a dumping site was found in the wetland, some hazardous oils from garages and other unwanted metals find their way directly in the wetland, heavy metal (Cd, Cr; Cu, Pb) concentrations were monitored in all environment parts of the wetland by Sekomo et a!., (2010).

Inadequate pollution control Kigali provides a large proportion of the city’s industrial employment but consequently a larger portion of the urban Inadequate pollution control Kigali provides a large proportion of the city’s industrial employment but consequently a larger portion of the urban environmental problems like water quality deterioration, aquatic biodiversity loss, and waterborne diseases. A significant number of factories like AMEKI Color (painting), UTEXRWA (textile manufacturing), Kabuye Sugar works (Sugar refinery), TORIRWA/UPROTUR (coated sheet), Rwanda Company of Batteries, which form the industrial base in Kigali are located in a low-lying area called the Gikondo-Nyabugogo wetland. The factories, as well as the densely populated homesteads located on the adjacent hill slopes, have no proper liquid-waste disposal systems, and consequently pollute soils, groundwater and the surface water. Many of the factories use out-dated technologies that are associated with energy demands and waste generation to levels that have adverse impact on the environment, and render the operations expensive and unsustainable.

3.2 Materials and Methods The study was carried out on Nyabarongo and Nyabugogo wetlands. Six sites were selected for this study. Wastewater samples were collected from Nyabarongo wetlands on the sites of Gahanga, Kigali and Kagarama that are represented as sites where there is community participation, Gatsata, Muhima, and Rugenge are represented as sites with a lack of community participation. Water quality data from the wet season were collected from the previous research of water quality monitoring in Rwanda (2012). The water quality parameters for this study were temperature, pH, electric conductivity, total suspended solids, biological oxygen demand, total dissolved solids, phosphates, Ammonia, Sulphides, oil and grease and heavy metals, in this study, data were analyzed by using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software. Based on data, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to test whether mean values of water quality parameters of different sites vary spatially and temporally or not.

28 3.2.1 Materials 3.2.2 Laboratory analysis Water samples were collected in 500 ml sterilized bottles and transported in cooling box for analyzing to the Biology and chemistry laboratory of KIE, sterilized tubes of 10 ml, petri dishes, refrigerator, autoclave, incubators, culture medium, a colony counter, spreaders, beaker, cooling box, clips, laboratory methodology followed standard methods for the examination of feacal coliforms in water. Total suspended solids and turbidity were measured using a HACH DR’890 Colorimeter, Temperature was measured on the field by using a thermometer in which the probe end was cleaned with de-ionized water and immersed into sample. The pH was measured in situ by using a p1-i meter with a glass electrode and HACH conductmeter was used to determine total dissolved solids and electric conductivity. Before measurements, all the above equipments were properly calibrated following the manufacturer’s instructions. Laboratory analysis of the following heavy metals was done: Zinc, Iron, Copper, hexavalent Chromium and Lead which involved the digestion of unfiltered samples with nitric acid and heating on hotplate before analysis. The concentrations were then measured using Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Perkin Elmer model Analyst 200) with air/acetylene frame method. BOD was measured by filling diluted and seeded sample, to overflowing, an airtight bottle of specified size and incubating it at a temperature of 20°C for 5 days. Dissolved oxygen was measured initially and after incubation, and the BOD was computed from the difference between initial and final DO. Because the initial DO was determined shortly after the dilution was made, all oxygen uptake occurring after this measurement was included in the BOD measurement. Materials used to measure COD were digester, burette, conical flask, vials, pipettes, tissue papers and wash bottle., reagents were Potassium diehromate, Sulfuric acid, Ferrous ammonium sulfate, Silver sulphate, Mercury sulfate, Ferroic indicator and organic free distilled

29 Research instruments A structured questionnaire was used as data collection instrument. The open- ended format helped the respondents to display their views of the concept and allowed them chance to express their views as they wished. This method was seen suitable since it has immediate feedback; clarification of statements and it permits greater depth than other techniques. Data collected included respondents demography, wetland utilization, attitudes, attributes and perceptions towards wetlands management premised on IKS. Mainly qualitative data sets.

Research design

The quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection were used while carrying out the study because the research findings were summarized using tables, frequencies and percentages and analyzed to come up clearly with the level of community participation in sustainable wetland management in Rwanda. Reliability and validity of the data collection instruments Reliability is a measure of the extent to which a research instrument yields consistent results or data after repeated trials; yet validity is the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences which are based on research results (Mugenda & Mugenda, 1999). Content validity was ensured through use of valid concepts which measure the study variables and questions in the questionnaires were developed in order of the objectives.

Sample Selection The target population comprised all primary users of the wetlands in the Kigali city. These were categorised into local people, a group of companies and organizations which enjoy the products and services of the wetlands. For the locals a sample size of 5% was picked from the total household population in randomly selected sectors in the three Districts in Kigali city. The sample

31 consisted of 175 households and for this case the sampling frame was a village and sampling unit was a household, defined as all people living under one roof and is sharing the same pot for cooking their dishes. The companies and organizations were randomly picked to represent all the companies and organizations, who are primary users or managers of the wetlands.

Documentary methods This research used the documentary approach of research while reading and analyzing some existing documents from KIU Library. Other interesting documents related to the field wetland management, from offices, internet (web pages), journal papers and hard cover texts were very useful. This approach allowed the researcher to exploit the secondary data during the investigations.

Sampling Technique The research methodology preferred was to use the sampling system for the purpose to avoid dealing with the entire population. The sampling systems allowed the researcher to determine the representative sample applied to the entire population in order to make the work easier. The sample size was selected from all the City of Kigali covering the three Districts of Nyarugenge, Kicukiro and Gasabo within all the 35 Sectors to make sure that all the population was entirely represented during the data collection and interpretation.

The selected sample represents the entire population for the City of Kigali, which is the study area. In details, several techniques were used to determine the sample size and nature. During this research, cluster sampling, the stratified sampling, and finally purposive sampling technique, as detailed in the following paragraphs.

32 Cluster Sampling (Each sector as cluster) The clusters were chosen from the whole Kigali City which was considered as the total population of the study, and then each sector was considered as a cluster. It meant that the 35 sectors were corresponding with 35 clusters. Stratified Sampling (Within a cluster) Within each cluster, the stratified sampling technique was applied. This means that different categories of individuals were determined and each category constituted a stratum. Those chosen strata during this research were:

o A stratum of local leaders from all levels (Sector and Cell);

o A stratum of direct/indirect wetland users; This is totalized at least a number of five people selected from each cluster (each sector). It means that the total selected population as the representative sample was at least 175 people from all the 35 sectors.

Purposive sampling The study basically targeted local communities, farmers, fishermen, factories, local leaders, enviromnental agencies, projects and government institution. Elders were also chosen because they have used wetlands for a long time. Bailey (1978) defines purposive sampling as a technique where the researcher uses his/her own judgment about which respondents to choose, and pick only those who best possess the knowledge of the study. Table 3.1: Sample Size determining in Kigali City N° District Number of sectors Sample size Total 1 Nyarugenge 10 5 50 2 Kicukiro 10 5 50 3 Gasabo 15 5 75 Total 175

33 Table 3.1 shows that 175 people were subjected to surveying process using questionnaire within the entire Kigali City. Data presentation and analysis

Data were presented by using tables and figures and analysed by using chi-square test and SPSS version 16.

3.4 Limitation to the Study

The study was carried out from May 2013 to October 2013; parameters of water changes with time and other factors such as climate change and anthropologic activities. During the study some individuals from both wetland management and other stakeholders were being unwilling to answer some of the questions. Some respondents were skeptical, suspicious and uncooperative and worse of all unwilling to fill the questionnaires even when the purpose of the research was explained to them. This in some way delayed the progress of the research activity.

34 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Field survey results Table 4.1: Distribution of Respondents by Age and Sex

Age Group * Sex Cross tabulation Distribution of Respondents by Age and Sex Male Female Total Below 3oyears 30 23 53 30-40 years 65 42 107 Above 40 years 10 5 15 105 70 175

Table 4.1 indicates that 107 (61.14 %) are in the age group of 30-40 years and the majority of respondents (105) are men. Results revealed that they learnt traditional knowledge to manage wetlands from the elders. Youth have little knowledge on indigenous knowledge than the other groups.

Table 4.2: Use of indigenous knowledge in wetland management Methods Below 30 30-40 years Above 40 Total years years Agro forestry 9 35 37 81 Water conservation 8 13 15 36 Soil fertility 17 20 21 58 Total 34 68 73 175

Table 4.2 shows that 41.71 % of respondents (above 40 years) used indigenous knowledge for a long period of time because they rely on wetland resources, 38.85% are struggled due to business, 19.42 % are in category of youth and

35 express ignorance of indigenous knowledge due to the change of traditional methods into modern methods and a large number of youth are unemployed.

Table 4.3: The level of participation in wetland management activities Level of participation Frequency Percentage Planning 9 5.14% Implementation 69 39.42 % Monitoring 56 32% Coordination 36 20.57 % Decision making 5 2.85 % Chi-square test indicates that there is significant difference between the levels of participation, (X2=90.686, p

Table 4.4: Wetland related management problems Problems Frequency Wetland degradation (encroaclunent) 32 Poaching (Sitatunga, Cranes) 1 Destructive harvesting! overharvesting of wetland 15 resources (Cyperus papyrus) Impacts from agriculture ( siltation, overgrazing) 18

Soil degradation (Sand, clay, and peat extraction, 43 unsustainable cultivation)

Water pollution (industrial fertilizers, pesticides, 65 herbicides, wastewater, coffee washing, rice growing)

36 Chi-square test shows that there is significant difference between the types of wetland problems (X21 12.759, p

Table 4.5: Awareness of existing wetland management systems

respondents Media 79 45.14% Environmental protection 41 23 .42% organization Local leaders 16 9.14% Personal observation 15 8.57% Government agency 3 1.71% Community based organization 4 2.28% Friends/neighbours 15 8.57% Internet website 2 1.14% Total 175 100

Table 4.5 indicates that the majority (45.14.29%) recognize wetland management through the media. However, only two people (1.14%) used internet to be informed on wetland management. This might result of lack of skills and information technology on the wetland users. This indicates inadequate communication between stakeholders. In general, information is transferred in

37 top-down manner, the view of traditional knowledge are ignored in decision making. This affects sustainable management.

4.1.2 Discussion of Survey results The results of the study indicate that the majority of farmers recognize the economic benefits of the wetland and the value of water supply in terms of craft materials and dry season crop harvest! pasture provided by wetlands. However, they yet, feel less concerned with guidelines regarding wetland management. Very many are still not aware of proper utilization of swamps due to their traditional mindset. Hence, simply exploit swamps regardless of resulting harmful effects. Many farmers are still using persistent organic pollutants on their crops e.g.: DDT mostly used on vegetables which is both dangerous and can dry the herbage. The most commonly used fertilizer on Irish potatoes is DAP (Diammonium Phosphate and Mancozeb is used as a fungicide. These chemicals affect water quality of wetlands. They know that soil suitability is closely related to relief. They classify soils by a number of criteria and choose crops accordingly. Farmers know that soil management has to be adapted to the soil type, i.e., heavy loamy or clayey soils need to be treated differently from light sandy soils. The key factor is the content of organic matter as maj or source of plant nutrients, and consequently organic manure as major source of plant nutrients, and consequently organic manure, especially farmyard manure, is regarded as the principal soil improving practice. Although the farmers prefer farmyard manure, compost is also used as organic amendment by the poor farmers with few or no livestock, or pon remote fields. Farmers used weeds, crop residues (e.g.: maize Stover, banana leaves, sweet potato vines) and household wastes to make compost. Farmers match cropping systems with soil type and their positions. For shallow soils (depth<5Ocm) e.g.: Mugugu, Urusenyi, they sow maize intercropped with beans

38 after the first rains, because these soils have a low capacity to retain water (Nsharwasi, 2012).

The survey revealed that respondents (73) of 40 years and above (see table 4.3.3) were having a higher background in indigenous knowledge systems, therefore, the knowledge is transmitted orally from elders to the youth.

This study revealed that the use of indigenous knowledge is not significantly different between age categories (~2=7.42 1, p>O.05). Rwandese farmers are relying on rainfall and consider water as a gift of God. In many areas countrywide the dry season makes farmers invade wetlands as it used to be a practice for many local Rwandan farmers to maximize the yields but without any concern about the negative effects resulting from bad use, especially with lack of awareness on environmentally friendly way of exploiting these highly appreciated but fragile ecosystems. Chi-square test shows that there is significant difference between the types of wetland problems (~2l 154 p<0.05).many respondents revealed that the most common problem in wetland management was water pollution and reduction in water table. This physical and hydrological modification mainly relate to inappropriate agricultural practices and unsustainable use of wetlands, such as the discharge of untreated wastewater into the surface. Drains and channels constructed to divert or to increase water out flow from wetlands lower the water table and can lead to loss of biodiversity through drying out of the wetlands. Women are primarily responsible for household food production in Rwanda but custom does not allow them to plant trees. Farmers generally choose to plant trees so as to minimize completion such as planting along the field boundary, to protect against soil erosion such as planting along the contour or along anti-erosion ditches, or to produce a high value product such as fruit trees.

39 In Rwanda, inheritance rights override rights to land that the simple act of planting trees would establish, at least if these trees are planted by women. In addition, almost all land in Rwanda is being used, so the custom of establishing ownership through tree planting has all but disappeared. In Rwanda, farmers believe that use of fertilizers damages soil fertility. The reason for this belief is that, farmers may apply fertilizer one season, resulting in more production and cultivate the following season without fertilizer application, resulting in dramatic reduction of yield. This observation gives them an impression that fertilizers have instead degraded their fields.

The majority of the population in Rwanda is predominantly young. According to the National Youth Policy, 42% of the youth are either unemployed or work on seasonal small scale agriculture. Obviously, there is a high level of young people who discontinue at primary education and have to seek employment because of Limited chances at high level education, it is essential to involve youth in programmes and development projects like wetland management and water catchment protection in order to improve their livelihood and for poverty reduction. Given that wetland degradation and climate change affect the livelihood of the population in developing countries and reduce water quantity, it is imperative to engage all the communities to protect their water resources and to do research on the conservation and management strategies that can help to maintain wetlands sustainably.

The study findings indicate that, there is still inadequate communication among all groups in wetland management and conflicts of interests between conservation and wetland reclamation for other activities such as agriculture. A better

40 coordination in wetland management and creation of other job opportunities can also lead to sustainable management.

4.2 Physical-chemical and bacteriological analysis of water quality

Table 4.6: Physico-chemical and bacteriological results in Nyabarongo wetlands (mean)

Parameters Unit Kagarama Gahanga Kigali Standard

Temperature °C 25 26 21.5 25 Ph 8 7.3 7.194 6.5-8.5 TSS mg/L 199.5 144.19 201.6 <30 Turbidity NTU 24.3 21.4 26.5 5 TDS ppm 19.5 11.4 15.4 0.2 COD mg/L 128 255 278 <50 BOD mg/L 31.1 12.1 10.2 <30 Pb mg/L 2.1 0.001 0.001 0.01 Fe mg/L 1 2.5 3.2 0.3 Oil &grease rng/L 0.3 1.2 1.2 0,2 Ammonia mg/L 31 19.3 18.2 <3 Arsenic mgIL 0.0 0.0 0.0001 0.06 Benzene mg/L 0.00001 0.0001 0.0 0.0001 Cadmium mg/L 0.0 0.0 0.0001 0.01 Chromium rng/L 0.0 0.0000 1 0.0 0.05 Copper mg/L 1 2.1 2.1 0.05 Mercury mgIL 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.00 Nickel mg!L 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.03 Sulphide mg/L 1.87 0.005 0.005 250 Feacal coliforms CfuJmL 2.1 10 10 400 Zinc mg/L 0.3 3.2 3.2 3 Phosphates mg/L 0.57 0.4 0.3 <5 Conductivity pS/cm 9417 8765 10578 <1000

Table 4.6 indicates water quality parameters recorded in Nyabarongo wetland sites. As shown there are sites which possess parameters higher than the standard

41 limits such as conductivity, Cu, TSS, N, and COD as result of anthropologic activities on the wetlands and environmental factors like the geology and the climate of the area.

Table 4.7: Physical-chemical and bacteriological results in Nyabugogo wetlands (mean)

Parameters Unit Gatsata Rugenge Muhirna Standard

Temperature °C 26 23 25.8 25 pH 7.4 6.7 5.1 6.5-8.5 TSS rng/L 55.03 177.6 95 <30 Turbidity NTU 47.6 17.8 38.5 5 TDS ppm 13.2 13.7 31.3 30 COD mg/L 320 302 474 <50 BOD mg/L 45.2 10.8 56.2 <30 Pb mg/L 0.12 0.0 0.001 0.01 Fe mg/L 4.7 1.9 2.1 0.3 Oil &grease mg/L 1.9 0.9 2.3 0.5 Ammonia mg/L 14.7 17.8 25.6 <3

Arsenic mg/L 0.01 0.0 0.06 0.06 — Benzene rng/L 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.01 Cadmium mg/L 0.0003 0.0001 0.0 0.01 Chromium mg/L 0.0 0.0 0.01 0.05 Copper mg/L 2.2 2.1 4.8 0.05 Mercury mg!L 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 Nickel mg!L 0.01 0.3 0.2 0.03 Sulphide mg/L 0.08 0.005 0.7 250 Feacal coliforms Cfu!mL 13.2x102 10 1470 400 Zinc mg/L 2.7 3.2 1.2 3 Phosphates mg/L 0.78 0.3 0.4 <5 Conductivity pS/cm 8632 10578 10432 <1000 Table 4.7 shows values of water parameters greater or lower than the standard limit. Nyabugogo wetland is greatly affected by unsustainable activities. Domestic wastes are dumped in the marshland. Industrial effluents, mn-off, agriculture, soil erosion, sewage and climate change contribute to wetland degradation.

42 Figure 4.1: Variation of heavy metals in Nyabarongo wetland sites

6

Gatsata ~ri Rugenge 0 Muhhna Cu Fe Pb Ni Zn Cd Hg As Cr Heavy metals

Figure4.2: Variation of heavy metals in Nyabugogo wetland sites.

Figure4.3: variation of chemical parameters in Nyabugogo and Nyabarongo sampling sites

43 35 30 25 20 —4—Temperature 15 pH 10 ~Ammonia 5 0 Kagaraina Gahanga Kigafl Gatsata Ragenge MidUma

Figure 4.4: Variation in pH, Temperature and Ammonia

The temperature analysis revealed an average of 25.86±1.17°C in Nyabugogo wetlands (Gatsata, Rugenge, Muhima) and 23.16±3.25°C in Nyabarongo wetlands (Kagarama, Gahanga, Kigali). The mean values of the temperature for the two sites were not significantly different (p>O.O5). Temperatures of all sites were normal compared to standard limits of 25°C. Experience has shown that there is a relationship between the three parameters (pH, Temperature and Ammonia). Ammonia is more toxic at a high temperature and p11. This can have impact on fish Temperature has a slight effect on pH, as Temperature increases pH reduces. The results indicated a pH mean of 6.4±1.17 in Nyabugogo wetland sites and 7.498±0.43936 in Nyabarongo wetland sites. ANOVA-test indicates that observed pH in 6 sites are not statistically different at 0.05 (F=0. 742, p>O.OS).

44 Figure4.5: variation of water parameters in Nyabarongo and Nyabugogo wetlands

15000 10000

5000 Conductivity

0 Kagarama Gahanga Kigali Gatsata Rugenge Muhima

Figure4.6: variation of Conductivity

Saprophytic bacteria convert dissolved organic impurities into living cell mass, carbon dioxide and water. These saprophytic bacteria may then be eaten by flagellates and ciliates which also consume suspended organic particles including viruses and pathogenic bacteria. Clarity of the water may begin to improve as the protozoa are subsequently consumed by rotifers and cladocera. Purifying bacteria, protozoa, and rotifers must either be mixed throughout the water or have the water circulated past them to be effective. Sewage treatment plants mix these organisms as activated sludge or circulate water past organisms Iivmg on trickling filters or rotating biological contactors. Aquatic vegetation may provide similar surface habitat for purifying bacteria, protozoa, and rotifers in a pond or marsh setting; although water circulation is often less effective. Plants and algae have the additional advantage of removmg nutrients from the water; but those nutrients will be returned to the water when the plants die unless the plants are removed from the water. Plants also provide shade, a refuge for fish, and oxygen for aerobic bacteria. In addition, fish can limit pests such as mosquitoes. Fish and waterfowl feces return waste to the water, and their feeding habits may increase turbidity. Cyanobacteria have the disadvantageous ability to add nutrients from the air to the water being purified. Plants purify water

45 by consuming excess nutrients and by dc-acidifying it by removing carbon dioxide. Nymphea alba; for temperate climates, depth 60—120 cm, is one of the best options. e.g. of plants include Phragmites ausfralis, .Sparganium erectum, Iris pseudacorus, Schoenopleclus lacustris, and Carex aculiformis

4.3 Microbiological quality analysis oT water

30000 20000

~ -~ 10000

P Rugenge Muhima Gatsata Kigali Gahanga Kagarama Sampling sites

Figure 4.7 Variation of fecal coliforms

The analysis of fecal col~form shows a mean of 1643.3±436.6 1 CfuJmL in Nyabugogo wetlands and 2266.7±270.6lCfiuJmL in Nyabarongo wetlands. ANOVA test indicates that the observed results are significantly different (p<0.O5).

4.4 Discussion of water quality parameters

The pH values for all the sites meets the WHO standard of water (6.5-8.5), the highest value was found at the site of Gatsata (pH=7.4). pH is an important variable in water quality assessment as it influences many biological and chemical processes within a water body. The pH values meet the standard for surface water

(6.5 - 8.5) for all sites. Nkuranga (2011) found a more or less constant pH in the Nyabugogo Swamp and attributed the high value of pH in the Rwanzekuma and Ruganwa Rivers to alkaline reagents from UTEXRWA textile factory.

46 The results revealed turbidity mean of 34.6±15.27 NTU for Nyabugogo wetland sites and 20.733.96±6.127 NTU for Nyabarongo wetland sites. ANOVA-test indicates that observed turbidity in 2 sites are not significantly different at 0.05 (p>O.O5). The obtained values are higher than the recommended WHO standards of 5 NTU. All the six sites had high turbidity values exceeding the standard of 5 NTU. The Highest level was found at Gatsata (47.4 NTU). High levels of turbidity in water should cause problem during purification processes such as flocculation and purification, which may increase treatment costs. In addition, high turbidity is associated to microbial contamination due to increased disinfection problems and reduced wetland vegetation responsible for alteration mechanisms (DWAF, 1998).The Turbidity in Kigali is very low compared to the rural areas and the Nyabugogo swamp is contributing to the reduction of turbidity and other pollution through sedimentation. Muhirwa (2010) reported Turbidity values of 707 ± 37 NTU on the Mpazi River and attributed this to high concentrations of TSS in wastewater discharged from the Nyabugogo slaughter house. Total suspended solids are often the result of sediments carried by the water, the source of these sediments includes natural and anthropogenic (human) activities in the watershed, such as natural or excessive soil erosion from agriculture, forestry or construction even highland points north of Rwanda like Kitabi.

Electric conductivity for all sampling sites was high. Conductivity analysis shows that the sample mean equal to 9880.6±1083.83 uS/cm in Nyabugogo wetlands and 8575±551.338 uS/cm in Nyabarongo wetlands. These values are greater than recommended WHO standards of 1000 uS/cm. the conductivity of the two sites were not significantly different (p>0.05). The analysis of total suspended solids shows an average of 109.2± 62.5 mg/L in Nyabugogo wetlands and 181.7±32.55mg/L in Nyabarongo wetlands. High electric electric conductivity

47 should be attributed to dissolved salts as the sites recorded high levels of iron and chromium. The study revealed the highest value at Rugenge with 10578 jiS/cm. Nkuranga attributed the large values of conductivity found in the Nyabugogo Swamp to the wasterwater inflows especially from the Rwanzekurna River and Ruganwa River. Muhirwa et al., (2010) found that the effluent from the

Nyabugogo Abattoir increased conductivity levels in the Mpazi river from 632 ±

33 S/cm before discharge, to 726 ± 77 S/cm after discharge. The highest concentration of phosphates all the monitored points was found on Muhima wetlands (4.45 ± 2.76 mg/L).The presence of high phosphate levels in a wetland indicates pollution from domestic sewage discharges.

The COD was high in six sites when compared to the standard of surface water. High concentration was found at Muhima with 474 mg/L. The COD analysis indicates an average of (365.33 ± 94.53 mg/L) on Nyabugogo wetland 220.33±80.78 mg/L). the COD of the two sites were not significantly different (p>0.05). These values are greater than recommended WHO standards of 50mg/i. The COD load comes from different chemicals like Iron, Manganese, Sulphates, Phosphates and Nitrogen which all use Oxygen for oxidation. Muhirwa et al. concluded that the main source of the high organic load in the Mpazi River is the wastewater from the slaughtering area especially blood, cow dung, urine infestation of microbes and scavengers, most of these are biodegradable at a high uptake range. It is also due to the dumping of wastewater coming from household, industrial or agricultural activity in the surrounding areas melter siags and wastes, mine tailings, coal and bottom fly ash, and the use of commercial products such as fertilizers and wood preservatives that contain zinc.

The BOD analysis shows an average of 37.4±23.68 mg/L in Nyabugogo wetlands and 17.8±11.55 mg/L in Nyabarongo wetlands. ANOVA-test indicates that the

48 observed BOD are not significantly different at 0.05 (F=l.288, p>O.05). These values are greater than recommended WHO standards of 3Omg/l.

High concentration of N comes from the decomposition of livestock wastes, human wastes, plant decomposition and runoff from fertilizer used in agricultural lands and the discharge of municipal waste into rivers and lakes causing eutrophication of waters. Domestic wastewaters (particularly those containing detergents), industrial effluents and fertiliser run-off contribute to elevated levels in surface waters. Phosphorus is rarely found in high concentrations in freshwaters as it is actively taken up by plants. As a result there can be considerable seasonal fluctuations in concentrations in surface waters. In most natural surface waters, phosphorus ranges from 0.005 to 0.020 mg/L (Chapman, 1996). The concentration of TSS of the two sites were not significantly different (p>0.05).The results revealed an average of 109.21±8.809 mg/l in Nyabugogo wetlands and 186.76±4.05 mg/i in Nyabarongo wetlands. The results were higher than the recommended WHO standards of 30 mg. Suspended matter discharges may also be implicated in the depletion of DO, as well as other adverse aquatic impacts. Suspended matter, if settleable, can blanket the stream bed, damage invertebrate populations block gravel spawning beds and, if organic, remove dissolved oxygen from the overlying water column. Suspended matter that does not settle may obstruct transmission of light into the water column, impairing aesthetics, as well as diminishing photosynthetic activity and the abundance of food available to fish and aquatic life. Methods for reducing discharges to water take two general forms: a) reducing the loading of constituents delivered to the wastewater treatment system, also known as source reduction, or b) installing additional treatment system capacity or components.

49 Copper is released into the environment through copper mining activities, agricultural activities (e.g. through its use as fungicide, and/or algaecide), and manufacturing activities (e.g. manufacturing of leather and leather products, fabricated metal products, electrical equipment, and automobile brake pads). Copper may also enter the environment through natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions, windblown dusts, decaying vegetation, and forest fires. The largest concentration of Copper was found at Muhirna site (4.8mg/L). The highest concentrations of Zinc were found in Kigali site (3 .2mg/L). The primary anthropogenic sources of zinc in the environment (air, water, soil) are related to mining and metallurgic operations involving zinc and use of commercial products containing zinc. Worldwide, releases to soil are probably the greatest source of zinc in the environment. Regarding heavy metals profile, Iron, Copper, Zinc, Cadmium and Lead, their concentrations were above the standards limit in some area. Those samples exceeding the standards limit which are not suitable for drinking and surface water production and they are unfavourable for aquatic life protection. The results revealed heavy metal concentration of Zinc (3.1mg), Cu (2. lmg/l), Fe (3.2mg) higher than the standard limit see (table 4.6). Heavy metal accumulation in organisms depends on the temperature and pH. The recorded values in Nyabugogo were higher than in Nyabarongo sites Zinc (3.2mg/i), Cu (4.8mg/l), Fe (4.9mg/l). Typically, the concentration of arsenic in fresh water is less than 1 Fg/R and in sea water, approximately 4 Fg/R. Elevated concentrations of arsenic occur where there is pollution from industrial sources, or where geological outcrops of arsenic minerals occur. For example, new borehole water supplies in areas where arsenic minerals occur, should be tested for arsenic.

The presence of Feacal Coliform bacteria indicates contamination of water with fecal waste from pit latrines not lined with impermeable material and contaminate

50 ground water through Infiltration, in some cases they also pollutes surface water during floods or by irresponsible disposal. wastewater may also contain other harmful or disease causing organisms, including bacteria, viruses, or parasites such as Giardia, the cause of fever. Drinking water contaminated with these organisms can cause stomach and intestinal illness including diarrhea and nausea, and even lead to death. Of this study results showed feacal coliform concentration varying between 1643-2266 Cfiu/mL. Three sites of Nyabugogo were having a higher concentration than standard value of 400 CfuJml.

Plate 4.1: fecal coliform on MacConkey medium Temperatures of all sites were normal compared to the WHO standard value of 25°C. This is within the acceptable range for the aquatic life maintenance. As water temperature increases, the rate of chemical reactions generally increases together with the evaporation and volatilization of substances from the water. Increased temperature also decreases the solubility of gases in water, such as 02, CO2, N2, and CH4. The release of lead to air is now less than the release of lead to land. Most of the lead in inner city soils comes from old houses painted with paint containing lead and from automotive exhaust emitting lead when gasoline contains lead. Landfills may contain waste from lead ore mining, ammunition manufacturing, or other industrial activities such as battery production. Sources of lead in surface water or

51 sediment include deposits of lead-containing dust from the atmosphere, wastewater from industries that handle lead (primarily iron and steel industries and lead producers), urban runoff, and mining piles. This study has found a high concentration of lead in Gatsata site (1 .2mg/L). (http://~vw.eco usa.net/toxics/chemicals/lead.shtml)

Cadmium is found naturally in small quantities in air, water, and soil. Since cadmium is a metal, it does not break down and can accumulate over time. Burning household or industrial waste and burning coal or oil may release cadmium into the air. Cadmium also can be released from car exhaust, metal processing industries, battery and paint manufacturing, and waste hauling and disposal activities. The study has found an amount of cadmium lower than the standard limit of Smg/L.

Fats, oil and grease also called oil and grease in the wastewater business can have negative impacts on wastewater collection and treatment systems. Most wastewater collection system blockages can be traced to FOG. Blockages in the wastewater collection system are serious, causing sewage spills, manhole overflows, or sewage backups in homes and centre zone. Rwanda banned disposable plastic bags in 2005 and replaced it with paper bags. Since plastic bags are hard to degrade, accumulate in the soil and natural environment, and are propagated across international borders through water and air. They can dangers (diseases) for the future generations. Two types of oil and grease pollutants are common to wastewater systems. Petroleum-based oil and grease (non-polar concentrations) occur at businesses using oil and grease, and can usually be identified and regulated by Municipalities through local limits and associated pretreatment permit conditions. The study revealed oil and grease concentration of 2.2 mgIL at Muhima site. Oil and grease

52 are generally hydrophobic (i.e., “water-hating”) and thus have low solubility in wastewater, resulting in relatively low biodegradability by microorganisms. The study found a very small amount of benzene, phenol and chromium in the six sites which were below the limits of ‘WHO standards. These findings indicate that the sites of Nyabarongo wetlands were better in terms of physical-chemical and microbiological parameters than Nyabugogo wetlands which are highly polluted as a result of inadequate wastewater management strategies in urban and pen- urban settlements surrounding Nyabugogo wetlands, unsustainable practices in agriculture by using industrial fertilizers and pesticides (DAP, NPK, DDT) have harmful effects on health. Soil erosion and sedimentation contributes on the modification of wetland hydrology.

4.5 Hypothesis testing:

Wetland conservation results in increase of water quality.

The effects of wetland conservation on water quality were evaluated by comparing water of protected wetlands versus water of unprotected wetlands in Kigali City. It was assumed that rainfall and other extraneous environmental factors were similar. Water quality parameters were pH, BOD, fecal coliforms. Water pH readings during experiments ranged between 6.8 and 8. Based on the results of ANOVA test and assuming equal variances with a 95% confidence interval, it can be concluded that the level of fecal coliforms reduced significantly in protected wetlands (pO.05). The presence of natural vegetation such as Papyrus and Cyperus in wetlands allow them to be natural purifiers of water through accumulation of contaminants.

53 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary of the study

This study explored the extent of community participation in sustainable management of Nyabugogo and Nyabarongo wetlands in Kigali City. Pollution of Kigali City wetlands led to hydrological modifications, the study investigated the efforts and management strategies of different stakeholders including the government agencies, projects, community based organizations, industries, NGO’s and local communities to protect wetland water resources and biodiversity. It was assumed that conservation of these wetlands can improve water quality. Laboratory analysis of water samples collected on different sites of Nyabarongo and Nyabugogo wetlands helped to determine water quality of the wetlands and compare it with WHO standards of drinking water.. A field survey was carried out with aim to investigate indigenous knowledge and practices used to manage wetlands and to evaluate existing wetland management system. Interviews and questionnaires were used to households, cooperatives, local leaders, industries, and government organizations to find out how local communities are involved in wetland management programmes, their views, their beliefs, the factors affecting their participation in wetland management and their role played in wetland management.

The literature review indicated different stakeholders involved in wetland management including local communities, community based organizations, NGO’s, government agencies, commercial users, suppliers and supporters of wetland communities. It also shows importance of community participation and failures, status of wetlands in Rwanda, indigenous knowledge in wetland management, sustainable wetland management, improving wetland management and wetland destruction by habitat changes.

54 Methodology included quantitative and qualitative methods. Survey and laboratory analyses were conducted during the study.

The results revealed that Nyabugogo is highly polluted than Nyabarongo due to many factors including unsustainable practices (industrial effluents, settlements, agricultural chemicals and solid wastes), lack of technologies, inadequate community participation, lack of monitoring and preventing different sources of pollution. Nyabugogo is interconnected to Nyabarongo wetland. thus, it contribute to its pollution.

Local communities’ opinions and skills are not considered in decision making and planning, all activities are implemented according to the organic law, these reduce the extent of participation and increases the probability of further degradation due to inequitable sharing of wetland resources and different interest between the government and local population.

The findings of the study revealed that projects wetland management projects improved the livelihoods of communities and their capacity to protect their environment.

5.2 Conclusion

Community participation is very useful in sustainable wetland management activities including maintenance of water quality, reduction of erosion, flood mitigation, provision of natural system to process airborne pollutants, provision of a buffer between urban residential and industrial segments to ameliorate climate and physical impact such as noise, maintenance of a gene pooi of marsh plants to provide examples of complete natural communities with aesthetic and psychological (ceremonies, rites) support for human beings and wildlife, controlling insect population, provision of habitats for fish spawning and other

55 food organisms, production of food, fiber and fodder, and finally to expedition of scientific inquily.

Inadequate pollution control in Kigali City led to environmental problems like contamination of ground water and surface water of wetlands in the city. Pollution was found in all sampling sites with different concentration. Furthermore, many parameters were higher than the recommended WHO standard limits (Turbidity, Conductivity, TSS, TDS, BOD, COD and Total heavy metals). Therefore active participation of all wetland users will help to reduce wetland pollution and protection of further degradation.

Indigenous knowledge can also have some limitation such as over grazing, hunting in Nyabarongo wetlands, over exploitation of wetland resources. Thus this should be taken into account because it can lead into wetland degradation.

Participation in the management of wetlands has therefore been found to improve the livelihood of the local population depending on wetland products. The reduction in pressure on the wetlands has significantly and directly contributed to the conservation of threatened species. Most notably, the Vulnerable Grey Crowned-crane Balearica regulorurn, which had disappeared from the area after being illegally hunted for meat and for private collections, has now returned to the marshes (BirdLife International, 2011). The majority of people recognize that there are regulations on wetland resource management but there is a lack of coordination between different institutions in the management of the wetlands.

Therefore, to ensure the sustainable utilization and management of wetlands, it is essential that the planning process should involve and empower local communities and indigenous people in ways that mean that their livelihoods can be improved whilst maintaining wetlands and their values for the benefit of present and future generations.

56 5.3 Recommendations

• Nyabugogo wetland is highly polluted, it is very important to engage all wetland users and institutions in the wise use, conservation, and monitoring in order to prevent further degradation.

o Protection of the Nyabarongo and Nyabugogo rivers and relocate all people living in wetlands in order to avoid or decrease polluting action against water resources. Polluter pays principle can also help to prevent pollution.

o Protection of watersheds and creation of buffer zones in the wetlands. Erosion control measures are also important to protect water catchments.

o To address the issues of harmful effects on human health on the use of non biodegradable plastic bags, persistant organic pollutants like DDT and awareness on the use of antivectorial substances such as Cypermethrin, Deltamethrin and Permethrin which are biodegradable

o Government policy and strategies in wetland management should take into account the use of indigenous knowledge systems and consult public opinions, indigenous knowledge supports sustainable wetland management, because their know many processes and issues on their environment.

o Youth and women should be sensitized on the importance of sustainable wetland management through the media, competitions and education. They are in contact with wetland resources most of the time than the men.

o Government should provide alternative activities for local people including bee keeping, mushroom production, horticulture, in order to prevent pressure on the wetland resources.

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66 2. Which of these describes your sex? Male [ j Female [ j

3. Marital status Single [ ] Married [ ] Divorced [ ] Widowed [ j

4. Occupation

5. Which one of these education levels most applies to you?

Primary school [ ] Part of secondary school [ ] Secondary certificate [ ] Diploma { J Bachelor’s Degree [ ] Master’s [ ] Doctorate degree [ ] Vocational training [ ] Don’t know [ ] Any other specify

6. Address a) Cell: b) Sector c) District d) Province II. Interview guide addressed to the local authorities

1. Describe the role played by the local leaders for achieving sustainable wetland management in Rwanda.

2. Do you think Community Participation can lead to the Sustainable Wetland Management in Kigali city? a)Yes[ j b)No [ ] c) If Yes, how9

3. Do you think it is necessary to involve local population in Wetland Management?

68 a)Yes[ ] b)No [ I

If Yes,how~.

4) How does Community participation contribute to Wetland Management, restoration and utilization in Rwanda?

5) Discuss which ways Wetland Management in Rwanda could best be implemented. a) Wise use of wetlands b) Public awareness and understanding of Wetland Management c) Participation of stakeholders in Wetland Management d) Protection of wetland ecosystems e) Maintaining their ecological functions 6) Discuss the challenges facing Wetland Management in Kigali City III. Questionnaire addressed to the local population of Kigali city

SECTION I: Local Community understanding and awareness of Sustainable Wetland Management

1. How do you understand Community participation in sustainable wetland management?

2. What kind of activities of wetland management do you involve in?

Radical terraces and contouring [ ] Afforestation { ] Planting grasses [ j pasture [ ], shrubs [ ], bamboo [ ] agro forestry [ ] Restoration of fertile soils { ] Filter and prevent soil and sediments entering the wetland [ j Disasters management [ ]

Others (specify)

69 3. What are the impacts of community participation on sustainable wetland management?

4. Could you think wetland conservation maintain the sustainability of wetland management in Kigali city?

a) Yes [ ] b)No[ J

b) If yes how?

6. Have you ever been taught anything about the importance of wetland management?

a) Yes[ ] b)No[ ] c) If yes, who taught you?

i. Local leaders [ ~ ii. Environmental organizations [ ] iii. Media [ ] iv. Personal observation [ j v. Friends or neighbours ~ ~ vi. Government agency [ ] vii. Environment or community group [ j viii. Internet website [ J

7. Have you heard about wetland policy in Rwandan?

a.Yes[ j b.No[ ]

SECTION II: Factors affecting local people towards Sustainable Wetland Management

1. Do you experience any wetland management related problems in your area?

a) Yes[ ] b)No[ ]

b) If yes, what are they?

70 Wetland degradation [ I Soil salinity [ ] Poaching [ ] Destructive harvesting! overharvesting of wetland resources (Impacts from agriculture in the broader wetland landscape is degrading the wetlands) [ ] Reduction in water resource quality and quantity [ ] Water pollution [ Vegetation loss from clearing [ I Soil erosion [ ] Agricultural chemical and nutrient runoff into waterways [ I Plant and animal pests [ I Water use and efficiency { I Loss of enviromnental flows in waterways [ Loss of wetland areas [ ]

2. According to you, for whom does the wetland bring the benefit?

a. The country [ ]

b. The population around the wetlands [ ]

c. Others [ ]

3. Ever since you stayed here around the wetland, has your economic development changed positively?

a) Improvement of local economy [ j b) Increase of family income { ] c) Improvement of health conditions [ ] e) Others SECTION III: Impacts of Community Participation on Sustainable Wetland Managemet 1. Is there a linkage between community participation and sustainable wetland management of urban areas? a)Yes[ ] b)No[ ] c) If yes, explain [ ]

71 2. Do the local leaders in your area involve and allow you to participate in wetland management activities? a)Yes { J b)No[ ] c) If yes, how do you participate in wetland management activities?

i. Planning [ I ii. Monitoring [ ] iii. Implementation [ ]

iv. Wetland restoration [ J v. Wetland conservation [ ] vi. Decision making [ ]

SECTION IV: Recommendations

1. How do you wish wetland management should be undertaken to reduce their impacts on your activities?

2. Suggest recommendations for better community participation as a way of achieving sustainable wetland management.

Thank you

72 Appendix II: Curriculum vitae

I. Personal Details NAME: SOLVE BYUKUSENGE

Date of birth: December 25th, 1983 Residence: Kigali City Sex: Male Marital Status: Single Languages: English, French and Kinyarwanda. E-mail address: byukusengsolve @yahoo.fr Phone : +250788602395 Nationality: Rwandese IL EducationlQualiflcations

Period Name of Institution Awards

2012-2013 Kampala International University (KIU).

Kigali Institute of Science and Technology Bachelor of Science Degree in 2002-2007 (KIST). Food Science and Technology.

Advanced certificate in Bio G.S APACOPE 1996-2001 Chemistry

E.S BYTMANA Ordinary Level

1990-1995 G.S APE RUGUNGA &EPA Primary

73 III. Computer skills

APPLICATIONS Ms office ( word, excel, power point)

Programming C, Pascal.

Internet face book, twitter, Skype ,g-rnail, yahoo

IV. Employment history Duties: Last position: -Coordinate and monitoring tea Employer: GISAKURA Tea Company manufacturing activities Ltd. -Caffy out Quality control of raw materials, Address: NYAMASHEKE District processed and finished products Position held: Assistant Tea maker -Daily reports to the chief tea maker Period: Jan 2011-Jan 2012 -Monitor packing and dispatching of tea

products Previous position: Teaching Employer: G.S NGANZO Address: GAKENKE district Position held: Chemistry Teacher Period: 2009-2011

V. Trainings

— Industry Attachment at Nyabisindu Dairy in January 2007 (Activities: manufacturing of fermented Milk and Yoghourt, Lactometer test, Titratable acidity test)

— Environmental internship in

74 — Internal Attachment at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (Activities: Fruit and Vegetable products processing, Dairy products processing, Meat processing, Cereal products processing, Food Analysis and Chemistry, Food Engineering and Food Microbiology)

— In-Service Training for Mathematics and Science Teachers in Secondary

Education held in Rwanda 29th November~9th December, 2010, Coordinated by SMASSE Rwanda Project.

— Training in Good Leadership and Politics in solidarity camp at the Northern Province in June 2002.

— Training in energy savings and population growth at KTU in 2012

— Training in Project Planning and Financial Statements in Kigali on July 2012. VI. Certification I declare that the here in information is accurate and further enlightenments can be provided if required. SOLVE BYUKUSENGE.

Qf3~•!7

75