Sustainable Materials Management for Europe, from Efficiency to Effectiveness

Miljø- og Planlægningsudvalget 2009-10 MPU alm. del Bilag 676 Offentligt

Sustainable Materials Management for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness. This background study on Sustainable Materials Management has been commissioned by the Flemish government, by the Department of Environ- ment, Nature and Energy (LNE) and the Public Waste Agency of Flanders (OVAM).

This report serves as basis for the background paper for the informal Environmental Council on the 12th and 13th of July 2010, as part of the Belgian Presidency of the EU during the second semester of 2010.

The study is executed by a partnership of three expert organisations: • Sustenuto: independent Belgian strategic consultancy & research firm on Sustainable Development, CSR, cross-sector partnerships and Cradle to Cradle. Author and lay-out: Ans Rossy. Contact: [email protected]

• Catholic University of Leuven (KULeuven), Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Leuven Research & Development including its Material Research Centre (MRC). Authors: Dr. Peter Tom Jones and Dr. Daneel Geysen. Contact: [email protected]

• Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy: application-oriented sustainability research, addressing the major challenges related to sustainable development, such as climate change or resource shortages. Author: Katrin Bienge. Contact: [email protected]

Manuscript completed: Brussels, 31 March 2010

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 2 Table of Content

Executive summary...... 4 Chapter 3 – SMM examples: cases and country policies...... 25

Objective...... 4 3.1 SMM cases...... 27

1. What is SMM? ...... 4 3.1.1 Policy directions based on SMM cases ...... 51

2. Why is SMM relevant?...... 4 3.2 Country policies on SMM...... 52

3. Case examples of SMM...... 5

4. Future policy directions for SMM...... 5 Chapter 4 Future policy directions...... 62

4.1 Policy Integration ...... 63

Chapter 1 - What is Sustainable Materials Management?...... 7 4.2 Measuring and indicators...... 64

1.1 Clarifying terminology; do we talk about the same?...... 7 4.3 Research & Development...... 67

1.2 Main evolutions in material use...... 9 4.4 World 2.0...... 67

1.2.1 Reaction: from end-of-pipe to eco-efficiency and supply chain...... 9

1.2.2 Re-designing: eco-effectiveness and closing the loop...... 10 References...... 69

1.2.3 Re-framing: towards new horizons of integrated approaches...... 11

1.2.4 Future Challenges ...... 11

Chapter 2 - Why is SMM relevant? The bigger picture...... 13

2.1 What has changed in a life time?...... 13

2.1.1 The overall challenge: climate change and human development...... 14

2.1.2 Food...... 16

2.1.3 Living - housing ...... 18

2.1.4 Mobility...... 21

2.2 Why is SMM relevant?...... 23

2.3 What are the future challenges for SMM?...... 23

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 3 Ex e c u t i v e s u m m a r y

Objective Production (SCP), and Sustainable Materials redesigning products, addressing challeng- The objective of this report is to provide a clear Management (SMM). The study uses the OECD es in the supply chain with involvement of and easily understandable background study definition on SMM as a basis as it provides the other stakeholders, and taking on the res on what sustainable materials management broadest vision of these four concepts. This ponsibility for products. Eco-effectiveness, (hereafter SMM) is about, what the main evolu- SMM definition must be seen from its most closing the loop and LCA are central to the tions are, and why SMM is relevant. The report integrated point of view, also encompassing the business activities, whereby new product- provides examples of a great variety of cases issues of land use, absolute decoupling of eco- service concepts emerge. and illustrates the challenges for further policy nomic growth and natural resource use, while 3. Reframing – triple loop learning (‘knowing development on SMM at EU level. addressing changes in human lifestyles. why’): this shift – we are only at the beginning of this process – implies a systemic The study serves as a basis for debate for the The concept of material use has evolved over change towards cyclical and fully integrated informal Environmental Council on July 12 and the past decades, due to increased knowledge ways of addressing material use, towards 13, as part of the Belgian EU Presidency during on and understanding of the complexity of sustainable materials management. the second semester of 2010. It is not intended ecosystems and the strong interconnected- to give an exhaustive outline of the whole spec- ness of global environmental, societal and The further evolution of Sustainable Materials trum of SMM and related concepts, nor of the economic aspects. The evolutions in material Management in the 21st century then also different existing policies at all political levels. use can be roughly divided in three main shifts, means: which have parallels with the different levels of • Responsible, fair and just extraction and 1. What is SMM? organisational learning. These shifts indicate an use of raw materials and natural resources, The term SMM is one of several existing evolution towards more integrated approaches including responsible land and water use, terminologies used for an approach to pro- of material use, bearing in mind that scientific safeguarding soil quality and biodiversity; mote sustainable material use. Knowledge knowledge, real business practices and actual • Establishment of absolute decoupling of on sustainable development (SD) at large and governmental interventions do not necessarily material & resource use (including produc- the (complex) relationship with how we use, emerge at the same time in these evolutions. tion of waste and emissions) and economic through production and consumption, materi- 1. Reaction – single loop learning (‘knowing growth (‘beyond GDP’, from growth to als, natural resources (including energy, water what’): mainly end-of-pipe reactions on wealth); and land) have strongly evolved in recent pollution and damage; waste management • Behavioural changes in the production and decades. The terminology originates from the and eco-efficiency are central to busi- consumption patterns. UN World summits on SD and is used at EU, ness activities. The focus is mainly on the UN and OECD level. The most common terms improvement and efficiency of production 2. Why is SMM relevant? used are: Integrated Product Policy (IPP), processes (clean technology). In order to understand the real challenges for Sustainable use and management of natural 2. Redesigning – double loop learning (‘know- sustainable materials management we need resources, Sustainable Consumption and ing how’): a shift towards rethinking and to understand the bigger picture. Our human

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 4 ecological footprint overshoots earth’s carry- changed life-styles, increased income and mo- their innovative potential. The cluster themes would need to be reduced by approximately ing capacity. In simple terms: we act as if we bility, and differences in consumption patterns are: 90% compared to its present level (Factor 10). have more than one planet to live on. We use between women and men. 1. Waste collection, treatment and recycling This can only be achieved by real breakthrough more resources and produce higher levels of Research shows, furthermore, that the EU is 2. Reuse and repair system-level innovations; thus moving from greenhouse gases, toxics and non-degradable the world region that outsources the biggest 3. Collection and linear upgrading/recycling/ eco-efficiency to eco-effectiveness and further waste than this planet has the capacity and the part of resource extraction required to produce reuse/recovery of (inorganic) residues to conservation; to eco-sufficiency. It is about time to, respectively, regenerate or assimilate. goods for final demand (private and public 4. Eco-design transformation and changes in the systems of Nevertheless, respecting these ecological limits consumption), thus exceeding a potential self- 5. Product Service Systems provision and our behaviour. Such changes are (sources and sink capacity) is the non-negotia- sufficiency of natural resource use (ITRE, 2009). 6. Cradle to Cradle unlikely to occur by normal market processes, ble basis for our social and economic develop- As materials demand is expected to grow four- 7. Choice Editing or at national levels alone. There is a strong ment. SMM is part of other challenges as well, fold in the next two decades, dematerialisation, 8. Biomaterials and natural ecosystems need for a comprehensive policy mix and e.g. the crises related to climate change, the resource productivity, and a shift from efficiency 9. Transition Towns actions at EU level that further supports the energy system, land use, loss of biodiversity, thinking to effectiveness and sufficiency is 10. Knowledge Networks for Transitions necessary shift towards higher levels of SMM social equity, etc. and has to be understood in urgently needed. 11. IT in SMM maturity. the larger framework of sustainable develop- 12. Closed loop industry systems for (inorganic) ment visions and strategies for the future. 3. Case examples of SMM residues An effective change strategy towards SMM To provide a clear framework for the variety and requires integration of several aspects, such as: To picture the monumental changes since the levels of SMM initiatives the authors developed Furthermore, some specific policy measures responsible extraction, use and re-use, healthy 1960’s this study describes the evolutions in the ‘SMM Maturity Model’. This model is based from six countries are described to show the and safe technology development, fair distribu- the major domains of human life (based on on the SMM concepts and evolutions as de- potential for further support and encourage- tion of resources and materials, smarter ways the division used by the EU SCORE! network scribed in chapter 1 and 2 and combines three ment of SMM by national/regional governments of consumption, and product-service effective- - Sustainable Consumption Research Exchang- types of evolutions (with respect to economic, through pro-active policy development. ness. This means that a solid SMM EU policy es), for both the production and consumption business and organisational/learning practices), can further reinforce the current focus and side: food, living, and mobility. while showing the level of ‘integratedness’ of 4. Future policy directions for SMM targets in the EU policies on (renewable) energy The changed consumption and production SMM. The model has an ‘open end’ evolv- Striving to SMM is a matter for all actors in use, CO2 emission reductions, and green inno- patterns in the described domains show that ing into a ‘world 2.0’ where SMM reaches a society, be it business, government, consum- vation. Further integration of SMM as defined in biotic and abiotic materials in whatever form fully integrated level. The 40 presented cases ers, academia, civil society or others. Moving this report then enhances the other European or size are part of every aspect of our lives. come from business, government and other towards SMM cannot solely be achieved by goals and SMM should therefore also be part of The amount and the way we use materials and societal actors worldwide. They are clustered being more efficient in existing production the new EU 2020 Strategy. products is influenced by a mixture of factors, in 12 themes (the position in the SMM Maturity processes, or by minimising waste. To reach This creates challenges for a comprehensive e.g.: increased demand (population growth, Model is indicated per theme). The described a ‘reasonable’ co-existence of the economy policy mix and integrated policy approaches changed ideas on comfort, convenience and cases within each cluster illustrate the enor- and the surrounding ecosystem(s) the use of that contribute to the creation of a sustainable health), rapid technological advancements, mous variety of existing SMM initiatives and natural resources by industrialised countries and resource-light world. This demands an

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 5 effective mix of strategies for change, taking • Support the establishment of national SMM stable and prosperous alternative macro- into consideration the different drivers for hu- agencies; economics models is also urgently required, man behaviour. • Reinforce policy assessments and integrate with the goal of transitionising the economy indicators on SMM in the existing Sustain- towards a World 2.0 and achieving the Fac- Therefore, the following main policy directions able Impact Assessment (SIA) at EU level; tor 10 goal. on SMM and EU level are suggested: • Design and start capacity building cam- • Set up of a multi-stakeholder SMM Transi- paigns for sector and company level. tion Platform at EU level, developing ideas 1. Policy integration: to address the necessary transitions, • Further policy integration of the main 3. Research & Development: systems changes, reframing, and actions existing EU frameworks linked to resource • integrate SMM in future EU R&D pro- needed for sustainable materials manage- management and SCP; grammes: EIT and EC FP7/FP8 calls, EU ment (cf. the Flemish Transition Process • In parallel, a review of several existing strat- structural Funds, and specific SME pro- Plan C, which focuses on SMM). egies on the presence of SMM aspects, grammes; • Address the shortage of funding and invest- e.g. the new EU 2020 Strategy and the • The complexity of SMM issues require novel ments at the stage of pre-commercialisation Eco-Design Directive; research and educational approaches that by developing an EU Trust Fund for ‘Eco- • Establish strong European institutions, focus more explicitly on inter- and transdis- innovation’, which includes SMM. through for instance a cross-directorate ciplinary networks and settings. Reserving European ‘Green Cabinet’; substantially more means for multi-domain, • Develop a vision for sustainable future integrative projects and networks is needed markets, set demanding and binding SMM as a large part of the current EU funding targets; is still reserved for the traditional single- domain projects. 2. Measuring and indicators: • At global level: establish knowledge transfer • Implement a comprehensive and robust to developing countries on how to develop resource use indicator set in the EU and their capacity to sustainable materials member states; management, adequate measuring and • Establish one Data Centre where data on monitoring, impact assessments, etc. resource intensity can be internationally harmonised, validated and periodically 4. World 2.0 Transition: updated; • Further explore existing initiatives and • Develop strong and mandatory mecha- debates at EU level on ‘beyond GDP’ and nisms for data generation of resource ‘redefining prosperity’; intensity at sector and company level; • More research on developing financially

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 6 Ch a p t e r 1 - Wh a t is Su s t a i n a b l e Ma t e r i a l s Ma n a g e m e n t ?

Sustainable materials management (hereafter b. Sustainable use and management of natu- phases of a products’ life-cycle and taking ac- SMM) is not a stand-alone concept. It is part of ral resources tion where it is most effective. The life-cycle of the bigger picture of sustainable development c. Sustainable Consumptions and Production a product is often long and complicated. It cov- and it is one of several existing terminologies (SCP) ers all the areas from the extraction of natural used for an approach to promote sustainable d. Sustainable materials management (SMM) resources, through their design, manufacture, material use. It is therefore relevant to further assembly, marketing, distribution, sale and use clarify this concept and define the framework. Several aspects can be part of all these to reuse and repair, reconditioning, remanufac- In this chapter we will address the: concepts and are often intertwined, such as: turing, recycling and cascading use of materials. (c)lean production, life cycle assessment and 1. different existing terms and concepts approach, resource efficiency and productivity, At the same time it also involves many different related to SMM and investigate the possible waste reduction, 3R’s (reduce, reuse, recycle), actors such as designers, industry, market- differences and similarities, eco-design, eco-innovation, industrial ecology, ing people, retailers, disposal contractors, 2. evolutions in material use that have taken sustainable products & services, sustainable recyclers, and consumers. IPP attempts to place so far and the possible future direc- supply chain, etc. stimulate each part of these individual phases tions. to improve their environmental performance. The UN and the EU tend to use more often 1.1 Clarifying terminology; do we the first three concepts, originating from the Main focus in IPP is on ‘greener’ products in talk about the same? UN World Summits on Sustainable Develop- view of the life-cycle, throughout the product Within the international arena of, for instance, ment (WSSD) in Rio (1992) and Johannesburg chain. The focus in IPP is aiming at an overall the UN, EU and the OECD, different terminol- (2002), and the OECD uses more the term decrease of material flows, prevention of eco- ogy is used for material use, often depending SMM. logical impacts to soil, water, air, etc.. on the specific focus for policy development. There is a variety of reasons why different termi- a. Integrated Product Policy b. Sustainable use and management of nologies exist. In a report for the EC (Ernst & Young, 2000), natural resources that investigates the foundation for a European The basis for this concept is to ensure that the One of the main reasons is that ideas and IPP, three main principles for national IPP poli- consumption of resources and their associated knowledge about sustainable development at cies are distinguished, namely: integration (in- impacts do not exceed the carrying capacity large and the (complex) relationship with how tegrating the control of impacts at given stages of the planet and decoupling economic growth we use materials, substances, natural re- of the product chain), market based approach from resource use. The 6th Environmental Ac- sources, including energy, water and land, have and life-cycle thinking. All products cause en- tion Programme (EAP) called for the prepara- strongly evolved over the past decades. vironmental degradation in some way, whether tion of a ‘thematic strategy on the sustainable The most common terms used are: from their manufacturing, use or disposal. use and management of resources’. a. Integrated Product Policy (IPP) IPP seeks to minimise these by looking at all The strategy, which also has to be seen in

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 7 context with and contributes to the reviewed ing the consumption patterns in the sense systematic approach to incentives and (public) tion, transportation, production, consump- EU Sustainable Development Strategy, focuses that, in order to render markets and economies procurement, and reinforcing information to tion, material, product reuse, recovery and on the natural resource use for products and more sustainable, production and consump- consumers through a more coherent and sim- disposal; materials. tion patterns are optimised. At the UN WSSD in plified labelling framework. • An economically efficient outcome is Johannesburg (2002) all countries committed achieved when net benefits to society as a Resource use has been an issue in European themselves to changing unsustainable patterns The challenge is to create a virtuous circle: whole are maximized; environment policy discussions over the past of consumption and production. improving the overall environmental perfor- • A variety of policy tools can support SMM, 30 years. A major concern in the 1970s, fol- mance of products throughout their life-cycle, such as economic, regulatory and informa- lowing the first oil crises, was natural resource In the WSSD Plan of Action the so called Mar- promoting and stimulating the demand of tion instruments and partnerships; scarcity and limits to growth (EC, 2005). rakech Process was set up; a global process better products and production technologies • SMM may take place at different levels, to support the elaboration of a 10-Year Frame- and helping consumers to make better choices including firm/sector and different govern- Rapidly growing demand, ecological dam- work of Programs (10YFP) on sustainable through a more coherent and simplified label- ment levels; age and scarcity have put responsible natural consumption and production. ling (EC, 2005). • SMM may cover different geographical resource management at the core of the SMM areas and time horizons. debate. This reality forces us to a significant The main objective of the 10YFP is to be d. Sustainable materials management reduction of negative environmental impacts, a global framework for action on SCP that The OECD working definition of SMM was e. Approach of background for the study: but also re-addresses the concepts of waste countries can endorse and commit to in order developed in 2005, and states: What do we talk about? to the point that we cannot afford to ‘waste’ to accelerate the shift towards sustainable “Sustainable Materials Management is an It is clear that despite different wordings the valuable materials anymore and a decoupling of consumption and production patterns, thus approach to promote sustainable materials differences between the above concepts are economic growth and resource use is needed. promoting social and economic development use, integrating actions targeted at reducing not always that significant and there is often within the carrying capacity of ecosystems by negative environmental impacts and preserving overlap. The above described concepts of The attention paid to resource use is increasing de-linking economic growth from environmental natural capital throughout the life-cycle of ma- material use do not yet reflect the full and at international level. In particular, the OECD degradation. terials, taking into account economic efficiency broad perspective, including water and land has set the goal of decoupling environmental and social equity”. use, justice and fairness, societal behavioural pressures from economic growth and has also The perspective of sustainable lifestyles at large paradigms. published a joint agency paper (with World is also part of the framework. Following explanatory notes are given with The distinction exists mainly in the scope of the Bank, DFID, e.a.) on environmental fiscal reform The EC Action Plan on this matter contains a this working definition: concepts, ranging from narrower to wider, up and how that can contribute to more sustain- dynamic framework to improve the energy and • “Materials” include all those extracted or to a more integrated view: able use of natural resources (OECD, 2001). environmental performance of products and derived from natural resources, which may • A strictly environmental and technologi- foster their uptake by consumers. be either inorganic or organic substances, cal focus on the product and/or industrial c. Sustainable consumption and production at all points throughout their life-cycles; process itself, In this concept IPP is part of a wider sustain- This includes setting ambitious standards, • “Life-cycle of materials” includes all ac- • The whole (linear) supply and product able development perspective on SMM includ- ensuring that products are improved using a tivities related to materials such as extrac- chain, upstream and downstream, including

1 h t t p ://e s a .u n .o r g /marrakechprocess / SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 8 natural resource use and consumers use, change and biodiversity, to deforestation, re- Three main phases in the development of ma- which demands reflection and creativity, as • To a larger societal perspective, including source use, emissions, population growth and terial use can be distinguished. dilemmas emerge. consumption mechanisms, the connection human lifestyles. In the beginning material use was strongly 3. Reframing - triple loop learning: focus between materials as (continuous) resource focussing on reacting. Thereafter it changed on meta-knowledge - ‘knowing why’ and for each other, up to closed-loop product It is only since the last two decades or so that towards redesigning. Considering the enor- the actions involve questioning the basic and service cycles, we start to better understand the effects of hu- mous challenges we face in the 21st century common framework. The problems then are • To the (relative) decoupling of economic man activity on the system at large. on resource scarcity, climate change, food reframed leading to the implementation of growth and natural resource use (scarcity) insecurity, etc. the need for reframing becomes new approaches. This type of learning also and change of human lifestyles (behavioural In 1990 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate more apparent. refers to the capacity of action learning of a and societal factors), considering overall Change (IPCC), established by the UNEP and group (either in an organisation or multi- sustainable development goals (including the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Albert Einstein already said: “The significant dimensional and across sectors), which is e.g. the relationship between material use issued its first assessment report (FAR), provid- problems we face cannot be solved at the vital for the so called transition processes. and energy, land use and food production, ing the world with a clear scientific view on the same level of thinking we were at when we cre- Reframing implies the transition to new global versus regional aspects, biodiversity actual state of climate change and its potential ated them”. models or frameworks to construct our and climate impacts, equity and justice (e.g. environmental and socio-economic conse- societies. equal access to and use of the available quences. This shift in depth and width of the understand- natural resources), etc. ing of material use and its relationship to a While describing below the evolutions in mate- These evolutions also affected our thinking on wider context and the related actions taken can rial use and management we have to bear The SMM concept in this study takes the material use. We can witness a shift from a be compared to the different levels in organisa- in mind that the advancements of scientific OECD SMM definition as a basis and starting company’s focus on the product and process tional learning (developed by Chris Argyris). knowledge, technology development and busi- point. However, it also takes the wider and towards a focus on the supply chain and a ness models, and governmental actions do not more integrated perspective of material use into more sector wide approach, involving close co- Organisational learning, according to Argyris, always occur simultaneously. consideration. The concepts of SMM are still operation with a variety of external stakehold- involves the detection and correction of error. evolving, as we will see in the next paragraph. ers. The evolutions described below indicate Following comparison can be made: The latter is often somewhat behind, which the main changes at international level in three 1. Reaction - single loop learning: focus does not mean that it cannot influence the 1.2 Main evolutions in material use phases stretched over certain time periods. on factual knowledge - ‘knowing what’ and pace, direction and scale of developments, as Key factor in the evolution on the concept of the actions involve mainly technical repair we shall see in the following chapters. material use is our enhanced knowledge on the These time periods are variable as both scientif- and a routine is in place (follows existing complexity and interdependency of the planet’s ic evolutions, the range of market applications, procedures and mechanisms). 1.2.1 Reaction: from end-of-pipe to eco- ecosystem. Particularly, the cause-effect linear and policy interventions often do not converge. 2. Redesigning - double loop learning: efficiency and supply chain thinking proved inadequate to understand the Furthermore, the speed of innovation and ad- focus on procedural knowledge - ‘knowing In the 1970’s and 1980’s the focus in industry complexity and delicate balance between the aptation may vary for individual countries. how’ and the actions involve improvements and on material use was mainly dominated by multiple aspects of the ecosystem, from climate of processes, structures and practices, end-of-pipe thinking. Strong economic growth,

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 9 expansion of multinationals, liberalisation and EFQM, EMAS, SA 8000, etc.) becomes more mental and social issues at stake in the whole come from, how they are made, under what deregulation of the international markets also and more prevalent, whereby multinational supply chain. circumstances, and what is in them. brought environmental damage. Waste produc- companies often take the lead. Companies are asked to take responsibility tion and pollution formed the first concrete for their products and services throughout the This also demands a wider perspective on negative signs of business activities. The shifts in the perception and concepts of value chain and concepts as product steward- material use, including resource extraction from SMM do not stand alone. Since the 1990’s a ship emerge. elsewhere, the global movements of products, The first response of business (and society) shift, in parallel with the evolutions on Corpo- the relationship to our consumption patterns to environmental disasters and scandals was rate Social Responsibility (CSR) in business, 1.2.2 Re-designing: eco-effectiveness and and our (Western) concepts of comfort, cleanli- re-active, cleaning up after the damage had has taken place. closing the loop ness and convenience (Shove, 2003). With been done. The reaction of business was rather In the past decade our understanding of the our increased understanding of the complex- defensive and its main concern was to repair This goes from a more internal focus towards impacts of human activity on climate change, ity, interdependency and the societal impacts, the damage and its image and clean up the an external focus, involving a wider range of food security, depletion of natural resources material use is no longer limited to industry waste, which in the early stages sometimes external stakeholders and with considerations and on many other sustainable societal chal- processes and product efficiency. only meant: take it out of sight. of the effects along the supply chain, both lenges, has changed which also implies a shift upstream and downstream (SERV, 2007). At in thinking on material use. Ten years later, the Reduction of material and resource use in the This then shifted in the 1980’s to pollution and the world summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, United Nations Commission on Sustainable whole production chain of a product becomes waste prevention, in parallel with EU and na- governments agreed to “encourage a shift to generally accepted, as is the reduction and tional government initiatives on environmental more sustainable patterns of production and Development noted that little had changed with smarter design of packaging at various levels, legislation. consumption” (Agenda 21, 4.17). regard to non-sustainable patterns of produc- including for transportation. Reduction, reuse tion and consumption, and that the threat and recycling and eco-effectiveness become Business started to realise that they also had Although, still mainly seen from a linear per- to the natural basis of life continued to exist the buzz words. No longer just ‘do more with a responsibility towards the environment and spective. Companies now start to take on, (“Implementing Agenda 21”, report from Janu- less’, but ‘do it right from the beginning’. society and now attention focussed more on but it is certainly not yet mainstream, wider ary 2002). In response, it was formally agreed cleaner technology and industrial processes. In responsibilities for the societal effects of their in Johannesburg to accelerate the transition to This means designing products from a life cycle this period the eco-efficiency thinking, ‘do more core business activities. sustainable manufacturing and consumption approach, where responsible extraction and with less’, becomes more central to business processes (Plan of Implementation, § 13) by material use are as much a concern as what operations. This is among others noticeable by the growth means of ten-year plans. can be done with products after the end-of- of a large number of product labels and inter- use stage. In the Cradle to Cradle concept this Eco-efficiency means that we produce the national multi-sector initiatives in the mid nine- Meanwhile, consumers and the wider public means how to keep materials in closed cycles, same amount of useful output with less input ties of last century, e.g. Fair Wear Foundation, are better informed and become more de- either biological or technical. from resources and (fossil) energy. By the early Kimberly process (diamond sector), and more manding on the quality of products. People Here the concept of waste as such changes, 1990’s the application in the company of vari- recent the WWF Round Tables on Soy & Palm want to know from companies (and govern- after use materials still maintain value and can ous management systems and standards (ISO, Oil, which address the economic, environments and civil society actors) where products be reused of remanufactured in biodegradable

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 10 or new industrial products, without constantly implies a fully integrated approach with a sys- which often leads to rebound effects, can create has remained virtually unchanged in the EU at extracting new resources from the earth. tems perspective or in other words, sustainable adverse effects and undo the initial gains. around 16 tonnes per year, while economy has materials management. SMM is then interlinked grown by 50% over that period, this has not This implies a shift towards products-services with diverse aspects that affect the eco-sys- This also addresses cultural, value and behav- been sufficient to reverse fundamentally unsus- concepts; from owing (end-user) to using (leas- tems and societal wellbeing. ioural questions; what do we really need for a tainable trends either in Europe of globally. ing, renting) concepts. Producers then remain decent living standard? In order to reverse these unsustainable trends, the owner of the product, and if a machine The interdependency of resource use and The main problems with materials and resource containing environmental degradation and breaks down, he needs to repair or replace it. scarcities between energy, land use, water and use are twofold: preserving the essential services that natural This contributes to the reduction of environ- natural resources has become clear and, as 1. The environmental impact generated by resources provide, environmental policy needs mental pressures. we will see in chapter 2, the urgencies to act the current patterns of resource use. For to move beyond emission and waste control increase. This also implies that SMM will have example, the availability (which is not limit- (EC, COM 2005, page 4,5). 1.2.3 Re-framing: towards new horizons of to be looked at from a closed-loop, cyclical less) of fossil fuels and the consequently integrated approaches and systems perspective and that geological, extensive use to generate energy and to In order to reduce the overall environmental At the beginning of the 21st Century, we notice physical, economical, social, institutional and produce products creates severe air pollu- and societal impact of materials the future chal- a shift in the developments of the concepts geopolitical implications have to be addressed tion and global warming. lenges for SMM are multiple: from more linear and simple to cyclical and (Ministries VROM & Foreign Affairs, 2009). This also applies to non-renewable resourc- • to design products ‘right’ from scratch; complex. Trends and developments are on It demands an integrated approach and a new es, such as metals and minerals, although • to use renewable resources and energy to its way where material use, product develop- framework for business. their availability is not for all under threat, extract, make, use, separate, and remanu- ment, and production & consumption patterns they do cause environmental problems and facture them; are considered in a system that has effect on 1.2.4 Future Challenges pressures. • to re-use materials as long as appropriate society at large, here and elsewhere, today and The existing materials management concepts, 2. In the case of renewable resources, scarcity and avoid depletion; tomorrow. at this point in time, do not yet fully address in itself is an environmental problem, as • to develop concepts that shift from (one) for instance how raw materials and natural the extinction of species means loss of end-user and ownership towards more This means addressing the current shift of resources can be extracted in a responsible, biodiversity and land use means loss of effective use by leasing and renting (new burden at three levels: fair and just way, how this is related to land use, habitats and diversity, and often also loss types of services); a. between generations (for our children and the maintenance of soil quality and biodiversity, of soil quality, which then leads to a variety • by creating closed loops between mate- grand children), how absolute decoupling of material & resource of other problems, such as floods or poor rial use and land use, while integrating and b. between geographical regions (here and use, production of waste and emissions, and nutritious value of food crops. Scarcity is mixing functions of living, working, mobility, elsewhere on this planet), economic growth (GDP) can be established, and only partially solved by price mechanisms. food supply, etc.; c. the whole supply chain (and between differ- what this means for the relationship between • creating buildings and infrastructures that ent sectors). production and consumption patterns and the Despite considerable efforts in the EU in the produce energy, clean water, etc.; way we use products and materials. Further- last 20 years to improve material efficiency and • waste in its current concept will become We then enter the phase of reframing. This more, the current focus on (energy) efficiency, the fact that overall consumption per inhabitant history.

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 11 The future framework for SMM lies in our ability to combine design, nature and technology with the environment (ecological and social), changing the mindset, optimising production and consumption patterns towards ‘resource-light’ patterns, and creating effective and collaborative economies, based on integrated (bio) systems. This cannot be realised by business, research, civil society actors or consumers alone. Governments and public authorities can play an important role in stimulating and setting frameworks for SMM, and as such can contribute to a greener and more equitable economy.

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 12 Ch a p t e r 2 - Wh y is SMM r e l e v a n t ? Th e b i g g e r p i c t u r e .

Can we see the bigger picture and do we really accelerated way. We picture these changes indeed very complex. For the sake of clarity we understand the signs around us? Our human over the time span of a human life of about 80 will picture the overall urgencies by three main ecological footprint overshoots earth’s carry- years (a life expectancy not yet a reality every- domains of human life (based on the EU project ing capacity (see table 2.2). In simple terms, where! see table 2.2), from around the 1960’s, SCORE!- Sustainable Consumption Research we act as if we have more than one planet to 70’s until around 2040. Exchanges2 ): food, living (housing), mobility. live on. We use more resources and produce Table 2.1 gives an overview of the environ- more damaging greenhouse gasses, toxics The changes and impacts that took place and mental impacts of four consumption domains and non degradable waste than this planet has the challenges we are facing for a sustainable (recreation will not be addressed here) for the the capacity and the time to maintain a healthy development involve all areas of life and are EU-25 with some country examples. eco-system, which is the sole provider of our and other species’ living conditions. Table 2.1: Environmental impact (full life cycle) of con- SMM is therefore part of other challenges as sumption domains (based on Tukker e.a., 2008) well, e.g. climate change, energy, land use, Source: Jones, P. T., De Meyere, V. (2009) resources, biodiversity, etc. and has to be % of ex- understood in a larger framework and as part Ecological Domain penses in Energy CO2(eq) CO2 CO2(eq) footprint of sustainable development visions an way EU-25 we live, what we consider necessary, use- Nether- ful or pleasurable, and the way we construct Cardiff Denmark Norway EU-25 our societies anywhere on this planet. These lands manmade processes and (economic) activities Food 19,3%* 21% 26,2% 22,1% 12,2% 31% create pressures on the ecosystem and on the potential for human development. Living 25,1% 30,8% 40,8% 33,4% 23% 23,6% In this chapter we will see what has changed in a lifetime, what urgencies we face, and what Transport 14,1% 22,4% 19,5% 17,3% 35,9% 18,5% the future challenges for SMM are. Recreation 9,1% 8,3% 7,2% 15,1% 0,5% 6%

2.1 What has changed in a life time? TOTAL 67,6% 82,5% 93,7% 87,9% 71,6% 79,1% In only a few decades our lives have changed dramatically. The impacts on many levels are *If restaurant visits were included the figure would be not only significant but also occur in an 28,9%

2 Th e SCORE s c i e n c e n e t w o r k (2005-2008) , f u n d e d b y t h e EU’s 6t h Fr a m e w o r k Pr o g r a m a n d UNEP, s u p p o r t s t h e development o f t h e UN’s 10 y e a r Fr a m e w o r k o f Pr o g r a m m e s o n Su s t a i n a b l e Co n s u m p t i o n & Pr o d u c t i o n (SCP). SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 13 Within these three domains we describe developing world, towards megacities. Today, areas and megacities, will be most affected. ture and land use continues to expand. the changes and challenges from both the virtually one out of two people on the planet is UNDP (2007) judges that if we fail to tackle • The possible effects of climate change may consumption and production side, and will be a city dweller. In 1975 urban population was climate change the poorest 40% of the world increase the incidence and severity of forest further illustrated with some non-exhaustive key 813 million in developing countries to 704 mil- population will be condemned to a hopeless fires and pest and disease infestation and figures. Although based on scientific data and lion in developed countries. existence. may alter forest ecosystems. There will also projections, these figures are merely meant as In 2005 it was 2.3 billion in less developed be increased attention on the role of forests illustration and support for the better under- to 344 million in more developed countries Human impact also becomes clear in our in carbon conservation and sequestration standing of the impacts and urgencies we are (UN-Habitat World Urban Forum III, June 2006, ecological footprint, already more than one and in substitution of fossil fuels. facing. Vancouver). planet. The ecological footprint, developed in • For many developing countries, wood will the 1990’s by Matthis Wackernagel and William remain the most important source of en- 2.1.1 The overall challenge: climate change Thanks to scientific research and the IPCC it Rees, is a measure expressing how much bio- ergy. The use of wood as fuel will increase and human development is now generally accepted that global warming productive land is needed for meeting human in both the developing and the developed Before looking at the three domains we will should not exceed 2°C if we are to avoid major consumption. world. The development of improved fuel picture some overall challenges we face. Table damage. conversion technologies that enhance en- 2.2 shows figures on the evolution of some Former World Bank economist Nicholas Stern It consists of various factors: land use for ergy efficiency would particularly favour this global issues. leaves no doubt. The cost of inaction will be infrastructure, agricultural activities and fishing, shift. Climate change (and in its wake the financial higher than the cost of climate mitigation action and (potential) land use for compensating CO2 and economic crisis) and human development programmes. He showed that doing nothing emissions from non-renewable energy resourc- Economic growth has become the main indica- are among the most impressive challenges we will cause an economic recession with a yearly es. Our ecological footprint is on average 2.3 tor for human activity. In many Western coun- have on our plates today. loss of 5 to 20% of the global GDP (Stern, ha/pp, however the planet provides resources tries we could speak of un-economic growth, 2006). for only 1.9 ha/pp. We overshot the earth ca- which is when the negative effects of growth The UN Millennium Development Goals cover pacity already in 1975. (See table 2.2) exceed the benefits of growth. The real wealth eight human areas closely linked with the need Economic damages from weather-related of a nation then decreases instead of increases for a sustainable development. disasters hit an unprecedented $204 billion in Recent decades have also changed the rela- (Jones & De Meyere, 2009). There are only five years left until 2015 to 2005, nearly doubling the previous record of tionship society-forest. The FAO has observed achieve these goals. The 2009 UN progress $112 billion set in 1998 and reflecting the high a number of trends for forests and forestry There have been several attempts for alter- report is clear; advances in the fight against number of disasters affecting built-up areas. (FAO, 2007, page 79). To mention a few: native measuring of our wealth, such as the hunger and poverty have slowed down and are Three of the 10 strongest hurricanes ever • Deforestation and forest degradation will Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW) even reversed and overall progress has been recorded occurred in 20053. continue in most developing regions; a of Daly and Cobb (1989). The ISEW is an too slow to reach most of the targets. reversal of the situation would depend on adjusted economic indicator which attempts to Climate change does however not affect us structural shifts in economies to reduce incorporate costs and benefits not traditionally Growth of the world population is another evenly. The South and developing countries, direct and indirect dependence on land. In measured in monetary terms. major factor, including the shift, mainly in the where many poor people live in low coastal most developing tropical countries, agricul- It brings together a wide range of economic,

3 w w w .w o r l d w a t c h .o r g /n o d e /4250 SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 14 social and environmental issues, such as: the World Business Council for Sustainable world are unemployed, and around 70% of the habitat loss, localised pollution, depletion of Development describes in its ‘Vision 2050’ the world’s wealth is concentrated in the top 10% non-renewable resources and climate change; need for new measures of success and redefin- of the world population. social costs associated with crime, divorce, ing progress (WBCSD, 2010). Unprecedented challenges in a world that so commuting and unequal income distribution; drastically changed over the past few decades. and the health costs of road or workplace ac- Meanwhile we are faced with an economic cidents. crisis that cuts deep. The ILO reported a few months after the 2008 financial meltdown the So far the ISEW has only been drawn up for loss of 50 million jobs. Some 2 billion people Table 2.2 Some key global evolutions Sources: a few industrialised countries. These coun- struggle to get by on less than two dollars a Ecological Footprint Network, IPCC Climate tries already reached, between the 1970’s day, lacking access to food, water, health, and * ecological footprint scenario’s based on moderate Change 2007 Synthesis report, WWF, UN Habitat and 1980’s, the tipping point where economic energy. Over 25% of young people in the ‘business as usual’. (2006,2007),UN World Urbanization Prospects : The growth becomes ‘un-economical’. ** average of men and women together. 2003 Revision, UN World Population Prospects : The The UNDP and the WHO also found indications 2006 Revision, that the higher the income inequality, the higher 1960 1970 1980 2000 2020 2040 the prevalence of emotional distress (depression, anxiety, substance abuse, impulsivity) World Ecological Footprint (nr. of planets) 0,5 0,7 0,9 1,2 1,5* 2* (James, 2007). The EC calculated (based on 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005 data of the WHO) that by 2012 the highest World bio capacity (resource supply) (ha/pp) 3,75 3,2 2,6 2,2 2 1,8 percentage of job fall out in the EU is caused by depression. 1970 1980 1990 2000 2004 Global anthropogenic GHG emissions (GtCO2 – eq/yr) 28,7 35,6 39,4 44,7 49 The ‘Happy Planet Index’ shows that around 1960 1970 1980 2000 2020 2040 the world, high levels of resource consumption World population (billions) 3,5 4 4,4 6,2 7,5 8,9 do not reliably produce high levels of wellbeing, and that it is possible to produce high 1960 1970 1980 2000 2020 2040 well-being without excessive consumption of ** life expectancy at birth (years) more developed regions 69 71 73 75 79 81 the Earth’s resources. 1960 1970 1980 2000 2020 2040 The EC is now reflecting on the improvement of indicators that better reflect the new ** life expectancy at birth (years) least developed regions 39 44 47 52 59 65 context and can complement current GDP with 1960 1980 2000 2010 2020 2030 environmental and social indicators, building on Urban population world wide (%) 30 40 49 53 59 62 other international efforts (EC, 20.8.2009). Also

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 15 2.1.2 Food major regions. to us. In the 1960’s until even the late 1980’s, non-nutritious snacks available 24 hours a day Food is one of our basic needs. It consists Currently 1.02 billion people are estimated to food was sold through local groceries, originating in cooled and lighted machines, from night of multiple human, ecological and economic be undernourished. from regional food chains with a relatively shops, petrol stations, or other self-service aspects. Apart from fulfilling our basic need it is On the other hand 1.6 billion people are over- limited choice. Super- or hypermarkets, concepts. also connected to: consumption, production, weight of which 400 million suffer from obesity, managed by large multinational retail chains, employment, trade, pricing, access, land use, mainly due to unhealthy food choices and hab- now have become the dominant providers of Another development in supermarkets (and soil quality, nutritious values, health & safety, its (high caloric and low nutritious fast food and our food, non-food, and daily-use appliances, other shops) is the increased efficiency and emissions, rural development, poverty and too much meat). with a seemingly unlimited choice. productivity, often leading to the abolishment population, etc. of labour in favour of machines and electron- Co n s u m p t i o n The shift to industrialised food production ics, e.g. energy consuming deep freezers and Food, in its production and consumption, also Our food habits have dramatically changed, (see below), new technologies (freezers, cooling systems, IT and electronics for stock creates major impacts related to (fossil) energy both in quantity and quality, in only a few microwaves), and ever smaller family units, management, new types of payment and cash use, material use, GHG-emissions, health risks, decades. changed both the content and type of food on points, and self-service systems. malnutrition, land use, soil quality, and unequal Towards 2050 global population will increase the shelves. We now are used to frozen food, The latest developments are self scans and self access. by a further 2.5 billion and in this period per ready-made meals, industrially processed food pay machines; no contact with staff needed Worldwide, agricultural activity, especially capita income will more than double. This will with added sugar, salt and artificial additives, any more. livestock production, accounts for about one cause a large increase in the demand for food and products from all over the world. fifth of the total GHG-emissions, thus contribu and put extra pressures on land use. ‘World- ting to climate change and its adverse health wide, agricultural production is projected to rise These changes also influenced the amount of consequences, including the threat to food by approximately 80% (crops) to 100% (animal materials used in the food chain for packag- yields in many regions. Today we live in a world products), between 2000 and 2005’ (NEAA e.a. ing, storing, conservation, and transportation. of multiple food paradoxes. 2009, page 30) According to the French Environmental and According to the FAO, 2009 has been a Energy Agency Ademe, a pack of coffee (250 devastating year for the world’s hungry, The animal products intake per person per day grams) containing individual portions generates marking a significant worsening of an already in the industrialised countries has increased 10 times more packaging than the equivalent of disappointing trend in global food security since from around 600 Kcal in the 1960’s to 880 Kcal a non-portioned packaging. 1996. The global economic slowdown, follow- by 2040 (Mc Michael J.A. e.a. 2007). World- ing the food crisis in 2006–2008, has deprived wide meat (and dairy products) production and A similar development has taken place for an additional 100 million people of access to consumption continues to increase, not only restaurants. We moved from eating regional adequate food. Although from the 1970’s until due to population growth, but particularly to the cuisine with fresh and seasonal products, to around 1995 there was a decrease, since then increase of income and living standards. the whole world on our plates. Also the and particularly since 2006 there have been Another major change took place in the way concepts and conditions under which we eat marked increases in hunger in all of the worlds’ we purchase food and the way it is presented have changed. We now eat fast food and

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 16 Table 2.3 Sources: World Resource Institute http://earthtrends. is active in agriculture. Worldwide agriculture Tr e n d s * food consumption refers to: animal products, other wri.org, Global water withdrawal: UNEP GEO 4 uses 70% of water. Irrigation can increase food Apart from above impacts there are the chal- crops, oil crop, and cereals/rice/maize Report 2007, OECD Environmental Outlook, 2008, production; however the downsides cannot lenges of genetically modified Food (launched be neglected. Since 1950 the irrigated surface in the USA in 1996), industrialised aquacul- 1960 1970 1980 2000 has doubled, while water use for agriculture, tures, and new biotechnologies to cultivate and household and industrial use has tripled! create new types of food, such as ‘artificial’ World meat consumption 21.1 24.8 28.1 38.6 (kg/pp/per year) According the FAO modern agricultural meat. The new phenomenon of ‘land grabbing’ methods create several other effects (Steinfeld by foreign investors and the use of marginal 1970 2000 2030 2050 e.a.2006): lands for production increases the pressures Global food consumption* a. Farms became more specialised and with 2450 2750 3250 3500 on: land-use, local development and access to (kcal/cap/day) that the number of produced commodities and control over land. 1960 1970 1980 2000 2020 2040 per farm has decreased. This also meant a As a reaction to the industrialised and global loss of varieties of plants. farming new trends emerge e.g. biological and Global water withdrawal 1300 1500 2100 2500 3000 3400 Agriculture (km³) b. The number of farms decreased, but the eco-friendly farming, combined with local sup- average size increased (more monocultures ply chains and direct sales to consumers. There 1960 1970 1980 2000 2020 2040 which also affects soil quality), is the Slowfood movement in Italy and AMAP Global water withdrawal c. Agro-exports dominate the global economic (Associations pour le Maintien de l’Agriculture 150 190 240 400 550 700 Industry (km³) relations. Consequence is transportation of Paysanne)4 in France. AMAP is a partnership food and derived products sometimes with between consumers and producers with direct bizarre effects. Example: France exports exchange of locally grown products and farm- Pr o d u c t i o n The FAO showed that the world productivity just as much milk to the UK as it imports ing methods are based on biological farming Over the past decades we have drastically increased 2.3% per year since 1961, but es- from the UK, and the UK exports just as (producers have often the AB logo) using a changed the way we produce and grow our timates that it will decrease by 2030 by 1.5%, much ginger bread as it imports. maximum of plant variation and with respect for food and non-food products (biofuels). Advanc- and 0.9% between 2030 and 2050. d. Emerging of greenhouse farming (energy biodiversity and rhythm of nature. es in plant and animal breeding throughout last Today a Western farmer can produce 200 intense, more CO2 emissions). century facilitated mechanisation in agriculture times more than before and a farmer in the US e. Use of fertilisers and pesticides which The increased pressures on land use for food, and increased yields and quality, enhanced by produces even 2000 times more than an aver- pollute water and soil and create (in)direct non-food production (biofuels, food for cattle), the rapid development of inexpensive chemi- age farmer in Rwanda. health risks in food chains over large ter- but also for buildings and infrastructures (trans- cal fertilizers and pesticides since 1945. As a ritories. port), challenges the reframing of our agro-in- result of these advances, growth in agricultural Agriculture is still an important job provider, par- f. Increased soil degradation; about 40% of dustrial model towards innovative and sustain- productivity in the USA averaged 1.9 % annu- ticularly in the South. Almost half of the world our agricultural land today is in decay, also able solutions, including sustainable materials, ally between 1948 and 1999. population due to other practices such as deforesta- resource and land-use. tion and uncontrolled irrigation.

4 Se e :h t t p ://w w w .r e s e a u -a m a p .o r g / SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 17 2.1.3 Living - housing changed concepts of comfort & cleanliness of appliances used by less people (more around at home. Living refers to both living in buildings and the together with the technological advancements single households). buildings itself (residential or other occupation). created many new household and lifestyle 6. Health and wellbeing. Almost without notic- Another consumptive aspect of living refers Seen from a complete life cycle perspective products. For personal hygiene we moved from ing we ‘exclude’ our own body from daily to the energy and material use of the building the housing and building sector in the EU is washing at a sink to taking a daily shower or muscle activity and direct tactile contact itself. In the housing sector, construction and responsible for about 30% of the total ecologi- bath. On average we use 39% of our (drinking) with (growing and preparing) food, garden- usage are often separate. We have developed cal footprint, 25% of the total GHG-emissions water for shower and bath, 22% for dishwash- ing and our own body. Obesity is not just more flexible lifestyles (also due to greater and 40% of energy use (see table 2.1). Build- ing and laundry, and 20% for sanitary systems. a matter of food intake, but also how we demand for flexibility in the job market and ings also have impacts on: health (indoor air Today we possess and have access to a sheer are able to maintain our body in a healthy leisure activities) and changed our demands for quality and climate), water and energy use, land endless variety of electrical appliances and physical state and stay in touch with it. living, which influences the size and functions use compared to other functions, e.g. nature, equipment for different functions in and around As German philosopher Peter Sloterdijk of housing according to our life stages (now 4 agriculture, roads, and the quality of the build- the house. The list of ‘comfort from a socket’ eloquently puts it: ‘The 21st Century is the generations in a human life) and combined and ings at large. is endless and involves all aspects of our living, century in which we will only use one part of integrated challenges for spatial planning and from kitchen utensils & cleaning and garden our body, the finger; for pushing buttons on the use for land for agriculture, living, working, World population and the demand for housing and tools, to personal care & hygiene and play our mobile phones, remote controls, cash nature, mobility, etc. are still growing. An increased number of single & pleasure. machines, etc.’ And last but not least there are all the materials households combined with an aging population and objects with which we fill our houses. increase the overall energy consumption and There are several effects of this increased con- The turnover of goods has increased and the number of household appliances needed. sumption of all kinds of electrical appliances: repair is often not an option anymore. The Pr o d u c t i o n 1. Increase in water and electricity use, direct last 20 years the worldwide number of mobile The production side for living applies to materi- Long term increase in energy prices (peak oil) and indirect (stand-by use), and CO2 emis- phones subscribers has grown to about 4.1 als used for both the building and appliances to has direct social effects. The poor, socially sions. billion mobile phones in 2008, compared to equip the building. The past decades the use of vulnerable, and people who (have to) stay 2. The amount of materials needed to extract, approximately 1.1 billion in 2002, and less than materials, energy, water, and land for living, has in pay an uneven part of the cost. Energy produce, transport, and recycle this equip- 500.000 in 1998 (OECD, 2009). increased, including CO2 emissions. use in houses has increased over the years, ment (see table 2.4). The average lifespan of a mobile phone has mainly due to the increase of living standards, 3. The rebound effect; when equipment be- decreased from 3 years in 1991 to 18 months ‘Forecasts for reserves of some finite resources changed concepts of comfort, and the number comes more energy-efficient we tend to use in 2002. ‘However, the technical lifespan of found commonly in everyday products, such of electrical and electronic and household more (leave lights and equipment on, drive a mobile phone is about 10 years therefore as copper, zinc and silver have horizons within equipment (for heating, cooling or leisure) that more kilometres, etc.). promoting reuse is a good way of supporting the lifetime of many of us, 30-40 years. Indium, came available on the market. 4. We need more and more square meters of sustainable use of materials’ (OECD, 2009, which is an essential and rare metal used in living space to store all this equipment. page 40). A European mobile phone recycling LED lights (which are seen as highly energy Co n s u m p t i o n 5. Our households in the developed world be- company estimated that alone in Belgium efficient alternatives even to compact fluores- The shift in our Western lifestyles and our come smaller. We need the same amount around 25 to 30 million ‘old’ mobiles still lay cent lamps), is so rare that there are less than

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 18 15 years’ worth of reserves left at 2006 global A lot of our daily used objects (furniture, IT to reduce energy use in buildings. This led to reducing the emissions due to energy require- consumption levels’ (EEB, May 2009, page 7). equipments, electronics, etc) contain toxics, a variety of actions, such as insulation, more ments for clinker production and with the lower Also see table 2.4 which create environmental damage, but also efficient heating systems, use of renewable reuse of limestone. Concurrently, new cements have (sub) chronic health implications. These sources, and use of rainwater (for washing and are being developed which require lower firing Ma t e r i a l s in b u i l d i n g s health impacts often occur over a long time toilets). Then reuse and recycling of valuable temperatures, and containing various alkaline We witness an increase in material use in volume period as we are exposed to a cocktail of building materials (wood, concrete, ceramics, secondary raw materials, once more limiting the and number. Although the size of electronic toxics and chemicals. etc.) and the production of more environmental use of limestone. More far reaching develop- equipment (computers, phones, cameras) friendly building materials emerged. ments are also expected, proceeding toward has decreased, the size of many appliances Although more research is still needed, there carbon neutral or even carbon negative cements. increased. Coffee machines, toasters, but also are indications that for instance Bisphenol A The concept of green buildings goes a step cars have become much bigger, heavier. This (building block for plastics) and Parabens (a further. Here materials are looked at from a A transition towards sustainable and smarter also has an effect on the space we need to live class of chemicals widely used as preservatives lifecycle perspective referring to: resource buildings requires an integrated approach at in and store the appliances. in cosmetics and pharmaceutical products) can efficiency, indoor air quality, energy efficiency, many levels. Architectural design of healthy, create cancer or have negative effects on the water conservation, and reducing maintenance flexible and detachable buildings made of In the USA each person has average 90 m2 reproductive system. and replacement cost. In some countries in sustainable materials have to meet sustainable to live in and every car has 5 to 7 places to Scandinavia and Austria wooden houses (from urban planning and closing the loop for energy rest (from private garage to public parking). Bu i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s regional forests) are more common. The type of -, material- and water use in a coherent and Volkswagen calculated that its model ‘Golf’ had Construction activities consume more raw materials used for building(s) is crucial and new complementary network of functions (work, doubled weight in 30 years since the first issue materials by weight materials emerge. living, leisure and city, village, nature, etc.). in 1974. (about 50%) than any other industrial sector. Cars have become more fuel efficient and safer The construction materials sector accounts for Tr e n d s This includes the need for new visions on (airbags, stronger coachwork), but the extra 3-4% of the total EU gross domestic product Potential technological breakthroughs will (reframing) the way we use land and space for material used, including comfort aspects such and directly employs 2.5 million people (RE- also reduce CO2 emissions in manufactur- our buildings and human activities at large. as air conditioning, undo the previous benefits. SPIRO, 2007). ing processes. In the medium and long term, In this evolution we will move from ‘passive’ new CO2 capture and storage techniques will houses (zero-energy use) towards ‘active’ As we spend more and more time inside Several developments can be distinguished be adapted to cement works. ‘In some R&D houses (producing energy). In parallel a transi- buildings we are confronted with the indoor in the building sector covering construction, projects and even already at the experimentation of the electricity production and supply will air quality and its health consequences, which design, planning and the use of (new) materials, tion stage, developments are made to drive be needed towards smart grids and the use of are directly linked to the materials we use. The going from more end-of-pipe solutions towards down CO2 emissions significantly (by as much renewable energy sources. phenomenon became even clearer when so more integrated green building approaches. as 80%)’ (ETUC, 2005, page 136). called zero-energy buildings or passive houses Urgencies will push these developments. emerged without the appropriate handling/in- The first development (in the 1990’s) was the Cements are already blended with for example For instance, China is currently facing an stallation of ventilation systems. notion of high CO2 emissions and the need ground granulated blast furnace slag, thereby unprecedented challenge as it will need in the

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 19 next 10 to 15 years new homes for around 400 Table 2.4: predicted peak and depletion of different 2.1.4 Mobility million people moving from rural to urban areas. fuels and metals, and main area of usage. The way we move and the intensity of mobil- This cannot be achieved with the same building Source: ITRE, March 2009 ity and transportation has drastically increased methods and materials, because of the dev- over the past decades in three areas: private astating environmental impacts at extraction, mobility, business transportation, and leisure. production, construction and usage level. Commodity Peak Depletion Main area of usage Global mobility is responsible for about 20% of Energy generation the GHG-emissions. Motorised transport and New type of ‘eco-cities’ will emerge where Oil 2006-2026 2055-2100 Chemical industry and pharmaceuticals vehicles currently depend for more than 95% Construction mobility, food production and quality of life are on oil and are responsible for almost half of the integrated from the beginning. Natural gaz 2010-2025 2075 Energy generation global oil use (IEA/Fulton, 2004). Coal 2100 2160-2210 Energy generation Furthermore, transport has impacts on many Antimony - 2020-2035 Metal alloys other areas, e.g. health, land and material use, Energy transport and fuel (oil) consumption. Copper - 2040-2070 Piping The same as for the other two domains pic- Electronics tured in this study, mobility faces true chal- may have Gallium - Electronics (mobile phones, solar cells) lenges for a climate change policy, where both passed private and professional transportation has Indium - 2015-2020 Electronics (LCDs, solar cells) increased and will further increase. Automobile industry Lead Passed 2030 Chemical industry Apart from CO2 emissions transport is also responsible for exhaust emission of fine par- Electronics (printer, etc) Platinium - 2020 Industry (plug, catalyser, glass production) ticles that affect health and provoke respiratory Medicine (pacemaker) diseases, allergies and heart disease. This trend will continue with rising temperatures and Electronics Silver - 2020-2030 Pharmaceuticals increased traffic jams and urbanisation (large cities). Electronics (mobile phone, automobiles) Tantalum - 2025-2035 Pharmaceuticals Chemical indusry Although cleaner engines will decrease the effect per driven kilometre, the rebound effect Uranium - 2035-2045 Energy generation tends to increase the total pollution level. Fur- Anticorrosives Zinc - 2030 thermore, cars have become faster, bigger and Energy storage more powerful. In Belgium between 1995 and

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 20 2005 the number of cars with an engine smaller differences were found. ‘Transport (absolute) ‘Within the built environment, the land de- miles for shopping. (See also table 2.5) than 1400 cc has decreased by 28%, whereas energy use and emissions are mostly related velopment patterns (i.e. public transport and the number of cars with an engine with more to male travel patterns, a fact that may be of pedestrian-friendly vs. car-orientated) and the China has in 2009 overtaken the USA as larg- than 1700 cc has increased by 25%. German use when devising policies for energy efficiency mode of transport investment (i.e. in public est car market. In 2009 13.6 millions cars were research calculated that a car is used less than and gender mainstreaming involving informa- transport, walking and cycling paths vs. high- sold in China, an increase of 46% compared one hour per 24 hours. tion campaigns, legislation or economic policy ways) are closely inter-related and between to 2008. In 1977 1 million Chinese possessed instruments’ (Räty, R. 2009). them they have a profound effect on physical a car, in 2008 that was already 51 million. Be- Traffic accidents remain a global public health Although consumer choices are influenced by activity levels. tween 1990 and 2003 the transport related fuel problem, says the WHO in its 2009 Global various factors, e.g. income levels and social This evidence suggests that the design of the use doubled, while between 1980 and 2003 Status Report on Road Safety. It indicates conditions, there is evidence that women physical environment in which we live, work, the number of personal kilometres was six fold. that more than 3000 people die on the world’s throughout their lives are more concerned and play results in a choice set where active roads every day. about longer-term well-being of families and forms of transportation and healthy food op- Growth is rapid in all transport modes and re- children. tions are relatively inconvenient, and are more flects the substantial growth in commodity trad- Tens of millions of people are injured or dis- Studies of the OECD (2008a, 2008b) and costly in terms of time and money, than less ing (especially container freight), but also the abled every year. Children, pedestrians, cyclists others (GRI & FCI, 2009) suggest that women healthy alternatives. … Mason has highlighted increased recreational activities and air travel. and the elderly are among the most vulnerable are more sustainable consumers than men, as that since the 1980s the proportion of over- E.g. the number of passengers transported by of road users (WHO, 2009, page 8). Further- they tend to be more inclined to buy organic weight, obese and inactive Australians has air in the EU-15 increased from 200 million in more, motorised traffic increased the noise and eco-labelled products, give more consider- increased in parallel with greater car reliance.’ 1975 to 600 million in 2000 (Eurostat, 2010). pollution, which increases health risks, e.g. high ation in their purchases to ethical issues such (IEEP, Davis e.a., 2007, page 20). blood pressure, cardio-vascular diseases and as child labour and fair trade, and more often Pr o d u c t i o n depression. use public transport. There is a strong correlation between car Despite many technical and safety improve- ownership and rise in mobility. Planning policies ments applied to vehicles, the past decade has Ge n d e r Co n s u m p t i o n have widely enabled this shift, by for instance: mostly been lost through increases in average What is less known is that men and women The Institute for European Environmental Policy out-of-town shopping centres, housing devel- vehicle size, weight, power, and other energy have different approaches towards consump- (IEEP) studied the contribution of the growth in opment which was ill suited for public trans- using appliances, such as air conditioning. tion. Women make the majority of purchasing car travel to the decline in human energy export, the cost reductions of owning, insuring What net efficiency gains have occurred have decisions for food, clothing and household penditure and how the shifts in travel patterns and maintaining cars, and walking and cycling been overwhelmed by growth in and demand goods. Men tend to buy the capital goods in the UK contribute to climate and obesity where insufficiently included. for motorised transport overall, ensuring that such as homes, automobiles and electronics. crisis. The study describes that rising car greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise. In a Swedish study on energy consumption ownership has been accompanied by changing Car use has increased. Where car drives in the Such a trend is even worse in developing coun- by gender in Germany, Greece, Norway and land-use patterns to accommodate increased UK in 1989 annually drove 55 miles for educa- tries, where technology tends to be older and Sweden in four domains (transport, hous- car use. tion (school) and 319 miles for shopping. This private transport growth faster. ing, food and recreation) substantial gender was in 2005, 82 miles for education and 444

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 21 Although new types of systems such as hybrid must be much more strongly encouraged. 2.2 Why is SMM relevant? and electrical cars and fuel cells, were intro- High-quality mass transit, inter-city transport Biotic and abiotic materials, metals, and miner- duced, no real breakthroughs yet, as petrol and ‘intelligent infrastructure’ will be necessary als, in whatever form or size are part of every and, to a lesser extend, LPG remain the main if aggregate transport levels are to be reduced aspect of our lives. The amount of and the way fuel sources for the car. Compared to other through greater use of lower-emissions modes we use materials and products is influenced by industries and technological developments (ICT, of transport. … The adoption of local fuel a mixture of factors, e.g.: increased demand telecom) the essence of the car and its Internal sources and lower-technology, clean mass (population growth, changed ideas on comfort, Combustion Engine Vehicle (ICEV) has not transit systems may be most appropriate” convenience and health, etc.), fast technologi- changed. (IEA, 2002). cal and scientific advancements, changes in From a thermo dynamical point of view, this life-styles, increased income and mobility, etc. type of engine is not (and cannot be) efficient, 1970 1980 2000 2010 2020 2030 due to its low output of the conversion of heat ‘Research from the Wuppertal Institute (Acosta Transport and total world into driven power. 1975 2500 2950 3500 4100 4800 oil demand (MTOE)* et al. 2007) reveals that 10 production sectors In future the car engine must be re-designed. account for more than 50 % of German Total Hybride vehicles can play an important role 1975/76 1985/86 1989/91 1995/97 1998/00 2005 Material Requirements (TMR). Three areas are in this transition. Electrical vehicles are more UK- distance travelled of strategic importance because here a huge 4.740 5.317 6.475 6.981 7.164 7.208 environmental friendly (even if the necessary (miles pp/per year) number of technological interactions among electricity is produced by the conventional 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 production sectors take place: energy mix). • stones, construction, and housing Road passenger transport 4,35 4,79 4,88 4,97 5,00 5,08 (construction) ** EU-27 (billion pkm) Tr e n d s • metals and car manufacturing (mobility) The transition towards more sustainable trans- 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 • agriculture, food and nutrition (food)’ (ITRE, port modes involve multiple aspects, e.g. the International Tourist arrivals 2009). 610 682 702 762 847 920 improvement of safety, fuel (millions) efficiency and alternative fuels, rail and mari- Up-c y c l i n g time transport, access to public transport, new Table 2.5 High turnover of goods creates enormous type of engines, etc. All new transport modes * MTOE: Million Tons of Oil Equivalent waste streams consisting of precious materials. and technologies also requires SMM for the ** for passenger cars, motor coaches, buses + trolley On average 90% of materials is wasted on the extraction, production, building, maintenance, busses. way of making products available to end-users. and recycling of vehicles and its infrastructures Sources: IEA-Fulton, 2004, http://www.iea.org/ Most recycling is rather down-cycling than up- (road, rail, other). papers/2004/transporthree.pdf, IEEP-Davis A. e.a. cycling, as materials loose their initial strength “At the same time, the adoption of technologies August 2007, and qualities as they are often not designed for and policies to dampen vehicle travel growth World Tourism Organization, January 2010 recycling into high value applications. Better

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 22 design for up-cycling is needed. If the world follows traditional patterns of con- processes alone. A proactive policy approach Department for Environment, Food and Rural sumption and production it is estimated that is required. Affairs (DEFRA) has developed the so called 4E Ti m e global resource use would quadruple within 20 model for policy interventions: Enable, Encour- Time plays an important role in modern pro- years (EC, COM 2005). 2.3 What are the future challenges for age, Exemplify and Engage. duction processes - ‘time is money’. Energy Whether renewable and non-renewable SMM? and resource intensive production processes resources and materials are used to make Long-term planning and policy design to- These challenges will differ according to the (heating, steam, pressure, etc.) are used to products or act as sinks that absorb emissions gether with steering mechanisms are required type of actor; governments (local to global lev- assemble and disassemble products. Innova- (soil, water, air) they are crucial to the function- to facilitate, support and further mainstream el), industry and business, academia, consum- tions often focus on increasing eco-efficiency ing of the economy and the quality of our lives. sustainability transitions. The public sector can ers, and civil society actors. The main focus in and labour productivity, which lead to further act as a driver for change, develop a vision this report is, however, on business and, even mechanisation with more energy and material In order to address these multiple global chal- and implement an appropriate mix of support more so, on government(s). use and often the abolishment or outsourcing lenges and to achieve SMM, more is needed mechanisms and incentives. of labour. than merely changes in the products and the Main SMM challenges for business: production processes. Resource use and An effective change strategy towards SMM will a. Adopt new business models: with product He a l t h (land) scarcity cause a variety of environmental require the integration of several aspects, such and service innovations and integrate SMM There is a business case to also develop safe impacts, e.g. loss of biodiversity. SMM goes as: responsible extraction, use and re-use, and CSR in the strategy and operations of and healthy products from scratch and assess beyond one policy domain and it can contrib- healthy and safe technology development, fair business. them on their effects throughout their full life ute to achieve other targets as well, e.g. CO2 distribution of resources and materials, different cycle. For instance, in the Cradle to Cradle as- emission reductions, create new jobs, improve ways of consumption, and product & service b. Life cycle thinking and design for en- sessment methodology of materials, chemicals green innovations, and support other important effectiveness. This implies that apart from the vironment: closing the loop with a full life are reviewed on (EPEA, 2009, p. 14): policies on health, gender equality, agriculture, etc. current focus of EU policies on (renewable) cycle approach, including social aspects • Impacts on exposed organisms (Acute energy use, also land use and SMM need to be (S-LCA) and using safe and healthy materials. toxicity, Irritation, Toxicity to the immune As we have seen with food, living and mobil- further integrated. This also creates challenges system, Endocrine disruption potential, ity, it is not just a matter of using less material for coherent and integrated policy approaches c. Innovation beyond production effi- Carcinogenicity, Aquatic toxicity, Terrestrial in existing products, being more efficient, or that contribute to the creation of a sustainable ciency; further R&D and the application of toxicity) avoiding waste, it is much more about innova- and resource-light world. closed loop and fully integrated natural and • Disruption of generations (Mutagenicity, Re- tions on the system level itself; to move from From a geopolitical perspective, energy au- industrial systems, e.g. biomimetics, bioma- production toxicity, Developmental Toxicity, eco-efficiency to eco-effectiveness and conser- tonomy should go hand in hand with materials terials, Cradle to Cradle, industrial ecology, Genetics) vation; to eco-sufficiency. autonomy. ecodesign, etc. • Disruption of the food chain (Bioaccumula- tion Potential) It is about transformation and changes in the This demands an effective mix of strategies for d. Implementation of sustainable prod- • Life cycle (Biodegradation / Persistence, systems of provision and our behaviour. Such change, taking into consideration the differ- ucts & services. Choice editing; only put Metabolism) changes are unlikely to occur by normal market ent drivers for human behaviour. The British sustainable products on the shelves.

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 23 Main SMM challenges for governments and disciplinary networks and initiatives. policy: a. Policy mix of instruments: covering all f. Towards a new macro-economic angles (enable, encourage, engage, exem- model. Complementation of the GDP with plify), e.g. financial, fiscal, costs structures & social and environmental indicators, shift in pricing, standard setting, sustainable public taxation from labour towards environment, procurement, … systems approach towards sufficiency (see chapter 3), factor 10, etc. Developing a b. Policy integration: shift from dispersed macro-economic model that is not depen- policy domains and decisions towards bet- dent on minimum consumption growth for ter integration and synergies, also involving its stability. political judgement of the different impacts and prioritising targets on the basis of an In a change model towards sustainable materi- overall policy for sustainable development. als management both drivers for change to SMM and limiting the role of drivers for change c. Policy assessment: measuring policy away from SMM need to be addressed. progress, e.g. Sustainable Impact Assess- After an insight in different examples of SMM ment, and further development of (sustain- cases and country policies in chapter 3, able, SMM) indicators. chapter 4 will indicate how policy development can be steered towards Sustainable Materials d. Development of indicators and im- Management. provement of measuring: resource productivity, material and resource flows (natural resources, land use, water, energy), in/out-put models (socio-economic model- ling), indicators for measuring total material flows and requirements (TMF and TMR), progress indicators, etc. e. Stimulate R&D and knowledge development for innovations in (new) domains that go beyond an increase in productivity, create societal value and support multi-

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 24 Ch a p t e r 3 – SMM e x a m p l e s : c a s e s a n d c o u n t r y policies

This chapter describes a number of interesting with sophisticated business and organisa- and eco-effectiveness stage examples of SMM from different sectors tional strategies and innovative entrepre- • Reframing: the ‘world 2.0’ stage is a (business, public, or other) and highlights main neurship. resource-light and sustainable society, with policies and interesting initiatives from seven appropriate production and consumption countries: Belgium, Germany, Japan, Spain, Secondly, it shows the developments from a patterns and an integrated political frame- Sweden, The Netherlands and UK. focus on business-process-product towards work (policy, business, consumers). chain-system-society. This means a shift from SMM initiatives come in many forms, at different a more internal business focus and activities on Some explanation on the items presented in scales, from different domains, and reflect a products and technological processes, towards the SMM Maturity Model in Box 3.1. wide spectrum of possibilities. They can be an extended and external focus towards the In real business practice and policy below items distinguished by different levels of maturity. whole (supply) chain, addressing SMM within often are addressed simultaneously. The dis- a wider system, including input from a variety tinctions made here are merely for understand- In order to better understand these differences of external stakeholders, and considering the ing the different possible type of actions. the described cases are arranged based on a impacts on society at large. • End-of-pipe: traditional waste manage- so called SMM Maturity Model (Box 3.1). This ment model is based on the concepts and evolutions Thirdly, it shows the developments at the level • Process: improving efficiency or cleaner of SMM as described in chapter 1 and it com- of integration of the extraction, use and reuse technologies of the production process bines three types of parallel evolutions, namely: of valuable materials, products and resources, • Product: the product itself is re-addressed, type of economy, organisational development the move from an end-of-pipe thinking, waste be it another design, different type of mate- and level of ‘integratedness’ (scope). management, and prevention, towards eco- rials used, different functionalities, etc. design and full responsibility for the products • Supply chain: At this stage the supply Firstly, it reflects the evolutions of the economy throughout the value chain, up to completely chain is considered (upstream and down- from an eco-efficiency towards an eco-effec- closed loop material and product systems that stream), including external stakeholders. tiveness. Following shifts can be distinguished: integrate renewable energy and resource use, This does however not yet imply the full • a factor driven economy where human responsible extraction, avoid polluting and value chain, seen as a closed loop. capital and labour form the basis, which toxic substances and enable continuous use of • Life cycle: also here there is a tendency to can be seen in developing countries (not materials; integrated systems design. also start to consider social aspects in the included in below model), supply chain, but this is not yet necessar- • towards an efficiency driven economy, with The SMM model also includes the levels of or- ily a full life cycle in terms of considering all increased educational levels of human capi- ganisational learning as described in chapter 1: aspects. tal and efficiencies at product, labour and • Reaction: at the business-process-product • Closed loop: such as the Cradle to Cradle financial and input level, and eco-efficiency stage concept. However also here it is not neces- • towards an effectiveness driven economy, • Redesigning: at the chain-system-society sarily a smart closed loop where also land

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 25 use or energy requirements are taken into consideration.

• World 2.0: this is the imagined world, version 2.0. A world where SMM moves from an eco-effi cient and eco-effectiveness business - process - product chain - system - society economy towards a suffi ciency economy. SMM is then a fully integrated and systemic concept contributing to sustainable development. Resources and materials are waste clean product services integrated used in a responsible, fair and just way, prevention ecodesign without harming health or the eco-system, management technology stewardship concept systems and providing opportunities for all mankind reaction redesigning reframing to establish a decent quality of life and well- World 2.0 being.

end of pipe process product supply chain life cycle closed loop

eco-efﬁ ciency economy eco-effectiveness economy

Box 3.1

SMM for Europe, from effi ciency to effectiveness | pag 26 3.1 SMM cases Each cluster theme on SMM is structured as In this paragraph the following 12 clusters of follows: themes on SMM will be further described, in- • name of the theme, its key elements, cluding case studies from a variety of industries countries of the cases, and its maturity level and other societal actors: • general theme introduction 1. Waste collection, treatment and recycling • case descriptions 2. Reuse and repair • strengths & weaknesses,information & 3. Collection and linear upgrading/recycling/ sources reuse/recovery of (inorganic) residues 4. Eco-design Cluster theme 1: Waste collection, treatment and recycling 5. Product Service Systems 6. Cradle to Cradle Key elements: Organisation of collection and recycling 7. Choice Editing 8. Biomaterials and natural ecosystems Case examples from : Belgium, UK 9. Transition Towns 10. Knowledge Networks for Transition SMM maturity level: End-of pipe Process Product Supply chain Life cycle Closed loop 11. IT in SMM 12. Closed loop industry systems for (inorganic) residues Introduction for energetic valorisation are still end-of-pipe implementation of the closed loop principles. The scale of operation of a single community or techniques when the focus is on getting rid of Hence, these materials do not lose value. For each cluster there is an indication of where company is often too small to enable eco- the waste and find some value to cover the ex- the cluster can be positioned on the maturity nomically and technologically sound recycling/ penses. This stage can, however, be surpassed It can even go beyond this stage if it is com- model. It is clear that several aspects on this recovery. Third parties have to be involved when the materials gets high value on the mar- bined with an Enhanced Producer’s Respon- maturity scale can occur simultaneously and that organise a collective recycling/recovery ket due to the presence of technology that can sibility (EPR) and prevention policy. If the often cannot simply be separated. management for several communities or com- produce high quality (purity ...) streams, due to producer can also profit from the third party’s panies. Only in case the delivery of a sufficient presence of technology that can accommodate performance, the producer will be encourage The presented clusters and case studies indi- amount of waste can be guaranteed, it is worth these materials in the production process and to take in to account the possibilities of the final cate the great variety and potential to a gradu- doing these investments. Public policy can due to the existence of products in which these waste. ally more integrated SMM. World 2.0 examples provide the conditions to allow such business materials are applied. are not yet fully developed, but some cases do being successful. Public policy and economic interest of the third Ca s e 1.1: FOST PLUS (Be l g i u m ). evolve or have potential in that direction. party can be the drivers for continuous innova- FOST PLUS is a private company established Collective waste collection and recycling/re tion in this process. In doing so more and more by companies that apply packaging in their covery systems, including the possibilities recycled materials are developed towards an process. They are the members of FOST

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 27 PLUS. FOST PLUS envisages the recycling of and development towards a closed loop are rial is kept in circulation, saving resources. Attention is required for the drivers for inno- packaging from household waste. The Euro- not fully maximised. Case 1.4 Adamec Recycling GmbH, Germany vation into the direction of fully closed loop pean packaging directive 2004/12/EG and the The Adamec Recycling GmbH from Fürth, systems. Who profits from acting in the more Belgian ‘agreement on collaboration’ indicate Ca s e 1.2: VAL-I-PAC (Be l g i u m ). Germany, has developed an innovative re- sustainable way? the minimum collection and recycling rates that VAL-I-PAC is similar to FOST PLUS but envis- cycling plant for electronic waste. This plant need to be attained by companies that apply ages industrial packaging waste. Directive allows the separation and recycling of all kinds Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : packaging. 2004/12/EG and the ‘agreement on collabora- of electronic waste, e.g. of complete electric Case 1.1: www.fostplus.be tion’ also addresses industrial packaging and devices such as computers, washing machines Case 1.2: www.valipac.be Companies can rely on certified instances such indicates the recycling rates that should be and vacuum cleaners. For example, plastics Case 1.3: www.scrapshop.co.uk as FOST PLUS to achieve these rates. Many attained by appliers of packaging materials. containing halogen can be separated from non- Case 1.4: www.adamec.de EU member states have no third party like Companies responsible for achieving these halogen containing plastics, allowing a much FOST PLUS that is responsible for reaching rates can rely on VAL-I-PAC. The regulation higher part of the plastics to be brought back the recycling rates and apply other approach- envisages an Enhanced Producer’s into the material cycle. Through this, the use of es. FOST PLUS reaches today the highest Responsibility (EPR) on the level of the partner non-renewable energies as well as emissions to recycling rates in EU. More and more member applying packaging. VAL-I-PAC takes over this water and air including GHG emissions can be states start to copy this approach. responsibility and encourages the reduction of reduced. packaging waste. An annual reduction strategy The success of FOST PLUS is related to the needs to be made and forwarded to the Inter- St r e n g t h a n d we a k n e s s e s o f t h e c l u s t e r t h e m e population density of Belgium and it is the governmental Packaging Commission (IVC). The collective set up of collection and recy- single certified instance in Belgium able to cling systems is very successful for several implement the same standard for more than Ca s e 1.3 Sc r a p s h o p , UK waste streams such as glass and paper that 10 million citizens. FOST PLUS is acting as Scrapshop is UK’s “Premier Business Waste have value on the market very close to that of intermediate body looking for the most profit- Exchange” on a free online platform. It was the raw materials. Almost 100% recycling is able recycling/reuse option that is present on started in 2009 by Green Buying Ltd which is a achieved. These materials, albeit after energy the market and implementing its collection joint venture partnership between the com- input, end up in the same product as where system in as many as possible communities. It panies Buying Support Agency Ltd and WSP they were derived from. is the recycling market that offers its capabilities Environmental Ltd. Scrapshop offers organisa- towards FOST PLUS. tions and businesses information about redun- The weakness of the system is that the suc- dant stock and surplus raw materials, accord- cess of recycling may trigger rebound effects. Energy recovery is not considered as recycling. ing to the principle that one’s waste is another Another weakness of involving third parties Allowed recycling options are listed in the direc- one’s material. Requests for wanted materials (who take over responsibility) is that this can tive and the agreement on collaboration. The can be placed as well as offers on available result in a decrease in responsible behaviour of opportunities for creating drivers for innovation material. Through this, potentially useful mate- the first and second parties.

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 28 Introduction: Cluster theme 2: Re-use and repair Re-use is part of the waste hierarchy of the three Rs: Reduce, re-use, re-cycle. The Key elements: Re-use , repair for BtoB and BtoC concept discourages disposal of products to reduce landfill and environmental impacts asso- Case examples from : Austria, Belgium, Sweden, UK ciated with the end of a product life. In con- trast to recycling, re-using does not mean the SMM maturity level: End-of pipe Process Product Supply chain Life cycle Closed loop breakdown of the product into its components but simply to repeat its function or to find a new use for it, thereby extending its lifetime. New option has also been developed by Oxfam that Repanet aims at networking, distribution and mission to encourage re-using, thus providing purchases of the same product are avoided even includes free delivery that is financed by exchange of information, and reuse of spare a service that contributes so environmental and thus material is saved, contributing to donations. parts. Repanet is member of RREUSE: A sustainability. Their slogan recognizes that “we environmental sustainability. specialised European network of national and all have stuff we need, and we all have stuff to The proceeds of these second-hand schemes regional social economy federations and enter- get rid of”. Visitors of the website are invited A common example is the deposit bottle are used for the charity itself thus meeting prises with activities in re-use and recycling. to email in descriptions of items they have in (glass) which is used several times (collecting, the social equity principle of SMM. By these excess along with their contact and place of cleaning and refilling) before the glass is finally schemes Oxfam encourages re-use of con- Ca s e 2.3: ReUs e -Co m p u t e r So c i e t y , Ge r m a n y pick up. Seekers can get these items for free remanufactured. Further examples comprise sumer items on an impressive scale that saves The ReUse-Computer Society promotes the re- and the purchase of a new product with the i.e. computers, household items and industrial much natural capital and reduces material use and the further use of used computer and material cost of manufacture is avoided. spare parts. For SMM represents more of a waste considerably. IT equipment. The association is self organized consumer focus. and decentralised and members are private Examples include TV, freezer and diving suits Ca s e 2.2: Re p a n e t : s p a r e p a r t s d a t a b a s e a n d individuals, companies, public administrations, which would be difficult and expensive to dis- Ca s e 2.1: Co n c e p t o f c h a r i t y s h o p s (‘Kr i n g - n e t w o r k , Au s t r i a or social institutions. The society has developed pose of especially with toxic waste regulation l o o p c e n t r a ’), Be l g i u m , UK + o t h e r c o u n t r i e s Repanet is a non-profit association dedicated a standard refurbishment process and a series in place. Freebay therefore creates win-win- Oxfam: With its first store opening in 1947, to connecting and creating local/regional repair- of routine checks to establish quality standards. win situations for the discarder, seeker and for Oxfam’s charity shops have become an English ing networks. The Spare Parts Network Austria The reuse approach is transferable to other the environment. Furthermore it extends its institution. An estimated 700 stores are oper- is a data base for businesses extracting or regions, branches or products. platform to a social causes allowing organiza- ated by Oxfam in the UK and have expanded using spare parts. The extractors ought to put tions such as daycares to seek items needed to Germany, Ireland, Netherlands and Hong these into a data base in order to make them Ca s e 2.4: Fr ee b a y In t e r n e t Pl a t f o r m , UK for furnishing. It therefore fulfils the definition of Kong. The not-for-profit organisation collects available for repairers and in such decreasing Freebay is a website that seeks to provide a SMM perfectly: promoting sustainable material donations of unwanted clothes and household repairing cost respectively enabling repairing. communication medium for reusing unwanted use, avoiding economic and resource waste items in designated stores where volunteers household items across the whole of the UK. It while aiding social equity. -* clean, arrange and sell them. An online shopping It focuses especially on electronical giant equipment. is a not for profit initiative that has made it their

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 29 Strength and weaknesses of the cluster theme Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : Re-use and repair are easy to implement and Case 2.1: http://www.oxfam.org.uk/, http:// therefore worth encouraging. The approach www.charityshops.org.uk promotes economic efficiency and saves mate- Case 2.2: http://www.repanet.at/, http://rreuse. rial to preserve natural capital. It makes sense org not only in terms of reducing waste pressures Case 2.3: http://www.reuse-computer.de on the environment but also in economic terms Case 2.4: http://www.freebay.uk.com/ for consumers. Especially weaker socio- economics groups can reap much benefit from Cluster theme 3: Collection and linear upgrading/recycling/recovery of residues (various industries) such schemes and therefore the social impact is positive. It also provides opportunities for Key elements: Upgrading, Reuse, Recycle, recover different business models, such as social entre- Case examples from : Belgium (+ others), Japan, Spain preneurship and social economy.

SMM maturity level: End-of pipe Process Product Supply chain Life cycle Closed loop However, mainstreaming of this approach will be confronted with cultural barriers (e.g. quest for novelty). Furthermore, re-use and repair do Introduction these material streams are, amongst others, implies that one waste stream is used for one not change the production processes unless The industrial system is a source of various the concrete and cement industry, the heavy particular application, without any additional a product is designed to be durable so that it (inorganic) material residue streams. These resi- clay ceramics industry, the producers of glass form of industrial symbiosis. Note that the can be re-used. This approach remains narrow, dues include for instance (1) construction and ceramics and stone wool and the construction reintegration can also be performed in a more only delaying the disposal phase of the product demolition waste (concrete, fibreglass, asphalt, sector. integrated way, where waste streams are com- life cycle and does not adopt a more far- bricks, plaster, wallboard etc.), (2) residues from bined with other material streams in order to reaching understanding of SMM. Furthermore industrial landfills (slags, fly ash, construction The reintegration into the technosphere can be obtain innovative products with added value (to if extended to a large scale it could be met and demolition waste) and (3) residues from based on, in decreasing order of preference, be discussed in cluster 11) with resistance from businesses since higher high temperature processes (steel and non- (3.1) upscaling into a higher added value prod- consumption is a main motive for profit. ferrous industry, waste incineration, coal-fired uct, (3.2) reuse (re-employment of the same Ca s e 3.1: Gr o u n d Gr a n u l a t e d Bl a s t Fu r n a c e At the same time it opens up entrepreneurial electricity plants and others (lime, refractory materials to be reused in the same applications Sl a g a s c e m e n t r e p l a c e m e n t (Ar c e l o r Mi t t a l opportunities that have much market potential and chemical industries)). or to be used in lower grade application), (3.3) Gh e n t , Be l g i u m , a n d o t h e r EU Co u n t r i e s w i t h as can be seen from the examples. From a recycling (utilising the waste as a raw material in i n t e g r a t e d s t ee l f a c t o r i e s ). policy point of view, this option remains to be Sustainable Materials Management implies that other applications), or (3.4) recovery (including Blast furnace slag is generated when iron relevant as a low hanging fruit that can bring di- these residues are reintegrated into the tech- waste-to-energy or waste-to-material). ore is reduced by coke at 1500°C in a Blast rect environmental and social benefits extend- nosphere, thereby closing material loops. The Furnace, being the first step in the flowsheet able to different countries and sectors. relevant industries for the acceptance of Linear upscaling/reuse/recycling/ recovery of steel production. Molten iron and slag are

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 30 drawn off at regular intervals from tap holes at Thus the use of slag is a very effective and eco- Ca s e 3.3 „BIOCELL”, Bi o h a u s Go i e r r i S.L. achieving net CO2 benefits. As part of the tran- the base of the furnace. For each ton of iron nomic method to reduce the energy consump- Ba s q u e Co u n t r y , Sp a i n sition to a low-carbon closed loop economy this about 230-300 kg of slag is produced. When tion and the CO2-emissions inherent in cement BIOCELL is a certified organic material made requires that, for high temperature residues, not this slag is slowly cooled by air, a crystalline production. Beyond that mortar and concrete from newspaper flakes with similar structure to only exergy and valuable materials are extracted product is formed, which can be used as an made with GGBFS have a lower content of snowflakes, mixed with boracic salts to protect from the residues but also that the cooled aggregate for concrete and road construction Chromium-VI, which can be responsible for it from rodents, vermin and fire. This makes it residue is recycled as a high value resource. (i.e. recycling: (3.3)). However, a higher value skin irritations of workers handling the material an effective natural insulator for use in con- Major landfilling costs are thus avoided, the use product is obtained when the slag is quenched without any skin protection (see EUROSLAG, structions and buildings. The Biohaus Goierri of primary resources and net CO2 emissions with an excess of water (granulation), air and Technical Leaflet No.1). S.L. is a company specialised in biological and can be drastically reduced, while obtaining water (pelletisation) or steam, through which a wooden buildings and shows that the use of innovative materials with sustainable environ- granular product arises. This so-called Ground To conclude, producing GGBFS from what natural, renewable materials in construction is mental and technical properties. However, this Granulated Blast Furnace Slag has latent would otherwise be considered as a waste not only possible in most cases, even superior waste-to-product transition is hampered by hydraulic properties. After grinding it may serve stream (to be landfilled) or a relatively low value to a synthetic solution. both technical barriers (e.g. unsuitable process several applications. product (aggregate), is a SMM-example where technologies, unstable and inferior quality of the an upgrading of the waste stream is performed, Ca s e 3.4 “Sl u r Mix”, AMITA, Ja p a n material) and non-technical barriers (e.g. un- GGBFS has been used in composite cements including major economical and environmental “SlurMix” is an alternative fuel for the steel derdeveloped legislation and markets, different and as a cementitious component of con- benefits. and cement industry, developed by AMITA. legislation in EU member states, poor societal crete for many years. In the European cement It is made by compounding and homogeniz- experience with industrial ecology). standard EN 197-1, nine cements containing Ca s e 3.2: Gy p r o c r e c y c l i n g /r e u s e (Be l g i u m ). ing certain types of waste oils, oil-containing slag are listed which may have slag contents Gyproc is an example of the reuse of a ma- sludge and waste solvents, which could before Concerted EU action is required to accelerate between 6 wt% and 95 wt%. Since the late terial from the ‘construction and demolition only be disposed through combustion. The the waste-to-product transition. This implies the 1950s the use of GGBFS as a separately waste’ class. Old Gyproc boards are collected residues remaining after combustion can then harmonisation of EU legislation in this field and ground material added at the concrete mixer and recycled to produce gypsum. The latter is again be used as a raw material in manufactur- more support for inter- and transdisciplinary together with Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) subsequently reused to produce novel Gy- ing cement. SlurMix’ calorific value is about research. has gained acceptance. Worldwide, it can be proc boards. In practice, Gyproc co-operated 4,500kcal/kg of so that it could be an alter- expected that the expansion of GGBFS use will with New West Gypsum Recycling, a Cana- native fuel of coal which leads reduction of Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : continue for the foreseeable future. dian company specialised (since 1980) in the green house gas emission and saving natural Salah El-Haggar, Sustainable Industrial Design recycling/reuse of Gyproc boards. To guarantee resources. This means that SlurMix ultimately and Waste Management, Elsevier Academic In Europe the production of 1 ton OPC gener- the required minimum volume, the initiative results in zero waste product. Press, 2007. ates about 1.2 ton CO2 on average, while the is supported by all members of the “Belgisch http://www.gyproc.be/at-team/duurzaam-bou- production of 1 ton blast-furnace slag cement Luxemburgse Gips Vereniging”. Strength and weaknesses of the cluster theme wen/gyproc-recycling/nl containing 50 wt% GGBFS generates only 0.54 Rising raw material and energy prices, scar- http://www.euroslag.org/media/LeafletGBS.pdf ton CO2. These data include emissions from The Gyproc case is an example of a recycling/ city of metals, climate change and other the calcination process, the fossil fuel burning, reuse strategy where the same application environmental concerns stimulate the need to and the use of electricity. For some countries is targeted, without adding new value to the transform waste streams (from old and novel maybe the potential saving is much higher. product. sources) to high value products while also

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 31 Cluster theme 4: Ecodesign

Key elements: Closed-loop value chains, cradle-to-cradle, system redesign

Case examples from : UK, France, Germany, Switzerland

SMM maturity level: End-of pipe Process Product Supply chain Life cycle Closed loop

Introduction: sign meaning that it is embedded into architec- Ca s e 4.2: Cl i m a t e x ® c o m p o s t a b l e u p h o l s t e r y Ca s e 4.3: Th e Mo o n c u p ® - UK a n d Th e Fl e u r - Ecodesign is a philosophy that has evolved out ture of a home. The cooling element is built into f a b r i c , Ro h n e r Te x t i l AG, Sw i t z e r l a n d c u p – Fr a n c e of Green Design (making products superficially a wall therefore all wear and tear parts are to A non-toxic fabric designed especially for A very common and repetitive issue for less energy and resource intensive) and is also be exchangeable to ensure a long product life wheelchairs around users needs. Surveys women is the use of materials for the men- referred to as sustainable design. The underly- span as well as the possibility for personalised found that it is most important that seating strual bleeding. The products used have quite ing aim is to design products with social and design. During winter, outside air is sufficient as fibres are strong and that they ‘breathe’. This some impacts. Each woman will in a life time environmental considerations in mind from the a cooling medium. With drawers instead of one was achieved with the ramie fibre, which, when have about 400 times her period, using about beginning (start of pipe solution). This means big door, the opening remains small when tak- mixed with wool, makes a product well suited 12.000 tampons. This corresponds with 120 using sustainable materials (especially avoiding out food and drink so the energy consump- to soaking up and dissipating moisture for cli- kilo of wasted cotton, at a cost for the con- ing toxicity), designing for all stages of the life tion during the use phase is optimised. The end mate control seating comfort. Instead of filtering sumer of about 2.500 €. Already only in the cycle beyond disposal (cradle-to-cradle) and of life phase of the refrigerator is considered in out toxic chemicals at the end of the produc- USA each year 7 billion tampons plus 12 billion reconsidering the product itself in terms of the the initial design process. tion process, they were never introduced in the sanitary towels are used. These products all service it provides (leading to service systems first place. end up in landfill or in the sea and recycling is rather than more products). Eco-design is Materials used are dismountable, separable hardly an option! mainly product related. and exchangeable but also recyclable. The The aim was to create a cradle-to-cradle prod- Both in the UK and in France a 100% medical material variety is therefore as narrow as pos- uct that would be ‘nutrious’, that is biodegrad- silicone and hypo allergic menstrual cup has Ca s e 4.1: FRIA, a r e s o u r c e eff i c i e n t c o o l - sible. Already recycled materials are suggested able at the disposal phase. Waste material from been developed that substitutes the traditional i n g c o n c e p t f o r f o o d s t u ff s a t h o m e – Ur s u l a like leftovers from the cork producing industry. weaving can be converted into felt to be sub- materials used for a menstrual period. Ti s c h n e r , Ge r m a n y As a system wide approach, leasing of the sequently used as non-wovens for upholstery No simple refrigerator, the product design ori- refrigerator is considered: If the cooling unit is work or as a mulch in gardening. The water The cup is applied as a tampon and can be ents itself on the service: to keep foodstuff cold rented, the production firm can guarantee that used for the production process is consequent- cleaned by simply rinsing it with water. It lasts and fresh in the most eco-efficient way pos- all components of the refrigerator are fed back ly of astonishing quality, equal or even better many years. According to Fleurcup a woman sible. The focus is on durability, user-centric de- into the production process to close the loop. to when it arrives at the factory. The fabric has would only need up to 10 of them for the sign and best material selection. An integrated won numerous design awards including the whole life span. They even come in fashionable cooling chamber is the most eco-efficient de- International Design Resource Award 2001. colours (dyes from medical use).

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 32 Benefits: Clear reduction of waste and reduc- Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : tion in material use through smart design. Case 4.1: http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/ chainet%20abskuhnd.pdf Strength and weaknesses of the cluster theme Case 4.2: http://www.climatex.com/en/prod- Ecodesign represents a fundamental recon- ucts/climatex_lifecycle.php5 sideration of product design that is successful Case 4.3: www.mooncup.co.uk, www.fleurcup. because it addresses the triple bottom line: com environment, social equity and economy. Fur- thermore eco-design considers product value chains as dynamic systems rather than the Cluster theme 5: Product Service Systems linear life-cycle understanding usually applied. Key elements: From ownership to usership, redesign The examples show the practicability of this approach and offer a complete solution to making Case examples from : The Netherlands, USA production and consumption more sustainable. However, the difficulties of mainstreaming the SMM maturity level: End-of pipe Process Product Supply chain Life cycle Closed loop concept are an obstacle.

The FRIA example was never taken up by a Introduction products is replaced by usership. These are changes in the entire PSS value chain and not refrigerator producer and the compostable Product Service Systems (PSSs) have been a all types of consumption in which the con- merely on function delivery. The EU SCORE!- upholstery fabric idea was pitched to sixty major concern of research into SCP for many sumer does not possess the legal title to the network has noted that PSSs systems are chemical companies by McDonough Braungart years. According to Gerd Scholl, PSSs can be product. Rather than owning the product (e.g. able to reduce the environmental impact of Design Chemistry before Rohner Textil AG ac- divided into (1) services providing added value car, washing machine, copying machine), the particular consumption types with a factor 2-3. cepted the project. to the product life-cycle (e.g. maintenance customer is guaranteed a smooth access to (Tukker, et al, 2008) Ecodesign promises innovation which is a and upgrading), (2) services providing enabling the relevant equipment. Considering that the recognized competitive factor for business. To platforms for customers (e.g. renting or leas- producer remains the owner of the product, Ca s e 5.1 Co m m u n i t y l a u n d r y r o o m s , Swe d e n unlock its potential, a paradigm shift is needed ing), and (3) services providing final results to the driving force for ecodesign (modularity, Globally Community laundry rooms are quite to think of products as holistic service delivery the customers (e.g. mobility services, delivery high efficiency and durability etc.) and closed an exotic phenomenon. In Sweden most of systems. While much change needs to be of warmth). Another important distinction is the loop systems (reuse/recycling of components) the apartment buildings - where about 40% of organic within the business community, incen- one between BtB (business to business) and is strongly enhanced. Such PSS systems thus the population lives - have communal laundry tives and awareness-raising of the eco-design BtC (business to consumer) PSS schemes. trigger changes in both consumption and rooms. “In many aspects it is a good way of approach is a wanted catalyst. production and in the relationships linking the economizing with resources. Fewer machines Particularly interesting from a SMM point of act of producing and consuming. The extent of are needed, people concentrate their laundry view are those PSSs where ownership of systemic change depends on the degree of work and fill the machines better. Washing

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 33 clothes is a serious subject in Sweden. Every- hancing the image of sharing cars as a status Ca s e 5.3: Xe r o x Co o p e r a t i o n , USA - reach 50% use of post-consumer products one who has ever lived in a Swedish flat with a good and attempt to make the system more Xerox’s Asset Management Program is one of as process input for new carpets, communal laundry room knows that. convenient.. the most elaborated PSSs in the BtB market. - reach 100% purchased renewable energy One particularly interesting PSS car sharing Products are leased under a multi-year con- for processing and manufacturing, Taking somebody else’s washing time or system is that of GreenWheels in the Nether- tract, which guarantees customer satisfaction - reach the goal of factory effluent water that forgetting to clean the tumble dryer’s lint filter lands. Jan Borghuis, one of the two Green- through functioning machines and payment of is cleaner that the water it is discharged on, are major sins, and many conflicts have arisen wheels founders, improved the Berlin-based a fixed price per copy. Xerox has redesigned - establish unique, tailored take back and around these terrible violations. But communal StattAuto Car Sharing system with the help its products and process for remanufactur- recycling systems, laundry rooms also have great benefits, not of modern ICT applications such as on-board ing. By the end of the 1990s the European - all stages in the product life cycle actively least environmentally.” computers, chip cards and mobile telephony. demand for remanufactured Xerox equipments support the reuse or recycle of materials at exceeded the supply rate with 50%. Following the highest possible level of quality. Ca s e 5.2: Gr ee n Wh ee l s , (BtC), Realizing their ideas, they put their first three the success of Xerox other large manufactur- Th e Ne t h e r l a n d s cars on the Rotterdam roads in June 1995. ers of office equipment shifted to leasing and One of the major challenges in this concept is Car sharing is an alternative system for satisfy- Undoubtedly helped by a partnership with the manufacturing. take-back systems. Developing this C2C busi- ing the mobility needs of people. Members of Dutch Railways, their success soon surpassed ness also means creating new business models commercial car sharing organisations have that of their German example. At the start in Ca s e 5.4: De s s o Ca r p e t s (C2C), and working closely together with other part- access to several types of cars, which they can 1995 GreenWheels was the first car sharing Th e Ne t h e r l a n d s ners. For instance, waste collectors become book through a telephone or internet book- scheme that completely equipped their car The Desso carpets and surface materials cater vital in the design process of a C2C product; ing system and pay for by a monthly bill. The sharing fleet with onboard computers. In a few a wide range of products for domestic and they know what it takes to take materials apart. majority of existing car sharing schemes are years the automated car sharing system was business use, to leisure & travel, and sports provided by actors other than car producers. completed with web reservation, contact-less systems. Desso decided to embrace the Cradle Besides, they now become providers of high chip cards, GSM data communication. to Cradle (C2C) concept and wish to ‘design to value materials for business. In 2009 Desso Therefore, no design changes to cars occur (de)assemble’ healthy and safe products. This started a close co-operation with the Van (limiting its stretch within the SMM Maturity In 1997 GreenWheels implemented the first means investigating every material used and Gansewinkel Group (waste management) and Model to Process-Product). At the moment 20 vehicles that were directly accessible with finding substitutions for any unhealthy, toxic, or Ahrend (office materials), both active internally car sharing is still a niche market which is not a contact-less chip card, without a separate environmentally damaging material in e.g. the with C2C, to set up an integrated service (yet) supported by normative and regulatory key-manager system. This system led to a yarn, backing, dyes, glue, etc. Integrating the system for BtB to furnish office space (busi- institutions. Moreover, the idea of car usership new one-car-locations distribution strategy that C2C into the visions, strategy and operations ness, health sector and school buildings) and contradicts the established norm of car owner- made car sharing more accessible than ever. of the company makes SMM central to the organise take back. ship, thereby drawing up a massive barrier for The one-car-location distribution is best dem- business. its mainstreaming. onstrated in the City of Amsterdam with its 450 Strength and weaknesses of the cluster theme locations most of which within easy walking The Desso development plan includes several Using healthy and safe materials in closed loop Car sharing organisations are working at en- distance from each other. targets for the next 10 years, such as: systems creates new business opportunities,

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 34 where the take back systems need further de- Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : velopment and new partnerships. These C2C Case 5.2: http://greenwheels.nl and PSS concepts also change the business Case 5.4: http://www.desso.com/Desso/home/ models and several industries are challenged EN/About_Desso/Cradle_to_Cradle.html (in the whole material chain) to provide and be open about the origin of materials in the products. Cluster theme 6: Cradle to Cradle

Key elements: Closed cycles for products, urban planning and buildings Extensive work has shown that the symbolical and other barriers are much greater for BtC Case examples from : Austria, The Netherlands than for BtB. At the level of system innovation, clear differ- SMM maturity level: End-of pipe Process Product Supply chain Life cycle Closed loop ences can also be found within PSS schemes. Changing the ownership structure along the product life-cycle does not guarantee major Introduction inputs to be put back into productive use. Products are only used by consumers for the sustainability benefits, as traditional cases The Cradle to Cradle (C2C) concept was Products are designed to go from ‘cradle to time needed and the product will return into the of car leasing and renting demonstrate. As developed by German chemist Michael cradle’, and not from ‘cradle to grave’, as is remanufacturing chain. A well know example indicated by the SCORE!-network, sys- Braungart and American architect and designer currently often the case with our waste. In the is Xerox, which does not sell copiers, but temic changes are needed in the structure of William McDonough. They took on the notion of C2C concept there is no more waste as all copying. Here business takes on full product consumption-production interactions and novel nature’s living systems which are intrinsically materials are nutrients for other products and responsibility over the full life stage. See also ways of delivering function. flexible, diverse, abundant, and are based on applications. case example 5.4, Desso. constant material flows as nutrients within the The ability to do so depends on the creation ecosystem. The idea is to develop products in This also creates new business models and a This concept does not only apply to products of new organisations (e.g. car sharing) or on such a way that they are safe and healthy for shift from eco-efficiency towards eco-effective- but also to urban and regional planning and adjusting existing regulatory and normative man and environment. This means: ‘remaking ness. architecture; with ‘design for living’. This means frameworks. One of the missing gaps is a clear the way we make things’. Products and It is not about ‘doing more with less’ and that from the design stage on the various func- understanding of how major changes can be materials will stay in either a biological or a reducing waste (cradle to grave), but about tions, of living, working, recreation, transport, instigated in the realm of consumption and be- technological metabolism. This means that ‘doing right from scratch.’ nature, food production, etc., are fully inte- havioural change. Social marketing to improve materials are/become a biological or a technical C2C creates a transition from the current indus- grated. The use of resources and renewable the chances for mainstreaming of (especially) nutrient and are biodegradable or used as high trial model, that ‘takes, makes and pollutes’, energy and water treatment are conceived from BtC PSSs will be essential, while (local) govern- quality resource in other industrial processes. to a system with healthy and safe products, a full life cycle perspective, from production, ments should or could offer more accommo- C2C employs manufacturing, distribution, and whose materials stay in cycles. This also im- occupancy and use, to recovery. The built envi- dating environments recovery systems that allow those material plies a shift from ownership to ‘usership.’ ronment is of high quality creating safe, healthy,

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 35 and pleasant environments for its users. This turer, who produces the cardboard boxes for future functions will continue under the name first is related to its ‘technofix’ character. It concept creates buildings as trees and cities as the Satino toilet paper and towels. ‘Greenpark Venlo’, and will include a platform is assumed that a smart C2C design in itself forests. for innovation and a new Campus, with among (together with a ready supply of renewable Ca s e 6.2: ‘Kl a v e r t je 4’, Ve n l o r e g i o n , Th e others a chair for C2C. energy) can fully mitigate the ecological impact Ca s e 6.1: Va n Ho u t u m Pa p i e r , Ne t h e r l a n d s Ne t h e r l a n d s of consumption. Limits to consumption are This 75 year old family business is a producer ‘Klavertje 4’ (Cloverleaf 4) is a collaboration Ca s e 6.3: St e i e r m a r k a s C2C m o d e l r e g i o n , in this view, therefore, no longer necessary. of tissue paper for the European market and between the Province of Limburg, Chamber Au s t r i a This can result in non-desirable (consumption) employs around 200 people. It produces a of Commerce and the Venlo region to develop ‘Pilotprojekt’ is an initiative, established in 2006 feedback mechanisms. Environmental sociol- full product line of toilet paper, towels, wiping ambitious sustainable projects. The Venlo by a variety of local actors from different back- ogy has shown that the challenges for mature rolls, dispensers and soap. Van Houtum sells region is an important centre for agro-food and grounds (sociologists, engineers, business, SMM are more complex. Radical technological its washroom solutions to wholesalers and flowers and has a central logistics function, design, etc.) in the Austrian Steiermark region, improvements need to be complemented by end-users (cleaning companies, public authori- beyond its own border. in order to establish a C2C example region and behavioural change. Social sciences are thus ties, etc.). The paper used for these products Together with McDonough + Partners create the necessary conditions. This platform a key ingredient for any integrated strategy is 100% recycled, FSC certified and has the a Masterplan for the region has been estab- searches to reinforce existing networks (already towards the realisation of SMM. Secondly, European Ecolabel. It is the first fully biode- lished, under the name of Klavertje 4. This mas- working on sustainable development, etc.) and C2C does not yet sufficiently address other key gradable and C2C certified toilet paper in the terplan is based on seven principles, e.g.: institutions, to identify available strengths and sustainability issues for SMM such as restric- world. This means that no toxic substances are - connect place and context, competences, and raise awareness and further tions in phosphate, water and land availability used throughout the production process. This - manage and value food, develop knowledge on C2C for business ac- (e.g. for production of food). Thirdly, for C2C ‘Satino’ paper is used in toilet paper and paper - create clean air, water and soil, tors, public authorities, and others. to work more effectively there needs to be an towels. The company works closely with sup- - design for future generations. abundance of cheap renewable energy (to pliers of ‘old’ paper to ensure quality, adapted Strength and weaknesses of the cluster theme close material cycles). On the short term this is its production processes to the use of 100 % The region applies in its approach for innova- The strengths of the C2C concept include clearly not the case as the world is confronted biological materials, and the packaging is 100% tion and sustainability a three tier approach: the closed loop approach; with the focus on with monumental challenges as peak oil, peak recyclable. The paper spenders are not sold 1. built environment making healthy and safe products which are gas etc, which will make the transition to an but rented to the users to ensure take-back 2. economic drivers (industry) designed ‘right from scratch’ and, thanks to economy fully driven by renewable energy more and full recycling. Furthermore, the company 3. knowledge infrastructure. continuous reuse (i.e. the consumer is no more complicated. In an energy constrained world, uses its own power plant with an efficiency of the end-user), they can remain in biological or C2C should, therefore, focus on closing materi- 80%. The electricity and generated heat are Several projects have already been developed. industrial cycles. This creates new business als cycles in a smart way (thereby minimising used for the production process and water One of the projects is the ‘Floriade 2012’. With models for production, usage of products, take the use of energy). Finally, one also has to maintains in the production cycle, which means 66 acres this, one of the world’s largest, horti- back procedures and remanufacturing, includ- realise that it is physically impossible to obtain a use far below branch average. Residues from culture fair will be established based on C2C, ing potential for jobs. a 100% efficient materials loop, as there will recycling (paper fibres, lime, etc.) become a using solar and biomass for energy supply, and always be some losses in materials due to cor- nutrient for next door’s cardboard manufac- natural and local water use and purification. Its There are several potential weaknesses. The rosion, wear, dilution, irreparable contamination

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 36 etc. Nonetheless, C2C is an important element Cluster theme 7: Choice editing of SMM. Key elements: Editing towards sustainable behaviour Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : Case 6.1: www.vanhoutumpapier.com Case examples from : UK, The Netherlands Case 6.2: www.regiovenlo.nl, www.kvk.nl Case 6.3: www.pilotprojekt.at SMM maturity level: End-of pipe Process Product Supply chain Life cycle Closed loop

Introduction while at the same time providing more sus- partially ‘hiding’ unsustainable and unhealthy One of the simplest ways governments and tainable alternatives (e.g. LEDs). A second products). business (particularly retailers) can contribute choice editing strategy is to slowly trim away to making the economy more sustainable is the worst products and practices by labelling This strategy is more effective than ecolabeling, through ‘choice editing’. In the words of the and tightening product norms (cf. Japan’s top which has been shown to – by itself – influence British Sustainable Development Council (SDC) runner program for energy efficiency). A third only a minority of shoppers. On the other hand, choice editing “is about shifting the field of strategy makes offending choices less attrac- choice editing combined with ecolabeling and choice for mainstream consumers: cutting out tive or increasingly difficult, by using taxation product norms has the potential to change unnecessarily damaging products and getting and product placement/positioning. consumer practices across the board. real sustainable choices on the shelves.” (SDC, An additional strategy to choice editing is the p.3) Finally, choice editing may also target the creative use of Sustainable Public Procure- Recent work by the SDC concluded that not ‘choice architecture’. Methods to do this ment. It is acknowledged that transforming the green products consumer has been the include for example a creative use of defaults, government procurement is essential, not only main driver of greener products but rather whereby consumers are automatically pre- because of the current scale of its environmen- choice-editing sented the sustainable alternative (and must tal impacts, but also as a symbolic and highly by retailers and public policy. This approach intentionally refuse this option if they want to visible signal of changing norms. does not aim to change levels or patterns of choose the less sustainable option). consumption but helps consumers automati- As indicated by the British SDC, sustainable cally choose sustainable products without the Choice editing can be particularly effective in procurement is an issue of credibility and trust. need to change habits or routines. the retail sector. Healthier shopping habits can It is also about making sustainable consump- be stimulated through product placement and tion front-of-mind for people in the settings Choice editors can simply remove environ- shelving strategies (e.g placing the most sus- in which they lead their daily lives, pointing to mentally offensive products from commercial tainable products at the most popular shelve solutions. Furthermore, sustainable public pro- consideration (e.g. incandescent light bulbs), heights and positions in a supermarket, while curement can drive technological innovation in

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 37 the green direction. Public procurers may help Ca s e 7.2: Re t a i l /Ma r k s & Sp e n c e r , UK Maniates there remains immense potential for http://www.sd-commission.org.uk/publica- unblock investment in innovative sustainable Marks & Spencer has made choice editing a choice editing to drive fundamental changes in tions/downloads/Sustainable_Retail_Event. technologies. central plank of its marketing strategy (it’s so- consumption. However, at least two obstacles pdf called ‘Plan A’). M&S’s ‘core standards’ ensure stand in the way. The first is the persistent be- • Michael Maniates, ‘Editing out Unsustain- By issuing procurement calls committing the it only sells free-range eggs, has banished non- lief that product labelling alone can do the job. able Behavior’, in State of the World 2010, government to purchasing only products that fairtrade coffee and hydrogenated fats (linked Even when logical and clear, labelling places WorldWatch Institute, 2010 meet stringent standards – if they can be to heart disease) and sources all its fish from the burden on the consumer to drive needed • Kevin Morgan and Roberta Sonnino, delivered below a specified cost threshold and sustainable stocks. “Our customers expect social and ecological change with their buying ‘Rethinking School Food: The Power of the by a specified date – the risk can be shared high basic standards,” says Barry, “and in some behaviour. It reinforces the myth of consumer Public Plate’, in State of the World 2010, between manufacturer and buyer. In a later areas they want us to give them the absolute sovereignty. A second, more fundamental and WorldWatch Institute, 2010. stage innovative green products will become gold standard.” structural impediment to the power of choice • SDC/NCC Report, I will if you will, 2006 cheaper so that they can be mainstreamed to editing is its prevailing focus on ‘consumption [http://www.sd-commission.org.uk/publica- the general public. Seen in this way, sustainable Ca s e 7.3: Su s t a i n a b l e Pu b l i c Pr o c u r e m e n t , shifting’ rather than ‘consumption reduction’, tions/downloads/I_Will_If_You_Will.pdf] public procurement can amplify the effect of Th e Ne t h e r l a n d s once more according to Michael Maniates. Case7.3: www.senternovem.nl/ general choice editing strategies. The program ‘Duurzaam Inkopen’ stimulates Nevertheless, EU Policy could be designed duurzaaminkopen the Dutch authorities to integrate not only in a direction where at least the low hanging Ca s e 7.1: Ho m e i m p r o v e m e n t r e t a i l /B&Q, UK. environmental but also social aspects in their fruits of choice editing can be reaped, even In some cases retailers will undertake choice procurement choices of products and ser- without entering the more fundamental debate editing on a unilateral basis, to build an envi- vices. The Dutch Government has the ambition about biophysical limits to growing consump- ronmentally positive brand image; B&Q, which to achieve Sustainable Public Procurement tion levels. Clearly unsustainable and unethical chooses to stock only Forest Stewardship for 100% of its buying activities in 2010. For products need to be phased out as soon as Council certified timber, serves as an example. Councils the target is 75% in 2010, reaching possible. Allen Knight, former Environmental Policy Co- 100% by 2015. To assist the authorities in this ordinator for B&Q explained that this company process, the Ministry of VROM (Volkshuisvest- Additionally, EU public procurement policies embarked on sustainable wood “even though ing, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieubeheer) has could be revised in order to stimulate the drive there was no indication of consumer demand developed a number of criteria for different for sustainable public procurement even further. for certified products.” product/service groups. This is an example of This seems to be desirable as in some cases how the public sector, as a consumer, can ‘edit (e.g. School lunch programs in UK) EU public He observed that “customers do not ask for choices’ and influence both the supply side and procurement rules are still considered as a bar- certified products because they are unaware of the users, consumers (citizens) of it purchases. rier for more sustainable procurement choices. them: Raising awareness and creating markets are the retailer’s role.” Strength and weaknesses of the cluster theme Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : As noted in State of the World 2010 by Michael • SDC Report Visioning Sustainable Retail:

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 38 the use of high performance titanium and stain- Cluster theme 8: Biomaterials and natural eco-systems less steel for these applications (no more extraction from mining, pollution, production). This Key elements: Biomimetics can be achieved by planting around 250.000 Case examples from : Brazil, Germany, Colombia, Australia, UK, USA ha. of mulberry trees on desolate and infertile land, which apart from the generation of top SMM maturity level: End-of pipe Process Product Supply chain Life cycle Closed loop soil also can create an estimated 12.5 million jobs (according to Zeri Foundation). Introduction: developing resilience, flexibility, and perfor- Spidrex® tissue scaffolds have been developed Nature is at the very heart of things here and mance. New innovative products and (in) by parent company Oxford Biomaterials, and Ca s e 8.2: Ye o Va l l e y , biomaterial f o r so are its materials. The use of biomaterials systems can be developed that mirror nature have a porous structure which supports human p a c k a g i n g , UK implies a shift from the use (mining, extraction, without applying our current energy and re- cell growth while being gradually absorbed This case describes two ways to use biomate- production) of metals and other materials in our source intensive industrial processing of materi- and replaced by regenerating cartilage or bone rial for packaging: (1) traditional materials such products to the use of biomaterials, organic als by for instance heating, pressure, or steam. tissue. Spidrex® tissue scaffolds combine as paper and (2) bioplastics from renewable processing and renewable resources. Nature Key to the concept of so called ‘cascading’, these features with great resilience and a high resources. provides us with a huge variety of resources using materials in a variety of applications in the mechanical strength which can be closely The dairy product company Yeo Valley based and can serve as example to find solutions for natural chain. Interdisciplinary research is cen- matched to the strength of the tissue being in North Somerset in south-west England our human needs, be it for transportation, heat- tral to the work of biomimetics. Particularly the repaired, giving them a clear advantage over redesigned the pots for their products. The ing & cooling, separation, cleaning, nutrients, domains of agro/food and health care are along traditional materials. This silk-based material improvement resulted in producing them from energy, regeneration, resilience, communication the frontrunners of the application of biomateri- can also be used for sutures and re-growth of recycled paper and separated polypropylene and tracking, etc. als and biological processes. nerves. inlet. The use of this material combination al- This approach is called: biomimetics, also lows the reduction of plastic material, because known as biomimicry, bionik, or naturetech. Ca s e 8.1: Or t h o x ’s Sp i d r e x ® - UK Silk is broken down into individual molecules. of the stabilising effect of the paper thus the A development by Oxford University UK. Orthox It is then built back up into tissue scaffolds plastic inlet can be thinner. At the end of life of Biomimetics is the study of the structure and Company focused on developing medical using a series of tricks learned from about how the dairy product the paper and plastic inlet function of biological systems as models for devices designed to regenerate damaged carti- spiders spin silk. The way spiders process their can be recycled separately. the design and engineering of materials, pro- lage and bone tissues. Employing a revolution- protein means that their web is exceptionally cesses, and products. It is the abstraction of ary “scaffold” technology, ‘Spidrex®’, which is powerful and resilient compared with other Another option for packaging biomaterial is the Nature, which has already done R&D for billions based on a protein, found in silk fibres, Orthox silks. By using the same techniques, the im- use of bioplastics from renewable resources of years and figured out what works, what is has a pipeline of devices aimed at helping the plant takes on these properties and is therefore i.e. corn starch, vegetable oil, pea starch, or appropriate and what lasts. Ecosystems have body to heal defects in bones and joints which resilient to repetitive compressive forces. microbiota. Some, but not all, bioplastics are evolved to ever more effective nutrient and en- would in many cases lead to implantation of a designed to biodegrade. Since the growing of ergy cycles, bringing enormous diversity while permanent metal or plastic prosthesis. Orthox’s Benefits: This 100% natural product replaces crops and the processing of biomaterial based

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 39 products this industry is still fossil-fuel based University of Hong Kong) and researcher Car- Meanwhile on the ‘other end of the coffee biotic to kill them and are leading to an “arms (production of pesticides and fertiliser, energy menza Jaramillo Lopez, the ZERI Foundation bean’ two graduates from Berkeley University in race” between the bugs and the pharmaceuti- use). Environmental advantages can be less discovered that coffee pulp waste was an ideal California took the idea even further and started cal companies. emissions and substitution of fossil-fuels. How- catalyst for farming tropical mushrooms—a in 2009 the BTTR Ventures (pronounced Better) It is also increasing antibiotic resistance and ever, the environmental performance needs to healthy, low cholesterol and fat-free source of business. It stands for ‘back to the roots’, en- the rise of “super bugs” like methicillin-resistant be assessed by standardised criteria. protein. compassing the idea of a company that stands Staphylococcus aureus that now kills more for sustainability, progress, and social respon- people than die of AIDS each year. Ca s e 8.3 Te r r a Pr e t a No v a , Br a z i l – Ge r m a n y The waste from the mushrooms is then again sibility. It is turning one of the largest waste Terra Petra Nova is an artificial replication of the used as food for cattle and pets. After seven streams in America, the tons of coffee ground Researchers of the University of New South Amazonian original soil made from natural in- years of testing in Colombia, the mushroom waste generated daily, into a highly-demanded, Wales discovered delisea pulchra, a feathery gredients (humus, shell limestone, charcoal, mi- project was introduced to Colombian coffee nutritious, and valuable food product; gourmet red alga or seaweed found off the Australian cro organisms). Developed by a small German farmers in very remote areas of high malnutri- mushrooms. coast. During a marine field trip, scientists business (TERRA PRETA® e.K.) it is capable tion and poverty. More than 3000 farmers were noticed that the algae’s surface was free from of renewing the soil’s nutritive substances and trained between 2003 and 2007. The beneficial Currently, BTTR Ventures is transforming over biofilms despite living in waters laden with increasing the growing speed of plants when project improves the environment and cre- 6000 lbs a week of coffee grounds from Peet’s bacteria. it is mixed with normal soil (max. 20% seem to ates additional revenue for coffee producers, Coffee and Tea into delicious oyster mush- Tests pinpointed a compound—known as be perfect). Additionally, by binding 2.5 times thus sustaining their livelihoods. As a result of rooms, the BTTR Garden (grow-it-at-home halogenated furanone—that blocks the way more carbon then normal soil it may reduce the program, an estimated 10.000 jobs were mushroom kit), and rich compost (spent mush- bacteria signal to each other in order to form GHG emissions. created in Columbia. The program won the room substrate). The business concept will be dense biofilm groups. SCAA’s 2009 Sustainability Award. expanded to other areas in the USA, and large Benefits: Improving the soil fertility increases coffee and tea producers show interest in this A company called Biosignal has been set up to the acre productivity. This can help to mitigate The ZERI Foundation estimates that if all coffee new concept. develop the idea which promises a new way of land use pressure and reduce GHG emissions. waste was converted to mushrooms and if all controlling bacteria like golden staph, cholera mushroom waste was fed to cattle, it would Benefits: and legionella without aggravating bacterial Ca s e 8.4: Co ffee w a s t e a n d m u s h r o o m s , equal 16 million tons of food a year. If two jobs Cascading activity systems with optimal use of resistance. Co l o m b i a were generated by the mushroom project for all biomaterial throughout the value chain. Creat- Products include contact lenses, catheters and This project was part of the ‘pulp to protein’ each of the estimated 25 million coffee farms in ing local (in the South) employment, local food pipes treated with algae-inspired furanones project of the ZERI (Zero Emissions Research the world, then coffee waste has the potential security, and contributing to local eco-systems. alongside mouthwashes and new therapies and Initiatives) Foundation. The first idea was to for creating a staggering total of 50 million jobs for vulnerable patients with diseases like cystic eliminate waste from coffee production; in the globally. The Foundation says the same can be Ca s e 8.5: Re d a l g a e d e a fe n b a c t e r i a , Au s t r a l i a fibrosis and urinary tract infections. process 99.8% of the coffee plant is wasted. In done with tea farms. Today, the concept is also Seventy per cent of all human infections are a cooperation with Prof. S.T. Chang (then dean taken up in Zimbabwe. result of biofilms. These are big congregations Benefits: of the faculty of Life Sciences at The Chinese of bacteria that require 1000 times more anti- Decrease disease and health risks. The bacte-

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 40 rial signal-blocking substance can also reduce human needs while creating added value. It pollution to the environment by reducing or introduces innovations that permit less capital ending the need for homeowners and compa- investment, strengthen local communities and nies to pour tons of caustic chemicals down builds up social capital, by creating (local) jobs, pipes, ducts and tanks and onto kitchen sur- improving health and supporting the ecosys- faces to keep them bug-free. tem. It also creates new business models, which combine economic, social and ecologi- Ca s e 8.6 Lo t u s -Effe c t ® a n d BIONA r e s e a r c h cal values. While using nature’s solutions for a p r o g r a m m e , Ge r m a n y variety of our human challenges, also here the Bionic research and development of a research sustainable use of materials, land, water, and group of the University of Bonn, Germany, to- energy remain important. gether with partners (e.g. Evonik Industries, Lo- Possible weaknesses could occur when ‘solu- tusan) led to a surface innovation with so called tions from nature’ are done without considering Lotus-effect®. This effect was derived from the the sustainable use of resources, energy, land, self-cleaning capabilities of the lotus plant, that etc. means surfaces with a Lotus-effect® are non- wettable and self-cleaning. The effect is applied Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : to many products such as façade paints, roof Case 8.1: www.orthox.co.uk tiles, and non-optical glasses. Through this self- Case 8.2: www.sustainabilitysouthwest.org.uk/ cleaning effect, the lifespan of all kinds of ma- projects/pioneers_of_packaging/ terials can be increased and therefore resource Case 8.3: www.truehealth.org/terrapretainter- use decreased. The Lotus-Effect example view.html is part of the research programme ‘BIONA - Case 8.4: www.zeri.org and http://www.bt- Bionic innovations for sustainable products and trventures.com technologies’ of the German Federal Ministry of Case 8.5: http://www.solutions-site.org/art- Education and Research. man/publish/article_398.shtml Case 8.6: www.lotus-effekt.de/, www.biona.de, Strength and weaknesses of the cluster theme www.bionik-net.de The true strength of the biomimetics concept and use of biomaterials lies in real innovations. Not doing less with the same, but using natural systems and mechanisms to provide cascades of nutrients and new solutions that serve our

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 41 also with an international network. The ‘Global Cluster theme 9: Transition Towns Ecovillage Network’ is a global confederation of people and communities that ‘meet and share Key elements: Community and City development for sustainability, eco-cities and eco-villages their ideas, exchange technologies, develop Case examples from : UK and other countries cultural and educational exchanges, directories and newsletters, and are dedicated to restoring SMM maturity level: End-of pipe Process Product Supply chain Life cycle Closed loop the land and living “sustainable plus” lives by putting more back into the environment than we take out’. Introduction: equitable, and address the big question: For all be able to cope with energy shocks, Transition Towns originating in the UK (2005), those aspects of life that this community needs - Regarding the world economy and the con- Another model of transition towns, in this case where about 200 towns are active, and the in order to sustain itself and thrive, how do we sumptive patterns within it, as long as the called ‘eco-cities’, is a more top-down ap- idea increasingly spread to other countries, significantly increase resilience and drastically laws of physics apply, infinite growth within proach, where city councils and local govern- e.g. Wales, Ireland, Australia, Canada, France, reduce carbon emissions? Resilient here refers a finite system (such as planet earth) simply ment create a coherent and integrated sustain- Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, Japan, USA, New to: diversity, flexibility and proximity. is not possible. able policy for the whole city Zealand, etc. - If we plan and act early enough, and use The basic idea starts off when a small group In the Transition Initiative Primer, a document our creativity and cooperation to unleash Ca s e 9.1 To t n e s , Transition t o w n , UK of motivated individuals within a community to support the set up of a transition initiative, the genius within our local communities, Totnes was the UK first transition town initiative, come together with a shared concern: How Ben Brangwyn and Rob Hopkins define it as then we can build a future that could be far set up by Rob Hopkins. It is a town of 9000 in- can our community respond to the challenges follows: more fulfilling and enriching, more con- habitants in Devon, South of England. Hopkins, and opportunities, such as peak oil and climate ‘The Transition Model is a loose set of real nected and gentle on the earth than the teacher at Kinsale, got inspired by the per- change’? Transition Towns are local communi- world principles and practices that have been lifestyles we have today’. maculture; a crop culture in closed loops and ties (villages, districts, towns, etc.) that create built up over time though experimentation locally embedding. This creates resilience. The change from bottom-up and make the shift and observation of communities as they drive This community based, ‘bottom-up’ and ‘or- idea is that also the economy should be locally away from oil and gas dependency. forward to build local resilience and reduce ganic’ model leaves ample freedom for human embedded. In 2008 about 10% of the popu- carbon emissions’. This Transition Model is, ac- creativity to organise, communicate, and find lation was involved in diverse projects, e.g. The Transition Initiatives represent a way of cording to the authors, a recognition of: solutions that fit the local context. The initia- factory of pellets (from locally and sustainably engaging people and communities to take the - Climate Change and Peak Oil require urgent tives can vary in level of sustainable ambitions, grown wood) and biomass, house construc- far-reaching actions that are required to miti- action. operating structures, and scope. tion of cob (made from material from the local gate the effects of peak oil and climate change. - Life with less energy is inevitable and it is Since 2006 there exists a world wide Transition river), and the organic farm Riverford of 440 ha; Furthermore, these initiatives are designed to better to plan for it than be taken by sur- Network. consisting of three farms, a dairy company and result in a resilient life that is more fulfilling, more prise. 4 shops. socially connected and more - Industrial society has lost the resilience to A similar type of initiative is the eco-village,

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 42 The town has its own currency in which people ever meetings happen – at cafés, study groups, provide easily accessible and affordable public Plan has become an international blueprint for can pay in 75 shops and restaurants. at workplaces. transit, but he achieved it through participatory sustainable city design. Recently (2009) an Energy Descent Action Plan Only too aware that buildings consume almost processes, unseen in that time of dictatorship. (based on a plan from Kinsale in 2005) was set half the world’s energy and spew out nearly Curitiba’s bus system is composed of a hierar- Strength and weaknesses of the cluster theme up. This project has been awarded £39,000 a third of greenhouse gases, Malmö plans to chical system of services. The strength is that ‘ordinary’ individual people by Esmee Fairbairn Foundation for one and a reduce its CO2 emissions by 25% between that are also citizens, consumers, mothers and half posts in order to drive this project forward. 2008 and 2012, well above the Kyoto Proto- Minibuses routed through residential neighbour- fathers, etc. do unite, connect, act and take Furthermore, alternative leisure activities are col’s target of 5%. Malmö says that making its hoods feed passengers to conventional buses on responsibility for the creation of their own developed and numerous activities to raise infrastructure greener is the quickest and easi- on circumferential routes around the central sustainable community. awareness on the possibilities of different life est way to avoid a climate catastrophe. city and on inter-district routes. The backbone styles. of the system is composed of the Bus Rapid It is often hard to receive loans or funding Malmö today is a leading signatory to the Euro- Transit, operating on the five main arteries lead- for projects, as most financial institutions or Ca s e 9.2 Ma l m ö , e c o -c i t y , Swe d e n pean Union’s Covenant of Mayors on greening into the centre of the city. Passengers pay a governmental bodies are not adapted to these Malmö’s industrial base in the 1980s, the house reductions. Here they burn household single fare for travel throughout the system with kinds of clients and initiatives. (the system is city had a chance to start over. It created waste to generate heat and electricity. By going unlimited transfers between buses at terminals slow to adapt). The initiatives do often conflict eco-friendly neighbourhoods of transformed off-grid they don’t lose energy in transmission. where different services intersect. with existing (local) systems and regulations. tenements and old shipyards. Much of Western It aims to become more and more of a greener Transition towns face the problem of efficient Harbour now runs solely on renewable energy, eco-city. Commercial activities were developed along the mainstreaming to all segments of the popu- including wind and solar, while organic waste Malmö won in 2009 a UN Habitat honour transport arteries, with hardly any parking facili- lation, including the ‘Honestly Disengaged’ from the area is turned into biogas. In Augus- award for its innovative, holistic approach to ties in the centre. The master plan also involved people. tenborg and Sorgenfri, roof gardens reduce becoming a 21st century eco-city. other programmes to improve the quality of life, runoff and insulate homes, while a carpool e.g. a public housing, the ‘Cambio Lixio’ trash Without some type of top-down support and system with special lanes for pedestrians and Ca s e 9.3 Curitiba, e c o -c i t y , Br a z i l exchange programme, where (poor) people can feedback mechanisms, these bottom-up initia- cyclists help cut vehicle use. Using a holistic Thirty years ago Curitiba unveiled a master plan collect waste in exchange of transport tickets. tives tend to stay locked in their niches (even in approach to its greening, the city is investing in to address urban issues with environmentally Totnes only 10% of the population is involved). centres of learning on urban sustainability, such friendly public transit and social programs. At A decentralized and accessible government Concurrently, the transition town approach as the Institute for Sustainable Urban Develop- the start of the programme the town counted has been a cornerstone of Curitiba’s plan- face more hurdles in a city environment, where ment, outdoor education, continuous educa- 500.000 inhabitants, currently about 1.8 mil- ning philosophy since the Master Plan was levels of connectivity and lack of space (e.g. for tion for educators and climate experiments in lion. In 1964 the then Mayor Ivo Arzua issued approved in the 1960s. Curitiba’s “citizenship local food production) are considerably lower schools. a call for proposals to prepare Curitiba for new streets”, mini-malls of government branch of- than in rural environments. growth. He not only had a vision for the town fices located throughout the city, are perhaps The concept for sustainable education is also to minimize urban sprawl, reduce downtown its best example of bringing city hall down to Dynamics for change and creation of healthy informal learning; learning wherever and when- traffic, preserve Curitiba’s historic district, and size. Some 40 years later, the Curitiba Master cities with clean air, energy-autonomous,

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 43 and quality of life for all, can come from both motivated citizens and from motivated political Cluster theme 10: Knowledge networks for transitions leaders in towns with a vision for the future. Key elements: System innovation, reflexive governance, transdisciplinarity, sociotechnical changes Public authorities can be driving forces for these sustainable developments, both by giving Case examples from : Belgium, EU, The Netherlands the example and by supporting further engagement and initiatives of citizens SMM maturity level: End-of pipe Process Product Supply chain Life cycle Closed loop

Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : www.transitionnetwork.org and http://villesen- Introduction more importantly, transdisciplinary processes political change when faced with systemic transition.net (French) SMM and, more generally, sustainability issues are needed for sociotechnical changes. crises. To take SMM to a higher level, Transition Initiative Primer (12 August 2008): (e.g. climate change) are what social scientists Interdisciplinarity is established by the merging knowledge networks for transitions will be http://transitionnetwork.org/Primer/Transition- call ‘postnormal problems’. The characteristics of methods from different disciplines. Indus- of paramount importance. InitiativesPrimer.pdf of such problems include: trial ecology is an example of such a fusion of Global Eco-villages network: http://gen.ecovil- - The knowledge basis is characterised by concepts. Ca s e 10.1: Transition Ar e n a /Pl a n C, Be l g i u m , lage.org large uncertainties, knowledge gaps and + o t h e r Ar e n a s in Th e Ne t h e r l a n d s imperfect understanding of the complex Transdisciplinarity goes a step further. Accord- Transition management (TM) is a novel way, Case 9.1: http://totnes.transitionnetwork.org systems involved; ing to the Zurich 2000 definition this type of developed in the Netherlands, to stimulate Case 9.2: http://www.malmo.se/sustainablecity - Decisions need to be made before conclu- research takes up concrete problems of society long-term policy designs using a reflexive Case 9.3: http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/ sive scientific evidence is available; and works out solutions through cooperation governance approach. Central to TM is the fellows/brazil1203/master-plan.html and http:// - Potential impacts of wrong decisions can between actors and scientists. Key concepts Transition Arena, a platform for transition-oriented www.urbanhabitat.org/node/344 be huge; are mutual learning among science and society, interactions between societal actors, related to - Values are in dispute; integration of knowledge and values from soci- persistent problems. Arenas facilitate creative - Many (hidden) value loadings reside in ety into research, thereby better reflecting the interaction, knowledge exchange, learning and problem frames and assumptions made; complexity and multidimensionality of sustain- discussion among so-called frontrunners, i.e. - Massive social and political interests may able development and SMM. innovators and strategic thinkers from different block system change. backgrounds (state actors, business actors, Besides the traditional criteria of scientific civil society, academia). In order to adequately tackle postnormal knowledge (validity, reliability), room is created problems, the traditional ‘modern’ (disciplinary) for novel criteria such as social robustness, so- The multi-actor approach is key for the success approach no longer suffices. It is increasingly cietal responsibility, effectiveness, and legitima- of the transition. Visions for the future are jointly recognised that complex problems require cy. Knowledge is thus jointly produced, which developed, key barriers are identified, transition novel approaches. Interdisciplinary and, even generates more capacity for societal and pathways are constructed and experiments,

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 44 which go well beyond established socio-tech- Ca s e 10.2: SMaRT-PRO² In d u s t r i a l Re s e a r c h eco-labeling organisations. This Knowledge tion and representatives from business, govern- nical practices, are set up. Since adopting this Fu n d KULe u v e n -Pl a t f o r m , Be l g i u m network analyses the state of the art in SCP re- ment, civil society and student organisations. approach in its Fourth National Environmental Sustainable Materialization of Residues from search, and promote cases of (radical) sustain- The purpose is that students gain insights of Policy Plan in 2001, the Dutch government Thermal Processes into Products is an inter/ able consumption for mobility, agro-food and SD within their own discipline and are able to has facilitated a range of such transition arenas transdisciplinary Knowledge Platform that energy use. These areas cause 70-80% of the work interdisciplinary and inter-cultural, learn in sectors such as energy, agriculture, water investigates the combined sustainable upcy- EU`s environmental impact and should there- systems thinking and long term perspectives, management etc. cling of carbon dioxide and solid residues from fore be integrated in SMM policies. and can apply it in future (real society) work thermal industrial processes into sustainable domains. In order to guarantee and develop In Flanders this approach was also adopted and innovative products. The various routes are Ca s e 10.4: DHO Ne t h e r l a n d s , i n t e g r a t i n g the quality of SD in higher education, AISHE, leading to two main transition arenas, namely investigated with respect to the required pro- s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t in h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n Auditing Instrument for Sustainability in Higher DUWOBO (sustainable living and housing) and cess, the resulting product and the economic, (Th e Ne t h e r l a n d s ). Education, has been developed. The audit is Plan C. Plan C (Transition Network for Sustain- ecological, legislative and societal potential. This knowledge network ‘Duurzaam Hoger executed by an external certified auditor. able Management of Materials) is an ambitious Onderwijs’ (Sustainable Higher Education) was network in Flanders of people from the private, The Platform consists of 25 K.U.Leuven set up in 1998 with the purpose to integrate Funding: one third through a combined pro- civil society, academia and public sector that experts – in the field of technology, economy, Sustainable Development (SD) into higher gramme of several ministries and contracts share a common vision of a world that man- psychology and legislation – who work together education study programmes, not as an add- with education organisations. Funding from ages its usage of materials in a sustainable to transform knowledge into applications. In on module but fully integrated. The main idea the Ministry of Education is limited compared way. In 2006 the OVAM (Public Waste Agency order to bring forth industrially and socially rel- was that, in order to act sustainable in this to other ministries (e.g. Environment). Funding of Flanders) took the initiative to bring people evant results and to enhance “mutual learning” complex and global world, new competences this type of interdisciplinary programmes does together to build a common understanding and legitimacy, a Sounding board – consisting are needed. The network is an arena where not ‘fit’ the current funding based on individual how Flanders can contribute to this vision and of industry, authorities and civil society – inter- many actors work together, where theory and institutions. trigger system innovation in its region. acts on a regular basis with the Platform. In the practice meet and where expertise around future, this Platform will be broadened to the sustainable knowledge innovation can develop. DHO NL is a success thanks to a strong Advice The initiative brought more than sixty people to- European level as well (COST-Action proposal The network consists of about 1400 people. Council of top people with drive and knowledge gether from diverse organisations. The network “Valortherm”). on SD, an indispensible interdisciplinary and in- generated also more than 100 ideas of experi- In order to improve the knowledge sharing an tercultural approach for SD, and the networking ments that could contribute to the envisioned Ca s e 10.3: SCORE!, EU on-line Community of Practice (COP) has been role is taken on based on community building transition and system innovation. Plan C has The Network project SCORE! acts as one of established. Multi-partners and knowledge and created with professional partners (e.g. the ambition to initiate 20 experiments for sys- the EU`s central support structures for the UN`s sharing are needed to advance the implemen- internet provider). tem innovation by 2014. 10 Year Framework of Programs for Sustain- tation and mainstreaming of SD into all higher able Consumption and Production (SCP). The education. Strength and weaknesses of the cluster theme ~200 SCORE! experts are working together The network therefore consists of teachers, The strength of knowledge networks lays in the with actors in industry, consumer groups and managers and researchers from higher educa- interdisciplinary, cross sectoral and intercultural

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 45 approach for sustainable development. Knowledge networks for sustainability transi- Cluster theme 11: IT for SMM tions and TM face several hurdles, including the Key elements: Reverse logistics, supply-chain management, tracking systems hijacking of the agenda by regime incumbents, a shift to technocratic approaches, lack of Case examples from : Germany, USA attention for social issues, lack of democratic legitimacy. Nevertheless, TM and multi-actor SMM maturity level: End-of pipe Process Product Supply chain Life cycle Closed loop networks are essential to move towards a World 2.0. Introduction: e-supply chain management and e-demand animal to postal tracking but offers a potential Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : Technologies that optimise the tracking of sup- chain management). The evaluation of e-com- IT solution for supply chain management. By Case 10.1: http://www.plan-c.eu ply chains are important tools for SMM. This is merce application in large-scale electronic and being able to tag products on their delivery and Case 10.3: http://www.score-network.org/ because they can facilitate efficient movement automotive industry enterprises (IBM, Siemens, location efficiency of inventory tracking and score/score_module/index.php of products downstream i.e. from producer to Hewlett Packard, Daimler Chrysler, Ford) show management can be increased considerably, Case 10.4: http://www.dho.nl/over-dho.html consumer but also upstream (reverse logistics). positive effects towards increased resource e.g. in the textile industry appr. 10% of the and http://www.plado.nl European legislation that mandates directives productivity and remarkable potentials of de- goods are lost worldwide because of wrong relating to packaging (Directive 99/31/EC), cars materialisation of resources and energy flows. declarations, theft or damage. The automatic (Directive 00/53/EC), and electrical/electronic Furthermore, software tools especially designed recognition of date of expiry and the detection equipment (Directives 02/96/EC and 02/95/ for SMEs can help to calculate and visualise of mistakes/defects offers the opportunity for EC) makes reverse logistics even more topical. material and energy flow systems (i.e. Umberto, an improved quality management. Thus while Tracking Systems are a further tool for com- GaBi, SimaPro). Through mapping out produc- RFID are used successfully in the mobility sec- panies to manage supply chains for material tion process systems either in a manufacturing tors (e.g. zipcars), this software is yet to mature efficiency. Nevertheless practical IT solutions for site, throughout a company, or, along a product in the consumer goods market. supply chain management make SMM practical life cycle, it aids companies to develop material and efficient for industry to apply. efficient supply-chain management. The results Strength and weaknesses of the cluster theme are evaluated using economic and environ- IT for SMM has great potential in giving enter- Ca s e 11.1: E-Co m m e r c e a n d s u p p l y c h a i n mental performance indicators, and costs are prises tools to effectively manage supply chains m a n a g e m e n t s o f t w a r e quantified and located to show hot spots in the and to monitor the product and material flow E-Commerce comprises several applications supply chain. up- and downstream. The advantage for logisti- from an internet-based procurement and sale cal efficiency, material and natural capital sav- systems to comprehensive electronic support Ca s e 11.2: Ra d i o Fr e q u e n c y Id e n t i f i c a t i o n ings would be valuable for the SMM approach. of industrial supply chains (i.e. e-procurement, (RFID) The barriers seem to be the implementation of e-production, e-distribution, e-customer, RFID is used across many industries from large scale tracking technologies. On a smaller

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 46 scale software is available for supply chain mapping but especially SMEs may not have the Cluster theme 12: Closed loop industry systems for (inorganic) residues (various industries) resources to employ these tools. Key elements: Integration, Closing the Loop, Industrial ecology, Enhanced Waste Management, Enhanced Landfill Mining However, positive or negative environmental effects only can be revealed if the implementation Case examples from : Belgium, Denmark of IT-solutions involves environmental monitoring, controlling and management. Therefore SMM maturity level: End-of pipe Process Product Supply chain Life cycle Closed loop more research is needed into IT for SMM and support for enterprises to use tested supply chain management instruments could come Introduction case one can refer to the concept of “industrial quality. EIP’s can be developed as (1) greenfield from policy incentives. Social and environmen- The industrial system is a source of various symbiosis”. This implies that waste streams land projects, where the eco-industrial intent tal implications of IT have gained attention in material residue streams. These residues are combined with other material streams in is present throughout the planning, design recent years (http://makeitfair.org/) although include (1) construction and demolition waste order to obtain innovative products with high and site construction phases, or (2) through environmental analysis and design focused (concrete, fibreglass, asphalt, bricks, plas- added value. The closing of the material loops retrofits and new strategies in existing industrial mainly on energy efficiency (Green IT). ter, wallboard etc.), (2) residues from indus- now occurs in a more complex way. Synergies developments. trial landfills (slags, fly ash, construction and between material streams are now actively Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : demolition waste) and (3) residues from high sought. In the latter case several barriers may arise. Case 11.1: http://www.izt.de/fileadmin/down- temperature processes (steel and non-ferrous By combining for example two by themselves Based on the concepts of industrial ecology, loads/pdf/IZT_WB52_Falluntersuchung_E- industry, waste incineration, coal-fired electricity low or medium value material (waste) streams, collaborative strategies not only include by- Business.pdf, http://www.umberto.de/export/ plants and others (lime, refractory and chemical a high-value product can be developed, given product synergy (“waste-to-feed” exchanges), download/umberto_en/umberto_i_fly_en.pdf industries)) and (4) others (organic, biological that certain requirements are met. This is for but also take the form of wastewater cascad- Case 11.2: residues). Sustainable Materials Management example the case with the bricks produced ing, shared parking, green technology purchas- http://www.t-systems.de/tsi/en/28874/Home/ implies that these residues are reintegrated from slags and CO2 (12.1). ing blocks, shared logistics and shipping & Solutions/Industries/OverviewRetail/AutoIDRigh into the technosphere, thereby closing material receiving facilities, multi-partner green building tTimeEnterpriseServices/1-res loops. The relevant industries for the accep- Rather than focusing on highly innovative prod- retrofit, district energy systems, and local edu- tance of these material streams are, amongst ucts incorporating waste residues, the closing cation & resource centres. EIP’s are an example others, the concrete and cement industry, the of the loop can also be performed at a more of a fully integrated SMM systems approach, heavy clay ceramics industry, the producers of local level by planning for so-called “eco-indus- in which designs and processes/activities are glass ceramics and stone wool and the con- trial parks” (EIP’s) (12.2). An eco-industrial park integrated to address multiple objectives. struction sector. is an industrial park in which businesses not Finally, the closing of the material loop can The reintegration into the technosphere can be only cooperate with each other but also involve also be extended in time, when old or future based on linear schemes (see cluster 3) or fully the local community. EIP’s intend to increase material streams are integrated with one an- integrated processing routes. In the latter economic gains and improve environmental other (11.3), as is the case in the concepts of

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 47 Enhanced Waste Management and Enhanced facturer, in addition to a Statoil plant. This reuse recycled in a more effective way in the near fu- the energy valorisation process is emitted in Landfill Mining of heat reduces the amount of thermal pollution ture. This idea is related to the fact that today’s the atmosphere. ELFM becomes part of the that is discharged to a nearby fjord. Addition- practice of incineration eliminates the possibil- transition towards a fully closed loop material Ca s e 12.1: CARBSTONE (VITO/Re c m i x ally, a by-product from the power plant’s sulfur ity for reuse of materials resulting in increased system. The ideas generated through ELFM BVBA), Be l g i u m dioxide scrubber contains gypsum, which is material costs and decreased welfare. become directly relevant for the future develop- Carbstone is a construction product which sold to a wallboard manufacturer (see also ment of EWM with respect to the mining of the is developed from the combination of finely Cluster 3). Furthermore, fly ash and clinker Closely related to EWM is the concept of temporary storage places mentioned above. ground (low value!) basic stainless steel slags from the power plant is used for road building Enhanced Landfill Mining (ELFM). As indicated with CO2 in an autoclave (increased pressure and cement production, thereby also targeting above, the waste brought to new storage Currently, ELFM is being investigated through and temperature). Mineral carbonation of the higher added-value applications. facilities needs to be mined after a limited time. the case ‘Closing the Circle’, a 15 million lime and magnesia from the slag is key for de- Next to new landfills, ELFM is also applicable ton landfill in Houthalen-Helchteren (REMO veloping the brick structure. It was shown that Ca s e 12.3: EWM/ELFM/CtC (ELFM to old landfills. This is essential to deal with the Milieubeheer, Group Machiels). The project the brick obtained sound environmental and Co n s o r t i u m , Gr o u p Ma c h i e l s ), Be l g i u m (waste) legacy of the past. Historically, billions comprises the combined maximum recycling mechanical properties. Similar technologies are During the past 50 years, major paradigm of tonnes of waste have already been dumped of materials and the valorisation of the energy being used to combine even more (individually shifts have occurred in waste management in and stored in landfills worldwide. potential of the recycling residue, targeting seless) waste streams. Flanders as well as in the rest of Europe, both the production of sustainable electricity and for municipal solid waste (MSW) and industrial Given the fact that recycling and energy heat with plasma technology. CO2-neutrality Ca s e 12.2: Ka l u n d b o r g EIP, De n m a r k waste (IW). Following Lansink’s stepladder technologies are still improving, and given the is targeted through the combination of Carbon In Kalundborg (Denmark) an Industrial sym- waste management has evolved to a stronger volatile but steadily increasing prices of com- Capture and Storage, mineral carbonation of biosis EIP network exists where companies focus on material recuperation and recycling modities and carbon emissions, new opportu- the residues and vegetable production using in a region collaborate to use one another’s (e.g. glass, paper etc.) and waste prevention. nities are arising. CO2 as a fertiliser. Due to its system innovative by-products (including thermal residues) and In a novel view on waste management – En- ELFM includes the valorisation of the historic character, ELFM was selected as a transition share key resources. At the center of this EIP hanced Waste Management (EWM) – preven- waste streams as both materials (Waste-to- experiment of Plan C, the Flemish transition is a 1500 MW coal fired electricity plant, which tion and reuse/recycling become even more product, WTP) and energy (Waste-to-energy, arena targeting SMM. has material and energy links with the commu- important, while the idea of landfills as ‘a final WTE), with the ratio being dependent on the nity and several other companies. Surplus heat solution’ is discarded. type of waste streams and the state-of-the-art St r e n g t h a n d we a k n e s s e s o f t h e c l u s t e r t h e m e from this electricity plant is used to provide heat technology for material recuperation and en- As is the case with cluster 3, economical and energy for 3500 local houses in addition to a Landfills can become part of EWM, provided ergy production. Material recuperation can be environmental concerns stimulate the need to nearby fish farm, whose sludge is then sold as they are considered as ‘temporary storage either direct or indirect (i.e. when an additional transform waste streams (from old and novel a fertilizer. places awaiting further treatment’. In this ap- step is required). sources) to high value products while also proach, landfills become future mines for mate- achieving net CO2 benefits. However, this Steam from the power plant is sold to Novo rials, which could not be recycled with existing Enhanced landfill mining also incorporates waste-to-product transition is hampered by Nordisk, a pharmaceutical and enzyme manu- technologies or show a clear potential to be the goal to prevent that CO2 arising during both technical barriers (e.g. unsuitable process

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 48 technologies, unstable and inferior quality of the - Geysen, D., e.a., ‘Enhanced Landfill Mining – Waste collection, treatment and recycling are essential. In order to provide a more level play- material) and non-technical barriers (e.g. unfair A Future Perspective on Landfilling’, Sardinia, a low hanging fruits. Harmonise regulations at ing field, novel taxation systems on the use of competition from under-taxed primary resourc- 2009. EU level and raise the level of collection and primary materials (e.g gravel) are needed. es, underdeveloped legislation and markets, recycling systems as well as waste hierarchy different legislation in EU member states, poor 3.1.1 Policy directions based on SMM cases to the best performing countries. Extend waste Cluster 4 – Ecodesign: societal experience with industrial ecology). The case examples show the range of pos- management to further waste streams, regions Extend the scope of the Eco-design Directive Concerted EU action is required to accelerate sibilities from eco-efficiency measures towards and cascading concepts based on research and include SMM related criteria: resource the waste-to-product transition. approaches targeting eco-effectiveness, and and development programmes. Implement efficiency, reusability etc. Monitor the progress. even eco-sufficiency. The necessary shift from integrated product policy at all levels. Strength- Therefore include mandatory supply of product This implies the harmonisation of EU legislation more traditional waste management and ef- en product responsibility of producers (see data by companies and sectors. in this field and more support for interdisciplin- ficiency towards sustainable materials manage- Eco-design directive). Set minimum standards ary and transdisciplinary research. In the case ment faces several challenges. Several case to cut the “dirty end” of toxic products/parts/ Cluster 5 – Product Service Systems: of EIPs barriers arise when trying to convert examples indicate the possible shift towards materials. Give incentives for TOP Runners to Promote the use of social marketing techniques present industrial sites into EIPs. In this case initiatives that represent more maturity in terms raise the level. Develop and implement ‘waste to gain wider acceptance (especially in BtC en- planners are confronted with the historical of SMM as defined in this report. However, prevention indicators’ to enable assessment of vironments) for PSS schemes. More funding for legacy of poor land planning choices. Other fully mature SMM cases are still quite marginal, waste avoiding performance. (see OECD Work- social marketing research and SMM is required. potential barriers may arise due to the fragmen- mainly because: ing Group on waste Prevention and Recycling) This should be reflected in future calls of the FP. tation of various policy domains • they are not yet sufficiently backed by ap- Local authorities should provide more stimulat- propriate policy actions for up-scaling and Cluster 2 – Reuse and repair: ing environments for BtC PSS schemes. Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : mainstreaming, Develop standards for refurbished products Salah El-Haggar, Sustainable Industrial Design • they imply further changes at system level, esp. electronic products. Integrate reusability Cluster 6 – C2C: and Waste Management, Elsevier Academic including a change of mind-set and be- criteria in the Eco-design Directive. Similar to other concepts such as, ecode- Press, 2007. haviour, new business and welfare models, sign, closed loop industry systems, using http://www.vito.be/VITO/NL/HomepageAdmin/ etc., Cluster 3 - Collection and linear upgrad- biomaterials, nature and biological systems as Home/Bedrijven/Afval/Carbstone/hoogwaar- • further inter- and transdisciplinary research ing/recycling/recovery of residues: example for our societal challenges, C2C will dige_bouwmaterialen.htm is needed to develop the potential of these Concerted EU action is required to accelerate need further support at for instance R&D level. J. Ehrenfeld and N. Gertler (1997), “Industrial promising concepts. the waste-to-product transition. More fund- C2C, and those other concepts, needs to be Ecology in Practice. The Evolution of Interde- Using a bottom-up approach, the following ing for interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary enlarged towards country and urban planning, pendence at Kalundborg”, Journal of Industrial policy actions can be derived from the distinct research in the field of residue valorisation where SMM is currently hardly addressed. Ecology, 1 (1), 67-79. clusters. and SMM is required. This should be reflected There is a need for more knowledge sharing EFRO Project: 475 Kennisvalorisatie – Clean- in future calls of the EIT and the FP. Concur- and awareness raising. tech, Closing the Circle, een demonstratie van Cluster1 – Waste collection, treatment and rently, efforts to harmonise EU legislation with Enhanced Landfill Mining (ELFM). recycling: respect to the use of secondary resources are

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 49 Cluster 7 – Choice editing: Local authorities can also create a supportive parks. For new parks, make EIP’s the default EU public procurement policies should be environment for bottom-up transition experi- choice in the planning procedure and ensure revised in order to make sustainable public ments from citizens, such as transition towns the waste-to-product transition (see recom- procurement the default choice for all authori- and eco-villages. mendations Cluster 3) ties (from local to national levels). Cluster 10 – Knowledge networks for 3.2 Country policies on SMM Cluster 8 - Biomaterials and natural transition: eco-systems. All authorities (from local to continental levels) Country: Belgium • promoting further inter- and multi-disci- should provide additional funds for setting up plinary R&D in order to find applications knowledge networks for (sustainability) transi- Population : 10.8 million Amount of passenger vehicles : 5,9 million for nature’s solutions and to enhance to tions. In particular, set up transition manage- Surface Area : 30.528 km² GDP: 31.300 €/capita necessary speed up for market introduction ment (TM) arenas in vital domains such as Ecological footprint : 5,6 ha/capita CO2-emission : 13 tonnes CO2 eq./capita of new product applications of systems. SMM, mobility, food, housing and energy • promoting new application areas for bioma- systems etc. and allow regular policies to be terial and natural eco-system products and steered by the TM outcomes. To allow for maxi- Introduction Wallonia: The environmental sustain- processes in countries through knowledge mum democratic legitimacy these arenas need Flanders: The general coordination of waste ability planning of the Walloon region (Plan transfer programmes and cooperation. to include those actors who will be affected by management in Flanders was established after d’Environnement pour le development durable • assuring that investments can be regained decisions, especially the marginalised. Set up the decree of July 2nd, 1981. Since then, the PEDD) dates from March 1995 and describes on international markets through preferential challenging TM experiments in the field of SMM Public Waste Agency, OVAM, is the responsible 257 actions to be taken in order to integrate trade agreements, (e.g. ELFM, Cluster 11). public body. The initial focus was on establish- environmental protection in the development A Transition Platform for SMM could be estab- ing the waste management infrastructure and of the Walloon Region. The actions determine Cluster 9 - Transition towns and lished at EU level. cleaning up dumps from the past. The focus the directions to be followed in specific fields eco-villages. quickly moved towards waste prevention result- in medium and long term. Specific actions are Public authorities, particularly at regional and Cluster 11 – IT for SMM: ing in a very successful reduction of the amount defined for waste (Plan Wallon des Déchets, local level, should invest in and develop sus- Establish research programme to evaluate of household waste and high recycling rates. Horizon 2010), sustainable production & con- tainable urban planning. Furthermore, it can resource use, impacts, barriers and success Sustainable materials management is now an sumption, planning, information, education. enable the use of sustainable options, such factors of IT for SMM. Promote pilot projects. important part of the strategic policy with a The responsible authority is the Department of as affordable and easy-use systems for public Develop incentives to support enterprises to focus on the development of a long term vision Natural Resources and Environment (DGRNE). transport, cycling (e.a.) and walking, use of implement the lessons learned of successful pi- of a closed loop society. Several instruments to renewable energy (subsidies, …), integrated lots and their supply chain management tools. reach the long term goal are applied such as Brussels: Brussels policy in relation to sus- water systems (rain water collection, natural eco-efficiency-scans, eco-design, eco-innova- tainability is of course strongly related to the and local purification), recycling for energy and Cluster 12 – Closed loop industry systems: tion, specific waste management strategies. development of the city as written in the op- fertilizing, biogas production, etc. Invest in the greening of existing industrial erational programme 2013 ‘Samen investeren

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 50 in stedelijke ontwikkeling’ (Investing together ing and construction was responsible for most potential for improvements are scanned. This construction in order to promote sustainable in urban development). Part of this program of the waste produced by all industries. As a not only means environmental savings but most construction by increasing the amount of com- is the project Brussels Sustainable Economy result of the specifically developed manage- often also direct financial savings. The scan panies able to do so. The cluster activities are (BSE) in which attention is given to the devel- ment for demolition waste starting from 1995, already resulted in several new developments in designated to stimulate knowledge exchange, opment of jobs by means of environmentally its amount now decreased to almost zero. products and production processes. dissemination, awareness building in the con- friendly activities. The technology is readily available to produce Product testing is a calculation tool that allows struction sector. This considers the selection of high quality construction and demolition waste scoring the environmental quality of consum- materials as well as handling of wastes during Initiative 1: (Fl a n d e r s ) Ma t e r i a l m a n a g e m e n t a s which is Copro certified. Landfill costs and the ables. Companies with a sustainable consump- construction activities. p a r t o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l p o l i c y certification by means of the Copro quality label tion pattern can use the tool to optimise the Traditional end of pipe waste management is increased the recycling rate of construction and consumer’s decision. Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : shifting towards a policy in which the whole demolition waste (http://www.copro.eu). MAMBO is a tool to calculate the effective http://www.ovam.be material chain is integrated. The goal is to The new plan ‘Environmentally responsible use costs of producing waste including aspects http://environnement.wallonie.be/ decrease the pressure on environment of of materials and waste management in building like spoiled raw materials and energy. Most http://www.ibgebim.be materials use and decrease the materials de- and construction (period 2006-2010)’ focuses knowledge that is obtained during several years http://www.brusselsgreentech.be. pendency of Flanders. Partnerships with other on: of experience is free to access. authorities, citizens and companies will be set 1. A materials performance certification for Ecolizer allows designers to score the environ- Brussels programme: http://www.bruxelles. up to reach this goal. Policy initiatives indicated buildings; mental impact of their design. irisnet.be/cmsmedia/nl/operationeel_program- under the umbrella of material management 2. Innovation and a change on system level in ma_pdf.pdf?uri=ff808181181a2c3e01181c9c are part of the policy planning since the period the sector. Also the Walloon Region developed several ee5a0078. 2008-2010. Several initiatives already started in The centre for sustainable building (CEDU- tools for example to minimize waste production previous planning periods such as waste pre- BO) aims at providing information, stimulat- or to change consumer’s habits: the website vention, eco-efficiency, sustainable consump- ing and implementing sustainable building. http://www.ecoconso.be is an example of a tion, secondary raw materials, etc. site where the consumer can find information of The Goal of the current planning period is to Initiative 3: To o l s t o i m p r o v e e n v i r o n m e n t a l sustainable products and where questions can develop and incorporate new ideas in policy or p e r f o r m a n c e be asked in that respect. The Walloon region in the next planning document 2011-2014. In order to increase awareness and stimulate developed several guidelines to help citizens in sustainable production and consumption, minimizing their waste, selecting food, etc. Initiative 2: (Fl a n d e r s ) Su s t a i n a b l e h o u s i n g , OVAM developed several tools, disseminates b u i l d i n g a n d construction knowledge and hosts meetings. Some tools are Initiative 4: (Wa l l o n i a + Br u s s e l s ) Ca p 2020, Several policy initiatives address the sustain- described below. Ec o -b u i l d ability of the building and construction sector. The eco-efficiency programme of OVAM (Flan- The Walloon cluster Cap2020 and the Brus- Sustainable use of materials and waste man- ders) addresses SME’s and offers them a free sels cluster Eco-build groups companies agement is part of it. Several years ago, build- service performed by professionals in which the and people active in the field of sustainable

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 51 Initiative 2: Im p r o v e m e n t s o f w a s t e m a n a g e m e n t that emphasises waste avoidance in produc- Country: Germany f r o m t h e 1970s t o 1990s tion, promotes low-waste products, and pro- Population : 81,8 million Amount of passenger vehicles: 45,9 million In 1972 the Waste Avoidance and Waste vides incentives for waste recovery practices. Surface Area : 357.104km² GDP: 30.310 €/capita Management Act has been entered into force. Since the 1980s the “Reduce, Reuse, Recycle” Initiative 4: In c e n t i v e p r o g r a m m e m a t e r i a l Ecological footprint : 4,4 ha/capita CO2-emission : 12 tonnes CO2 eq./capita approach has been fostered. In 1991 the eff i c i e n c y a n d p r o t e c t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s product responsibility was part of the packag- In 2004 the Federal Government has intro- Introduction towards the implementation of productivity ing ordinance for the first time determining a duced the incentive programme material Germany is aiming at further development to- increase, and resource dialogs. In the follow- take-back obligation for used packaging. The efficiency and protection of resources and wards a material flow economy and a doubling ing paragraphs a short overview on the most packaging ordinance has contributed to the commissioned the German material efficiency of its resource productivity in 2020 compared relevant regulations and laws on resource closure of closed loop recycling management, agency - demea to encourage entrepreneus to the level of 1994 as stated in its national sus- productivity is presented. the avoidance and recycling of waste and thus to increase their material efficiency: through tainability strategy in 2002 (Bundesregierung to the protection of resources. information, the material efficiency award, and 2002). Increasing resoure productivity is the Initiative 1: Se t t h e t a r g e t two incentive programmes: (1) The programme core strategy in sustainable resource manage- of doubling of its resource productivity in 2020 Germany’s recycling quota of today are leading “VerMat” supports consulting SMEs and aims ment. Overall the indicator moves into the right compared to the level of 1994 as stated in its worldwide. This is because in the following at the diffusion of already existing knowledge direction but is too slow to meet the target, e.g. national sustainability strategy in 2002 (Bundes- years rules for product groups, waste avoid- by consultants. (2) “NeMat” supports the energy productivity in Germany increased by regierung 2002). Increasing resoure productiv- ance and high recycling quotes have been facilitation of networks especially in SME and 40,1% (since 1990) and resource productivity ity is the core strategy in sustainable resource established. Nowadays there are ordinances tries to use synergies and advantages of co- increased by 35,4% between 1994 and 2007 management. Overall the indicator moves into for packaging, batteries, electric and electronic operation of companies. (for more information see Bundesregierung, the right direction but is too slow to meet the appliances, as well as for environmental friendly 2008). Thus, the BMU and UBA commissioned target, e.g. energy productivity in Germany waste disposal according to the product re- Initiative 5: Es t a b l i s h t h e Ne t w o r k Re s o u r c e a research project “Material Efficiency and increased by 40,1% (since 1990) and resource sponsibility of the producer and the distributor. Eff i c i e n c y a n d r e s e a r c h p r o je c t MaRe s s Resource Conservation” in 2007 to analyse productivity increased by 35,4% between 1994 Increasing resource productivity is the core resource efficiency potentials and develop a and 2007 (for more information see Bundes- Initiative 3: Closing the loop and establish strategy in sustainable resource management. policy mix for business, politicians and con- regierung, 2008). Thus, the BMU and UBA waste hierarchy Overall the indicator moves into the right direc- sumers. commissioned a research project “Material Thus, in 1994 the Closed Substance Cycle tion but is too slow to meet the target, e.g. Efficiency and Resource Conservation” in 2007 and Waste Management Act has entered into energy productivity in Germany increased by Further instruments are used to reach the tar- to analyse resource efficiency potentials and force, which was designed to integrate product 40,1% (since 1990) and resource productivity get: Ecodesign standards, waste regulation (i.a. develop a policy mix for business, politicians responsibility into economic decision-making in increased by 35,4% between 1994 and 2007 product responsibility), technology promotion, and consumers (see initiative 5). order to build a life-cycle economy and avoid (for more information see Bundesregierung, phase-out of subsidies that increase resource the generation of waste. The Act established a 2008). Thus, the BMU and UBA commissioned use, labelling or market incentive programmes hierarchy of avoidance, recovery, and disposal a research project “Material Efficiency and

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 52 Resource Conservation” in 2007 to analyse re- Initiative 7: Na t i o n a l d i a l o g u e o n s u s t a i n a b l e Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : source efficiency potentials and develop a poli- consumption a n d p r o d u c t i o n National sustainability strategy and progress cy mix for business, politicians and consumers. In 2004 the National dialogue on sustainable reports www.bundesregierung.de/Webs/Breg/ In 2007 the network resource efficiency was consumption and production (SCP) has been EN/Issues/Sustainability/sustainability.html founded and scientifically steered by the re- started as national implementation of the so National Waste Policies: www.bmu.de/english/ search project Material Efficiency and Resource called “Marrakesh process” that frames an waste_management/aktuell/3865.php Conservation (MaRess)”. The Network consists international ten-year framework for sustainable Research project “Material Efficiency and of stakeholders from politics, companies, as- production and consumption. The dialogue Resource Conservation” http://ressourcen. sociations, trade unions, research and society platform aims at an understanding of com- wupperinst.org/en and has been created in order to put Ger- mon targets and innovative approaches that National dialogue on sustainable consumption many’s national economy in the first row in the mobilize SCP potentials of businesses and civil and production (only German) www.dialogproz- economic, gentle and environmental friendly society. ess-konsum.de use of resources by bundling and exchang- ing know-how and experience with resource Specific initiatives Country: Japan protective production, consumption, products, Top down: services, trade and management. Netzwerk Ressourceneffizienz (www.netzwerk- Population : 127,7 million Amount of passenger vehicles: 70,5 million ressourceneffizienz.de), Surface Area :377.930 km² GDP: 33.446 €/capita Initiative 6: Im p l e m e n t Ec o -De s i g n Directive Research project “Material Efficiency and Ecological footprint : 4,3 ha/capita CO2-emission: 10,2 tonnes CO2 eq./capita a n d Gr ee n Pu b l i c Pr o c u r e m e n t , Im p r o v e Bl u e Resource Conservation” (http://ressourcen. An g e l St a n d a r d s wupperinst.org), German Material Efficiency Product related instruments have been devel- Agency (www.demea.de), Blue Angel Label Introduction reuse-recycle) since June 2007 when Japan oped. Since March 2008 the “energy consuming (www.blauer-engel.de), National dialogue A vision of a recycling oriented society has started its strategy ‘Becoming a Leading Envi- products law” - the EU ecodesign directive - is on sustainable consumption and production been developed in 1999 which was backed by ronmental Nation Strategy in the 21st Century implemented in German law. Germany played a (www.dialogprozess-konsum.de), Green public a Fundamental Law for Establishing a Sound - Japan’s Strategy for a Sustainable Society’. major role in promoting the eco design directive. procurement (www.beschaffung-info.de) Material-Cycle Society. In 2003 a Declaration Domestic and international actions are part of It accounts for energy consuming products with of Commitment to Development of an Eco-ori- the strategy to push the 3Rs in order to achieve a great potential to save energy. Producers can Bottom up: ented nation and in 2004 of a virtuous circle for sustainable material cycles. These actions be forced to attach information to their products Many initiatives exist i.e. Baden-Württemberg environment and economy in Japan for 2025 can be divided in four categories: 1. Actions in order to enable consumers to compare the ECO+, Förderverein Kompetenzzentrum Umwelt has been developed. for creating a sound material-cycle society in environmental impacts of products. Labels, such Augsburg-Schwaben e.V., Integrated Product Asia. 2. Upgrade Japan’s 3Rs technologies and as the Blue Angel, and green public procure- Policy (IPP) - Initiative Bayern, Modell Hohen- Initiative 1: 3Rs a n d Ja p a n ’s Sustainability systems. 3. Contribute to mitigating climate ment play an important role in the protection of lohe - Netzwerk betrieblicher Umweltschutz und St r a t e g y change through the 3Rs. 4. Push the 3Rs Initia- resources in Germany, as well. nachhaltiges Wirtschaften e.V., PIUS-Projekt Japan follows the strategy of 3 R (reduce- tive in the G8 process. The strategy thus

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 53 addresses various levels of actions. Japan itself tion materials, food wastes, end-of-life vehicles, energy efficiency rate of the products reached gramme. Information is not publicly available. is addressed but also Asia as a region and the and green purchasing. The fundamental Law becomes standard for all companies in Japan Standards for a wide range of products might G8 on an international level, as well. It is not for Establishing a Sound Material-Cycle Society (the so-called Top Runner). This energy ef- require a great administrative burden. clear yet whether the G20 will also be ad- stresses a utilisation hierarchy starting with ficiency standard has to be reached in a certain dressed in order to promote the 3 Rs initiative. resource reduction, reuse, material recycling, period of time. Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : thermal recycling, and final disposal in a cas- www.japanfs.org/en/ Japan aims at achieving a zero-waste society cading use. The Top Runner programme has been created http://greenz.jp/en/ at home and to cooperate in furthering zero- in 1998 by the Japanese Ministry of Economy, http://www.env.go.jp/recycle/3r/en/approach. waste goals abroad. This is substantiated by Japan took the German ‘Kreislaufwirtschaft’ Trade and Industry (METI). It was part of the html extensive legislation. For instance, Japan has and the European Act on Life Cycle Manage- New Energy Conservation Law with the aim www.meti.go.jp/policy/recycle/main/english/ integrated extended producer responsibility ment as a role model and orientation. Targets to increase energy efficiency in energy-using index.html principles into its legislation to manage wastes for 2010 are: Doubling of Resource productivity products. A policy framework targets 21 prod- and has developed green purchasing pro- relating to 1990, an improvement of the rate of uct groups in the residential, commercial and grams. The 3Rs in Japan include an emphasis reuse and recycling of 10% share in 2000 to transport sectors. These sectors are responsi- on appropriate transboundary movement of 14% in 2010, and an improvement of the final ble for a significant increase of emissions since materials and waste within the region. disposal amount by 75% on a 1990 basis. 1990. Each product category is divided into further subgroups with varying energy efficiency The Ministry of Environment in Japan promotes Initiative 2: Ze r o -w a s t e t a r g e t targets. The following four industries are focus: the 3Rs by working with various organizations Japan aims at achieving a zero-waste society the car industry, the household and office such as the Institute for Global Environmental at home and to cooperate in furthering zero- appliance industry and the ICT industry. One Strategies, policy research, regional strategies, waste goals abroad. This is substantiated by of the features of the Top Runner programme seminars, among others. The Ministry of Trade, extensive legislation. For instance, Japan has is that the supply-side of product markets is Economy, and Industry and the Institute of integrated extended producer responsibility targeted while governmental incentives are not Developing Economies-Japan External Trade principles into its legislation to manage wastes part of the programme. Targets are updated Organization (IDE-JETRO) are other partners. and has developed green purchasing pro- constantly. grams. The 3Rs in Japan include an emphasis The successful implementation of the 3 Rs is on appropriate transboundary movement of The 3Rs Strategy is taken as a role model also reflected in the following laws: The Law materials and waste within the region. and counts as a success. With regards to the for the Promotion of Effective Utilisation of Re- Top Runner programme Japanese stakehold- sources, Waste Managing and Public Cleansing Initiative 3: TOP Ru n n e r p r o g r a m m e ers tend to agree that it has been effective, Law, regulations according to the character- Another crucial programme has been created: as well. Nevertheless data on comprehensive istics of respective items being container and The TOP Runner programme has been devel- quantitative information are still needed in order packaging, home electric appliances, construc- oped in Japan and secures that the highest to assess the success of the TOP Runner pro-

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 54 ments that can be used to change behavior. is big, the main examples are still in an experi- Country: Sweden mental phase. Population : 9.3 million Amount of passenger vehicles: 4,8 million Initiative 2: Gr ee n t a x r ef o r m Surface Area : 441.370 km² GDP: 30.800 €/capita Green taxes, such as CO2 tax, in Sweden date Initiative 4: St r o n g i n v o l v e m e n t o f l o c a l back from 1991. The green tax reform aims to a u t h o r i t i e s w i t h i n v e s t m e n t p r o g r a m s s u c h a s Ecological footprint : 6,07 ha/capita CO2-emission: 7 tonnes CO2 eq./capita redistribute the revenues and to use taxation LIP a n d KLIMP as an instrument to environmental control by Financial public support is, at this moment, Introduction framework design to promote SD and integrat- promoting environmentally sound activities required in order to encourage private par- The promotion of sustainable development (SD) ing all previous environmental regulations. The and choices. The tax envisages households as ties to participate in sustainable development. is considered to assure a healthy and sound code is based on a number of fundamental well as industry. Sweden was among the first Several investment programs where set up environment for present and future generations. principles such as the precautionary principle, countries to install the ‘feebate’ system in a to accommodate this public support in which Policy strongly focuses on changing the behav- polluter pays, product choice, resource man- way to get support from industry for the green- the national government addresses the local iour of citizens and producers. The producer’s agement, appropriate spatial planning, ... ing of tax reform. Revenues were proportionally governments to come up with projects. It is responsibility for waste management and sus- Swedish EPA selected economic instruments returned to businesses that increased efficiency considered that the local community is better tainable use of materials is a key principle. The for the environment to be implemented. In the of the plant. This boosted the innovation and placed to stimulate a change. Local authorities Swedish Parliament expressed 15 quantified report ‘Economic Instruments for Environment’, emission reduction. Another example is the are strongly encouraged to come up with ideas ambitious national environmental objectives for the role of the Swedisch EPA (Natur Vårdsver- Swedish tax on natural aggregates to encour- and execute cases. sustainable development. For most objectives, ket) in relation to public action for environmen- age alternative and recycled materials. it is unlikely that they will be achieved in the tal sustainable management is described as Initiative 5: Lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t s i n v e s t in foreseen time. However, it was a choice to ex- follows: ‘In many cases voluntary efforts are not Initiative 3: Wa s t e c o u n c i l i n s t a l l e d a s a d v i s o r y s u s t a i n a b l e living a n d h o u s i n g press high ambitions and call for a big change sufficient, however, because it will take too long b o d y o f t h e Swe d i s h EPA Several locally sponsored projects are related requiring efforts. The 15 objectives are grouped to attain our objectives. Various environmental There is a waste council installed, consisting of towards energy efficiency and renewable ener- in three action strategies: instruments have therefore been introduced 15 waste management related representatives, gies. The bigger projects are related towards - More efficient energy use and transport; to encourage people to change their behavior acting as an advisory body of the Swedish the development of more sustainable towns in - Non-toxic and resource efficient cyclical and lifestyle, thereby speeding up the transition EPA. The body consists of representatives of which besides energy also the use of construc- systems; towards sustainable development. The tasks the building sector because it is clear that the tion materials and waste management are - Management of land, water and the built of the Swedish EPA include proposing the use building sector can make use of various waste incorporated. Examples are the development environment. of various environmental instruments. This in materials. The metallurgical sector is involved of eco-cities such as Malmö and Hammarby turn involves proposing, analyzing and assess- because this sector traditionally produces Sjostad. Initiative 1: In t e g r a t e d Su s t a i n a b l e De v e l o p - ing economic instruments, but the Agency also high amounts of waste. The main driver is the m e n t Po l i c y uses legislation, information and communica- Swedish government but it highly involves local Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : Environmental regulation is integrated in SD by tion, as well as spatial planning.’ The report authorities as well as the private sector in its http://www.naturvardsverket.se the ‘Environmental code’ in 1999, being the describes an interesting set of economic instru- activities. Although the awareness and interest

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 55 as Cradle to Cradle, ecodesign, and improved grated Product Policy (2003) and the revised EU Country: The Netherlands eco-efficiency are seen as added value to SD Strategy (26 June 2006), in which member Population : 16,6 million Amount of passenger vehicles: 8,6 million deepen and broaden the framework for inte- states were encouraged to develop SPP Action Surface Area : 37.354 km² GDP: 34.500 €/capita grated chain management. The ultimate goal is a Plans, the Dutch government set sharp targets single integrated policy framework for the whole for SPP: 100% by 2012 for national public au- Ecological footprint : 4,39 ha/capita CO2-emission: 13 tonnes CO2 eq./capita material chain. thorities, 75% for towns and 50% for provinces, This shift in concept also could imply that there district water boards, universities and higher Introduction between all member states, which effects will be no third waste management plan, but a education. SPP is both a strong push as well An important driver for waste management competitiveness between companies and materials management plan. as a driver towards the market to develop more was a motion in 1979, which emphasised waste management targets of national gov- sustainable products and services. The Europe- the importance of prevention, reuse, and the ernments Goal for this planning period is to achieve at an Parliament CSR Resolution (13 March 2007) transformation of waste into energy. Where the least 20% reduction in the environmental pres- also asked the EC and all EU governments at interventions from government initially (in the Initiative 1: Na t i o n a l Wa s t e Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n 2 sures generated in seven priority streams and national and local level to take serious efforts 1980’s) were more control driven, they have (LAP) 2009-2021 related to three most dominant aspects of envi- to use the EU Public Procurement Guidelines since moved from reducing waste to reducing The subtitle of this plan, ‘Towards a material ronmental pressures: volume of CO2-emissions, (2004/17 and 2004/18)) as a lever to stimulate the environmental pressures. chain policy’ indicates the direction in which pollution of toxic substances, and land-use. corporate social responsibility (CSR) in business. Since 1997 the Dutch Ministry for Housing, Spa- waste policy is moving. Major successes have The chain approach also calls for different policy In order to create a common ground for the ten- tial Planning and the Environment (VROM) has been achieved with ‘traditional’ waste policy instruments. New partnerships and multi-disci- dering procedures for all public authorities (clarity central responsibility for waste management. (focus on the end stage of the chain) and this plinary platforms are likely to result in the neces- to the market) and use the knowledge of busi- It describes in its National Waste Management will, where possible, be further optimised. sary innovations. An important role for govern- ness on products and innovations, the Dutch Plan 2002-2012 several challenges, e.g.: However, large-scale reduction in environmental ment lies therefore in setting up and creating government has, in a process together with a - Although the end-of-pipe management of pressure in the product chain caused by waste the framework for the process. Possible policy variety of business sectors, developed minimum waste (environmental protection) is quite substances and the depletion of energy sources instruments are: stimulation programmes (e.g. sustainable criteria for 45 product groups, vary- successful, there is still insufficient influence and raw materials cannot be achieved with the ProMT: Environment & Technology Programme), ing from catering, hardware, travel and vehicles, on the amount of waste produced, which is traditional policy and instruments. This would tax breaks (e.g. environmental investment al- to office buildings and interior, cleaning, clothing, still growing. lead to a situation where any further environmen- lowance (MIA) and ‘greening’ the tax system), wood, and construction works. - The cost of waste management is not suf- tal gains would intensify environmental pressure producer responsibility, voluntary agreements, ficiently integrated in the product price; the elsewhere in the chain. others, such as: sustainable procurement, Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : ‘polluter pays’ concept is still limited. ecodesign, and EU SIP and SCP Action Plans. 1 National Waste Management Plan: www.lap2. - Legislation is often too complex to stimulate A real contribution from waste policy to sustain- nl (in Dutch) adequate waste management in companies. ability requires more integrated considerations Initiative 2: Su s t a i n a b l e Pu b l i c Pr o c u r e m e n t 2 SPP: www.senternovem.nl/duurzaaminkopen - Concerning the relationship with the EU of the whole material chain in which the waste (SPP) (in Dutch) level: there is not yet a level playing field substances originate. Different concepts, such Resulting from two main EU initiatives, the Inte-

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 56 BERR-website, …). Several actions where As for 7 of April 2005 (Clean Neighbourhood Country: The UK set up to bridge the 3R gap between UK and and Environment Act), it is a legal requirement Population : 62 million Amount of passenger vehicles: 31,7 million other EU member states. The ‘waste protocols for all construction projects in England to have Surface Area : 242.900 km² GDP: 29.600 €/capita project’ studies the recycling possibilities of the a Smart Waste Management Plan (SWMP) to main types of waste such as biodegradable optimise waste management of building and Ecological footprint : 5,59 ha/capita CO2-emission: 11 tonnes CO2 eq./capita waste, blast furnace slag, construction and construction activities (http://www.smartwaste. demolition waste, marine dredged materials, co.uk/swmp.jsp?id=18). Introduction innovation, by supporting regional and local steel slag, waste incineration bottom ash, .... The UK department for environment and authorities to collect and provide data and info, The quality protocol sets out criteria for the pro- Initiative 3: UK Ag g r e g a t e t a x rural affaires (Defra) launched in 2005 its new to assist in making up regional and local strate- duction of a material out of waste (http://www. The UK aggregate tax came into effect in strategy for sustainable development, ‘Securing gies and plans. environment-agency.gov.uk/business/topics/ 2002. It is targeted at the extraction of sand, the Future’ covering improving environmental waste/32154.aspx). gravel and crushed rock. The tax is levied on all performance of product and services, resource Initiative 1: Ac t i o n s t o r e d u c e l a n d f i l l - p a r - extraction and imports to the UK with the ex- efficiency, sustainable consumption, innovation, ticipation o f l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s a n d c o m p a n i e s Initiative 2: Ro l e o f construction s e c t o r emption of recycled aggregates. The objectives waste reduction and recycling, strong partner- Local authorities and private companies are all The construction sector is in the UK respon- are to adjust for environmental costs of the ships (http://www.defra.gov.uk/sustainable/gov- involved in the process of change in UK. The sible for 120 million tonnes of construction, quarrying operation. The tax is also intended ernment/publications/uk-strategy/index.htm). UK national authority mainly provides resources. demolition and excavation waste a year being to reduce the demand for natural aggregate made a big step forward during the last 5 years The main driver for change is the expected almost 1/3 of all waste in UK. WRAPS initiative and encourage the use of alternative materials coming from a situation in which waste policy increase in costs for landfill including a strong of halving waste to landfill in the construction where possible. All tax revenues are recycled to had a low profile compared to other environ- increase in tax, certainly if the EU targets are sector attracts much attention and seems to the business partly through a newly established mental issues. The EU legislations and in partic- not met. The debate resulted in better data be a real driver for change by directly ad- fund for environmental benefits. The result of ular the landfill directive pushed waste manage- collection/dissemination and more budgets dressing to companies in the sector (http:// the tax is a decrease in raw materials use and ment on the UK agenda requiring a fundamental available for related authorities, research and www.wrap.org.uk/construction/). The building increased recycling. change to the previous practice. Key drivers for investments. In general, much attention is and construction sector it self is an important the changed waste management approach, given to dissemination, education and finan- candidate to accommodate various waste Initiative 4: Ec o -Sc h o o l s described in the different regional action plans, cial support. Several programmes stimulated streams. The MINRES project aims to increase The Government in England wants every are the landfill directive and the waste hierarchy. better waste management. Existing examples knowledge on recycling waste materials in school to be a sustainable school by 2020. Both aim less waste production, more reuse and are related towards improved recovery and/ construction applications. Several cases where The Department for Children, Schools and recycling (3 R). The environment agencies waste or recycling which are covered by for example set to start mainly initiated by the authorities. Families (DCSF) launched their Sustainable and resource management strategy 2010-2015 the waste strategy of England with its focus on The debate around the use of waste in cement Schools Framework in 2006. It is the long term addresses the requirements for more efforts. The resource efficiency, site waste management kilns showed the pragmatism and the interest aspirations for schools to mainstream learn- EA will stimulate resource and waste manage- planning (SWMP) and construction waste strat- in economic viable options for waste treat- ing about sustainable development issues and ment by dissemination, by stimulating egy (SMART waste, BREMAP, MINRES, WRAP, ment ( http://www.smartwaste.co.uk/minres). sustainable practices into everyday school life.

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 57 Eco-Schools is an international award programme that guides schools on their sustainable journey, providing a framework to help embed these principles into the heart of school life. ‘Eco-Schools’ is one of five environmental education programmes run internationally by the Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE).

Fu r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n : http://www.defra.gov.uk http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk http://www.wrap.org.uk/ http://www.smartwaste.co.uk/ http://www.eco-schools.org.uk

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 58 Ch a p t e r 4 – SMM Fu t u r e p o l i c y d i r e c t i o n s

Introduction that outsources the biggest part of resource need for a complementary policy mix. One The policy directions given for each of the extraction required to produce goods for final can refer to the so-called 4E-model, which clusters in Chapter 3, § 3.1.1, are ‘bottom-up’, demand (private and public consumption), thus was developed by the British Department for based on the current concrete developments exceeding a potential self-sufficiency of natural Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) in in markets and society. Many of these cases resource use (ITRE, 2009, p.3)’, these challeng- cooperation with the Sustainable Development and their underlying concepts have potential es should be particularly addressed at EU level. Council (SDC). Although the 4E-model was de- for more mature forms of Sustainable Materials Policy measures at EU level are also necessary signed in the context of the transition towards Management. However, to reach these maturity to avoid fragmenting incentives for products sustainable consumption it can be translated to levels as described in Chapter 3 and drasti- and processes in the Internal Market. Different a SMM context as well. cally increase resource productivity, further kinds of, and sometimes even counterpro- up-scaling is absolutely vital. Furthermore, the ductive, incentives and legislative measures, The starting point for the 4E-model is that shift from eco-efficiency to eco-effectiveness labelling systems, etc., not only prevent a governments, businesses and consumers need and even to eco-sufficiency implies changes at level playing field for business and the neces- to make different choices if we are to achieve system levels. This requires high level political sary stimulation for more SMM in the EU, but the vision of sustainable consumption and support and action as these changes cannot also risk to not address sustainable materials sustainable development. Up to now small vic- be achieved at local levels or by market mecha- management as an integrated concept, where tories have often been obliterated by the sheer nisms and citizens alone. production systems and consumption patterns level of consumption (rebound effects). The This transition towards SMM faces multiple are inextricable linked at all levels of human liv- 4E-model proposes a new approach based challenges and should address both systemic ing, as we have seen in Chapter 2. on research on what really influences the way technological and socio-economic shifts and In order to stimulate and support the further consumers, businesses and the public sector innovations, and the capacity for change of our transition to SMM, several policy directions choose. The model gives greater recognition human behaviour. Changing our habits and be- should be taken at EU level. Starting with the to some of the social and practical factors and haviour takes effort, demands conscious action necessity for a coherent policy mix, four major barriers that influence and limit our choices. It and the need for some type of return. areas for policy interventions at EU level are recognises that a much more pro-active ap- In general there is a need for resource effi- distinguished: proach to change consumer habits is needed, ciency and effectiveness, innovative production 1. Policy Integration beyond market liberalism. Traditional regula- processes, new business models, and shifts 2. Measuring and indicators tion has been a driver of higher environmental in consumption patterns. Large-scale reduc- 3. Research & Development standards and rising levels of social protection. tion in environmental and social pressures in 4. World 2.0 transition Clearly, it will continue to have a role to play. the whole product chain, including depletion The Government’s approach to regulation of energy sources, land-use, and raw materi- The need for a complementary means looking for alternatives to “classic” com- als cannot be achieved with traditional policy policy mix mand and control regulation such as taxes. and instruments. As ‘the EU is the world region As an overarching principle there is a clear Where regulation remains the best option, the

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 59 best results will be delivered when regulations • Impose stringent product and efficiency basis of an overall policy on sustainable ers. Convenience is of paramount importance are focused on outcomes and are backed up norms, which gradually toughen in time; development (see policy integration) to mainstream sustainable behaviour. by clear information and consistent enforce- • Provide a regulatory environment where Engage: ment. While there will continue to be a very ecodesign, EIP’s, PSS-schemes etc. are • Invest in community change projects such 4.1 Policy Integration important role for regulation and enforcement, facilitated or become the default choice; as Transition Towns, Ecoteams, Ecocities, When framing policy integration for SMM one regulation alone will not be able to deliver the • Provide convenient access to collecting, etc.; has to keep in mind the combination of policy changes we want to see. We need to make reuse and recycling centres; • Support deliberative fora developing socially integration and sustainable development (see sure that we are using the levers available in a • Realign national and EU R&D Programmes, robust knowledge; Bornemann 2008). consistent way. stimulating interdisciplinary projects • Invest in trans- and interdisciplinary knowl- Policy integration addresses the problem of The new strategy therefore focuses on the Encourage: edge networks and transition arenas on unexpected and unwanted effects of policies need to enable, encourage and engage people • Make work of an ecological tax reform, tar- local, regional, federal and European level; (external effects) and addresses the insufficient and communities in the move toward sustain- geting the internalisation of all externalities, • Integrate SMM and SCP into education problem solution capacity in terms of com- ability; recognising that Government needs using a combination of taxes, subsidies and programs (cf. DHO Netherlands) (secondary plex problems (e.g. sustainable development). to lead by example. Engagement is not just a quota systems; school, higher education and informal learn- Policy integration is about greater coherence of one-way process of communicating at people • Pay specific attention to unfair competition ing networks) policies, in order to reduce redundancy, policy or relying on conventional ‘above-the-line’ which creates barriers for the widespread • Support all other strategies by changing the gaps and contradictions within and between persuasion. Engagement requires a clear use of (recycled) secondary materials, bio- mindset: raising the topic (e.g. campaigns, policies. Policy integration can take place in two commitment to community action, deliberative logical materials, renewable energy etc. integrate media, support networks), qualifi- ways: as a process of coordinating and blend- processes and involving people in change on • Foster and uncover sustainable material cation (e.g. in schools, vocational training, ing policies into a unified whole or by incorpo- their own terms. The distinguishing feature of management pioneers (e.g. compulsory virtual resource university), visualisation of rating concerns of one policy into another. sustainable consumption policy will be the way labelling of goods: cf A++ refrigerators; cf. successes (e.g. good practices, promote SMM is also part of the wider Sustainable in which it engages with people to create and material efficiency award in Germany) material efficiency award) (see Hennicke & Development agenda, which also focuses on retain its mandate. Exemplify: Kristof 2008) the interdependencies within and between the • Governments and EU should lead by several dimensions (social, ecological, eco- The 4E-model is a framework consisting of four example: Sustainable Public Procurement Policy actions should consider the importance nomic, long-term, generations and place), and main cornerstones to support the development should become the norm (in the areas of of the human factor (including gender-specific demands an integrative approach including of a coherent policy mix, in this case in the building/refurbishment, energy and lighten- differences) in these change processes. Policy ecological, social and economic perspectives, context of a EU SMM policy. ing, IT, transport, electrical appliances, food measures should work, within this policy involvement of several societal actors and rel- and drink etc.); mix, on three elements of human behaviour: evant governmental levels (local to global). Recommendations for the basic • Local governments should invest in green/ motivation, ability and opportunity. Necessary Policy integration for SMM aims at compre- building blocks of a policy mix for sustainable city planning; changes can take place when appropriate hensive control of mutual externalities between SMM: • Consistent pro-active policies on local, (behavioural, e.a.) alternatives in favour of SMM different policies, processes and results. Cur- Enable: regional, federal and European level on the are available to both producers and consum- rently the European Commission focuses on

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 60 a different approach: the EPI (Environmental Tool Box) (ETAP) and national roadmaps and strengthening of existing institutions and Policy Integration) approach, i.e. horizontal - EU Thematic Strategy on waste prevention - EU Programme for clean and competitive mechanisms. There is a need for a cross- integration of environmental issues into sectoral and recycling SMEs departmental European structure, similar to policies (Cardiff process). However, the EPI is - EU Action Plan on SCP and a sustainable - Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) the German Green Cabinet or the Belgian one-dimensional and aims at reducing environ- industrial policy. Link developed SMM Ac- - Revise EMAS regulation which helps Interdepartmental Commission for Sustainable mental impacts of sectoral policies, thus result- tion Plan to SCP Action Plan companies to make more effective use of Development (CIDD), comprising all political de- ing in ecological sectoral policies. Considering - EU Eco-Design Directive: include resource resources. partments and working on implementation and the range, depth and complexity of SMM, efficiency criteria and apply to all products; monitoring of the national sustainable strategy. sectoral policies are bound to fail and fragment include e.g. buildings; establish research C. Set long-term targets. Develop visions At the European level no such institution exists, the chances for a truly sustainable materi- programme on adaption of the Directive to for sustainable future markets, set de- although the EC is responsible for the sustain- als management. Whereas policy integration service-oriented approach manding and binding SMM targets. ability strategy. A cross-departmental European for both sustainable development and SMM, - EU Forestry Strategy The above suggested policy review (also at Green or SD Cabinet could focus on the inte- means integration both horizontally and verti- - EU Strategy for Biofuels other political levels) should be accompanied gration process and strategy development as cally, along the full value life cycle and material by the development of long-term visions, well as monitoring (including collaborating with chain, while aiming at comprehensive control of B. Incorporate: Extend and focus in exist- targets and scenarios for SMM and power- Eurostat, see § 4.2 measuring and indicators). mutual external effects of policies. ing programmes, strategies and incen- ful implementation strategy, and analysis of tives on SMM, for instance review following economic implications. Anticipate and avoid E. Establish global SMM building blocks. Recommendations for policy integration: initiatives: rebound effects (counterproductive volume and Establish a UN Dialogue on SMM, e.g. at the A. Unify: Develop an integrated EU SMM - EU Lisbon Strategy and EU 2020 Strategy: income effects of specific efficiency increases). UN Commission on Sustainable Develop- Strategy that unifies the separate resource review the coming EU 2020 strategy before The combination of efficiency, effectiveness ment, the core institution working on following related strategies and which defines concrete it is formally accepted later in 2010 (using natural loops), and sufficiency strategies topic clusters in 2010/2011: e.g. changing measures in an overall SMM Action plan (incl. - EU Strategy for sustainable development: (adapted to social contexts and circumstances) unsustainable patterns of consumption and monitoring). link the developed SMM Strategy to the is needed. Integration that aims at cross- production, protecting and managing the We therefore recommend to review existing sustainability strategy departmental policy, with time frames beyond natural resource base of economic and social EU strategies and programmes and include - EU Strategy for integrating the environ- legislative periods or market phases, leads to development, means of implementation, and progressive national and business approaches, ment into EU policies: Extend this strategy a reliable and long-term frame for innovations institutional framework for sustainable develop- e.g. as shown in chapter 3. The following exist- through integration of sustainability into EU and investments and to changing consumption ment. Furthermore, link institutions to high-level ing EU strategies should be combined: policies and production patterns towards long-living knowledge platforms (e.g. the International - EU Thematic Strategy on the sustainable - EU Competitiveness and Innovation Frame- products (products as ‘service delivery’, as new World Resource Forum) and foster international use of natural resources work Programme (CIP) solutions to provide the services we need). sector dialogues supported by R&D Pro- - EU Raw Materials Initiative - EU Green Public Procurement: extend to grammes including SMM. - Communication of the European Commis- sustainable public procurement D. Establish strong European institutions. sion on integrated product policy (incl. IPP - EU Environmental Technologies Action Plan Successful implementation needs leadership

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 61 4.2 Measuring and indicators There is a need for urgent action towards able materials and water), land use change and single aggregated indicator, which involves land The mantra ‘You cannot manage (and recog- absolute resource use reduction, or a de- deforestation, extensive energy use, waste and use aspects with resource use and greenhouse nise) what you don’t measure’ is also relevant crease of material input. However, currently the climate change (greenhouse gas emissions).” gas emissions (Wackernagel, 1994). for SMM. Measurement and indicator sets are EU focuses on the analysis of environmental (Burger et al. 2009). crucial as they enable (SERI 2009): impacts and faces a ‘paralysis by analysis’ of Several input-oriented indicators are available: To help achieve amore rapid transition towards • Sound decision-making and monitoring impacts. Within these impacts there is a strong The indicator ‘ecological rucksack’ measures integrated SMM, we therefore recommend the progress. focus on energy and CO2-emissions, but not the invisible material burden (so-called Hidden following steps with respect to indicators: • Setting priorities and taking concrete action. on materials use. There is an urgent need to Flows) or the total input of natural resources Current EU policies often remain on a level perform research on cause-and-effect-chains required by any product or service ‘from the 1. Implement a comprehensive and robust of intention declaration and do not suggest of resource use and impacts. Reducing mate- cradle to the point of sale’. (Schmidt-Bleek resource use indicator set in the EU and concrete steps and action to achieve the rial input automatically reduces impacts. 2004). The indicator MIPS stands for the life- Member States. Therefore check existing proposed objectives. cycle-wide ‘Material Input Per unit of Service’ suggestions for an indicator set: Firstly, the • Avoiding blind spots of monetary indica- Recommendations for set of indicators: and allows to monitor material flows. It measures Sustainable European Resource Institute tors (i.a. many ecosystem services have no Use a set of indicators to measure the resource the material and energy input of a product/ (SERI) developed an indicator set that market, resource scarcities are not reflected intensity and progress towards the reduction service throughout its life-cycle (production of comprises the resource input categories of by markets appropriately) by using physical of absolute resource use in order to implement raw materials, manufacturing, transportation, abiotic and biotic materials, water, and land and qualitative indicators. A life-cycle wide the Factor 10 goal. Directionally safe and robust use, disposal) and measures the decoupling of area and considers greenhouse gas emis- perspective should be applied in order to data are needed, focusing on the material inten- the economy from resource use (Lettenmeier sions and includes both the microlevel (prod- avoid burden shifting to other regions/coun- sity of a product, service, sector or economy, et al. 2009, Ritthoff et al. 2002). On the level uct etc.) and the macrolevel of the economy. tries/between resources. including the so-called hidden flows (products of the total economy, the material use can be Secondly, the completed project PROREGIS • Indicators support clear communication require more natural material than is contained in measured e.g. by the indicator Total Material suggests an indicator set and provides the with target groups (available resources, per their final form). Requirement (incl. imports, used and unused framework for the establishment of a data capita consumption, overshoot/limits) and domestic extraction, associated indirect material base and centre on resource intensity of visualise gaps between current patterns Controlling and managing the economy with flows) (Schütz/Bringezu, 2008). Also water use raw materials, semi-manufactured goods, and envisaged targets. respect to environmental impacts in a system- indicators have been developed such as Water finished products and services. Besides, atic and cost-effective way can happen only Rucksack, Water Footprint, and Virtual Water. it includes qualification of people in using Analysis based on indicator sets allows to at its input side. A comprehensive indicator Output-oriented methods such as Life Cycle As- adequate data for optimising their processes tackle the most urgent impacts, to identify the set should cover the following five main input sessment (LCA) or Carbon Footprints focus on and delivering services. A third project devel- most resource intensive sectors, to measure categories: biotic (renewable) and abiotic (non- the measurement of the environmental impacts ops an indicator set for products, services the impacts of consumption patterns, to renewable) materials, water, land area and air (emissions, depletion of natural resources, and the business level (BRIX – Business Re- quantify resource efficiency potentials and the (OECD, 2007b): “These five categories cover the toxicity, acidification, and eutrophication). The source Intensity Index). The EU should use related costs, and to identify trade related main environmental topics: scarcity of natural Ecological Footprint is another indicator that the outcomes of these studies to develop a burden shifting. resources (non-renewable materials, renew- combines different environmental categories in a robust indicator set (through a stakeholder

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 62 process), to be implemented at EU level. the resources categories according to the water, land use). Further data generation employees in SMEs in the developed indicator set: abiotic and biotic especially at the household level is needed. European craft sector. The campaign 2. Establish one Data Centre where data materials, water, land, air). Topic 1 should Therefore, support a research programme should be commissioned by the national on resource intensity can be inter- present results and knowledge at the on material intensity at household level to SMM Agencies and co-ordinated and moni- nationally harmonised, validated and macrolevel (international comparison, EU, identify resource intensity and consumption tored at the European level e.g. by periodically updated. Therefore, the Member States, sector specific). patterns. Address adaptation of existing the European Green/SD Cabinet. existing resp. planned 10 European Data • TOPIC 2: (Microlevel) should present EU labels towards an integration of SMM Centres should be merged in one Data resource use of products, households, indicators, e.g. the EU Flower Label and EU 7. Reinforce the EU Sustainable Impact Centre, which provides information that is consumers. Organic Label. Provide incentives to imple- Assessment (SIA) with a resource-specific structured along the implemented indica- ment these labels. indicator set for SMM. As a key decision- tor set and extended by the main output 3. Assure a strong statistical link of EU making tool, SIA helps to frame problems, indicators. The European Data Centres shall and Member States statistics to the 5. Support the establishment of national identify policy impacts on all dimensions serve the sustainability policies of the EU indicator set and political SMM targets. SMM agencies. Promote the set up of na- and scope solutions: “Sound analysis is and provide measurements and data. 10 To assure the links between the EU and tional SMM Agencies (similar to the German important in helping to identify the underly- European Data Centres have been or will be Member States (and international link- Material Efficiency Agency) and provide ing trade-offs between economic, envi- established on the following topics: Waste ages) and to restructure the European Data funding for SMM campaigns, knowledge ronmental and social objectives in priority- (already available), Natural Resources, Centres, a European cross-departmental transfer among European stakeholders, setting and policy making for sustainable Products (IPP), Soil, Forestry, Air, Climate collaboration is needed (see §4.1 European incentive programmes, establishment of a development. Such assessments seek to Change, Water, Biodiversity, and Land Use Green/SD Cabinet). The statistical linkage network of qualified consultants. develop information on changing economic, (EUROSTAT 2010). The new Data Centre process should be headed by Eurostat to environmental and social conditions, pres- should provide a basis for SMM measure- guarantee public access to the database, 6. Design and start capacity building sures and responses, and their correlations ment incl. the distance to the target indica- data generation (see next recommendation) campaigns for sector and company with strategy objectives and indicators” tors (that visualise the way to go to achieve and harmonised and transparent methods. level: Promote target group specific (OECD, 2006). A SIA is the most integrated the SMM target), the overshoot of resource information and support e.g. training pro- form of ex-ante assessment and serves limits indicators, scenarios for future de- 4. Develop strong and mandatory mecha- grammes in companies to use statistics and both as a methodological policy instrument velopments while making a link to sustain- nisms for data generation of resource knowledge, e.g. the European project Euro for developing integrated policies which ability policies (incl. social impacts). The intensity at sector and company level. Crafts 21, Vocational Education for Sustain- take full account of the three SD dimen- existing structure of the 10 Environmental Similarly to policy challenges, the data ability in European Craft Sector, a project sions, including cross-cutting, intangible Data Centres currently presents isolated generation of resource use resp. in busi- that supports future-orientated enterprises and long-term considerations, and as a topics. The more integrated structure along nesses and households is a challenge that consider capacity of sustainable man- process for assessing, together with other the established indicator set could be as too. Data could be generated at product agement as a factor of success. The project stakeholders, the likely economic, social follows: level e.g. each time with the application of develops and tests appropriate qualification and environmental effects of policies, stra • TOPIC 1 (Macrolevel): resource use (along product patents (e.g. list of used materials, and consulting possibilities especially for tegies, and action plans before they have

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 63 been formulated (ex-ante). The European and land use) and the related SMM challenges, which, subsequently, less funding is available. creasing attention for sustainable development Commission has one of the most integrated much less efforts are being made. Neverthe- We therefore recommend reserving substan- policies, overall progress towards ecological SIAs. In its ‘Impact Assessment Guidance’, less, a true sustainability approach needs to tially more means for multi-domain, integrative sustainability has been painfully slow. explaining the whole process and proce- focus both on the energy and the materials projects and networks. dures, a large number of criteria are used to policies and in their integration. Future projects Thirdly, at global level, knowledge transfer In order to obtain true ecological sustainability assess policies in the three impact domains in the area of sound SMM progress indica- to developing countries on how to develop - which is considered to be the ‘conditio sine (EC, 2009). However, specific indicators for tors, integrated closed-loop industry systems, their capacity to sustainable materials manage- qua non’ for genuine sustainable development SMM are currently not part of these criteria. understanding drivers of unsustainable con- ment, adequate measuring and monitoring, im- (‘World 2.0’) – far higher levels of absolute sumption patterns and options for behavioural pact assessments, etc. should be established, decoupling are required. Generally speaking, in 8. The suggested actions position the change, etc. are thus essential for the transition also related to the UNEP-led initiatives on SCP. the OECD Countries an absolute reduction of EU as a role model, focusing on how to to SMM and should be subject of future EIT the environmental load of around 90% (“Fac- reduce absolute resource use (see World and EC FP7/FP8 calls, and for EU structural 4.4 World 2.0 tor 10”) is required within the next three to four 2.0) and to institutionalise SMM. The EU Funds and specific SME programmes. As outlined by the EU SCORE! Network (EU decennia. should also take the lead in the develop- FP6), (Tukker et al., 2008), the goal of reducing ment of international, global standards and Secondly, complex and multi-facet problems environmental pressure by consumption and Based on the laws of thermodynamics, harmonisation procedures. In relation to the such as sustainability and SMM issues require production can be reached via three routes: (1) numerous environmental scientists question UN Commission on Sustainable Develop- novel research and educational approaches greening production and products, (2) shifting the possibility of infinite decoupling of environment work in 2010/11 the EU should initiate that focus more explicitly on inter- and transdis- demand to low-impact consumption catego- mental impact from economic growth. One of the set up of an International SMM Data ciplinary networks and settings. However, on ries, and (3) lowering material demands. Since the tense debates in the sustainable develop- Centre and a dialogue about harmonisation the European level (EU FP, COST-Actions etc.) society seems to be adverse to interfere directly ment arena is, therefore, the question if we can of used indicators and measurements. a large part of the funding is still reserved for with consumer choice and markets, it is not continue to base our economy on the growth the traditional single-domain projects focus- surprising that government plans for SCP often paradigm, or that we should in fact also reduce 4.3 Research & Development ing on technology, e.g. ESSEM (Earth System narrow down to the first point under banners consumption (at least in the West). However, A first recommendation can be made in the Science and Environmental Management) or such as ‘dematerialization’, ‘resource pro- any policy maker proposing e.g. a ‘cap’ on area of R&D funding with respect to the ecolog- MPNS (Materials, Physics and Nanosciences). ductivity’ and ‘decoupling’. Indeed, these are consumption levels, probably, would not last ical challenges. The EC has spent ample efforts Within EU COST, for example, all projects not the main focal points of SMM. But history has long. Smart strategies will thus be required to in the area of climate change policies. In order fitting into one of the categories are grouped shown that this strategy alone fails, due to what deal with these ‘metaproblems’. to meet its energy efficiency, renewable energy into a TRANSDOMAIN cluster, which receives has been loosely termed the ‘rebound effect’: The SCORE! Network provides a pragmatic, and CO2 emission targets, the EC is support- relatively few resources. In this way, research the growth of material consumption (which is phased approach to deal with the different ing a number of R&D projects and actions in groups are implicitly steered towards single-do- the basis for continued economic growth in the types (levels) of sustainability problems we are the energy related domains. Energy autonomy main projects, thereby losing the required level present macro-economic model). In practice facing. Analogous to the SMM Maturity Model is – rightfully – high on the agenda. However, of integration. SMM-related problems require only relative decoupling seems to occur in any proposed in the present report, they subdivide in the field of materials autonomy (also water by definition a TRANSDOMAIN approach for meaningful way. In other words, despite in- these problems in (1) the “low hanging fruits”

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 64 which need the immediate implementation of the associated materials managements can be sions, land and water use, creation of social straightforward SMM and SCP policies, (2) organized more effectively in providing quality value, etc. The UK established Carbon Trust “problems where only a rough agreement on of life, showing inspiring examples of alternative Fund may serve as a model. the goals and approaches exist”, which require ways of doing things, are tactics to be pursued. experimentation and novel governance systems While this is achieved, existing beliefs and para- such as transition management (timeframes of digms can be modified from there. 10-20 years) , and (3) “problems that question mainstream beliefs”, including the (biophysical) Recommendations “limits to growth” debate (timeframe of > 20 1. Already existing exercises on EU level, such years). as the “Beyond GDP” and “Redefining Pros- perity” debates should be further explored. The type 3 ‘metaproblems’ are the more difficult 2. More research on developing financially issues to tackle. They really require discussion stable and prosperous alternative macro- of widely held beliefs and paradigms in society. economics models is also urgently required, It concerns informed deliberation on issues with the goal of transitionising the economy such as: “(a) the underlying growth engine in our towards a World 2.0 and achieving the Fac- markets; (b) how and if markets contribute to tor 10 goal. fairness and equity; (c) how consumption sup- 3. To accelerate the transition to World 2.0 and portive to sustainability can be discerned from a fully mature SMM a multi-stakeholder consumption that is destructive for institutions European SMM Transition Platform, and non-market goods providing quality of life; similar to the Flemish ‘Plan C’ (see cluster 10 (d) how to develop novel and dematerialized - Knowledge networks for transitions) can be ways of realizing social aspirations, and how this established. relates to novel business and welfare models; (e) how to maintain a fair power balance in the Last but not least financing the enhance- triangle of business, government and consumer ment of SMM is a critical factor. In order to (e.g. by questioning the role of advertising and address the critical shortage of investment and media)”. It is clear that all these issues pose funding at the stage of pre-commercialisation fundamental questions about the way how our an EU Trust Fund for ‘Eco-innovation’ could be market based economic system functions and set up, which includes SMM and concepts as about the institutions that have been developed C2C, biomimetics, eco-social entrepreneurship, to support it. Gathering credible evidence of etc. The focus shall be on system innovation for how consumption and production systems and SMM, which also includes: low carbon emis-

SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 65 Refe r e n c e s

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SMM for Europe, from efficiency to effectiveness | pag 69 Environment and Resource Policy. BOKU - University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna Grunwald / Kopfmüller (2006), Nachhaltigkeit. Frankfurt/New York Kristof, K., Hennicke, P. (2008): Impulsprogramm Ressourceneffizienz: Innovationen und wirtschaftlicher Modernisierung eine Richtung geben. MaRess-Policy Paper 7.2. Wuppertal Lettenmeier, M., Rohn, H., Liedtke, C., Schmidt-Bleek, F. (2009), Resource productivity in 7 steps:: how to develop eco-innovative products and services and improve their material footprint. Wuppertal Institut, Wuppertal Spezial ; 41, Wuppertal Meijers, E., Stead, D. (2004), Policy integration: what does it mean and how can it be achieved? A multi-disciplinary review. Delft, Netherlands OECD (2006), Good Practices in the National Sustainable Development Strategies of OECD Countries, OECD Horizontal Programme on Sustainable Development, Paris. OECD (ed.) (2007b), Measuring Material Flows and Resource Productivity. The OECD guide. ENV/EPOC/SE(2006)1/REV3, Environment Director- ate. Paris. Persson, Åsa (2004), Environmental Policy Integration: An Introduction. Stockholm. Peters, G. (1998), Managing horizontal government: The politics of coordination. Research Paper No. 21. Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Management Development. Ritthoff, M., Rohn, H., Liedtke, C (2002), Calculating MIPS: Resource Productivity of Products and Services, Wuppertal Spezial no. 27e, Wuppertal Schmidt-Bleek, F. (ed.) (2004), Der ökologische Rucksack: Wirtschaft für eine Zukunft mit Zukunft. Stuttgart SERI (ed.) (2009): A comprehensive set of resource use indicators from the micro to the macro level. SERI Working papers No.9, Vienna, URL: http:/seri.at/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/SERI-Working-Paper-9.pdf Tukker, A. e.a. (2008), System Innovations for Sustainability 1: Perspectives on radical changes to sustainable consumption and production. Greenleaf Publishing, Sheffield Wackernagel, M. (1994), Ecological Footprint and Appropriated Carrying Capacity: A Tool for Planning Toward Sustainability. Ph.D. Thesis. School of Community and Regional Planning. The University of British Columbia. WRR - Scientific Council for Government Policy (2002),Sustainable Development. Administrative Conditions for an Activating Policy [Duurzame ontwikkeling : bestuurlijke voorwaarden voor een mobiliserend beleid]. Reports to the Government No. 62. Sdu, The Hague.

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