Shape Note Singing

Sha�e Note Singing: An American

I am a great-great-grandson of Th omas origins are in the four-syllable solfège system Most important, the musical characteristics Haynes (1837–1904) and Rhoda Davis introduced in the early seventeenth century of the shaped notation itself facilitate music Haynes (1847–1923), whose descendants have to encourage community singing in Ameri- literacy. With respect to the Kodály philoso- carried on the tradition of shape-note and can society. phy, shape-note singing off ers tools to ad- Sacred Harp singing for more than 150 years Although unknown to many modern dress multiple musical, social, and historical (Folkstreams, 2004c). While doing research for music educators, shaped notation is the re- teaching objectives. this article, I discovered that the Woottens, a sult of an inventive solution to the challeng- family inﬂ uential in the Sacred Harp tradition, ing problem of sight-singing, which contin- A Brief History of Shape- are also descendants of the Haynes. Th e singing ues to vex singers and choir directors in the Note Singing legacy of the Woottens’is featured in the docu- twenty-fi rst century. Considering shape-note In the early eighteenth century, many mentary ﬁ lm Sweet Is the Day: A Sacred Harp singing’s composers, related social functions, religious leaders were dissatisfi ed with the Family Portrait (Kellen & Carnes, 2001), musical complexity, and accessibility, it is way congregations were singing hymns. By available online at www.folkstreams.net, with unique among all Western music (Gordon, 1720, there were growing objections to the supporting materials available. In this article, I Barrand, & Crompton, 1995). excessive use of ornaments and embellish- explore the family singing tradition from histori- Unlike some other forms of religious ments and to the general departure from cal, musical, social, and pedagogical perspectives music, shape-note compositions are not the original hymn tunes. Th omas Walter before concluding with practical suggestions for written as the result of church patronage described this situation with unsympathetic Kodály classroom applications. or commissioned by wealthy patrons. In- detail in Th e Grounds and Rules of Musick stead, the music is composed by and for (1721): Shape-note singing is an original style avocational singers who promote cultural of American music, the result of frontier literacy through both the music and the lyr- Once the tunes were sung ac- spirit and pioneer pragmatism applied to ics. Shape-note singing is intended for the cording to the rules of music but singing familiar psalms from the British Isles immediate experience of community sing- are now miserably tortured and (Cobb, 1978). Th is tradition of American ers who share in the joy of singing, not for twisted … For want of exactitude, folk music can also be used to promote mul- highly-trained singers or select performance I have observed in many places tiple principles of the Kodály philosophy, ensembles. Shape-note singing often has one man is upon one note, while including music literacy, cultural literacy, a contrapuntal complexity, yet it is imme- another a note behind, which and the joy of singing. By using this form of diately accessible to untrained singers; it is produces something hideous and notation to augment presentation of solfège harmonically modal, yet not out of reach for beyond expression bad. (cited in syllables, Kodály teachers can introduce avocational singers. Marrocco, 1964, p. 137) their students to an intriguing and historical Founded on a simplifi ed approach to aspect of music notation. Beyond a mere cu- solfège, shape-note singing has developed In Boston, several ministers began riosity, shape-note singing is a unique form over a 200 year period to become a musi- teaching music literacy to their congrega- of traditional notation off ering teachers a cal system with far-reaching, extra-musical tions to promote what they described as variety of historical, social, and religious infl uences. For social and religious reasons, “regular singing,” that is, singing by note connections to the vocal arts. shape-note singing is a remarkable, yet and by rule, instead of “usual singing,” or Shape-note singing takes its name overlooked, development in the history of singing by ear (Keene, 1982). from the use of shaped note-heads. Th ough music education. Singing conventions in A four-note solfège system was in wide- shaped-note systems date from the late eigh- this tradition bring together a community of spread use in Europe and was introduced teenth and early nineteenth centuries, their singers to share a common spiritual context. to the North American colonies by British

10 KODÁLY ENVOY Tra�ition with Kodály Applications

From the Kodály Envoy, fall 2008, vol.35, no. 1. By Daniel C. Johnson Copyright © 2008 OAKE: e Organization of American Kodály Educators. Used with permission. No further use without written permission from OAKE.

immigrants in the early seventeenth century. from English publications and an interest western frontiers. Books such as Davisson’s Based on British choral music of the late in American composers. Between 1816 and Kentucky Harmony (1816), Clayton’s Vir- sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries 1855, several hundred diff erent collections ginia Harmony (1831), Walker’s Southern (Scholten, 1980), this four-note solfège sing- of shape-note music were assembled in Harmony (1835), and Caldwell’s Union ing refl ects the early settlers’ interest in famil- America, while dozens of revisions of Th e Harmony (1837) facilitated the spread of iar music as well as their Protestant religious Easy Instructor were published between 1802 shape-note singing, and enjoyed wide- beliefs. Th is development was based on ear- and 1831 (Lowens & Britton, 1953). By the spread popularity. Th e most widely-used lier practices as fi rst documented in a 1560 middle of the nineteenth century, the music volume, however, was Th e Original Sacred French psalter. Th is practice was also used in of American composers, including William Harp (1844) published by B. F. White and subsequent publications including a 1562 Billings and Jeremiah Ingalls, was common- E. J. King; this text continues to be used English psalter by Sternhold and Hopkins, ly included in shape-note music collections. for shape-note singing conventions today. and in the ninth edition of the Bay Psalm Th e appearance of these volumes served Because the voice was known as the “sacred Book published in 1698 (Mark & Gary, to spread interest in shape-note singing to harp,” shape-note singing is often known as 2007). Shaped-notation was fi rst published Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, western Penn- “Sacred Harp singing” (Gordon, Barrand, in 1798 (also cited with a publication date of sylvania, western Virginia, Indiana, Illinois, & Crompton, 1995, p. xi). Shape-note 1801) by William Little and William Smith and Missouri (Scholten, 1980). singing is a living tradition with ties to the in Th e Easy Instructor. It became known by In an eff ort to discredit the fa-so-la earliest American composers and psalmo- a sobriquet based on the combination of its system, critics such as Th omas Hastings dists such as William Billings (1746–1800), primary syllables: “fa-so-la singing.” referred to shaped notes as “dunce notes” Jeremiah Ingalls (1764–1836), and Daniel William Law fi rst introduced shaped in an 1835 edition of the Musical Magazine Read (1757–1836) (Bealle, 1997; Scholten, notes into singing schools during a religious (Lowens & Britton, 1953). Lowens and 1980). revival known as the “Great Awakening” in Britton speculated that Hastings and others In the 1920s, shape-note singing was the early nineteenth century. Th is began a suff ered from an inferiority complex regard- rediscovered as folk music, and the folk music period when shaped notation had remark- ing any form of American culture in com- revival aided the spread of Sacred Harp singing able infl uence in American music educa- parison to European art and music. at the end of the twentieth century. For a dem- tion (McGregory, 1997). Th e system was By the mid–nineteenth century, choir onstration of contemporary singing instruc- adopted in singing schools throughout New directors in large urban centers had became tion in the Sacred Harp tradition, see the doc- England. Th ese schools involved a travel- the fi rst public school music directors and umentary fi lm Sweet Is the Day: A Sacred Harp ing singing master who taught teenagers or rejected shaped notation, which they re- Family Portrait (Kellen & Carnes, 2001). young adults during the evenings for a pe- garded as quaint, simplistic, and primitive. riod of several weeks. Following their term Furthermore, the itinerant musicians and Musical Characteristics of study, the students presented their newly- teachers were frequently criticized by clas- In one system of shape-note singing acquired skills to the community in “singing sically trained musicians; often the only commonly used by Sacred Harp singers, lectures” or demonstrations and invited the qualifi cations singing masters had were a four diff erent note-heads replace the tradi- experienced singers to join them. Singing knowledge of the music notation and an tional oval note-heads and correspond to schools began in Boston and soon spread enthusiasm for singing. four solfège syllables: fa with a triangle, sol to New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Even after the decline of shape-note with an oval, la with a square, and mi (me) and Pennsylvania as demand increased. In- singing began in the northeastern states in with a diamond. A major scale is divided terest and participation in singing schools the early twentieth century, singing schools into its two tetrachords created with the fi rst combined with a growing independence were popular in the southern states and three syllables plus the fi nal syllable: fa sol

FALL 2008 11 la, fa sol la, mi (me). The series of whole and Singing master Jesse Aiken patented his have a raised sixth degree, placing them in half steps is reflected in the repeated use of seven-shape system, published in his 1846 the Dorian mode. The arrangements them- the first three syllables, as shown in figure 1. tunebook, The Christian Minstrel. Other selves use unrestricted first-inversion chords, volumes using different seven-shape systems parallel octaves, and parallel fifths, suggesting appeared later, including William Walker’s quartal harmony and resulting in more tonal

Christian Harmony and M. L. Swan’s New ambiguity (Scholten, 1980). Harp of Columbia. After Aiken’s system The three categories of shape-note pieces was adopted and published by Ruebush & are plain tunes, fuguing tunes, and anthems. Figure 1. Major Scale in Shapes. (Gordon, Kieffer in 1876, however, his set of syllables The plain tunes are strophic, allowing singers Barrand, & Crompton, 1995, p. xiii) became the standard seven-note system. See to sing as many verses of the hymn as they White Spirituals in the Southern Uplands choose as well as singing any other hymn text Although the use of one syllable for (Jackson, 1965) for more information about with the same meter to the same music. The two different pitches may seem awkward at other seven-shape systems. plain tunes are homophonic settings for three first, shape-note singers usually have little Regardless of the syllable system used, or four voices, most often with the melody difficulty distinguishing the two pitches shaped notes are designed to facilitate sing- in the tenor line. The melody of these pieces fa, sol, la assigned to and because the two ers’ music literacy, because anyone with a was frequently a preexisting folk melody, in- corresponding pitches are separated by the modicum of practice can learn the solfège for strumental piece, or dance tune passed down relatively wide interval of a perfect fourth, any melody quickly, and untrained singers in the oral tradition. In the fuguing tunes, all and because the two pitches have a similar do not need to read the key signature. Fur- four voices usually begin together before sep- harmonic role. thermore, once singers learn their parts, the arating during a contrapuntal section, which To present a more thorough system of syllables become unnecessary. However, sing- is often repeated. The voices are usually sepa- shaped notes, arrangers introduced a system ers will frequently sing the parts on solfège to rated by one full measure and imitate the first of seven shapes in the mid-nineteenth cen- review the lines and to hear the combination entrance until the closing section, when all tury. Because each shape corresponds to a of syllables sung against each other (Schol- four voices sing the final phrase. Anthems are different scale degree, arrangers promoted ten, 1980). Efforts to make the vocal parts through-composed, having different music the seven-shape system as a way to avoid interesting yet accessible encouraged singers’ for each part of the text. potential confusion arising from two pitches participation and promoted their success. begin assigned to the same syllable and shape. For example, in Davisson’s Kentucky Har- Social Contexts and Practices Often termed “do-re-mi” systems, the seven- mony (1816), the cumbersome tenor clef is Making music is a social phenomenon, shape approach had begun to challenge the abandoned in favor of the G clef for all parts and learning music is fundamentally a social “fa-sol-la” notation by the mid–nineteenth except the bass (Oakley, 1978). Davisson achievement (Etzkorn, 1989). The music century, and a rivalry over which system to further simplified some musical concepts in and musical practices of shape-note singing use soon developed among both publishers the introduction to his text, eliminated com- are no exception. The organization, coopera- and singers. Possibly because seven shapes are plicated explanations, and placed the songs tion, and democratic approach of shape- more difficult to remember and decode than in order of increasing difficulty. note conventions situate shape-note singing four shapes, modern shape-note singers use The music in the shape-note tradition in a socially-relevant context shared by sing- the four-shape system more often than any sounds distinctive; it is highly rhythmic, ers participating in making music and find- of the seven-shape systems. Several of these modal, and has open, hollow harmonies. ing meaning in music with other singers. seven-shape systems are shown in figure 2. This open harmony makes use of frequent Choral singing in general is a spiritual open fifths and octaves instead of triads, cre- activity and implies a particular form of com- ating a sound more like Renaissance music munication among believers in a common than that of the Classical or Baroque periods. faith. As articulated in Northern Harmony The music often uses contrapuntal lines in- (Gordon, Barrand, & Crompton, 1995), “this stead of block chords; each of the four lines singing school and shape-note music, with its moves independently, creating frequent dis- resonant musical and poetic language, and its sonances between parts. The music follows fierce and devout expressiveness, is one of the the rhythm and accent patterns of the lyrics, best mediums each of us has yet found for this including melismatic phrases to expressively kind of fellowship” (p. xiii). The themes of highlight the importance of certain words. life, death, grace, and salvation, so prominent The sound of shape-note tunes stems from in the texts of shape-note songs, have power- its origins in folk music. These melodies are ful religious and metaphorical meanings. As often pentatonic or hexatonic, sounding ton- Bealle described in his book Public Worship, Figure 2. Seven-Shape Notation Systems. (Jackson, ally ambiguous and less diatonic. Further- Private Faith (1997), Sacred Harp sings and 1965, p. 337)] more, the minor-like melodies almost always singing conventions were less about a particu-

12 KODÁLY ENVOY lar faith than they were nondenominational religious reasons, some New England sing- of faith. Although many teenagers abandon religious experiences. Bealle wrote, “Together, ing masters and composers were agnostics shape-note singing, they typically remem- singers strive to attain praise of the highest or- or nonbelievers. Instead, they acknowledged ber the rudiments of music literacy and der without confronting or compromising the the social fellowship and musical satisfac- return to participate in shape-note singing ecclesiastical or personal sources of religious tion they enjoyed from community singing as young adults (McGregory, 1997). In faith” (p. xiii). (Gordon, Barrand, & Crompton, 1995). shape-note singing, there are no auditions, Besides the religious function of singing Begun as informal meetings of enthu- and there is no room for soloists. Instead, during worship services, shape-note singing siastic singers, singing conventions evolved the focus is on group participation. The ap- and singing schools played an important into semiformal musical organizations. Dur- proach is joyous, and the goal is to resound role in the culture of nineteenth-century ing the nineteenth century, singing schools with an ancient-sounding joy. American communities (Keene, 1982). and conventions were held for two to four Sacred Harp singing includes elements of week periods in July and August. Known as Kodály Connections democracy in its participatory tradition. “lay-by time,” these months were the time The Kodály philosophy, founded on For example, any singer is allowed to lead when the crops were planted but not ready principles of music literacy, folk music, and a song, and all the songs are first sung for harvest, and reflected the values of agrar- a cappella singing, shares many fundamen- through with syllables to acquaint all sing- ian Southern society (Scholten, 1980). In tals with shape-note singing. By highlight- ers with the melodic line before adding the the twentieth century, hundreds of singing ing these common areas of interest, Kodály lyrics. As such, singing conventions are the conventions were held annually, attracting educators can borrow elements of shape- only unbroken link with the music of the thousands of singers. A majority of partici- note singing for use in their classrooms New England singing masters, providing a pants used the four-shape system, while oth- and community choirs. Especially with the unique insight into the spirit of early Ameri- ers preferred the seven-shape system. This relatively recent decline in recreational sing- can psalmody. Another aspect of musical form of traditional singing continues into ing (Elliott, 1990), shape-note singing offers democracy in action was the freedom musi- the twenty-first century as well. unique advantages to address multiple musicians enjoyed to write their own shape-note These gatherings lasted from one to cal, social, and literacy issues. music; new and original composition has three days and were as much social gather- The musical advantages of shape-note been a part of this tradition since its incep- ings as they were musical experiences. At the singing in Kodály-based instruction in- tion (McGregory, 1997). conventions, opening and closing prayers clude facilitating music literacy, enhancing Singing conventions were also major as well as grace were sung. Participants fre- student participation, and highlighting a community activities and served many other quently brought a variety of baked goods cappella singing. Through the use of its functions, especially in rural areas, such as to share as another expression of fellowship simplified solfège system and uniquely to honor a prominent singer or composer and community. With home-made apple shaped note-heads, shape-note singing in the community or a particular holiday pie, dressing, coleslaw, dumplings, deviled offers students a direct and practical ap- such as May Day or just to gather on a eggs, Swiss chocolate cake, and other dishes proach to two challenges facing musicians regular basis (McGregory, 1997). People (Folkstreams, 2004a), the atmosphere at and music educators for centuries: music would gather for information, for political a singing convention was like a family literacy and sight-singing. purposes, and for religious fellowship. Apart reunion; indeed, at many Sacred Harp con- The effectiveness of shaped notes has from the obvious religious connotations ventions, families gathered annually to sing been studied with positive results by Kyme that hymns imply to Sacred Harp singing, and be with each other. (1960) who compared the effect of using there were communal connections among In singing conventions, singers sit in numbers, traditional solfège, and shaped people of different denominations within sections by voice type, facing inward toward notation on fifth-grade students’ music the Christian community of singers. the leader. This configuration, known as a literacy skills. He found shaped notation The music of colonial New England “hollow square,” emphasizes that the singing was significantly more effective than either and later southern Appalachia was built is for the singers, not for an audience, mak- of the other two approaches and concluded on shared social values. For example, Ste- ing the experience of singing communal and that, “one can justify the use of this [shape- phen Levine, a Jewish singer, participated socially cooperative. As one singer reported note] notational system even in those situa- in shape-note singing of Christian odes at a singing convention, shape-note singing tions where the teacher is committed to one and anthems. In a 1996 interview, Levine is an antidote for the “it-must-be-perfect” or another ‘system’ of teaching music read- reported that he appreciated “shape note’s approach to performance; it is a way to invite ing” (Kyme, 1960, p. 8). Twenty years after old-time values of simplicity, neighborly and facilitate singing that is enthusiastic, un- Kyme’s experimental study, Scholten (1980) concern, and egalitarianism,” as well as its rehearsed, and unapologetic (Smith, 1996). concluded that “the shape-note system attention to the social importance of singing In the twenty-first century, shape-note still remains a viable, practical method for and its religious overtones (Smith, 1996). singing continues to be practiced as an in- teaching vocal music reading skills” (p. 37). While many of the singers in early New tergenerational activity, uniting young and While Kyme’s research is promising, replica- England gravitated to shape-note singing for old singers alike in a common celebration tion of his study is needed to substantiate

FALL 2008 13 the viability of using shape-note singing in necting the impact of singing to its underly- • By reading and critiquing the introduc- everyday classroom instruction. ing spiritual messages. For upper elementary tory explanations of the musical rudi- With respect to cultural literacy, through high school students, teachers are ments in shape-note tunebooks, stu- shape-note singing offers Kodály educators encouraged to consider the following sugges- dents could demonstrate their under- a uniquely American application of music tions and to determine how they might prove standing of these terms and concepts. with historical importance over the past 200 useful in their classrooms. Although some • By experiencing shape-note music in years. Centered on its religious references, students would need careful explanations so both performance and notation, they the cultural literacy conveyed by shape- as not to be confused by the shaped note- could broaden their understanding note singing includes lessons of democracy, heads, many more students could benefit of music literacy skills from another egalitarianism, and Protestant spirituality. from an introduction to and guided experi- perspective. The influence of democracy was instilled in ences with shape-note singing to improve • By inventing their own notational the early practices of shape-note singing and sight-singing skills, as recommended below. system, they could think creatively continues in the traditions of Sacred Harp The most obvious use of shaped notes about the challenging task of repre- singing today. Combining the egalitarian is to show students how the shapes cor- senting music (essentially an aural spirit of neighborly concern and Protestant respond to the solfège syllables in notation experience) on paper. religious values, the shape-note singing and performance. Lesson plans could address • By using and comparing alternative community expresses community, tolerance, goals linked to the National Standards for shape-note systems, students could and self-reliance. The appreciation of these Music Education 1: Singing a varied reper- think critically about the relative util- democratic, egalitarian, and spiritual values toire of music and 5: Reading and notating ity of each system and suggest ideas for can enhance students’ understanding of con- music (Consortium of National Arts Educa- modifications. temporary culture and give them a historical tion Associations, 1994). For this purpose, and artistic context for this unique form of one of the seven-shape systems shown in Linking the mechanics of singing and American folk music. figure 2 above might be the most practical music literacy to their historical roots offers In addition, the instructional focus of to improve sight-singing skills. For upper teachers another way to use shape-note sing- shape-note singing encourages participa- elementary and middle school students, ing in their classroom. Lesson plans could tion by all in an unaccompanied setting. teachers might limit their presentation of address goals linked to National Standard America was once known as a singing na- shaped notes to a limited selection of syl- 9: Understanding music in relation to his- tion. In fact, the first book printed in the lables, perhaps gradually expanding from tory and culture. Perhaps by collaborating English colonies of North America was the three syllables through the pentatonic or with a social studies teacher or developing Bay Psalm Book in 1640 (Elliott, 1990). In diatonic scales. For high school students, a unit on early American history, middle the intervening 350 years, vocal music in teachers might present both four and seven- and high school music teachers could put communities has declined. Elliott reported shape systems or several seven-shape systems shaped notes into perspective. Students that although group singing was the primary as shown in figures 1 and 2 above. Students could then better understand ways of notat- activity in American public music educa- could then compare and contrast each sys- ing and learning music as practiced in the tion for more than 100 years, America as a tem, or perhaps devise their own systems of eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. More nation does not celebrate its national heri- shaped notation. Such an approach would information about shape-note singing and its tage in song and has become “a nation of provide an outlet for creative thinking by history is available from a variety of online nonsingers” (1990, p. 25). Using elements using invented notation. As Campbell and and print resources, such as Folkstreams at of shape-note singing may provide Kodály Scott-Kassner advocate in Music in Child- www.folkstreams.net/context,58 and the teachers with another tool for enhancing hood (2006), children should be encouraged Sacred Harp Musical Heritage Association at student participation and music literacy to devise personal notational systems so that http://fasola.org. Another application of this through unaccompanied singing. they can develop their own music literacy idea is to map the use of shaped notes in the skills. By using shaped notes as an example United States over time, tracing the changes Classroom Applications of nonstandard music notation, teachers in its popularity and usage by location from Although music education curricula can spark more interest in traditional nota- colonial New England through the modern are frequently demanding, teachers can use tion and perhaps lead students to a more southern states. Teachers interested in these shape-note singing as a tool to address several complete understanding of music notation and related ideas could use one of two docu- educational aims in their classrooms. Among in general. Printed music is available from mentary films as resources. They are Awake those goals are three ideas consistent with the several shape-note tunebooks including The My Soul (available from http://awakemysoul. Kodály philosophy as described in this sec- Sacred Harp (McGraw, 1991) and Northern com) and Sweet Is the Day: A Sacred Harp tion: learning and using the solfège syllables Harmony (Gordon et al., 1995). Family Portrait (available from Folkstreams). in a more graphic format to improve sight- Some specific ideas teachers could use In addition to the solfège content and singing skills, understanding American music to incorporate shape-note singing in their historical developments, shape-note sing- education in its historical context, and con- classes are listed below: ing offers teachers a way to teach children

14 KODÁLY ENVOY nondenominational spiritual messages iveté. Nonetheless, enclaves of shape-note trieved January 2, 2008, from www.folkstreams. and moral lessons. Lesson plans could ad- singing exist, especially with affiliations to net/context,64. dress goals linked to National Standard 8: Sacred Harp conventions throughout the Folkstreams. (2004c). The Wootten family. Retrieved January 2, 2008, from www.folk- Understanding the relationships between southeastern United States. streams.net/context,61. music, the other arts, and disciplines out- Shape-note singing developed from its Gordon, L., Barrand, A. G., & Crompton, side the arts. Without the trappings of a inception in colonial New England where C. M. (Eds.) (1995). Northern Harmony. Plain- particular faith, shape-note singing often singing schools held great social and reli- field, VT: Northern Harmony Publishing. Jackson, G. P. (1965). White spirituals in the has poignant and spiritually-based texts gious importance (Keene, 1982). Combin- southern uplands. New York: Dover. worthy of reflection. These provide ways ing the practical system of fa-so-la solmiza- Keene, J. A. (1982). A history of music edu- teachers can develop students’ overall sense tion, shape-note singing grew to become a cation in the United States. Hanover, NH: Uni- of spirituality. Lyrics of many shape-note widespread movement of passionate Sacred versity Press of New Hampshire. songs offer opportunities to explore meta- Harp singers promoting four-part harmoni- Kellen, E. (Producer), & Carnes, J. (Direc- tor). (2001). Sweet Is the Day [Motion picture]. phor and spirituality while avoiding teach- zation with social cooperation and religious (Available from The Alabama Folklife Association, ing religion directly. For example, the lyrics fellowship. The lyrics promote a spirit of 410 N. Hull Street, Montgomery, AL 36104). for “Evening Shade” from The Sacred Harp egalitarianism, simplicity, and neighborly Kyme, G. H. (1960). An experiment in (McGraw, 1991) make reference to death concern among the singers. Current singing teaching children to read music with shape notes. as the passing from day to night: conventions across the country reinforce Journal of Research in Music Education, 8(1), 3–8. Lewis, J. (2000). Spiritual education as the music literacy and community spirit by cultivation of qualities of the heart and mind. The day is past and gone, removing obstacles to participation in a Oxford Review of Education, 2(2) 263–283. The ev’ning shades appear; socially and religiously based celebration of Lowens, I., & Britton, A. P. (1953). “The O may we all remember well, music for all to sing. Easy Instructor” (1798–1831): A history and bib- O may we all remember well, Especially combined with the Kodály liography of the first shape note tune book. Jour- nal of Research in Music Education, (1), 30–55. O may we all remember well, philosophy, shape-note singing offers con- Mark, M. & Gary, C. (1997). A History The night of death is near. temporary music educators a promising tool of Music Education, 3rd edition. Reston, VA: not only for teaching students sight-singing MENC / Rowman & Littlefield Education. From a holistic perspective, such edu- skills but also for promoting a cappella sing- Marrocco, W. T. (1964). The notation in cational goals cut across all areas of the cur- ing and encouraging participation. Shape- American sacred music collections. Acta Musico- logica, 36(2/3), 136–142. riculum and are important to developing note singing remains a unique and engaging McGraw, H., Ed. (1991). The Sacred Harp. “qualities of the heart and mind” (Lewis, vehicle to encourage singing in America Bremen, GA: Sacred Harp Publishing. 2000, p. 263). For more classroom applica- today, a timely reminder suggesting the im- McGregory, J. (1997). Wiregrass country. tions, see the Teacher’s Guide for the docu- portance of unifying social and pedagogical Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi. mentary film Sweet Is the Day (Folkstreams, goals in music education. Oakley, D. L. (1978). American tune book compilations using shaped-note systems, 2004b) posted online at www.folkstreams 1801–1860, a forerunner of American music .net/context,64, including links to standards References education. Missouri Journal of Research in Music and benchmarks for K–12 education. By Bealle, J. (1997). Public worship, private Education 4(2), 51–103. considering curricular links to music lit- faith: Sacred Harp and American folksong. Athens, Scholten, J. W. (1980). The tunebook that GA: University of Georgia Press. eracy, historical context, moral reflection, roars: The sound and style of Sacred Harp singing. Campbell, P. S., & Scott-Kassner, C. Music Educators Journal, 66(6), 32–37, 74–77. and other ideas, teachers can develop their (2006). Music in childhood. Stamford, CT: Smith, S. (Host). (1996, December). own lesson plans and decide how to use Schirmer. Minnesota Public Radio [Radio broadcast]. St. shape-note singing to further their existing Cobb, B. E. (1978). The Sacred Harp: A Paul, MN: Minnesota Public Radio. Retrieved curricular goals. tradition and its music. Athens, GA: University of January 2, 2008, from http://news.minnesota. Georgia Press. publicradio.org/features/199612/01_smiths_ Consortium of National Arts Education As- shapenote. Shape-Note Singing Unifies sociations. (1994). The national standards for arts Social and Pedagogical Goals education. Reston, VA: MENC. Daniel C. Johnson is assistant chair of the In summary, shape-note singing is a Elliott, C. A. (1990). Singing in America: department of music, the University of North Reviving a tradition. Music Educators Journal, unique form of folk music, focused on a 76 (5): 24–27. Carolina at Wilmington. A multi-instrumen- cappella singing, encouraging participation Etzkorn, K. P. (1989). Preface. In P. talist with over 15 years of teaching experience, by all, and facilitating music literacy. The Honigsheim (Ed.), Sociologist and music: An in- his Kodály training includes numerous work- social and cultural climate of the twenty- troduction to the study of music and society through shops and seminars sponsored by the Organiza- first century may provide reasons for the the later works of Paul Honigsheim (pp. xii–xvi). tion of American Kodály Educators, the New New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. decline in shape-note singing cited by Folkstreams. (2004a). Sweet is the Day tran- England Conservatory of Music, the University McGraw (1991) and others. Some shape- script. Retrieved January 2, 2008, from www. of Arizona, and the American Orff-Schulwerk note singers attribute its lack of popularity folkstreams.net/context,91. Association. He can be reached at johnsond@ to an image of country simplicity and na- Folkstreams. (2004b). Teacher’s guide. Re- uncw.edu.

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