2020 AFS Proceedings of the 124th Metalcasting Congress Paper 2020-021 (5 pages)

The Underutilized Competitive Advantage: Benefiting from Life Cycle Analyses

Jeremy Lipshaw Independent Author, Ferndale, MI, USA

Copyright 2020 American Society

ABSTRACT to be used within the regulatory environment. The European Commission calls lifecycle thinking “the best The industry has an opportunity to leverage the framework for assessing the potential environmental inherent strengths of its product into a competitive impacts of products, process, and systems.”4 Moreover, advantage by embracing sustainability assessments based the EU already has existing legislation directly based on on Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). While classical vehicle LCA which requires the calculation of life cycle GHG sustainability metrics primarily consider how materials emissions of biofuels.5 Within the US, California has affect fuel economy via lightweighting, LCA accounts for adopted a successful, LCA-based policy: Low Carbon the entire lifecycle of the material or product, including Fuel Standard.3 Furthermore, many solutions for industry the production, use, and end-of-life. Due to ’ to adapt to LCA already exist, such as open-source LCA recyclability and lower embodied energy, castings have software and models.6 the potential to be more sustainable in this framework. However, the casting industry is underprepared to The spread of LCA through regulatory programs indicates compete in LCA-based evaluations. There is a significant that similar approaches may become the preferred shortage of LCA literature for castings compared to other calculation method for limiting GHG emissions. material processes. Furthermore, the well-documented Researchers at the Institute of Environmental Technology and inaccurate “perception problem” within industry (that in Berlin have already drafted many different process castings are heavy and outdated) discourages researchers options to adopt LCA into governmental policy, including from considering this line of study. This paper those based on ISO 14040/44 standards.7 The only recommends that the Metalcasting Industry sponsor remaining question is whether the castings industry is casting Life Cycle Analyses and support LCA-based ready for this regulatory environment. sustainability metrics. CASTINGS AND LIFE CYCLE ANALYSES Keywords: Life Cycle Analysis (LCA), metalcasting, sustainability, fuel economy An extensive literature review discovered only a limited number of casting-related LCAs that included the use- INTRODUCTION phase. Rather, most of the literature focused on the energy and costs during production and recycling.8–16 This The transport sector is currently responsible for included two Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) databases for 17 18 approximately 23% of global energy-related CO2 cast aluminum and cast magnesium , respectively, that emissions and is expected to increase at a faster rate than provided production and recycling inputs which can aid other energy end-use sectors.1 To mitigate this impact, future LCAs containing all major phases. automobile fuel economy regulations such as EPA’s Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards have While production and end-of-life impacts can inform been adopted. While effective at improving fuel producer decisions, automotive suppliers evaluating new economy,2 these automotive regulations are limited to materials will be looking for the entire lifecycle story as it only reducing the CO2 and other greenhouse gas (GHG) is misleading to only report the production and end-of-life emissions from the tailpipe. Consequently, these phases. In one example, 79% of total lifecycle GHG regulations ignore the GHG emissions due to producing emissions of the VW Golf VII vehicle (driving 20,000 km the components within the automobile and the recycling or 12,400 miles yearly) comes from the use-phase.19 Even or other end-of-life impacts which can lead to an with LCI databases available for two major casting unintended increase in GHG emissions over the life of a materials, only three studies were found that included all vehicle.3 three production, use, and end-of-life phases for cast components: Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) is a relatively new discipline that incorporates all major phases—production, use, and • “Primary Manufacturing, Engine Production and on- recycling/end-of life—of a product or a process lifecycle the-road CO2: How can the Automotive Industry Best to calculate total impacts. LCA is quickly becoming a key Contribute to Environmental Sustainability?” 38th tool for academics, industry analysts, and has even started

Page 1 of 5 2020 AFS Proceedings of the 124th Metalcasting Congress Paper 2020-021 (5 pages)

International Vienna Motor Symposium (April 2017).20 • Jhaveri et al., “Life cycle assessment of thin-wall ductile cast iron for automotive lightweighting applications,” Sustainable Materials and Technologies, Vol. 15, pp. 1–8 (2018).21 • Simone Ehrenberger, “Life Cycle Assessment of Magnesium Components in Vehicle Construction” The International Magnesium Association (May 2013).18

This list is almost certainly non-exhaustive, but it clearly displays the lack of research into this topic for castings. Fig 1. Advanced high strength steel (AHSS) has a net Furthermore, the scope of LCA work into castings is decrease of GHG emissions compared to aluminum limited: all three studies only compare to other casting sheet when subsituting for mild steel (Artwork processes and do not compare to other material processes. courtesy of Steel Recylcing Institute).25 The first compares cast iron to various aluminum casting methods, the second study compares thin-walled ductile iron to conventional cast iron and cast aluminum, and the THE UNDERUTILIZED COMPETITIVE third compares cast aluminum to cast magnesium. ADVANTAGE

In contrast, wrought materials have LCAs that are so Despite the lack of LCA research into castings, there are readily available that, in one 2013 review, five several plausible reasons why castings may have a lower independent LCA studies were harmonized to a common life cycle energy and GHG impact than other forms of set of parameters.22 Other industrial organizations such as processing. World Auto Steel and the Steel Recycling Institute sponsor and promote so many LCA studies that they even tout their LCA research on the banner of their website.23 And these studies are persuasive.

In a Steel Recycling Institute paper, researchers used a consequential life cycle analysis (CLCA) model to analyze the cumulative GHG emissions over time by substituting wrought aluminum and advanced high strength steel (AHSS) for mild steel. CLCAs more accurately account for recycling by maintaining an open- loop model that repeatedly feeds itself with marginal material and economic data relationships.24 After discussing the model parameters (beyond the scope of this report), an optimization script is run, outputting the result25 illustrated in Figure 1.

While a baseline result, it is extraordinarily convincing that, within this assessment, advanced high strength steel would not only be more sustainable than wrought Fig. 2. Castings have less embodied energy per unit aluminum, but it would also start decreasing net GHG of mass than other processes using the same base emissions by using less material versus mild steel. material (Artwork Courtesy of John Keough).26

In the production phase, castings have a lower embodied energy per kilogram than other processes using the same material26 (Figure 2). This is most likely since castings are the shortest path from raw materials to a finished product. As a caveat, while embodied energy is not equivalent to GHG emissions over a product’s full life cycle, it is a significant component of life cycle emissions. Consequently, with a decrease in embodied energy, there will also be an associated decrease in GHG emissions over the full life cycle of the product. This lack of

Page 2 of 5 2020 AFS Proceedings of the 124th Metalcasting Congress Paper 2020-021 (5 pages) complete LCA data also accentuates the need for formal studies on the matter.

During the use-phase, the largest influence on fuel consumption, and therefore energy and GHG emissions, is vehicle weight27. Since metalcasting is a near net-shape process that can minimize the amount of , finishing, and number of parts per component, castings provide excellent opportunity for lightweighting. In fact, Metal Casting Design & Purchasing (now published by the American Foundry Society as Casting Source) reports almost every month that conversions from a forging or weldment to a casting can exhibit cost and mass savings. In the article,“3 Ways Vehicles Are Reducing Weight,”28 the magazine highlighted 19.4 pounds of mass savings and part number consolidation by converting a steel stamping to a magnesium casting (Figure 3) and 20% Fig. 4. Automotive mirror reinforcement bracket weight savings and part number consolidation by casting conversion from an aluminum assembly to an aluminum casting reduces the part-count from 5 to 1 converting from an aluminum stamped assembly to an and the weight by 20% (Artwork courtesy of Metal aluminum casting (Figure 4). The part number Casting Design and Purchasing).28 consolidation may translate to cost-savings and the mass savings will translate to a reduction of GHG emissions in Castings hold great promise to be more sustainable than the use-phase. the other processes for the same base material. Even when lightweighting is not feasible, due to castings’ edge in production and recyclability, there may still be a net savings in energy and GHG emissions while simultaneously providing a low-cost solution for automotive suppliers. Ultimately, in an LCA-focused regulatory environment, the casting industry could reasonably argue that their product is the most sustainable, yielding an economic competitive advantage.

THE METALCASTING INDUSTRY AND LIFE CYCLE ANALYSES

Castings have a well-documented “perception problem” that casting products tend to be heavier than their competition or that the technology is outdated. At the Fig. 3. Automotive side door casting conversion from 2018 Keith Millis Symposium, Dawson wrote that the a steel stamping to a magnesium casting reduces the cast iron foundry industry just needs “to get better at part-count from 7 to 2 and the weight by 19.4 lbs telling our story.”31 This was repeated in Stefanescu’s (Artwork courtesy of Metal Casting Design & 32 28 2019 Hoyt lecture. This problem does not only affect the ePurchasing). sale of castings, it also discourages future development and research by interested scientists. Due to this As scrap metal accumulates from different metal perception, there exists a very-limited amount of literature processing streams, chemical impurities in the scrap regarding the life cycle impact of castings. In fact, during become more concentrated. Due to the high-purity the research for this paper, this author interviewed one material specifications for wrought metals, they cannot leading LCA researcher who was shocked to learn that use a significant amount of scrap material for castings were not dying out. production.29 This specification is not as strong for cast components. For instance, wrought aluminum can be By taking a similar approach to LCA as other industrial recycled into cast aluminum components, but the reverse organizations like World Auto Steel, the metalcasting is unlikely.30 Recent literature suggests that the baseline industry has an opportunity to fix this perception problem secondary content values for wrought aluminum are 0% 24 by establishing itself as a leader in the transparent release while they are 85% for cast aluminum. Similarly, of lifecycle data and by influencing the messaging around baseline secondary content for flat, long, and cast steel are its release. As noted in the previous section, there is 5%, 85%, and 100%, respectively.24 Since castings are already ample data available regarding metalcasting inherently more recyclable, the energy and GHG production and recycling. However, without thorough emissions in the end-of-life phase will also be lower. LCA research utilizing said data, the industry cannot

Page 3 of 5 2020 AFS Proceedings of the 124th Metalcasting Congress Paper 2020-021 (5 pages)

scientifically prove whether castings are more sustainable REFERENCES in the context of its entire lifecycle when compared to other material processes. 1. Sims et al., “Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of climate change. Contribution of Working Group III But the “perception problem” may go beyond the lack of to the Fifth Assessment Report of the LCA research. Modern Casting suggests that “…80% of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,” Edited US metalcasters report a talent shortage in the industry— by Edenhofer et al, Cambridge University Press from production, maintenance, and technician positions, (2014). to machinists, electricians, patternmakers, and foundry 2. Union of Concerned Scientists, “Fuel Economy engineers.”33 While the talent shortage can be partially Standards for Cars and Trucks, Model Years 2017 to explained by a strong job market, it may also be 2025,” Union of Concerned Scientists, explained via the “perception problem,” metalcasting https://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/attach/2016 may simply not be the young professional’s first choice. /06/Fuel-Economy-Standards-2017-2025- summary.pdf, (2016). In the Ductile Iron Society presentation titled “Best 3. Geyer, R., “Taking a Life Cycle Approach to Practices for Hiring Millennials in the Metalcasting Automotive Environmental Policy,” World Auto Industry,” studies showcased that employers should Steel, provide a way for the millennial to feel that they are http://www.worldautosteel.org/download_files/UCS positively affecting the world.34 It is safe to say that when B/Briefings_All_LCAInVehicleRegulations_201709. 70% of Americans aged 18–34, which includes both pdf, (2017). millennials and generation Z, are worried a great deal or a 4. European Commission, “European Platform on Life fair amount about global warming,35 they are also greatly Cycle Assessment (LCA),” European Commission, concerned about sustainability. Therefore, by providing https://ec.europa.eu/environment/ipp/lca.htm. evidence that castings are on the forefront of 5. Finkbeiner, M., “How is LCA Already Applied in sustainability, the misconception that castings are Legislation,” World Auto Steel, outdated can be broken and the available pool of http://www.worldautosteel.org/download_files/UCS passionate, young employees can be broadened. B/Briefings_All_LCAInVehicleRegulations_201709. pdf, (2017). CONCLUSION 6. OpenLCA, GreenDelta, http://www.openlca.org/. 7. Lehmann et al., “Life Cycle Based CO2 Emission It is in the casting manufacturer’s best economic, social, Credits,” Journal of Industrial Ecology, Vol. 22, and environmental interest to start concentrating on and Number 5, Institute of Environmental Technology, promoting LCAs. Production and recycling data are Berlin, Germany (2017). currently available to assist in the creation of LCAs and it 8. Cecchel et al., “Cradle-to-Gate Impact Assessment of is very likely that the results will showcase an LCA a High-Pressure Die-Casting Safety-Relevant advantage for castings compared to other forms of Automotive Component,” TMS, Vol. 68, No. 9 material processes. With the research on hand, castings (2016). producers would have the opportunity to get in front of 9. Yilmaz et al., “LCA as a decision support tool for the messaging, to tell a story of sustainability, to have a evaluation of best available techniques (BATs) for strong voice in the creation of future regulatory standards, cleaner production of iron casting,” Journal of and to attract new employees and researchers. Cleaner Production, Vol. 105, pp. 337–347 (2015). 10. Bekker et al., “Life cycle assessment of wire + arc ABOUT THE AUTHOR additive manufacturing compared to green and CNC milling in stainless steel,” Journal For full transparency, while the author is currently of Cleaner Production, Vol. 177, pp. 438–447 employed at Applied Process and was previously (2018). employed at Joyworks Studio, this paper was researched 11. Neto et al., “Modelling the environmental impact of independently of both of those organizations. Thus, the an aluminum pressure plant and options author decided that the “independent author” label would for control,” Environmental Modelling & Software, be the most accurate description of this work. Vol. 23, pp. 147–168 (2008). 12. Olmez et al., “The environmental impacts of iron and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS steel industry: a life cycle assessment study,” Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 130, pp. 195–201 The author would like to thank the following individuals (2016). who have greatly assisted this paper: Dr. Colin Murphy at 13. Singh et al., “Energy Conservation in ,” UC Davis, Julia Worcester and Shreya Durvasula from AFS Transactions, Vol. 107, pp, 277-282 (1999). the Union of Concerned Scientists, and Dr. Roland Geyer 14. LaFay et al., “Foundry of the Future: at UC Santa Barbara. Recommendations to Improve Environmental and

Page 4 of 5 2020 AFS Proceedings of the 124th Metalcasting Congress Paper 2020-021 (5 pages)

Energy Concerns in Sand Foundries,” AFS 29. Rigamonti et al., “Recycling processes and quality of Transactions, Vol. 115, pp. 977-989 (2007). secondary materials: Food for thought for waste- 15. Gigante, “How can we Become a Practical Green management-oriented life cycle assessment studies,” Foundry Industry?” AFS Transactions, Vol. 118, pp. Waste Management, Vol. 76, pp. 261–265 (2018). 1-7 (2010). 30. Cullen, Allwood, “Mapping the global flow of 16. Torielli et al., “Reining in Costs, Controlling aluminum: from liquid aluminum to end-use goods,” Emissions” Modern Casting (March 2014). Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 47, 17. Simone Ehrenberger, “Life Cycle Assessment of Issue 7, pp. 3057–3064 (2013). Magnesium Components in Vehicle Construction” 31. Dawson, “Cast Iron: We just need to get better at The International Magnesium Association, telling our story,” Keith Millis Symposium (2018). https://cdn.ymaws.com/intlmag.site- 32. Stefanescu, “The Meritocratic Ascendance of Cast ym.com/resource/resmgr/docs/lca/2013IMA_LCA_R Iron: From Magic to Virtual Cast Iron,” American eport_Public.pdf, (May 2013). Foundry Society (2019). 18. The Aluminum Association, “The Environmental 33. “Conversations on Capitol Hill,” Modern Casting Footprint of Semi-Finished Aluminum Products in (July 2019). North America,” The Aluminum Association, 34. Kallio, “Best Practices for Hiring Millennials for the https://www.aluminum.org/sites/default/files/LCA_Re Metalcasting Industry,” Ductile Iron Society port_Aluminum_Association_12_13.pdf, (December Technical & Operations Meeting (June 2017). 2013). 35. Reinhart, “Global Warming Age Gap: Younger 19. Broch et al., “Implementing Life Cycle Engineering Americans Most Worried,” Gallup (May 11, 2018). in Automotive Development as a Helpful Management Tool to Support Design for Environment,” Edited by Sonnemann et al., LCA Compendium, Chapter 23 (2015). 20. Jolly et al, “Primary Manufacturing, Engine Production and on-the-road CO2: How can the Automotive Industry Best Contribute to Environmental Sustainability?” 38th International Vienna Motor Symposium (April 2017). 21. Jhaveri et al., “Life cycle assessment of thin-wall ductile cast iron for automotive lightweighting applications,” Sustainable Materials and Technologies, Vol. 15, pp. 1–8 (2018). 22. Kim et al., “Life-Cycle Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emission Benefits of Lightweighting in Automobiles: Review and Harmonization,” Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 47, pp. 6089–6097 (2013) 23. Worldautosteel.org. 24. Joseph Palazzo, Roland Geyer, “Consequential life cycle assessment of automotive material substitution: Replacing steel with aluminum in production of north American vehicles,” Environmental Impact Assessment Review, Vol. 75, pp. 47–58 (2019). 25. Sebastian et al., “Consequential Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Study of Automotive Lightweighting with Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS) and Aluminum,” Steel Recycling Institute and Steel Market Development Institute, (July 30, 2018). 26. Keough, “Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) – A Green Alternative,” AFS Transactions, Vol. 119, pp. 591-599 (2011). 27. Warsen et al., “The Life Cycle Approach at Volkswagen,” Autotech Review, Vol. 2, Issue 1 (January 2013). 28. Metal Casting Design and Purchasing Staff, “3 Ways Vehicles are Reducing Weight,” Metal Casting Design and Purchasing (July/August 2019).

Page 5 of 5